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ELLS
Units of Life
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Barbaralufty
CELLS
Units of life
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Barbara Tufty
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J Tufty, Bi
574.8 Cells: units of life. Illustrated by Feoder Kimsky. Now
York, Putnam [1972, cl973]
126 p. illus. 24 cm. $4.49
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Contents
Introduction 7
2 Cell Structure 21
Bibliography 121
Index 123
Introduction
Once the earth was without Hfe. And then life ap-
peared. Today nearly everything we describe as "living"
is composed of one or more units called cells, capable of
10
He also demonstrated that if microorganisms are filtered
from air, life will not appear on the dead organic matter
exposed to that air.
In today's efforts to determine how life began, how-
ever, scientists have recently dusted off and updated the
long-discredited doctrine of spontaneous generation.
In 1952 an American chemist named Stanley Lloyd
Miller set up a flask and some glass tubing through
which was circulated simple materials that, it was hy-
pothesized, probably made up the earth's primeval atmos-
phere. It was known that these materials water vapor, —
hydrogen, ammonia, and methane would eventually —
combine in the laboratory to form more complex sub-
stances. If exposed to an energy source, the materials
would combine considerably faster. A likely source of
energy in the early days of the earth. Miller decided, was
electricity from lightning.
And so the enterprising chemist created miniature
lightning storms in his apparatus and subjected his mix-
ture to electrical discharges for about a week. To every-
one's amazement. modest experiment resulted in
Miller's
the synthesis of (carbon-containing) com-
organic
pounds, particularly traces of amino acids, which are
found in nature as part of every living organism. Other
investigators achieved similar results by using a compo-
nent of sunlight (ultraviolet rays) instead of electricity
as a source of energy.
If the general conditions of the earth's early atmos-
phere resembled those in the laboratory experiments,
then organic compounds —
basic to the development of
life —could have been spontaneously produced within
the atmosphere by some sort of energy such as lightning
or electrical discharge, or radiation from the sun, some-
time after the birth of our planet, four to five billion
years ago. The combining and recombining of these
organic compounds then continued as the planet cooled,
as its red-hot volcanos and lava subsided, and as its vast
11
overlying clouds released torrents of rain. The churning,
changing processes continued as the rains fell with furi-
ous intensity for many millions of years and filled the
ocean .basins. They continued as rays of the sun, no
longer blocked by world-enveloping cloud banks, shone
down on the sun-drenched earth.
Washed from the atmosphere by persistent rains, the
compounds svnthesized by lightning or radiation ac-
cumulated in the warm waters of the sea, forming a tepid
organic soup. Small molecules united and became larger,
more complex molecules. Eventually, certain compounds
drew together, establishing a vague and then increasingly
clear distinction between themselves and the surround-
ing environment. Occupying a definite space and sepa-
rated from the external environment by a thin covering
of molecules, each cluster of compounds took on a sepa-
rate identity.
These primordial clusters can probably be equated
with what are today called coacervates, droplets of col-
loidal material which are separated by a film of mem-
brane from the watery medium in which they float.
Coacervate droplets look like living cells, but they are
not. And neither were the primordial clusters but they —
were getting there.
During these early eons of our planet, the coacervate
clusters that survived were those that could best utilize
substances of the environment for their growth and de-
velopment and could evolve complex, stable, and effi-
cient chemical reactions essential to meet vital needs.
Eventually, as the density of the food supply available to
the various species of coacervates decreased, the more
active, stronger coacervates took their necessary sus-
tenance from the environment at the expense of the less
i. 12
the surviving coacervate droplets grew in size and even-
tually broke up into smaller droplets as a result of physi-
cal laws related to size, weight, and surface tension. Some
of these smaller droplets carried with them certain sub-
stances and characteristics of their parents. Thus, there
occurred a remarkable biological phenomenon: the
capacity of a substance to produce its own kind. The cell-
like coacervates developed into unique substances that
had the capacity to grow and reproduce, to be distinct
from the environment, and to adapt to it. This was the
threshold of life^the borderline of evolution of the non-
living into the living.
These first self-replicating substances, more primitive
than anything described today as living, are responsible
for paramecia and palm trees, penguins and poets — all
13
Hooke chose the name "cell"
to describe thechambers he
observed when peering at
slices of cork through his
microscope.
Cell Theory
Modern cell theory embodies three basic and simple-
sounding ideas. First, all organisms are made up of cells,
14
.
15
The science of biology —and certainly the study of
cells — is different today from what it was 100 or even
25 years ago. Nevertheless, all current investigations into
the molecular structure and behavior of cells have devel-
oped from the cell theory crystallized in the nineteenth
century. From this theory arise today's studies that seek
the solution oi that fundamental biological mystery: the
nature of the reproduction of life.
imposing file of facts on the way cells are made and how
they behave.
The first optical magnifying instrument to examine
minute structures was produced in the 1590's, and the
compound microscope appeared in 1610. Since then,
microscope makers have sought to provide these instru-
ments with clearer resolving power in order to distin-
guish distinct images of objects that are very close to-
gether, with higher magnification or enlargement of
these images, and with sharper contrast between the ob-
served object and its background.
Until fairly recently, scientists relied exclusively on
the ordinary light microscope, which uses visible light to
distinguish cells. This type of microscope is still an im-
portant tool, but it has serious limitations. Its magnifica-
tions (1,000 to 2,000 times the size of the object) reveal
broad structures of the cell, but details of the cell's inte-
rior can be perceived only dimly or not at all. Also, be-
cause most living cells are transparent to visible light, a
cell must be killed and stained to show its major struc-
16
normalities or artificial appearances caused by technical
procedures.
Newer microscopes manipulate light in various ways,
permitting one to view the living cell in action. These
instruments include phase-contrast, interference, polar-
izing, and fluorescent microscopes.
Today the electron microscope one of the most vital
is
17
cell components; and prepares the cell for staining. The
staining of cells helps reveal cell structures by various
colors. Staining may detect the presence, quantity, and
location of certain cellular substances or organelles such
membranes, and chromosomes simply by
as nuclei, cell
showing them up in colors or shades different from the
rest of the cell.
4
'
18
Muscle
Epithelium from
cheek lining
Varieties of Cells
Most measure between 10 and 100 ji in diameter.
cells
19
I
support their vital needs. They can move through water,
take in food and oxygen, release energy, give off waste
and make more amoebas.
Plankton are examples of free-moving one-celled or-
ganisms. Some are plants, some are animals; some have
characteristics of both animals and plants. Some scientists
have listed these simple part-animal, part-plant creatures
as protists, forming a third kingdom along with plants
and animals. Plankton drift through the ocean currents
in enormous numbers, deriving food from the sun by the
process of photosynthesis or by ingestion of food mate-
rial. These protozoans and protophytes provide nine-
20
2
Cell Structure
activities.
to internal membranes.
The function of the plasma or cell membrane is to
regulate the activity that flows between the interior of
the celland its external environment. That is, it carries
out the major functions of being a permeable and semi-
permeable screen, serving as a barrier against intrusions
from the external environment and permitting certain
materials to leave the cell and others to enter. It is capa-
ble of what is called active transport— the transportation
of some materials but not of others. In red blood cells,
for instance, the cell membrane distinguishes between
21
Protein
^^T^
Protein
The plasma membrane consists of two layers of fat between an inner
and outer layer of protein.
