English Handout

I.
PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS are names of persons, places, things, animals, concepts/ideas, qualities and activities. Ex: Alfred,
governor, shoes, deer, education, cowardice, running
1. Collective nouns – name groups of people or animals
2. Gender of Nouns – nouns may be classified into 4 genders, such as common, masculine, feminine
and neuter. The common gender is the gender for both sexes; the masculine gender refers to the
male while the feminine gender refers to the female. The neuter gender can neither be masculine
or feminine.
3. Abstract nouns from which some adjectives have been derived
4. Noun or adjective?
 A noun ceases to be classified as a noun when it is followed by another noun
Ex: I love eating rice cakes. (rice here has already become an adjective modifying the
noun cake)
Do you like Italian pizza? (Italian has become a proper adjective because it is followed
by another noun)
5. Noun or verb?
 Some words may be similarly spelled but they may function as either a noun or a verb in a
sentence, such as object, conduct, digest, escort, insult, produce, record.
Ex: I do not approve of his cónduct. John Williams will condúct the symphony .
He subscribes to the Congressional Dígest. Some food is difficult to digést.

 Other nouns make a slight change in spelling or pronunciation when used as verbs, such as
advice, bath, breath, cloth, grief, prophecy
Ex: Take his advice with a grain of salt. (n) Who will advise the king? (v)
He likes a warm bath. (n) They bathe in the river. (v)
It’s cold enough to see our breath. (n) Don’t breathe the chemical fumes. (v)
6. Uses of Nouns
 As subject: The really important issue of the conference, stripped of all other considerations, is
the morality of the nation.
 As subjective complement: Dr Couchworthy is acting president of the board.
 As direct object: The new addition to the faculty donated a new microscope to the university.
 As indirect object: Grandfather left Rosita and Raul all his money.
 As object of the preposition: The guests stayed in a five-star hotel.
 As objective complement: The convention named Mr. Dogbreath vice chairman to appease
him.
 As appositive: Kathleen, an Olympic swimmer, just received a scholarship from Harvard.
 As nominative of address: Shut up, Joe!
PRONOUNS
1. Personal pronouns – refer to persons or things (it)
NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE

(subject) (complement) (used as objects) (show possession)
I I me my, mine
you you your, yours
Singular
he he him his
she she her hers
it it it its
we we us our, ours
Plur
al
they they them their, theirs
Ex: (as subjects) Dan and I bought the used car.

Sally and he went fishing.
Eve and she worked at the lodge.
Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014) 1

(as complement) It was I who refused.
Could it have been she who won?
It must have been they who gave the signal.
Are you implying that it was he?
(as objects) The Ford Foundation gave her a grant.
I invited Theresa and him to the party.
(showing possession) This transistor radio is mine.
I agree that his is better.
2. Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to or demonstrate what is expressed in the sentence.
Ex: That is the newly inaugurated science building.
This is the approved plan of that building.
These are necessary documents for employment.
Those are swampy areas behind the building.
3. Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a definite person or thing.

Singular: each, neither, one, everybody, anything, something
Ex: Each of you has award.
Someone is in the room.
Neither of the students was present.
(the word with a single underscore is the pronoun and the one with the double
underscore is the singular verb)
Plural: both few many several others

Ex: Several were killed in the car crash.
Many are expecting salary increase.
Few have voted for the crooked candidate.
Singular or plural: all any most none some

Ex: All of the research was complete. (singular)
All of the supplies were donated by a politician. (plural)
Some of the butter was rancid. (singular)
Some of the stories were published. (plural)
4. Relative pronouns are words that relate a clause to some other words in the sentence. When used
this way, the clause is then called a relative clause. The relative pronouns are: who, whose, whom,
which, what and that
Ex: The phone, that was just installed, does not work.
The swimmer, whom I coached last year, qualified for the Olympic trials.
I visited the house of the gentleman who wrote “Rip Van Winkle.”
The woman, whose house is filled with valuable antiques, is planning to have a garage
sale.
A long rest is what the doctor ordered.
5. Interrogative pronouns are used to denote a question. These are: who, whose, whom, what and
which
Ex:
Who won the game? Which should I choose?
Whom did you she vote for? Whose is this envelope?
What did he say?
6. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding –self or –selves to certain personal pronouns.
These may be used either intensively or reflexively. They are intensive when they add emphasis to
noun to which it refers to and reflexive when used as object of the verb.
Ex: The mayor herself inspected the slum buildings. (intensive)
Mary hurt herself when she fell. (reflexive)
Darlene taught herself how to play the guitar. (reflexive)
They took the responsibility upon themselves. (intensive)
NOTE: the pronouns are by themselves. As subjects, they are immediately followed by verbs; As predicate
nominatives, they come after linking verbs. To show possession they are found after whatever is owned or
possessed. They are not used immediately before nouns or they will no longer be called pronouns but
pronominal adjectives.

The use of WHO and WHOM; WHOEVER and WHOMEVER:
CASE PRONOUNS USE IN SENTENCE

Nominative Who, whoever Subject of a verb
Predicate nominative
Objective Whom, whomever Direct object
Object of a preposition
Possessive Whose, whosever To shoe ownership
Ex: Who wrote the Decalogue? (subject)

Whoever would commit such a heinous act? (subject)
The news commentator was who? (predicate nominative)
Assign the task to whoever will accept it. (subject of the verb ‘will accept’ in the
subordinate clause)
Whom did you consult? (direct object)
Whom are you writing to? (object of the preposition ‘to’)
John charmed whomever he spoke with. (object of the preposition ‘with’)
PRONOUN or ADJECTIVE (modifier)?

