Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

(WDM)
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)_wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is
an approach that can exploit the huge opto-electronic bandwidth mismatch by requiring
that each end-user's equipment operate only at electronic rate, but multiple WDM
channels from different end-users may be multiplexed on the same fiber. Under WDM,
the optical transmission spectrum (see Fig. 1.1) is carved up into a number of

Figure 1.1: The low-attenuation regions of an optical fiber.

non-overlapping wavelength (or frequency) bands, with each wavelength supporting a

single communication channel operating at whatever rate one desires, e.g., peak
electronic speed. Thus, by allowing multiple WDM channels to coexist on a single fiber,
one can tap into the huge fiber bandwidth, with the corresponding challenges being the
design and development of appropriate network architectures, protocols, and algorithms.
Also, WDM devices are easier to implement since, generally, all components in a WDM
device need to operate only at electronic speed; as a result, several WDM devices are
available in the marketplace today, and more are emerging.

Research and development on optical WDM networks have matured considerably over
the past few years, and they seem to have suddenly taken on an explosive form, as
evidenced by recent publications [JLT96, JSAC96, JLT93, JSAC90, JHSN95] on this
topic as well as overwhelming attendance and enthusiasm at the WDM workshops during
recent conferences: Optical Fiber Communications (OFC '97) conference and IEEE
International Conference on Communications (ICC '96). A number of experimental
prototypes have been and are currently being deployed and tested mainly by
telecommunication providers in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. It is anticipated that the next
generation of the Internet will employ WDM-based optical backbones.

Current development activities indicate that this sort of WDM network will be deployed
mainly as a backbone network for large regions, e.g., for nationwide or global coverage.
End-users -- to whom the architecture and operation of the backbone will be transparent
except for significantly improved response times -- will attach to the network through a
wavelength-sensitive switching/routing node (details of which will become clearer later
in the book). An end-user in this context need not necessarily be a terminal equipment,
but the aggregate activity from a collection of terminals -- including those that may
possibly be feeding in from other regional and/or local subnetworks -- so that the end-
user's aggregate activity on any of its transmitters is close to the peak electronic
transmission rate.

Let us examine below a sample networking problem on such a WDM network.

A Sample WDM Networking Problem

End-users in a fiber-based WDM backbone network may communicate with one another
via all-optical (WDM) channels_all-optical channel, which are referred to as lightpaths.
A ^lightpath may span multiple fiber links, e.g., to provide a ``circuit-switched''_circuit
switching interconnection between two nodes which may have a heavy traffic flow
between them and which may be located ``far'' from each other in the physical fiber
network topology. Each intermediate node in the lightpath essentially provides an all-
optical bypass facility to support the lightpath.

In an N-node network, if each node is equipped with N-1 transceivers [transmitters

(lasers) and receivers (filters)] and if there are enough wavelengths on all fiber links, then
every node pair could be connected by an all-optical lightpath, and there is no networking
problem to solve. However, it should be noted that the network size (N) should be
scalable, transceivers are expensive so that each node may be equipped with only a few
of them, and technological constraints dictate that the number of WDM channels that can
be supported in a fiber be limited to W (whose value is a few tens today, but is expected
to improve with time and technological breakthroughs). Thus, only a limited number of
lightpaths may be set up on the network.

Under such a network setting, a challenging networking problem is that, given a set of
lightpaths that need to be established on the network, and given a constraint on the
number of wavelengths, determine the routes over which these lightpaths should be set up
and also determine the wavelengths that should be assigned to these lightpaths so that the
maximum number of lightpaths may be established. While shortest-path routes may be
most preferable, note that this choice may have to be sometimes sacrificed, in order to
allow more lightpaths to be set up. Thus, one may allow several alternate routes for
lightpaths to be established. Lightpaths that cannot be set up due to constraints on routes
and wavelengths are said to be blocked, so the corresponding network optimization
problem is to minimize this blocking probability.

In this regard, note that, normally, a lightpath operates on the same wavelength across all
fiber links that it traverses, in which case the lightpath is said to satisfy the ^wavelength-
continuity constraint. Thus, two lightpaths that share a common fiber link should not be
assigned the same wavelength. However, if a switching/routing node is also equipped
with a ^wavelength converter facility, then the wavelength-continuity constraints
disappear, and a lightpath may switch between different wavelengths on its route from its
origin to its termination.