22
membrane reach around the outside material, come to-
gether, and totally enclose the trapped fluid or solid.
The Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the viscous fluid substance of proto-
23
Most of the substances present in cells are depicted in this diagram of a general-
ized cell: (A) Nuclear membrane; (B) Vacuole; (C) Nucleus; (D) Chromosome;
(E) Golgi body; (F) Plasma membrane; (G) Pores in nuclear membrane; (H) Cen-
triole; (I) Granules; (J) Plastid; (K) Mitochondrion; (L) Free ribosomes; (M) Nucleo-
lus; (N) Junction between reticulum and nuclear membrane; (O) Ribosomes on
surface of endoplasmic reticulum; (P) Endoplasmic reticulum; (Q) Lysosome; (R)
Cytoplasm, t
.
25
houses of the cells because these substances release the
majority of the energy obtained from food and make it
26
nineteenth century, are stacks of flattened, hollow cavi-
ties enclosed by membranes, which are often continuous
with the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum. The
function of the Golgi bodies has not been definitely de-
fined and is still hotly debated. Many scientists believe
that products synthesized by the cytoplasm (especially
protein) are transferred from the endoplasmic reticulum
to the cavities of the Golgi bodies and subsequently
secreted from the cell.
Lysosomes are single-membraned sausage-shaped
structures with no dividing membranes inside. Lyso-
somes contain digestive enzymes that break down large
molecules —
proteins, fats, and nucleic acids, for example
— into smaller constituents that can then be oxidized by
the mitochondria. Lysosomes appear to perform other
intracellular digestive processes, such as those connected
with phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
Other substances found in less abundance in the
cytoplasm include centrioles, cylinders that play an im-
portant role during cell division, and basal bodies,
which, as previously mentioned, extend deep into the
cytoplasm of the cell and connect ciha and flagella with
the cell body. In addition, there are vacuoles, islands of
watery material internally secreted by the cell and sur-
rounded by a membrane.
The structures described above are common materials
in the cytoplasm of most individual, independent cells.
The Nucleus
The nucleus an organelle of the cytoplasm with an
is
27
tains a single nucleus. In exceptional cases, however,
more than one nucleus may be present in a cell; in other
cases, a cell may have no nucleus at all.
Generally spherical in shape, the nucleus is enclosed
by a double-layered nuclear membrane. The outer layer
of membrane is pierced by many tiny pores and is a con-
tinuation of the /nembranes of the endoplasmic retic-
ulum.
Inside the nucleus are one or more spherical bodies
called nucleoli. These bodies are packed with granules
similar to the ribosomes of the cytoplasm and are rich in
proteins and the important nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid
(RNA).
Also present in the nucleus are filaments of chromatin,
made up principally of proteins, ribonucleic acid
(RNA), and, particularly, deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). In the beginning stages of cell division, the
chromatin up to form chromosomes. It is the DNA
coils
within these chromosomes that contain all the cell's he-
reditary information. DNA, as described later, is respon-
sible for the proteins and their arrangement so that a
precise copy of the parent cell is passed on to future cells.
A cell that loses its nucleus may survive for a short
time, but it cannot reproduce more of its own kind. A
cell without a nucleus, as American biologist Carl P.
Swanson once wrote, is "a cell without a future."
28
all genetic information from generation to generation
through the reproductive qualities of DN A (Chapter 5).
Cells reproduce (Chapter 6) and become specialized to
perform certain activities (Chapter 7). They function
harmoniously, thanks to various control mechanisms
(Chapter 8), continue to develop, to age, and eventually
to die (Chapter 9).
29
Energy for Survival
31
Elements are molecules composed of atoms that are
similar. For instance, the element oxygen is a molecule
with two atoms of oxygen. A carbon molecule contains
four atoms of carbon. When different kinds of atoms are
joined together, they form molecules called chemical
compounds. The chemical compound water, for in-
stance, is a molecule containing two kinds of atoms: two
atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
When atoms join together to make molecules, they do
so by forming bonds that link one atom to another. The
number and types of atoms and the position in which
they are bonded determine the properties of a chemical
compound. When molecules are formed, energy is
32
ent, or heterotrophic, cells — the cells of the higher ani-
mals, including man; and the self-reliant, or autotrophic,
cells — chiefly the cells of green plants.
In a broad generalization, can be said that animals
it
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs when sunlight bombards the
cells of green plants. The light rays pass through the
cells' plasma membranes into the chloroplasts located in
the cytoplasm and are then absorbed by the green-col-
ored chlorophyll molecules of the chloroplasts.
The atoms of each complex chlorophyll molecule are
made up, in part, of low-energy electrons. When parti-
cles of the sunlight's energy called photons are absorbed
by the chlorophyll molecules, the energy level of the low-
energy electrons is raised. Subsequently, these energy-
rich or energized or "excited" electrons are led away
from the chlorophyll molecules by so-called electron-car-
rier They take a circular path outside the
molecules.
molecule, moving swiftly from one acceptor or electron-
carrier molecule to the next. As the energized electrons
travel along this circuit, they give up their energy. This
energy goes into the formation of a compound called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Adenosine triphosphate
is made up of adenosine and three phosphate groups.
33
Sunlight
strikes the
leaf.
-Chloroplasts
'
34
—
35
This equation represents the sum total of many reac-
tions, several ofwhich are not yet known.
What do know is this: The 6 carbon atoms
scientists
from the carbon dioxide molecules end up in the forma-
tion of glucose. The hydrogen in the 12 molecules of
water goes into forming both glucose and 6 new mole-
cules of water. The, oxygen in the 12 molecules of water
forms glucose, oxygen, and water.
Some of the oxygen is used by the plant in respiration,
a process which is the reverse of photosynthesis; the rest
is given off into the atmosphere. There it may be inhaled
Respiration
In photosynthesis, the chlorophyll molecules of green
plants absorb the energy of sunlight and, after a number
of steps, pack bonds of glucose molecules. By the
it in the
mechanism of respiration (not to be confused with res-
Glucose 3 Carbon
Molecule 4 Hydrogen
(CeHiA) 3 Oxygen
Molecule
In glycolysis, the glucose molecule is broken down to two separate
molecules, four unattached hydrogen atoms, and energy.
36
piration of human or animal breathing), plants break
down glucose molecules, release their chemical energy,
and repack it.
37
Nobel Prize winner German biologist Sir Hans Adolf
Krebs and summarized here in simplified form.
The Krebs cycle involves slowly burning or oxidizing
(removing hydrogen atoms from) a succession of organic
acids and compounds that can be converted into these
acids. Later we will see the hydrogen atoms combine
with oxygen gas to form water.
Early in the cycle", "the 3-carbon molecules are con-
verted to 2-carbon molecules (a form of vinegar). The
third carbon atom, which is separated, goes off as carbon
dioxide, CO..
Next in the merry-go-round of the Krebs cycle, the 2-
carbon molecule joins a 4-carbon molecule to form the 6-
carbon citric acid (found in many items, but in large
amounts in oranges, lemons, and other citrus fruits).
Then the acid molecules are rearranged and
citric
38
energy of sunlight. And, as in photosynthesis, the elec-
trons pass from one acceptor molecule to another. Fi-
nally, the electrons and loose protons combine with oxy-
gen to form water.