When a pronoun is followed by a noun it becomes a modifier or an adjective.
Ex: What section do you belong to? (followed by the noun ‘section’)
Whose bicycle is this? (followed by the noun ‘bicycle’)
These are her science books. (followed by the noun ‘science’)
His face is red. (followed by the noun ‘face’)
Several victims have been brought to the hospital for treatment. (followed by the noun ‘victims’)
Any student can join the competition. (followed by the noun ‘students’)
VERBS
1. Regular verbs are verbs that add –d, or –ed to the base form to create the past form.
Ex: act – acted; walk – walked, create – created, walk – walked
2. Irregular verbs are verbs that change spelling to create their past and past participle forms
Some irregular verbs have the same base, past and past participle forms:
Burst, cast, hurt, set, spread, split, sweat, thrust
3. The linking verbs are used to link or join the subject with its complement (a noun, a pronoun or an
adjective). These are be, am, is, was, were, been, being
Ex: I am exhausted. (adjective)
She is a geologist. (noun)
We are glad to hear that. (adjective)
It was she I saw. (pronoun)
4. Special linking verbs are verbs which may be used as linking verbs or action verbs, such as: seem, look,
appear, sound, feel, taste, stand, remain, grow, become, get, stay and loom.
Ex: You look pretty in that dress. (linking verb)
Do not look at him. (action)
The soup tastes sour. (linking verb)
He often tastes all the food on the table. (action)
5. Auxiliary verbs are used together with action verbs. These are also referred to as ‘helping verbs’. These
are: do, does, did, has, have, had, will, shall, could, may.
Auxiliary verbs may also be used as main verbs. The linking verbs may also function as auxiliary verbs.
AS MAIN VERB AS AUXILIARY VERB

Ex: I will do his duty. I do need a new dress.
Have they a reason for the rally? We have received your notice.
The hinges are rusty. Some researchers are conducting a study under water.
She has a meeting to attend. Our professor has already dismissed us.

THE VERB TENSES
The simple tenses

Shows present action
Ex: I hear a radio in the next room.
She looks at me with dejection.
1. Simple present Expresses present condition
Ex: Barbara is very ill.
Singular subj. + s-form of the verb I am excited at the idea.
Expresses regularly occurring action
I + base form of the verb Ex: Some animals hibernate during winter time.
We walk to school every day.
I + am Expresses regularly occurring condition
Ex: He is often late for work.
Singular subj. + is / has I am rarely patient.
Expresses constant action
Plural subj. + base form of the verb Ex: The earth revolves around the sun.
The sun sets in the west.
Plural subj. + are / have Expresses constant condition
Ex: Some people are not infallible.
Winters are cold seasons.
Expresses completed action
Ex: The concert began at eight o’clock.
2. Simple Past He closed the store early.
States completed condition
Singular subj. + was Ex: There was drought in California.
It was warm last night.
Plural subj. + were
Gives a series of actions in the order that they happened
Ex: The burglar came in the front door, picked up the woman’s
Subj. + past form of verb
handbag, emptied it out and stole her purse.
Subj. + had Talks about long term situations in the past
Ex: My friend’s uncle served as mayor for two terms during the
Japanese occupation.
Denotes future action
Ex: Carmela will report about folk literature.
We shall surely attend your birthday party.
3. Simple future
Expresses future condition
Ex: She will be worried about us.
Subj. + will/shall + base form of verb
They will be eager to see you.
Makes predictions, based on opinions or past experiences
Ex: It will rain again.
The progressive tenses
Long continuing action
Ex: She is writing a novel.
They are conducting a study of the marine biology in Sulu Sea.
1. Present progressive Short continuing action
Ex: My brother is setting the table
Singular subj. + is + -ing form of a She is cooking supper.
verb Continuing condition
Plural subj. + are + -ing form of a Ex: The weather is being very unpredictable.
verb You are being obstinate again.
Talks about events one intends to do in the future with the use of going to
Ex: We are going to hire a bus.
We are going to ride the ferry to the island.
Long continuing action in the past
Ex: We were visiting museums last December.
He was completing his thesis the other year.
2. Past Progressive Short continuing action in the past
Ex: I was helping my sisters this morning
Singular subj. + was + -ing form of a We were watching a movie a while ago.
verb Continuing condition in the past
Plural subj. + were + -ing form of a Ex: Elaine was being very irritable yesterday.
verb They were being very secretive about the changes during the
meeting.
Provides background scene when narrating a past event
Ex: He was doing his homework when the burglar came in.

3. Future progressive Continuing future action
Ex: Gerard will be growing pineapple next summer.
Subj. + will + be + -ing form of a
They will be studying internal medicine for ten years.
verb
The perfect tenses
Completed action (at an indefinite time)
Ex: I have eaten lunch already
Marissa has received a letter.
Completed condition (at an indefinite time)
Ex: I have also been happy.
They have been blessed many times.
Action continuing to the present
1. Present perfect Ex: The baby has cried all evening.
She has talked all afternoon.
Singular subj. + has + past part. of Condition continuing to the present
the verb Ex: You have been very calm today.
The dog has been very docile lately.
Plural subj. + have + past participle
Used together with words like since, for, never, so far, up to now
Ex: I have lived in this house since birth.
Karen has collected 20 cards so far.
They have never gotten over the loss of their dad.
Action completed before another past action
Ex: He had worked as a veterinarian before he began his book.
2. Past Perfect I had studied art until I started to teach.
Subj. + had + past participle form of Condition completed before another past condition
verb Ex: She had been an accomplished writer until she fell ill.
I had been very patient before we became friends.
Future action completed before another
Ex: I will have finished writing my book by 2013.
3. Future perfect
She shall have arrived by the time you finish cooking.
Future condition completed before another
Subj. + will/shall + have + past
Ex: The survivors will have been without food for days by the time
participle of verb
help arrives.
The lion will have been tamed by the time it grows old.
The perfect progressive tenses
1. Present perfect progressive
Singular subj. + has + been + -ing Action continuing to the present
form of a verb Ex: They have been listening to music all morning.
Plural subj. + have + been + -ing The kid has been throwing tantrums.
form of verb
2. Past perfect progressive Continuing action interrupted by another

Subj. + had + been + -ing form of Ex: I had been taking a bath when the water ran out.
verb We had been chatting boisterously until we heard the explosion.
Continuing future action completed before another.