This particular problem, referred to as the Routing and Wavelength Assignment

(RWA)_routing and wavelength assignment (RWA) problem, will be examined in detail
in Chapter 10, while the general topic of wavelength-routed networks will be studied in
Part III (Chapters 8 through 12).

Returning to our sample networking problem, note that designers of next-generation

lightwave networks must be aware of the properties and limitations of optical fiber and
devices in order for their corresponding protocols and algorithms to take advantage of the
full potential of WDM. Often a network designer may approach the WDM architectures
and protocols from an overly simplified, ideal, or traditional-networking point of view.
Unfortunately, this may lead an individual to make unrealistic assumptions about the
properties of fiber and optical components, and hence may result in an unrealizable or
impractical design. The goal of this book is to clarify the properties of WDM optical
components and present the WDM networking architectures and challenges.

WDM Networking Evolution

Point-to-Point WDM Systems

WDM technology is being deployed by several telecommunication companies for point-

to-point communications. This deployment is being driven by the increasing demands on
communication bandwidth. When the demand exceeds the capacity in existing fibers,
WDM is turning out to be a more cost-effective alternative compared to laying more
fibers. A recent study [MePD95] compared the relative costs of upgrading the
transmission capacity of a point-to-point transmission link from OC-48 (2.5 Gbps) to
OC-192 (10 Gbps) via three possible solutions:

1. installation/burial of additional fibers and terminating equipment (the

``multifiber'' solution);
2. a four-channel ``WDM solution'' (see Fig. 1.2) where a WDM multiplexer (mux)
combines four independent data streams, each on a unique wavelength, and sends
them on a fiber; and a demultiplexer (demux) at the fiber's receiving end separates
out these data streams; and
3. OC-192, a ``higher-electronic-speed'' solution.

The analysis in [MePD95] shows that, for distances lower than 50 km for the
transmission link, the ``multi-fiber'' solution is the least expensive; but for distances
longer than 50 km, the ``WDM'' solution's cost is the least with the cost of the ``higher-
electronic-speed'' solution not that far behind.

WDM mux/demux in point-to-point links is now available in product form from several
vendors such as IBM, Pirelli, and AT&T [Gree96]. Among these products, the maximum
number of channels is 20 today, but this number is expected to increase soon.

Figure 1.2: A four-channel point-to-point WDM transmission system with amplifiers.

Figure 1.3: A Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexer (WADM).

Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexer (WADM)

A Wavelength Add/Drop Multiplexer (WADM) is shown in Fig. 1.3. It consists of a

demux, followed by a set of 2 x 2 switches -- one switch per wavelength -- followed by a
mux. The WADM can be essentially ``inserted'' on a physical fiber link. If all of the 2 x 2
switches are in the ``bar'' state, then all of the wavelengths flow through the WADM
``undisturbed.'' However, if one of the 2 x 2 switches is configured into the ``cross'' state
(as is the case for the lambda_i switch in Fig. 1.3) via electronic control (not shown in
Fig. 1.3), then the signal on the corresponding wavelength is ``dropped'' locally, and a
new data stream can be ``added'' on to the same wavelength at this WADM location.
More than one wavelength can be ``dropped and added'' if the WADM interface has the
necessary hardware and processing capability.

Fiber and Wavelength Crossconnects -- Passive Star, Passive Router, and Active
Switch

In order to have a ``network'' of multiwavelength fiber links, we need appropriate fiber

interconnection devices. These devices fall under three broad categories:

• passive star (see Fig. 1.4),

• passive router (see Fig. 1.5), and
• active switch (see Fig. 1.6).

Figure 1.4: A 4 x 4 passive router (four wavelengths).

Figure 1.5: A 4 x 4 passive star.

Figure 1.6: A 4 x 4 active switch (four wavelengths).