Before reaching the end of the acceptor molecule cir-
cuit, the electrons relinquish their energy bit by bit.
Some of it is used to link ADP and one phosphate group
to form our old friend, the energy-packed compound
ATP. The formation of ATP is the least understood of
the various steps in the respiration process. It is also the
most important, for it is there that energy is put into a
form where it can be used to do things in the cell.
The intricate reactions of the mechanism of respira-
tion can be summarized by the following equation,
which also includes a description of the formation of
ATP:
39
too much when the cell wants to expend only ten cents'
worth. ATP, he says, is the "small change" of energy.
Then why is it that plants, having first made ATP in
photosynthesis, should go on to produce glucose? The
answer is that ATP is not very useful by itself. It cannot,
for instance, make ATP
can provide only the energy
fat.
at converting energy.
Man-made machines rarely turn more than a third of
the energy contained in fuel into usable mechanical or
electrical energy. In respiration, by contrast, a single
mitochondrion can make use of half the energy in its
food. In both cases, the energy that cannot be used is
released as heat.
Scientists continue to investigate the processes and
structures involved in energy conversion. Their findings
will certainlyenhance our knowledge of photosynthesis
and respiration and will also increase our admiration for
the superb efficiency of the living cell.
40
—
Proteins
All cellular constituents are vital components of living
41
systems, but proteins, it is often said, are most particu-
larly the essence of life. As much
90 percent of a cell's
as
metabolic energy is involved in the making of proteins.
Proteins (from the Greek proteno —
I occupy first
Enzymes
Enzymes are important proteins, present in every liv-
42
substantial changes. One molecule of catalase, for in-
Molecule B
Compound C
43
tive site) of various sizes and shapes. Each groove
matches the specifications of a particular kind of mole-
cule and no other.
The substances on which enzymes act are known as
substrates. A "lock-and-key" fit occurs between the sub-
strates' and the grooves of the enzyme. Thus only mole-
Amino Acids
Enzymes and other proteins are some of the larger,
more complex, and more numerous molecules in the
cell. All proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulfur, and nitrogen; some also contain phosphorus or
other elements. There may be more than a million atoms
in a single giant protein molecule.
When protein molecules are broken down, however,
scientists have found that all composed of a small
are
group of substances called amino acids, which essentially
44
H
O
—C—OH II
H
—N— I
45
Amino Acid Chain
Carboxyl Amino
group group
[HOH] (HOh\
Peptide
bond
Water molecules
When the carboxyl group (COOH) of one amino acid unit joins the
amino group (NH2) of its adjacent unit, the result is a squeezed-out
molecule of water (HOH) and a CONH linkage (the peptide bond).
46
N
O H
—C—II I
47
TjTiTrm?iiITTT?^
J A— Adenine
( \
] C— Cytosine
Phosphate/i
U-Uracil
U— Uracil
Ribose /
WML \
G—Guanine
A— Adenine
U— Uracil
ry
The complex RNA is visualized here schematically as a bar composed
of alternating molecules of ribose and phosphate, with a base
attached to each ribose unit.
48
.
being investigated.
RNA appears in various shapes, somewhat like a
strand, comprised of —
two kinds of basic units a mole-
cule of ribose (a type of sugar) and a molecule of phos-
phate — linked one to the other in alternating units. At-
tached to each ribose unit is known as a base
a molecule
(a nitrogen-containing base). The base may be adenine
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or uracil (U). The
order in which these four bases are arranged along the
ribose units of the ribose-phosphate strand spells out a
code that specifies the type and location of the amino
acids in a protein chain.
How do four bases spell out codes for some twenty
amino acids? Recent evidence indicates that a group (or
groups) of three bases is usually the code for a single
amino acid. Such coding triplets are called codons. AUU,
for instance, might stand for the amino acid tyrosine.
UUG might stand for the amino acid valine. Thus a por-
tion of RNA with the bases UUGAUU could be a coded
message that valine and tyrosine are to be linked at that
point.
The type of RNA described above is called template,
49
or messenger, RNA, and can be written mRNA. It origi-
Protein Synthesis
In the synthesis of proteins, each transfer RNA picks
up its specific amino acid located in the cytoplasm and
carries it to the ribosomes, where amino acids are assem-
bled into protein chains according to the coded instruc-
tions of messenger RNA.
The process begins when the twenty or so amino acids
are activated by ATP in the presence of enzymes, each of
which is specific for a particular amino acid. Once acti-
i 50
o
Messenger RNA
,,----^-.~...^^..-^.^-.^
fA"^ c T~c~W^"~^u :uFaTc (cgu 7
: u i g m c i c (
'ill: kf Hill!
mS^^ :? Mim
4 mi
''"'•^'^^ffA/4
U
t^ Hlstidine
Messenger RNA
A \ U 1 U P A i C i
C u '
u ^
c C . G G
7
n n rr
nH 1 r^
i
r
tri3"
Histidine
A
£
Valine
^
Alanine
Tyrosine
51
vated, the amino acid is capable of being attached to its
\. 52
—
53
brilliant experiments with peas, experiments that subse-
quently became the cornerstone of modern genetics.
What Mendel did was deceptively simple. He grew
twenty-two different varieties of garden peas, some with
tall stems and some with short; some with yellow seeds
' 54
laws — that is, when certain kinds of parents are crossed,
one can predict the number of offspring that will exhibit
each type of inherited characteristic (seed color, for in-
stance).
Mendel's conclusions related to his pea experiments in
the following way:
In the purebred yellow pea, both color units were
dominant (YY). In the purebred green pea, both color
units were recessive (yy). When both purebreds were
crossed the first time, all offspring contained a yellow
unit from one parent and a green unit from the other
(Yy). Since yellow is dominant, all offspring displayed a
yellow color, and the green units in every offspring were
not expressed.
Next, two of the yellow-colored plants of the first gen-
eration containing a recessive green unit (Yy) were
crossed to produce a second generation of pea plants. As
a result of meiotic division (Chapter 6), only four com-
binations were possible, two of which had to be the same.
And so the results were one YY, a purebred yellow seed
plant;two Yy's, two yellow-looking pea seed plants with
and one yy, a purebred green seed
recessive green units;
plant produced by the combining of the two recessive
units.
The value of Mendel's revolutionary findings was not
recognized in his lifetime. But at the turn of the century,
scientists rediscovered the great work of the talented
monk and realized that what Mendel had estabhshed for
peas applied to —
many living things from fruits to flies to
man.
Meanwhile, related studies located the hereditary ma-
then focused on the
terial of living cells in the nucleus,
threadlike chromosomes inside the nucleus. Most species,
it was found, seem to have their own special number of
—
chromosomes 46 in man, 14 in pea plants, and oddly
enough, 1 ,500 in one-celled creatures called rhizopods.
But how could a mere 46 chromosomes carry all the
55
K l^
>->jS^
Yellow
W^ ^ % Green
w
^''. rm er7 ,
^-^-^^^^-^
^A-^ i..|f^ ^^^^^
It^
^cf f/ w' »irst*Gener'atiot»
56
hereditary information needed to describe how to make
a human body? In examining the question, scientists ar-
rived at the oversimpHfied view that chromosomes re-
57
established DNA as the molecule of heredity, the mole-
cule that contains all the genetic information required
for an exact reproduction of each type of cell through
thousands of generations.