3. Future perfect progressive Ex: He will have been driving for ten hours by the time he reaches
Subj. + will/shall + have + been + - Legazpi City.
ing form of a verb I will have been studying for eight years before I become a full-
fledged surgeon.
VOICES of the VERB

The voice of the verb indicates whether the subject is doing the action or not.
The Active Voice: The verb is active if its subject performs the action
Ex: Mike introduced the new professor.
Rossana writes with conviction.
The cops caught the fugitive earlier today.
The Passive Voice: A verb is passive if its action is performed upon the subject
Ex: The new professor was introduced by Mike.
The article was written with conviction.
A bill on anti-smoking will be passed by congress.

The verb CHOOSE in the passive voice
Present is chosen
Past was chosen
Future will be chosen
Present perfect has been chosen
Past perfect had been chosen
Future perfect will have been chosen
Present progressive is being chosen
Past progressive was being chosen
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
1. A verb must agree with the subject in person and in number
Ex: Rita listens attentively. (Rita is a singular subject thus it takes the –s form of the verb listen in the
present tense)
They often explain the lessons clearly. (They is a plural subject so it takes the base form of the
verb explain in the present tense)
2. The pronouns, You and I, always take the base form of the verb in the present tense.
Ex: You wash the dishes after you eat.
I read books often.
3. The singular indefinite pronouns take the singular verbs.
Ex: Each of them is responsible.
Everyone is bothered about corrupt politicians.
No one has seen the thief come in.
4. The indefinite pronouns some, all, most, none and any may take either the singular or the plural verbs
depending on the noun after the ‘of phrase’.
Ex: Some of the money was stolen.
Some of their answers were wrong.
5. Intervening phrases introduced by with, together with, in addition to, as well as and including do not affect
the verb.
Ex: The machine with all its parts sells for five hundred pesos.
His property, including two cars, is up for sale.
6. Collective nouns often require a singular verb unless it is thought of as individuals.
Ex: The choir sings well.
The choir do not agree on the songs for the program.
7. Subjects joined by and take plural verb except when they refer to only one and the same person or thing.
Ex: The engine and one car were derailed.
Pins and tacks were holding the pieces together.
The proprietor and manager has left for Canada. (the absence of a determiner before the noun
manager denotes that the two nouns refer to only one person.)
Macaroni and cheese is an easy dish to make.
8. Subjects joined by either-or, neither-nor, or, nor take the singular verb when both subjects have the same
number. When the subjects do not have the same number, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
Ex: Neither the folk singers nor their agent likes the program.
The management or the unions are making concessions.
9. Nouns plural in form and meaning always take the plural verb or the base form of the verb.
Ex: Where are the green scissors?
Your trousers have a torn crotch.
10. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take the singular verb.
Ex: Mathematics is often considered a difficult subject.
Ethics was one of the subjects I disliked.
11. The phrase a number of takes the plural verb, while the phrase the number of takes the singular verb.
Ex: A number of students have been found to be under the influence of liquor during class hours.
The number of English plus enrollees has increased tremendously.
12. When the sentence is introduced by here or there the verb agrees with the subject.
Ex: Here is the ticket for the game.
There are only two possible answers.
13. In inverted order sentences, the verb still agrees with the subject.
Ex: Around the bend careens a speeding car.
Into the deep and murky well drops the dead bird.

14. A verb in the subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent.
Ex: Those are the researchers who are observing the volcanoes eruption.
Kathleen is popular with those classmates who enjoy her vitality and exuberance.
Every book on these shelves that appears on your list should be catalogued.
15. Predicate nominatives do not affect the verb.
Ex: Joe’s first love is sailboats.
The fruit I like best is seedless grapes.
16. Subjects following expressions of amount or measurement require a singular verb.
Ex: Two meters of wire is enough for the fence.
Three dollars seems like a fortune to him.
17. The verb agrees with the noun following an expression of fraction or portion.
Ex: Half of the apple is rotten.
Three-fourths of the bananas were ripe.
18. Titles of books, songs, stories, plays or other works of art and names of countries require a singular verb.
Ex: The Netherlands has a colorful history.
The Potato-Eaters is a famous painting by Van Gogh.
19. Adjectives used as subjects take the plural form of the verb.
Ex: The rich often have the privilege to travel anywhere.
The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
ADJECTIVES
1. Kinds of adjectives
 Determiners: a, an, the, several, that, those
 Quality: beautiful, rough, delicious
 Size: large, minute, tiny
 Shape: long, square, round
 Age: old, antique, young
 Color: red, blond, raven, lilac
 Proper: American, English, Thai
 Material: silky, wooden, bronze
Note: The arrangement of the above kinds of adjectives is also the arrangement to be followed when there is
a series of adjectives modifying a noun or pronoun.
Ex: Several delicious large square red Italian pizzas were served for us.
2. Comparison of adjectives
3. Position of adjectives
 Before a noun
Ex: Gorgeous ladies often get to join beauty pageants.
Fierce dogs can scare people.
 Between noun determiners and nouns
Ex: The clear lake has become murky.
Those marble domes existed even before I was born.
 After linking verbs
Ex: The jar is exquisite.
He seems upset.
 After intensifiers
Ex. A rather shy girl began the singing of the anthem.
He looks quite scholarly in his get-up.
ADVERBS
1. Types of adverbs
♠ Adverb of manner: answers the question ‘how?’ quietly, roughly, steadily, remorsefully
♠ Adverb of place: answers the question ‘where?’ across, outside, down, upward, there, here,
out
♠ Adverb of frequency: answers the question ‘how often?’ always, seldom, everyday, often, yearly,
daily
♠ Adverb of time: answers the question ‘when?’ today, yesterday, tomorrow, last
night, next week
2. Order of adverbs: the order of adverbs follows the same order as the arrangement of the types of adverbs
shown above
Ex: Beth enthusiastically goes out every morning before dawn.