The passive star is a ``broadcast'' device, so a signal that is inserted on a given

wavelength from an input fiber port will have its power equally divided among (and
appear on the same wavelength on) all output ports. As an example, in Fig. 1.4, a signal
on wavelength lambda_1 from Input Fiber 1 and another on wavelength lambda_4 from
Input Fiber 4 are broadcast to all output ports. A ``collision'' will occur when two or more
signals from the input fibers are simultaneously launched into the star on the same
wavelength. Assuming as many wavelengths as there are fiber ports, an N x N passive
star can route N simultaneous connections through itself.

A passive router can separately route each of several wavelengths incident on an input
fiber to the same wavelength on separate output fibers, e.g., wavelengths lambda_1,
lambda_2, lambda_3, and lambda_4 incident on Input Fiber 1 are routed to the same
corresponding wavelengths to Output Fibers 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, in Fig. 1.5.
Observe that this device allows wavelength reuse, i.e., the same wavelength may be
spatially reused to carry multiple connections through the router. The wavelength on
which an input port gets routed to an output port depends on a ``routing matrix''
characterizing the router; this matrix is determined by the internal ``connections'' between
the demux and mux stages inside the router (see Fig. 1.5). The routing matrix is ``fixed''
and cannot be changed. Such routers are commercially available, and are also known as
Latin routers, waveguide grating routers (WGRs), wavelength routers (WRs), etc. Again,
assuming as many wavelengths as there are fiber ports, a N x N passive router can route
N^2 simultaneous connections through itself (compared to only N for the passive star);
however, it lacks the broadcast capability of the star.
The active switch also allows wavelength reuse, and it can support N^2 simultaneous
connections through itself (like the passive router). But the active star has a further
enhancement over the passive router in that its ``routing matrix'' can be reconfigured on
demand, under electronic control. However the ``active switch'' needs to be powered and
is not as fault-tolerant as the passive star and the passive router which don't need to be
powered. The active switch is also referred to as a wavelength-routing switch (WRS),
wavelength selective crossconnect (WSXC), or just crossconnect for short. (We will refer
to it as a WRS in this book.)

The active switch can be enhanced with an additional capability, viz., a wavelength may
be converted to another wavelength just before it enters the mux stage before the output
fiber (see Fig. 1.6). A switch equipped with such a wavelength-conversion facility is
more capable than a WRS, and it is referred to as a wavelength-convertible switch,
wavelength interchanging crossconnect (WIXC), etc.

The passive star is used to build local WDM networks, while the active switch is used for
constructing wide-area wavelength-routed networks. The passive router has mainly found
application as a mux/demux device.

WDM Network Constructions

Broadcast-and-Select (Local) Optical WDM Network

A local WDM optical network may be constructed by connecting network nodes via two-
way fibers to a passive star, as shown in Fig. 1.7. A node sends its transmission to the star
on one available wavelength, using a laser which produces an optical information stream.
The information streams from multiple sources are optically combined by the star and the
signal power of each stream is equally split and forwarded to all of the nodes on their
receive fibers. A node's receiver, using an optical filter, is tuned to only one of the
wavelengths; hence it can receive the information stream. Communication between
sources and receivers may follow one of two methods: (1) single-hop, or (2) multihop
(which will be studied in Part II of this book). Also, note that, when a source transmits on
a particular wavelength lambda_1, more than one receiver can be tuned to wavelength
lambda_1, and all such receivers may pick up the information stream. Thus, the passive-
star can support ``multicast'' services.

Figure 1.7: A passive-star-based local optical WDM network.

Passive-Star-Based Optical WDM LAN vs. Centralized, Nonblocking-Switch-Based LAN

Consider the passive-star-based optical WDM LAN in Fig. 1.7. If there are N nodes in
the system and as many wavelengths as nodes, and also if the bit rate of each WDM
channel (and hence of each electronic interface) is B bps, then the aggregate information-
carrying capacity of the LAN is upper-bounded by N * B bps.

Now consider the same network topology as in Fig. 1.7, but the passive star is replaced
by a centralized, nonblocking, space-division switch, where the notion of WDM does not
exist. Each of the N nodal interfaces still operate at B bps, all on the ``same wavelength,''
so that the aggregate system capacity is still N * B bps, due to ``space-division
multiplexing'' at the nonblocking switch. So, how does this architecture compare with the
passive-star-based WDM LAN solution?