Genes and DNA molecules are not identical, for one
DNA molecule seems to be the site of many genes. And
so today, instead of the concept of a chromosome neck-
lace strung with gene beads, it is probably more accurate
to visualize the chromosome as a mass of one or more
-^- DNA molecules arranged in a long line, with the unit of
inheritance we call a gene represented by only a portion
of the entire DNA molecule.
The Structure of DNA
In 1953 the American scientist James Watson and Brit-
ish scientists Maurice Wilkins and Francis Crick devised
a model which is now accepted as a reasonable represen-
tation of the DNA molecule, an achievement which won
them the Nobel Prize. This model was dramatically veri-
fiedby a photograph taken in 1969 by a young graduate
student at the California Institute of Technology, Jack
Griffith. This photograph, painstakingly taken by spray-
ing DNA samples from pea plants with a thin coating of
tungsten atoms and then using the electron microscope,
magnified a section of a DNA molecule 7,300,000 times
and brought definite visual evidence of the double
helix structure. In some respects, DNA resembles RNA,
described in Chapter 4, but there are important differ-
ences.
DNA is composed of two parallel bars, or rails, or
strands (instead of RNA's single strand) intertwined in
a spiral shape called a double helix, looking somewhat
like a twisted ladder. Each strand or side of the ladder is
ternating units.
Scientists have found that these spiraling strands of
*
58
Deoxyribose
59
bonds. Thus each DNA connected to the other
strand is
, 60
a frog, for instance, is double the length of man's DNA.
The ratios of the four bases. A, C, G, and T, are different
in different organisms. But in every case the amount of A
always equals the amount of T, and the amount of G
always equals the amount of C.
Deoxyribose
In the replication of DNA the double strand splits into two, and
along each strand a new complementary strand is formed.
61
ganisms. In any particular organism, the structure of the
DNA molecule is identical in each cell because DNA is
A's separate from T's and G's separate from C's. Then
along each strand a new complementary strand is
formed. This process is called replication.
The necessary raw materials for the making of new
strands are available in the fluid of the nucleus, as well as
energy sources (ATP) and the enzymes needed to cata-
lyze the proper chemical reactions. When the DNA
ladder splits, unattached nucleotides, which are base-
sugar-phosphate units, in the nuclear fluid converge on
the split strands.
Each nucleotide lines up in its proper place along each
DNA strand, the new bases matching up with the old in
accordance with the rules of complementarity A's link- —
ing with T's and T's with A's; G's linking with C's and
C's with G's. The old and new bases combine, and the
new segments of the sugar-phosphate rail lock into place.
From the two split halves of the original DNA, two new
and complete DNA's are produced —
each identical to
the original, each carrying precisely the same coded
message.
62
ated with a specific gene can convey the information it
63
DNA and passes from the nucleus to the cytoplasm,
where it controls the building of the cell's proteins.
^
64
is ting genetic code. Sometimes the pattern of normal
base pairing is altered, causing the substitution of one
base pair for another. And sometimes the pairing capac-
ity of a specific base is changed, producing abnormal base
pairing.
In the long DNA molecule it takes only a single differ-
ent pair of bases to produce a different or imperfect or-
ganism. The job of the hemoglobin molecule, for ex-
ample, is oxygen through the bloodstream. In a
to carry
disease called sickle-cell anemia, the normal round-
shaped human blood cells are intermingled with some
having a sickle shape. This disease occurs when one out
of several hundred amino acids present in the hemo-
globin is misplaced because of an error in the messenger
RNA which was made by a piece of DNA with one of its
base pairs out of arrangement. It takes only one mis-
placed amino acid, and the result is a hereditary disease
that affects about 250,000 Americans and causes death to
most of its victims before they reach forty years of age.
Hemophilia is a condition in which the blood fails to
clot, so its victims sometimes bleed to death as a result of
65
There is a great deal of concern today that some of man's
newest creations —nuclear tools —
and weapons are filling
the atmosphere with radioactive fallout destined to in-
crease the rate of mutations in unborn generations. Sci-
becoming increasingly concerned about other
entists are
modern agents that can cause damage to chromosomes
and create possible mutations. Much has yet to be
learned about the effects of certain food additives, of in-
ing.
In the billions of years during which life has been
evolving, mutations have been responsible for the devel-
opment of increasingly complex forms. The history of
66
life is based on the fact that no organism replicates itself
67
The Reproduction of Life
Mitosis
Virtually all cells reproduce by mitosis. Mitosis in-
69
restore a lost point. Salamanders can regenerate new tails
70
During prophase, the dupHcated chromosomes (each
now consisting of the two Unked half-chromosomes or
chromatids) become shorter and fatter. Instead of being
a mass of long, thin threads, chromosomes are now com-
pactly coiled, enabling them to move without becoming
entangled. (Each chromatid coils individually; in addi-
tion, the two chromatids in each chromosome pair coil
around each other.) The nuclear membrane breaks
down, eliminating the barrier between chromosomes and
the rest of the cell. The nucleolus grows smaller and
smaller until, at the end of prophase, it disappears.
During prophase, another important event occurs. In
animals, at one pole or end of the cell, just outside the
nuclear membrane, is a region called the centrosome.
During interphase, this region is occupied by two small
bodies called centrioles. (In some writings each centriole
is described as a two-piece unit, consisting of a parent
and a smaller daughter, set at right angles to each other.)
In prophase, one centriole travels around the nucleus
until it reaches the opposite pole. Each centriole is
71
Interphase
Aster centriole
Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
Chromosomes
Plasma membrane
Dissolving ,
*
nuclear membrane
Aster
Centromere
Spmdie
Chromatids
(half chromosomes)
Metaphase
Mitosis can be divided into several specific stages, each with its own
characteristic events.
are the first to go, traveling along the spindle and carry-
ing their chromatids with them. Anaphase ends when
two identical sets of chromatids now properly called —
—
chromosomes are collected at opposite poles.
72
Chromatids
(half chromosomes)
Centromere
Chromosomes
Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
73
cell has its own plasma membrane, its own cytoplasm,
and its own nucleus. Each has the same number and type
of chromosomes and the same DNA.
After cell division, the daughter cells enter interphase
and grow until they are about the same size as the parent
cell that produced them. Daughter cells are capable of
repeating the mitotic events described above, events
which in their intricacy and orderliness have been com-
pared to the meticulous steps of a ballet.
74
In Chapter 5we noted that each species exhibits a
characteristic number of chromosomes. The character-
istic number of chromosomes in human beings is 46, and
every cell of the body should have 46. But here (and in
all sexually reproducing species) we encounter a di-
lemma.
If an egg with 46 chromosomes unites with a sperm
75
Cells that will later form sperm begin with deploid
number of chromo- somes— in this case four.
a bivalent.
76
—
77
a a
Ji b
78
cytoplasm. This event heralds the end of prophase and
introduces the first metaphase of meiosis.
In the metaphase, the bivalents are arranged at
first
the center of the cells. But the centromeres (one for each
chromatid pair) are not lined up across the cell's equator
as in mitosis. Instead, they lie on either side of the equa-
tor, at equal distances from it.
79
restored. It is also at the moment of fertilization that the
sex of an individual is determined. A single chromosome
in the male sex cell is responsible for the determination
of sex.