Dad walks impatiently upstairs every afternoon before supper to get his newspaper.
3. Adverbs as intensifiers: they emphasize, amplify or downtone

 Emphasizer Ex: I really do not like him.
He literally pounded his mother’s antique jar.
Ella simply ignored me.
 Amplifier Ex: The committee completely rejected his proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend anymore faculty meetings.
The board heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
 Downtoner Ex: I kind of like the movie.
He sort of appreciated the award.
4. Adverb or Adjective?
 Some words may be used as both an adjective and an adverb without a change in form. These are:
fast, half, straight, just, late, low, most, clear and clean
Ex: He drives a fast car. (adjective)
He drives his car fast. (adverb)
They both have half ownership of the property. (adjective)
She was half crying, half laughing with joy. (adverb)
Don’t expect to get a straight answer from her. (adjective)
He shot the arrow straight to the bull’s eye. (adverb)
PREPOSITIONS
Some commonly used prepositions and their functions and meanings:
Across – on the opposite side of; moves or reaches from one side to the other Ex: across the
street across cultures
After – later than; behind; agreeing with; past hour Ex: after her after supper
Against – in opposition to; in contact with by leaning; in sudden contact or collision with
Ex: He banged his head against the wall I leaned against a tree.
Among – belonging to a particular group; in a group of more than two members
Ex: among physicists among us
Around – to the other side of; surrounding Ex: around the corner around his waist
Behind – at back of; following somebody; in the past; Ex: behind the door behind him
behind me
Beneath – underneath; too low for; lower Ex: beneath the bed beneath contempt
Beside – at side of; compared with; Ex: sit beside Noel beside his brother
Besides – aside from; as well as Ex: Besides handouts, we also give take home tests.
By – along; beside or close to Ex: by the window by Sunday
In – nonspecific time, address or location Ex: in a few minutes in my bag in time
Into – motion or action Ex: into the air
On – indicates exact date or location; on top of something Ex: on the table on July 7
Onto – making a discovery; in contact Ex: onto the suppliers onto something
Outside – out of doors; beyond the scope of Ex: outside the room outside my abilities
Over – above; across; more than Ex: over the fireplace over your quota
Through – by way of; by means of Ex: through Europe through the fire
through a hole
Toward/towards – in a particular direction; shortly before; regarding; Ex: toward her toward dawn
Within – inside; not beyond Ex: within a country within 24 hours
Preposition or adverb?
 An adverb does not require an object while a preposition requires an object

Ex: If you want to see that eclipse, you will need to go outside. (adverb)
Dorothy colors outside the lines. (preposition because it has an object ‘lines’)
It will be some time before his stomach settles down. (adverb)
The dog ran down the alley. (preposition)
CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinators – connect words, phrases and sentence elements that have the same grammatical structure
and but or for so nor yet
Ex: Joanna and Susanna are twins.

Reading novels and painting landscapes are two of my past times.
Melanie wants to earn her own money so she sells cookies.

Correlative conjunctions – are conjunctions that come in pairs. These too connect sentence elements with the
same grammatical structure both . . . and either. . . or neither. . . nor not only. . . but also
whether. . . or
Ex: Motocross racing requires not only skill but also great daring.
Either basic accounting or finance is required.
Subordinating conjunctions – are used to introduce adverb clauses; it also links a subordinate clause to the
main clause
as although as long as as though because before
as if after provided unless since where
till so that though until whatever when
than whenever wherever while
Ex: Come for a visit whenever you can.

The crowd cheered as the mayor waved.
Conjunctive adverbs – are adverbs used to join main clauses. These are used together with a semicolon before
it.
accordingly furthermore moreover therefore also nevertheless
hence yet consequently however otherwise
Ex: The roads where partly flooded; nevertheless, we kept on driving.

A paralyzing snowfall hit Buffalo; consequently, all transportation was halted.
B. THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a word or a group of words that express a complete thought, a complete idea or a complete
question.
Avoiding sentence errors
 Run-ons: a run-on sentence is two or more complete sentences that are unintentionally capitalized and
punctuated as if they were one. Four ways to correct run-ons:
a. With end marks and capitals.
Run-on: Elizabeth turned at the sudden noise a bird had crashed into the picture
window.
Sentence: Elizabeth turned at the sudden noise. A bird had crashed into the picture
window.
b. With commas and conjunctions

Run-on: I baked a cake this morning, I have not frosted it yet.
Sentence: I baked a cake this morning, but I have not frosted it yet.
c. With semicolons
Run-on: The stallion kept trying to jump the fence, however he failed each time.
Sentence: The stallion kept trying to jump the fence; however, he failed each time.
d. By rewriting
Run-on: My aunt stayed with us for a week, my cousins came too.
Sentence: My aunt and cousins stayed with us for a week.
 Dangling or misplaced modifiers: This happens when a modifier seems to modify the wrong word in the
sentence. To correct, simple place the modifiers close to the word it should logically modify.
Misplaced modifier: He told us how to cut wood through written directions.
Corrected placement: Through written directions, he told us hot to cut wood.
Misplaced modifier: Turning green, I watched the lights.
Corrected placement: I watched the lights turning green.
 Faulty parallelism: parallelism is the placement of equal ideas in words, phrases, or clauses of similar
types.
Faulty parallelism in a series:
Nonparallel structure: Strength, agility and carefully concentrating make a successful wrestler.
Corrected sentence: Strength, agility and careful concentration make a successful wrestler.
Nonparallel structure: The mouse ran across the floor, under the table and its hole was the last
stop.
Corrected sentence: The mouse ran across the floor, under the table and into its hole.
Faulty parallelism in comparison:

Nonparallel structure: I prefer concertos to listening to jazz.