While the passive-star WDM solution cannot boast any capacity enhancement, it
nevertheless has the following advantages:

1. In the space-division-switch solution, the ``switching intelligence'' is centralized.

However, the passive star relegates the switching functions to the end nodes (in
terms of wavelength tunability at the nodal transmitters and receivers). If a node is
down, the rest of the network can still function. Hence, the passive-star solution
enjoys the fault-tolerance advantage of any distributed switching solution, relative
to the centralized-switch architecture, where the entire network goes down if the
switch is down.
2. Another advantage of the WDM passive-star solution is that it allows multicasting
``for free.'' There are some processing requirements with respect to appropriately
coordinating the nodal transmitters and receivers. Centralized coordination for
supporting multicasting in a switch (also referred to as a ``copy'' facility) is
expected to require more processing.
3. Also, the passive-star solution can be potentially much cheaper since it is purely
glass with very little electronics.

Wavelength-Routed (Wide-Area) Optical Network

A wavelength-routed network (wide-area) optical WDM network is shown in Fig. 1.8.

The network consists of a photonic switching fabric, comprising ``active switches''
connected by fiber links to form an arbitrary physical topology. Each end-user is
connected to an active switch via a fiber link. The combination of an end-user and its
corresponding switch is referred to as a network node.

Figure 1.8: A wavelength-routed (wide-area) optical WDM network.

Each node (at its access station) is equipped with a set of transmitters and receivers, both
of which may be wavelength tunable. A transmitter at a node sends data into the network
and a receiver receives data from the network.

The basic mechanism of communication in a wavelength-routed network is a lightpath. A

lightpath is an all-optical communication channel between two nodes in the network, and
it may span more than one fiber link. The intermediate nodes in the fiber path route the
lightpath in the optical domain using their active switches. The end-nodes of the lightpath
access the lightpath with transmitters and receivers that are tuned to the wavelength on
which the lightpath operates. For example, in Fig. 1.8, lightpaths are established between
nodes A and C on wavelength channel lambda_1, between B and F on wavelength
channel lambda_2, and between H and G on wavelength channel lambda_1. The
lightpath between nodes A and C is routed via active switches 1, 6, and 7. (Note the
wavelength reuse for lambda_1.)
In the absence of any wavelength conversion device, a lightpath is required to be on the
same wavelength channel throughout its path in the network; this requirement is referred
to as the wavelength continuity property of the lightpath. This requirement may not be
necessary if we also have wavelength converters in the network. For example, in Fig. 1.8,
the lightpath between nodes D and E traverses the fiber link from node D to switch 10 on
wavelength lambda_1, gets converted to wavelength lambda_2 at switch 10, traverses the
fiber link between switch 10 and switch 9 on wavelength lambda_1, gets converted back
to wavelength lambda_1 at switch 9, and traverses the fiber link from switch 9 to node E
on wavelength lambda_1.

A fundamental requirement in a wavelength-routed optical network is that two or more

lightpaths traversing the same fiber link must be on different wavelength channels so that
they do not interfere with one another.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technique that multiple signals are

carried together as separate wavelengths (color) of light in a multiplexed signal. WDM is
used in optical fiber networks. WDM and FDM (Frequency Division multiplex) are both
based on the same principles but WDM applies to wavelengths of light in optical fiber
while FDM is used in electrical analog transmission. A WDM optical system using a
diffraction grating is completely passive, unlike electrical FDM, and thus is highly
reliable. Further, a carrier wave of each WDM optical channel is higher than that of an
FDM channel by a million times in frequency (THz versus MHz).

Wavelength Division Multiplexer is a device that combines optical signals from multiple
different single-wavelength end devices onto a single fiber. Wavelength Division
Multiplexer carries two to four wavelengths per fiber. The original WDM systems were
dual-channel 1310/1550 nm systems. Typically, the same device can also perform the
reverse process with the same WDM techniques: de-compose the data stream with
multiple wavelength into multiple single wavelength data streams, a process call de-
multiplexing. Therefore, it is very often a Wavelength Division Multiplexer and
Demultiplexer are in the same box.

WDM: Wavelength Division Multiplex and Multiplexer