The human cell contains 46 chromosomes —one pair
of sex cells and 22 other pairs. In females, the partner sex
chromosomes are identical, and their designation is XX.
In males, the partner sex chromosomes are different, and
their designation is XY. Male sex chromosomes are a
major exception to the rule that paired chromosomes are
homologous.
After the chromosomes are reduced by one-half in the
formation of the tgg, the female sex chromosome will, of
course, always be X. Male cells vary, however, with
about half the sperm cells carrying an X chromosome,
and half carrying a Y.
When an tgg with its X chromosome is fertilized by an
X-carrying sperm cell to form an XX fertilized egg, the
offspring is female. When the Qgg (X) is fertihzed by a
Y-carrying sperm to form an XY fertilized egg, the off-
spring is male.
The chromosomes that determine sex also carry cer-
tain other genetic traits.These are known as sex-Hnked
characteristics. In most species the genes on the Y chro-
mosomes are almost entirely related to sex determina-
tion,and so the term "sex-linked" really refers to genes
on the X chromosome.
Color bhndness, for example, is carried by a recessive
sex-linked gene on the X chromosome. Color blindness
appears most frequently in males. A color-blind man
may pass on color bhndness to his grandsons through his
daughter, who carries the recessive color-blindness gene
without, in most cases, being affected herself. A normal-
sighted woman carrying the gene for color blindness may
transmit it to her sons, even if her husband is normal.
But none of her daughters will be color-blind if the hus-
band is normal. If the husband is color-blind, then the
80
r a /^^ /^jl^ Color-blind vision
/f
%i %% <?===^ "
Normal vision
// w ® Recessive sex-
linkedgene on
X chromosome
•o.
/ ©0
First generation offspring
N
i
Its
U/ >
If
]1
MM ^ Ml Ji
^ t
1 . D
ci^
^.
®®
Will have normal children Will have mixed combinations:
»*
A
/ I
I)
®0
<3 O
'^
<3 ^O^
"u A ft
daughters of a normal woman carrying the gene for color
blindness may or may not be normal.
—
Another recessive sex-linked gene also carried on the
X —
chromosome produces hemophiha. Again, women
transmit this disease to men but rarely get it themselves.
Why?
Because every ^ex-linked gene, whether dominant or
.
82
makes survival and achievement more likely.
83
Progress Through Specialization
85
Nevertheless, they gain many positive assets that help
their chances of survival. One of this planet's most re-
markable events is the emergence of the multicellular
organism, the development of a highly complex form
from a single, tiny unit of life.
species, more than one sperm cell may enter the tgg, but
only one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus.)
Once the union of nuclei occurs, the fertilized egg is
86
. —
87
Fertilized egg Blastula
Two cells
Ectoderm
Endoderm
Eight cells
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Many cells
Endoderm
Ectoderm
Coelom
Mesoderm
88
—
89
bryo is particularly interesting, however, because almost
all cells assume their specialized functions during that
early time.
Embryological development involves three remarka-
ble processes. The first is growth: an enormous increase
in the number of cells, from a single fertilized egg to
man).
millions (a fly) or billions (a frog) or trillions (a
The second is differentiation: the changing of cell form
and function so that cells become different from each
other and from their earlier forms. The third is integra-
tion: the ability of all individual and different cells to
work together for the unity of the total organism.
Growth
Growth is an increase in mass, the result of many,
many mitotic divisions (Chapter 6). Growth of the or-
ganism does not proceed at a uniform rate; instead, some
parts of the body grow faster than others and some grow
slower; some features come into existence earlier, some
later. Thus growth is more than cell multiplication, for
different centers of growth are active at different times
and at different rates.
Differentiation
An increase in cell number cannot make a man or a
frog or a fly. It is cell differentiation that provides cells
with uniqueness of structure and function.
Cell differentiation involves a progressive narrowing
of choices, an increasingly precise narrowing down of
many possible functions to a single function. Cells be-
come two general ways: by inheriting
differentiated in
different samples of cytoplasm from the egg and by re-
sponding to the different environments in which they
find themselves in the course of development. (By envi-
ronment is meant the effect on a cell of the kinds and
positions of the cells that surround it. In a mass of cells,
for instance, the cells on the surface are exposed to the
90
Fertilized egg
Middle layer
Outer layer
Inner layer
91
Ectoderm
Brain
Muscle
Notochord
Endoderm
92
)
complete.
In regulative development (chick and frog embryos
are good examples) the differences between cells are
primarily a result of their response to cell environment
— or their location in the cell community. If certain cells
are removed from a regulative embryo, the remaining
cells will assume the functions of the missing ones and
a single fertilized cell that can make eye cells, heart cells,
bone cells, long nerve cells, globular fat-storage cells,
fibrous muscle cells, and so on all from one common an-
cestor? Although present knowledge is limited, several
efforts to explain the mechanism of cell differentiation
have been made.
93
We learned earlier in this book that all cells in a given
multicellular organism have identical DNA, identical
chromosomes, and identical genes. If this is so, then
every specialized cell must contain all the organism's
genes; in other words, a nerve cell must have muscle
genes and genes that synthesize hemoglobin and genes
that synthesize insulin, as well as the genes that make
a nerve cell. These other genes, however, do not actively
manifest themselves.
We also learned that a cell's structure and function are
largely dependent on its proteins, that proteins are built
according to instructions from messenger RNA, and that
messenger RNA is copied from DNA, whose sequence of
bases specify the order of the amino acids in proteins.
It is thought that in differentiated cells, only certain
portions of the DNA
molecule are copied, giving rise to
different messenger RNA's. (Experiments with certain
insects have revealed that specific sections along their
chromosomes "puff," or swell up, and that the puffing is
94
According to some scientists, chemical compounds
known as releasers are present in the cytoplasm and in-
Integration
The third vital process in development is integration.
Integration results in a unified and harmonious whole
that is somehow more than the sum of its parts.
Integration means that similar cells form coherent tis-
95
8
Controlling Cell Behavior
97
specialized nervous system that responds to stimuli from
the organism's environment —both its internal and ex-
ternal environment. The nervous system makes it possi-
ble to walk and talk, see and hear, touch, taste, and smell.
The nervous system regulates different kinds of activities
by linking sense organs, such as those found in eyes and
ears, with motor OFgans —
muscles and glands. It provides
effective communication between the various portions of
the organism so that they work together instead of at
odds. The nervous system also determines the quality
and quantity of a response, stores memories, maintains
habits, permits learning, records dreams, and composes
thoughts.
The nervous system consists of several parts: the
brain, the spinal column, and the peripheral nerves, all
98
m.
'•&«
The typical neuron has an
irregular shape from which
extend branching, treelike
dendrites and a single, usu-
ally thicker, axon.
99
was born, and the old man has fewer, for when a nerve
cell dies, it is never replaced.
The typical neuron has an irregular shape from which
extend one or more branching, treelike filaments called
dendrites and a single, usually longer, thicker extension
called an axon. Dendrites are receivers; they carry signals
to the cell. Axons are transmitters; they carry signals
from the cell to muscles and to other nerve cells.
Nerve cells carry impulses in one direction only. That
is, sensory neurons always carry impulses to the brain or
spinal cord and motor neurons always carry impulses
from the brain or spinal cord.