Corrected sentence: I prefer concertos to jazz
Nonparallel structure: I like giving speeches as much as writing a story thrills Ben.
Corrected sentence: I like giving speeches as much as Ben likes writing stories.
II. THE CLAUSE

A clause is a group of words containing a verb and its subject. A clause that can stand by itself as a
sentence is a main clause, while a sentence that cannot stand by itself as a sentence is a subordinate clause.
1. The adjective clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a noun or a pronoun in the main clause.
Ex: That is the spot where I fell. (modifies the noun ‘spot’)
It’s a program that I always enjoy. (modifies the noun ‘program’)
2. The adverb clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in the
main clause.
Ex: We put the key where we could locate it easily. (modifies the verb ‘put’)
The dog looked as if it would attack us. (modifies the verb ‘looked’)
The test is as hard as the first one. (modifies the adjective ‘hard’)
The dog ran quicker than the sheep did. (modifies an adverb)
3. The noun clause is a subordinate clause used as a noun.
Ex: I understand what you need. (direct object)
He was thinking about what they did the night before. (object of the prep)
III. THE PHRASE

A phrase is a group of words used within a sentence as a single part of speech. It may be used as a
noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb. It does not contain a subject and verb.
IV. THE PARAGRAPH
 A paragraph is a series of related sentences that represents a unit of thought.

 It explains one idea, usually presented in one sentence called the TOPIC SENTENCE.
 The rest of the sentences in the paragraph discuss the main idea, adding specific information.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
 The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph and defines the scope of the paragraph.
 The topic sentence may be at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the paragraph.
 A topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph prepares the reader for the information that follows
throughout the rest of the paragraph.
Ex: One of the great seventeenth-century contributors to science and the use of the lens was Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642). While he was in Venice in 1609, Galileo heard about an instrument, rumored to have been
invented the year before, which made objects in the distance appear larger and nearer. The principle of this
new instrument interested him, so he immediately set to work making such a device himself. The result was his
telescope. Galileo fitted into one end of a metal pipe a convex lens, called the objective, and at the other
end of the tube he fixed a concave lens, called the eyepiece. The eyepiece intercepted the converging light
rays which proceeded from the objective, before they reached the point of focus. As they passed through the
concave eyepiece, the light rays again changed direction. Hey no longer converged, but diverged, and
passed on to the eye of the viewer. Galileo improved the telescope until his third attempt magnified observed
objects thirty-three times. Here was a combination of lenses – mere bits of ground and polished glass –
assembled in such a way that it was possible for he human eye to see far beyond its natural limitations. The
principle of Galileo’s telescope is still used today in opera glasses. Anne Huether.
 In the following paragraph, the topic sentence is in the middle of the paragraph.
Ex: Along island beaches, the water changes color as it becomes deeper. In the shallows it is a milky
green. In deeper waters over the coral heads and reefs, the color is clear greenish-blue. The color line
changes from green-blue to deep blue where the drop-off into the deep water begins. The drop-off marked
by this color change is the best place for a good swimmer to see Hawaii’s underwater scenery. Here are deep
lava-rimmed valleys paved with white sand. Here are lava rock arches and tunnels and caves where big fish,
lobsters, and big eels live. Looking through a face mask into water sixty feet deep, a diver can see that the
coral and sand bottom appears a pale, bleached blue. In the deep water, big fish hover in schools like herds
of cattle browsing by. A great sea turtle paddles along. A manta ray swims below with the same graceful
swoops as a bird in flight. Its big side flaps move like wings. Its pop eyes watch the diver watching it. –
adapted from Ruth M. Tabrah
 In the next, the topic sentence is at the end.
Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

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Ex: The word toy may come from the Dutch tuig – tools, things, or stuff – or, as once suggested, from the
Danish toeve meaning to stay, to tarry. The variety of toys is almost limitless. They may be large or miniature,
lifelike creatures. Some are static, such as dolls’ houses and furniture, to be admired and cherished rather than
used; others are dynamic, mechanical toys that you can put into action. From autos to dolls, diamonds to
games, toys are anything that enables us to tarry during the last whip of ordinary life. – Athelstan Spilhaus
V. READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

 Skimming is used to quickly identify main ideas of a text; to find dates, names of persons or places and
to review graphs and tables
 Scanning is used to find specific details, like the age of the character or a word used to describe a
character or a place
 Extensive reading is used to obit general understanding a subject matter or it is reading longer text or
pleasure
 Intensive reading used to understand theme, tone and mood
 Visualizing is creating visual images in the mind of the text being read
 Synthesizing Involves evaluating, sorting, and sifting through information that is known and new and
reorganizing it into a larger idea or concept
 Inferring is drawing upon a reader’s background knowledge and connecting this with new information
 Questioning is generating questions that demonstrate that students are synthesizing, evaluating, and
attempting to get a clearer picture of what is being read.
VI. VOCABULARY BUILDING
VOCABULARY BUILDING SKILLS
A. Using CONTEXT clues