As signals travel to and from the brain, they pass from
the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of the next neu-
ron. But the neurons do not touch each other at any
point. Instead, between the axon of one neuron and the
dendrite of the next there is always a tiny gap called a
synapse, which the impulse must span as it travels from
neuron to neuron.
How does the nerve impulse span the gap?cannot It
100
A nerve fiber has no impulse gradations; it is either in
a state of full activity or at complete rest, exhibiting be-
havior known as an all-or-nothing response. Nerves,
however, are capable of responding differently to stimuli
of different intensities, for as a stimulus grows stronger,
more and more of the nerve fibers connected with an
organ are signaled.
The electrical impulses conducted by neurons do not
move at the same rate. As a rule, the thicker the axon, the
faster the speed of the impulse. Satellite cells called
Schwann's sometimes wrap around the axon, coat-
cells
Hormones
Although the nervous system is considered the most
important integrating system of the higher animals, or-
ganization and control of the body are not exclusively its
101
chemical system based on a wide range of chemical sub-
stances called hormones.
In animals, hormones are secreted by ductless or en-
docrine glands and are directly released into the blood-
stream. The blood then transports the hormones to other
parts of the organism, where they play a part in regulat-
body processes. Some hormones
ing the activity of -all the
also control the manufacture and secretion of each other,
thus providing an overall balance.
Many glands, such as the salivary and gastric glands,
secrete enzymes which flow through ducts into places
where they will be used. Such glands do not concern us
here. We are speaking only of ductless, or endocrine,
glands — the thyroid, the parathyroid, the pancreas, the
sex organs, the adrenals, and the pituitary — all of whose
secretions exercise essential control over body behavior.
The thyroid gland, an H-shaped, double-lobed, iodine-
containing gland located in the neck, secretes a hormone
that regulates the rate of metabolism and influences
growth, oxidation, and mental and sexual development.
As we noted earlier, cells obtain energy by burning food.
The thyroid hormone determines whether the burning
rate is too swift, too slow, or just right. The thyroid
hormone is also needed for the metamorphosis of lower
animals; tadpoles, for instance, cannot become frogs if
102
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovaries
103
muscles and nerves depend on a stable calcium balance.
A low concentration of calcium causes tetany, a convul-
sive tightening ofmuscles that eventually leads to death.
An overactive parathyroid results in excessive bone ero-
sion and consequent weakening.
The pancreas is both a ducted and ductless gland. As a
ducted gland, it secretes a variety of digestive enzymes.
As a ductless gland", it has the vital responsibility of
maintaining the proper glucose level in the blood.
Present in the bloodsteam, glucose is used by cells as
104
Each adrenal gland has an outer region, the cortex, and
an inner region, the medulla.
The adrenal cortex, which secretes cortisone and other
hormones similar to cortisone, is absolutely essential to
life. This gland controls the metabolism of water, min-
erals, and carbohydrates; regulates kidney functioning;
inhibits the secretion of the adrenocorticotrophic hor-
mone, ACTH;
and performs many of the same tasks re-
quired of the sex hormones. Damage to the adrenal
cortex results in a usually fatal ailment called Addison's
disease.
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine, also known
as adrenalin, a hormone which is responsible for emer-
gency reactions. In situations evoking anger, fear, or any
intense emotion, adrenalin raises the blood pressure,
speeds the heart beat, produces gooseflesh, and makes
possible certain acts of physical endurance (long and
rapid running, the lifting of heavy objects) inconceiva-
ble under normal circumstances.
The pituitary is often called the master gland of the
endocrine system, for many
hormones control the
of its
105
mones: One stimulates sex glands; one controls the sex-
ual cycle; one stimulates mammary glands to secrete milk
after an offspring is born; TSH (thyroid-stimulating
hormone) affects the thyroid gland; ACTH (adreno-
hormone) stimulates the adrenal cortex;
corticotrophic
and a hormone known as the growth hormone encour-
ages the enlargement of bones. An undersecretion of the
growth hormone results in dwarfs and midgets; an over-
secretion produces giants.
The hormones described above are particularly char-
acteristic of insects and vertebrates. Most higher plants
contain other hormones, including root hormones, leaf
hormones, bud hormones, and flowering hormones. An-
other group of hormones in higher plants, known as
auxins, regulates cell elongation and division.
Auxins are produced at regions of rapid cell division,
such as the tips of stems and roots, then migrate behind
the tip to the zone of elongation, where they promote
the elongation of individual cells. Auxins influence bud
development, the falling of leaves and fruit, and cell di-
vision; in addition, they control the direction of a plant's
growth.
Growth response in plants is induced by a variety of
environmental stimuli. Plants may exhibit responses to
light (phototropism), gravity (geotropism), chemicals
(chemotropism), and others. Plants may also respond to
the stimulus in either a positive or negative fashion, de-
pending on the response of certain cells to the auxins.
Leaves and stems, for instance, grow toward light (posi-
tive phototropism) and away from the pull of the earth's
gravity (negative geotropism), while roots behave in the
opposite manner.
106
of cells. And cells have control mechanisms made up of
molecules.
On all mechanisms
these levels, the function of control
is to maintain a steady state, known formally as homeo-
/
Stimulus
><i
m i
\ \ Sensory /^ r^ Motor >
^V, Response^
1
jj/pathway V" ^pathway \
Information
flow
107
a steady state — nutritional reactions, respiratory reac-
tions, motion-producing reactions, synthesizing reactions
— are completely dependent on enzymes (Chapter 4),
which control both the rate of reactions and the order in
which they proceed. And, it is believed, a specific gene
carries the code of the amino-acid sequence for a specific
enzyme (Chapter. 5). Thus, in the long run, genes de-
termine the nature of enzymes, thereby determining the
nature of the reactions that enzymes promote. By so
doing, genes bear the ultimate responsibility of regulat-
ing all the cell's control mechanisms.
But all regulation is not directly gene-controlled.
Feedback is essential for the maintenance of a steady
state. As described earlier in this book, a cell's plasma
membrane is permeable so that materials needed to sup-
ply the cell's chemical activities may enter the cell, while
by-products of these activities may leave. The cell's
108
nace. Feedback is operative in the nervous and endocrine
systems, as well as in individual cells.
109
The Death of the Cell
Cells wear by
out. Cells are injured. Cells are attacked
disease. Cells die. In this final chapter, we will examine
some of the threats to cellular health and survival and see
what has been done, both by the cell itself and by the
scientist, to preserve and lengthen life.
Ill
There are three typical forms of bacteria: rod-shaped
(bacillus), spherical (coccus, as in streptococcus), and
spiral (spirillum). Pathogenic bacteria may directly at-
tack tissues or produce poisonous substances called
toxins.
Far smaller than a bacterium is the virus, the simplest
thing that exhibits the basic properties of living systems.
Although it is Without a nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma
membrane, a virus can produce copies of itself, as it is
composed of a shell of protein encasing a DNA (or some-
times RNA) core. But viruses are parasites, requiring
the living host cells of animals, plant, or bacteria in order
to live and reproduce. Outside the host cell, a virus
ceases all activity, and, like salts, can be crystallized.
With these features, which belong to both the animate
and inanimate worlds, viruses may be regarded as a half-
way stage between the living and nonliving of the earth.