Context means the words, phrases, or passages that come before and after a particular word or
passage in a speech or piece of writing and help to explain its full meaning.
How context reveals meaning:
 Definition – the most obvious and straightforward method.
Ex: The sycophant can be formed wherever there is power; he is the person who works his
way into favor with flattery.
 Restatement – an explanation of a term usually done by restating. This is usually signaled by
words like, in other words, that is, to put it another way, or and this means.
Ex: One astronomer claims there is total absence of plasma, or gaseous matter, in certain
parts of the corona.
Commas, parentheses, or dashes may also signal an appositive, which is another kind of
restatement.
Ex: A doctor will usually check the functioning of the thyroid, the gland that regulates
body growth and metabolism, if the patient has a weight problem.
 Example – examples are given in order to show the meaning of a word. Words that signal
example are: such, such as, like, other, especially, particularly, for example, for instance
Ex: Like Manhattan, each of the other boroughs is an administrative unit of New York City.
 Synonyms – the use of more familiar word or words having the same meaning as the unfamiliar
word.
Ex: The staff unanimously agreed that their boss is so gelid, a person so cold and frigid,
you seldom see him smile.
 Comparison – the unfamiliar word is compared with a more familiar idea
Ex: Like a modern-day Judas, the actor betrayed his benefactor.
 Contrast – the use of dissimilarity between two things
Ex: The actor emerged from the stage with mirth, in contrast to the grim-faced person he
was after he slipped in a dance number.
 Explanation – a difficult word is explained, usually in simpler words, but longer sentences
Ex: Plants like cactus are succulent. They have tissues that conserve moisture. This
enables them to survive the dry and hot atmosphere of deserts.
 Cause and effect – involves cause-and-effect relationship between ideas.
Ex: Because of the dearth of jobs in the Philippines, many people immigrated to Europe
and the USA.
B. Analyzing word structure
 Noting prefixes Ex: ambi- (both) ambivalence – presence of two opposing ideas
dys- (bad, abnormal) dysplasia – medically abnormal growth

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amphi- (both kinds, around) amphibious, amphitheater
 Noting suffixes Ex: -ance sustenance – nourishment
-ice malice – wish to harm others
-archy (form of government) monarchy
-ics (science or skills) athletics
 Adjective suffixes Ex: -able (capable of being) changeable
-fic (causing or producing) sudorific
 Greek roots Ex: anthrop - human - anthropology (study of humankind)

chrom - color - chromagen (potential pigment)
derm - skin - dermatology (skin specialty)
hydr - water - hydrant (water source in the street)
 Latin roots Ex: animus - mind, spirit - animate (make lively)

cred - believe - credulity (gullibility)
ject - throw, hurt - reject (discard)
C. Using etymological formation: Etymology is the study of the origin of words or parts of words and how
they have arrived at their current form and meaning.
o Shows the different forms the world has taken in passing from one language to another and
sometimes shows related words in other languages
D. Other processes of word formation
 Affixation – use of affixes in changing the form and function of words
Ex: Un + kind = unkind friend + ship = friendship
Fulfill + ment = fulfillment dis + able = disable
 Compounding
Ex: air + plane = airplane book + shelf = bookshelf
Ear + rings = earrings
 Blending (portmanteau words – formed by merging a portion of one word with a portion of
another)
Ex: motor + hotel = motel Feces + analysis = fecalysis
 Clipping Ex: ad – advertisement; TV – television; bio – biology
 Coinage – words developed from brand names
Ex: Colgate – toothpaste fridge - refrigerator
Kodak – camera or picture Xerox - photocopy
 Acronym – word formed from the initial letters of other words
Ex: SCUBA – Self-contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
LASER – Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
E. Idiomatic Expressions
 Back To Square One - to start again
 Air one’s dirty linen in public (verb phrase) – to talk about your private quarrels where others can
hear
 Can't see your nose in front of your face: being oblivious to something obvious, in clear view.
 Best thing since sliced bread - A good invention or innovation. A good idea or plan.
 Caught between two stools - When someone finds it difficult to choose between two
alternatives.
 Cry over spilt milk - When you complain about a loss from the past.
 Cut corners - When something is done badly to save money.
 Cut the mustard - To succeed; to come up to expectations; adequate enough to compete or
participate
 Devil's Advocate - To present a counter argument
 Don't count your chickens before the eggs have hatched - This idiom is used to express "Don't
make plans for something that might not happen".
 Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Do not put all your resources in one possibility.
 Drastic times call for drastic measures – When you are extremely desperate you need to take
drastic actions.
 Hear it on the grapevine - 'to hear rumors' about something or someone.
 Let sleeping dogs lie - do not disturb a situation as it is - since it would result in trouble or
complications.
 Not a spark of decency - No manners
 On the ball - When someone understands the situation well.
 Put wool over other people's eyes - to deceive someone into thinking well of them.