Most knowledge about the operation of viruses comes
from studies of the viruses that attack bacteria. These
viruses areknown as bacteriophages, or simply phages.
The invasion of a phage begins with a normal, unin-
fected bacterium cell to which a phage virus becomes
attached by means of tiny hooks. An enzyme in the tail of
the phage dissolves an opening in the bacterial wall, the
tail injects the DNA of the phage core into the cell, and
the empty protein shell of the phage virus is shucked off.
112
DNA
.*"'
'\'y-'''-iMi^^f'''
•* *'* ****-'.* *
^1
Bacterium cell
Virus shell
113
such as viruses and bacteria, invade an organism, their
foreignness is immediately recognized by the host, which
responds to their presence by producing disease-fighting
proteins called antibodies. Antibodies combine with the
antigenic material, as they are specific substances, each
type designed to attack a specific type of antigen. Anti-
bodies form only in the presence of foreign bodies, with
production beginning a few hours after the antigens are
introduced. A
few days later, the antibodies enter the
bloodstream, where they may remain for weeks or years.
An individual may be exposed to an average of 100,000
different antigens during his lifetime, but his body will
produce antibodies for each kind of antigen. Scientists
believe that each antibody fits like a key into the foreign
antigen lock.
Recent research indicates the presence of an antivirus
protein called interferon, which fights not just one spe-
cific virus, but many different kinds.
There are several types of antibodies. Antibodies
known as antitoxins combine with certain bacterial se-
cretions and neutralize them. Other antibodies, known
as agglutinins, cause certain bacteria to agglutinate
(clump together), which condition bacteria are easily
in
destroyed by phagocytic cells. (Phagocytes are wander-
114
Immunity to animal diseases is called animal immunity,
and it is present at birth. Another type of immunity is
acquired immunity, which occurs during the life of the
individual.
Acquired immunity may be active or passive. Passive
immunity is artificially acquired by receiving injections
of antibodies produced by other individuals. Active im-
munity is naturally acquired in the course of recovering
from an infectious disease. It is artificially acquired when
the organism takes in biological preparations (commonly
weakened pathogenic organisms,
called shots) of dried or
which stimulate the organism to form antibodies.
Preparations of weakened or killed pathogenic organ-
isms, which stimulate the recipient to produce antibodies
against disease, are known as vaccines. In addition to
vaccines, there are immunization treatments that involve
injecting the victim with antibodies specific for a disease.
These antibodies are contained in a serum, which gener-
ally comes from the blood of an animal that has been
inoculated with a disease and then has produced anti-
bodies against it.
115
harmless — foods, pollen, certain drugs. A strong anti-
body response to harmless invaders is called an allergy.
Antibodies also interfere with the physicians' attempts to
replace damaged tissues and organs with healthy tissues
and organs supplied by another individual. The body
cannot distinguish between these useful foreigners and
dangerous bacteria and viruses; it promptly produces
antibodies that react against them. A striking exception
occurs when foreign tissue is transplanted from one part
of the human body to another of the same body as — skin
grafting — or from one identical twin to the other. The
transplant is successful because the genetic material of
the same individual or of the two twin individuals is the
same, and the body does not recognize the transplanted
matter as foreign.
Efforts to combat antibodies for the purpose of allow-
ing tissue and organ transplant have been largely unsatis-
factory, for when radiation and special drugs are used to
kill antibody-producing processes, the patient becomes
116
antibody production and pave the way for successful
grafts from the donor.
Cancer
As explained in Chapter 6, the growth of cells within a
multicellular organism is controlled with great precision.
But sometimes the controls that limit cellular growth fail
to function, and body cells grow freely and rapidly. This
malignant, uncontrolled growth of cells is known as
cancer.
Cancer cells do not generally differentiate and special-
ize. All their energies go toward uncontrolled growth
rather than precise function. Their activity is not inhib-
ited by contact with other cells. Instead of taking their
place within a tissue, cancer cells migrate to neighboring
areas and may eventually travel to other parts of the
body where they establish new growths.
Numerous have been proposed about the
theories
origin of cancer. It is possible that cancer may be a vari-
ety of a special disease that leads to uncontrolled growth
of cells. The mutation theory proposes that cancer cells
are normal cells that have undergone a genetic change
permitting them to escape normal body controls. The
carcinogenic (cancer-causing) agents, according to this
theory, are various chemical substances known as mu-
tagens which produce mutations by directly altering
DNA.
Cancer has also been attributed to viruses; to mechan-
ical irritations, such as a hot clay pipestem on the lip; to
117
there is a deterioration of the cell's control mechanisms
as the organism grows older.
Cancer either by interfering with the normal
kills
118
live about 13 days, red blood cells about 120 days, and
nerve cells about 100 years.
It appears likely that most organisms have not only a
mechanism for reproduction and growth but also an
aging mechanism, which brings life to an end when its
119
pleasures and perhaps sorrows of an ever-changing
world, seems a desirable condition.
And so the study of cells is also an endeavor to cure the
ailments of cells, reducing morbidity and extending the
span of life. As scientists examine cellular structure,
photosynthesis, and respiration, as they examine protein
synthesis, RNA, and DNA, examine cell repro-
as they
duction and emb'ryonic development and control mech-
anisms, they are seeking answers that will help them not
only understand but manipulate life's basic unit — the
living cell.
120
i.
K'
Bibliography
Allfrey, Vincent and Mirsky, Alfred E., "How
G.,
Cells Make Molecules." Scientific American, Septem-
ber, 1961.
AsiMOV, Isaac, The Chemicals of Life. New York, Sig-
net Science Library, 1962.
Beadle, George and Muriel, The Language of Life,
New York, Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1966.
Biological Science: Molecules to Man, Biological Sci-
ences Curriculum Study. Boston, Houghton Mifflin
Co., 1968.
Bonner, John Tyler, The Ideas of Biology. New York,
Harper and Bros., 1962.
Bracket, Jean, "The Living Cell." Scientific Ameri-
can, September, 1961.
Butler, John A. V., The Life of the Cell. New York,
Basic Books, Inc., 1964.
De Robertis, E. D. p., Nowinski, Wiktor W., and
Saez, Francisco A., Cell Biology. Philadelphia, W.
B. Saunders Co., 1966.
Hall, Richard P., Protozoa: The Simplest of All Ani-
mals. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1964.
Hayashi, Teru, "How Cells Move." Scientific Ameri-
can, September, 1961.
Langley, L. L., Cell Function. New York, Reinhold
Publishing Corp., 1968.
Mazia, Daniel, "How Cells Divide." Scientific Ameri-
can, September, 1961.
Mercer, E. H., Cells: Their Structure and Function.
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Otto, James H., and Towle, Albert, Modern Biol-
ogy. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
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121
Paul, John, Cell Biology: A Current Summary, Stan-
ford, Calif., Stanford University Press, 1966.
Pfeiffer, John, and editors of Life, The Cell. New
York, Time, Inc., 1964.
Simpson, George G., and Beck, William S., Life: An
Introduction to Biology. New York, Harcourt, Brace
& World, Inc., 1965.
SwANSON, Carl P., The Cell. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.