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 Speak of the devil! - This expression is used when the person you have just been talking about
arrives.
 Steal someone's thunder - To take the credit for something someone else did.
 To have one’s hand tied – to be restricted
VII. LITERATURE
Literature is an art form which comes as either oral or written record of man’s thoughts, behavior, aspirations,
emotions and manifold experiences that has withstood the test of time because of its universal appeal.
 Timely and timeless
 Transcends age, race, gender, time, religion, geographical borders, philosophy, culture
CLASSIFICATIONS OF LITERATURE:
1. Literature of KNOWLEDGE
 Appeals to the mind and intellect
 Chief objective is to supply information
 Utilitarian
 CHARACTERISTICS: FACTUAL – information must be truthful and the evidence must be measurable;
as perceived by the senses. (EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE – measurable and observable); OBJECTIVE –
perceivable by all or a large majority in the same manner; IMPARTIAL – does not take sides; no
biases or prejudices; USES SIMPLE and DIRECT LANGUAGE - must be understood by all.
2. Literature of POWER
 Appeals to the heart and emotion of man
 Chief purpose is to entertain
 Artistic and creative
 CHARACTERISTICS: FICTION / FANCIFUL; SUBJECTIVE – subject to varied interpretations; PARTIAL AT
TIMES (impartiality always sides with the truth); FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IS USED to catch the reader’s
attention or interest, to allow variety of interpretations, to entertain
TWO LITERARY FORMS
1. PROSE – all forms of written or spoken expressions that are consciously organized and lack rhythmic
patterns. It implies logical order, continuity of thought and individual style.
2. POETRY – an arrangement of lines in which form and content fuse to suggest meanings beyond the
literal meanings of the words. The language of poetry is more compressed and more musical. It has:
 PERSONA – the speaker in the poem. He is the character whose voice a reader “hears”. The speaker
may be the poet, or a completely different character. Sometimes the identity of the speaker is
obvious. At other times, part of all the poems must be read before the identity of the speaker
becomes clear,
 RHYME – words rhyme when the sound of their accented vowels and all succeeding sounds are
identical.
 RHYTHM – the cadence of poetic lines or prose passage; the regular recurrence of stressed and
unstressed, long and short, high-pitched and low-pitched syllables creating a pattern in the lines of
the poem; gives the poem its melodious quality.
 METER – (organized rhythm) the repetition of regular rhythmic unit in a line of poetry; measured
pattern or grouping of syllables called METRIC FOOT, according to accent and length; a group of
metric feet forms a POETIC LINE and a group of poetic lines or verses is called a STANZA.
Four patterns:
Iamb (iambic foot, x /) – unaccented, accented; An iambic foot is an unstressed syllable
followed by a stressed syllable. We could write the rhythm like this: da DUM
Anapest (anapestic foot, x x /) – two unaccented, accented
Dr. Seuss’ Yertle the Turtle has anapestic tetrameter:
Trochus (trochaic foot, / x) – accented, unaccented

A line of trochaic octameter is eight of these in a row:
Dactyl (dactylic foot, / x x) – accented, two unaccented

The following lines from The Beatles' "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" demonstrate this, the scansion having
dactylic tetrameter:

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 IMAGERY – refers to expressions evocative of objects of sensuous appeal; products of the writer’s
creative imagination and result in making an impression or experience more precise and vivid; may
be in the form of direct description or may be figurative, which later involves the use of figures of
speech and symbols.
Visual imagery: visual descriptions so vivid they seem to come to life in the reader's mind's when
they are read
Ex: “The look-out man will see some lakes of milk-color light on the sea’s night-purple”
“The Purse-Seine” Robinson Jeffers
Auditory imagery: descriptions of sound so vivid the reader seems almost to hear them while
reading the poem.
Ex: “she quietly rolled
flour tortillas the
‘papas’
cracking in the hot lard
would wake me”
“My Grandmother Would Rock Quietly and Hum” Leonard Adamé
Images of smell (olfactory imagery): descriptions of smells so vivid they seem almost to stimulate
the reader's own sense of smell while reading
Ex: “The morning comes to consciousness
Of faint stale smells of beer
From the sawdust-trampled street
With all its muddy feet that press
To early coffee-stands”
“Preludes” T. S. Eliot
Tactile or "physical" imagery: descriptions conveying a strong, vivid sense of touch or physical
sensation that the reader can almost feel himself or herself while reading
Ex: “The only things moving are swirls of snow.
As I lift the mailbox door, I feel its cold iron.”
“Driving to Town Late to Mail a Letter” Robert Bly
Images of taste (gustatory imagery): descriptions conveying images of taste can which also help
in the reading of a poem.
Ex: “Take out a three-pound leg of lamb,
rub it with salt, pepper and cumin,
then push in two cloves
of garlic splinters”
“How to Eat Alone” Daniel Halpern
Kinesthetic images (movement) – images of motion which can contribute to the setting; can
create metaphors that increase the reader’s understanding of the poem.
FIGURES OF SPEECH – are ways of saying something other than the ordinary way. One does this to make
assertions about an external quality, or to present some insights of realities that cannot be fully expressed in any
logical language. Through the use of figures of speech, the poet communicates not only a state of mind but
also calls to mind the image of some things that interest the reader. It cannot be taken literally.
Figures of speech pertaining to repetition of sounds:
1. Alliteration – the repetition of initial consonant sounds
Ex: The soul selects her own society
2. Anaphora – The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of several lines
Ex: I needed a drink,
I needed a lot of life insurance,
I needed a vacation,
I needed a home in the country.
What I had was a coat, a hat and a gun.
(Raymond Chandler, Farewell, My Lovely)
3. Assonance – the similarity of medial vowel sounds in a line
Ex: "I must confess that in my quest I felt depressed and restless."
(Thin Lizzy, "With Love")