Watson, James D., Molecular Biology of the Gene,
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122
Index
Anabolism, 41 fixating, 17
Androgen, 104 growth and differentiation, 90-95
Animal immunity, 115 and heredity, 53-67
Animals, and amino acids, 47 metabolism, 41-52
Antibodies, 114, 116 reproduction, 69-82
Antigens, 112-14 staining, 17-18
Antitoxins, 114 structure, 21-29
Aristotle, 9 theory, 14-16
Asexual reproduction, 82-83 varieties of, 19-20
Autonomic nervous system, 98 Centrioles, 27, 71
Autoradiography, 18 Centromere, 70-72, 77, 79
Autotrophic cells, 33 Centrosome, 71
Auxins, 106 Chemical bonds, and energy, 31-32
Axons, 100-1 Chemotropism, 106
Chiasmata, 78, 79
Bacillus, 112 Chlorophyll, 25, 33
Bacteria, 111-14 Chloroplasts, 25, 33
Bacteriophages, 112-13 Chromatids, 70-72, 77-79
123
Chromatin, 28 Feedback, 108
Chromosomes, 15, 28, 55, 57 Fertilization, 86
and mitosis, 69-74 Fibrous proteins, 45
and sex determination, 80-83 Fixation, of cell, 17
and sexual reproduction, 74-80 Flageila, 23
Cilia, 23 Flemming, Walther, 15
Coacervates, 12-13 Food, and energy, 32-33
Coccus, 112 Food additives, and mutations, 66
Codons, 49
Coenzymes, 44 * Gametes, 74, 104
Color blindness, 80 Gastrulation, *87
Conditioned reflexes, 99 Genes, 15, 57, 108. See also Chro-
Connecting neurons, 98 mosomes
Coral, 20 and mutations, 64-67
Cortisone, 105 Genetic code, 60
Crick, Francis, 58 Geotropism, 106
Cristae, 25 Germ cells, 74
Crossing-over, 64, 77-78, 83 Globular proteins, 45
Culturing, 18 Glucagon, 104
Cytolysins, 114 Glucose, 35-37, 104
Cytoplasm, 23-27 Glycolysis, 37
Cytoskeleton, 26 Golgi bodies, 26-27
Grana, 25
Death, 111-20 Griffith, Jack, 58
Dendrites, 100 Growth and differentiation, 90-95
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 15,
28, 52 Heart transplants, and antibodies,
and cell differentiation, 94-95 116
and heredity, 53-67 Hemophilia, 65
replication, 61-62 Heredity, 53-67
and RNA, 62-64 Heterotrophic cells, 33
structure, 58-61 Heterozygous gene pairs, 77
viruses, 112 Hodgkin's disease, 118
Descartes, Rene, 10 Homeostasis, 107-9
Diabetes, 104 Homologous chromosomes, 77
Dipeptide, 47 Homozygous gene pairs, 77
Divine creation, as origin of life, 9 Hooke, Robert, 14
Dominant genes, 74 Hormones, 101-6
Double helix structure, 58-60 Hydrolysis, 47
Hypoglycemia, 104
Ectoderm, 87
Egg, 74, 86 Immunity, 114-15
Electrical impulses, 101 Infection, 112, 114
Electron microscope, 17 Inhibitory impulses, 100-1
Elements, 32 Insulin, 45, 104
Embryonic development, 86-87 Insecticides, and mutations, 66
Endocrine glands, 102 Integration, 95
Endoderm, 87 Interferon, 114
Endoplasmic reticulum, 26 Intermedin, 105
Energy conversion, 31-40 Internal mutations, 66
Enzymes, 42-44, 108 Islands of Langerhans, 104
Epigenesis, 87-90
Epinephrine, 105 Johannsen, Wilhelm, 15
Estrogen, 104
Evolution of life, concept of, 13 Kinetic energy, 32
Krebs, Sir Hans Adolf, 38
Fats, 41 Krebs cycle, 37-38
124
Photons, 33
9-14
Life, origin of, Photosynthesis, 25, 31, 33-36
Life-span, 118-20 Phototropism, 106
LSD, and mutations, 66 Pinocytosis, 22-23
Lysosomes, 27 Pituitary gland, 102, 105
Plankton, 20
Meiosis, 83, 86 Plants. See also Photosynthesis;
and sexual reproduction, 74-79 Respiration
Mendel, Gregor, 15, 53-57, 74 and amino acids, 47
Mendel's law of independent assort- growth response in, 106
ment, 64 Plasma membrane, 21-23
Mesoderm, 87 Plastids, 26
Messenger RNA (mRNA), 50-52, Polymers, 45
63 Potential energy, 32
Metabolism, 41-52, 102 Precipitins, 114
Microscopes, 16-17 Preformation, 87-90
Microvilli, 22 Proteins, 26, 41-42, 57
Miller, Stanley Lloyd, 11 synthesis, 26, 44-49, 49-52
Mitochondria, 25-26, 37
Mitosis, 69-74, 83, 86 Recessive genes, 74
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 15 Red blood cells, 21
Morphogenic movements, 87 Redi, Francesco, 10
Mosaic differentiation, 92-93 Regeneration, 69-70
Motor neurons, 98-100 Regulative differentiation, 92-93
Mutagens, 117 Replication, DNA, 61-62
Mutations, and evolution, 64-67, 83 Respiration, 31, 36-39
Mutogehesis, 117 Reverse transcription, 63
Myelin sheath, 101 Rhizopods, 55
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 28
Nervous system, 97-101 and cell differentiation, 94-95
Neurons, 98-100 and DNA, 62-64
Newton, Isaac, 10 and protein synthesis, 49-52
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Ribosomes, 26
phosphate (NADP), 35
Nuclear membrane, 28, 79 Schleiden, Matthias, 15
Nucleoli, 28, 79 Schneider, Anton, 15
Nucleus, 15, 27-28, 57 Schwann, Theodor, 15
Schwann's cells, 101
Opsonins, 114 Sensory neurons, 98-100
Organelles, 25 Sex determination, 80-83
Organic compounds, 11 Sex-linked characteristics, 80-82
Ovaries, 104 Sex organs, 102, 104
Oxytocin, 105 Sexual reproduction, 74-83
Sickle-cell anemia, 65
Pancreas, 102, 104 Size and shape, cell, 19
Parasympathetic nerves, 98 Sperm, 74, 86
Parathyroid gland, 102, 104 Spinal column, 98
Passive immunity, 115 Spirillum, 112
Pasteur, Louis, 10-11 Spontaneous generation, 9-11
Pathogenic bacteria, 112-13 Spontaneous mutations, 66
Pauling, Linus, 45 Staining, 17-18
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 99 Steady state, 106-9
Peptide bond, 47 Stroma, 25
Peripheral nerves, 98 Sulfa drug family, 116
Permeability, 108 Sutton, Walter, 15
Phagocytes, 114 Swanson, Carl P., 28
Phagocytosis, 22-23 Sympathetic nerves, 98
125
Synapses, 100-1 Vaccines, 1 15
Synapsis, chromosome, 77 Vacuoles, 27
Vasopressin, 105
Template RNA, 49-50, 63 Virchow, Rudolf, 15
Testes, 104 Virus, 112, 114
Tetany, 104 and cancer, 1 17
Theory, cell, 14-16 Volvox, 20
Thyroid gland, 102, 106
Tools and techniques, 16-18 Watson, James, 58
Transfer RNA (tRNA), 49-51 Wilkins, Maurice, 58
TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone).
106 Zygote, 74
126
The Author
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