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4. Onomatopoeia – The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with objects or actions they refer
to.
Ex: "I'm getting married in the morning!
Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime."
(Lerner and Loewe, "Get Me to the Church on Time," My Fair Lady)
5. Pun – a play on words sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar
sense or sound of different words.
Ex: When it rains, it pours.
Kings worry about receding heir lines.
On comparison and contrast:
6. Similes - specific comparison by means of the words “like” or “as” between two kinds of ideas or objects.
Ex: Christianity shone like a beacon in the black night of paganism.
7. Metaphor – use of a word or phrase denoting one kind of idea or object in place of another word or
phrase for the purpose of suggesting a likeness between the two.
Ex: "Between the lower east side tenements
the sky is a snotty handkerchief."
(Marge Piercy, "The Butt of Winter")
"The streets were a furnace, the sun an executioner."
(Cynthia Ozick, "Rosa")
8. Personification – is a portrayal of an idea, object, or animal, as having human traits.
Ex: The wind stood up and gave a shout.
He whistled on his fingers and
Kicked the withered leaves about
And thumped the branches with his hand
And said he'd kill and kill and kill,
And so he will and so he will.
(James Stephens, "The Wind")
9. Antithesis – the juxtaposition of two words, phrases, clauses or sentences contrasted or opposed in
meaning in such as way as to give emphasis to contrasting ideas.
Ex: Love is an ideal thing, marriage is a real thing.
To err is human, to forgive divine.
10. Hyperbole – form of inordinate exaggeration according to which a person or thing is depicted as being
better or worse, or larger or smaller, than is actually the case.
Ex: Dr. Johnson drank his tea in oceans.
"I was helpless. I did not know what in the world to do. I was quaking from head to foot, and
could have hung my hat on my eyes, they stuck out so far."
(Mark Twain, "Old Times on the Mississippi")
11. Litotes – Understatement employed for the purpose of enhancing the effect of the ideas expressed.
Ex: "The grave's a fine a private place,
But none, I think, do there embrace."
(Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")
Relationships:
12. Synecdoche - A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole.
Ex: All hands on deck (everyone on deck)
50 head of cattle (50 cattles)
13. Metonymy – use of a word or phrase for another to which it bears an important relation, as the effect for
the cause, the abstract for the concrete, and similar constructions.
Ex: The hostess kept a good table. (good food is implied)
He was an avid reader of Chaucer. (this refers to the poems of Chaucer)
Other figures of speech:
14. Apostrophe – a device by which an actor turns from the audience, or a writer from readers, to address
a person who usually is absent or deceased, an inanimate object or idea.

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Ex: "O western wind, when wilt thou blow
That the small rain down can rain?"
"Then come, sweet death, and rid me of this grief."
(Queen Isabella in Edward II by Christopher Marlowe)
15. Irony – is the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning.
Three kinds of Irony:
a. Verbal irony is a trope in which the intended meaning of a statement differs from the meaning
that the words appear to express.
b. Structural/situational irony involves an incongruity between what is expected or intended and
what actually occurs.
c. Dramatic irony is an effect produced by a narrative in which the audience knows more about
present or future circumstances than a character in the story.
Ex: Oedipus attempts to find the murderer of Laius, king of Thebes, unaware that he himself is
the culprit.
16. Oxymoron – incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side.
Ex: How is it possible to have a civil war? (George Carlin)
The best cure for insomnia is to get a lot of sleep.
17. Paradox – a statement that appears to contradict itself.
Ex: The swiftest traveler is he that goes afoot. (Henry David Thoreau, Walden, 1854)
SYMBOLS – images or concrete references that stand for something else in reality and suggest another
level of meaning; for example, the flag is used a symbol for the country; the rose, for beauty; the serpent, for
evil.
 SENSE OR MEANING – a poem must say something. It must enlighten, reveal a truth, open new vistas,
gives new perceptions, enable us to understand the world around us more deeply and see things
beyond our physical senses.
LITERARY GENRES
POETRY
 Poetry of thought - philosophical, reflective, interpretative and didactic.
- The essay mood in poetry.
 Poetry of feeling – highly emotional and personal
A. NARRATIVE POETRY – tells a story in verse form

1. EPIC – a long narrative poem set against the background of a distant past told from a grand majestic
style, exulted in tone, entreating of the exploits and adventures of a hero or a semi-legendary being
who mirrors the ideals, aspirations, ways of life of a people or a race.
- the language is chaste and polished, befitting of the lofty themes it embodies.
- Example: Iliad & Odyssey, Aeneid, Ibalong
3 MAJOR THEMES:
- THE CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF A GREAT CIVILIZATION OR RACE
- THE CELEBRATION OF THE FOUNDING OF A GREAT RELIGION
- A REVEREND IDEALIZATION OF THE PAST
TWO TYPES:
FOLK EPIC, TRIBAL EPIC, EPIC OF GROWTH – product of the preliterate society (concept of
education has not been conceived of; oral in origin and verbal in transmission; people/generation
involved; many versions or interpretations; no original version only most popular; standard measurement
per line/verses/melody; no known author because authorship is communal.
Epic of Growth – an epic which continues to grow/change/evolve through the years; no fixed
form; always in the process of becoming until it is written down.
LITERARY EPIC – a product of a literate society, educated class; written; has a single known
author.
EPICS OF THE WORLD

 The Aeneid - The Aeneid is a Latin epic poem written by Virgil in the 1st century BC (between 29 and 19
BC) that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who traveled to Italy, where he became the

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ancestor of the Romans. It is written in dactylic hexameter (considered to be the Grand Style of classical
poetry). The first six of the poem’s twelve books tell the story of Aeneas’ wanderings from Troy to Italy,
and the poem’s second half treats the Trojans’ ultimately victorious war upon the Latins, under whose
name Aeneas and his Trojan followers are destined to be subsumed.
 Beowulf - This is an Old English language heroic epic poem of anonymous authorship, dating as
recorded in the Nowell Codex manuscript from between the 8th to the 11th century and relates events
described as having occurred in what is now Denmark and Sweden. Commonly cited as one of the
most important works of Anglo-Saxon Literature, Beowulf has been the subject of much scholarly study,
theory, speculation, discourse and, at 3183 lines, it has been noted for its length. In the poem, Beowulf, a
hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who has been attacking the mead hall in
Denmark called Heorot and its inhabitants; Grendel’s mother and, later in life after returning to
Geatland (modern southern Sweden) and becoming a king, he fights an unnamed dragon. Beowulf is
fatally wounded in the final battle, and after his death he is buried in a barrow in Geatland by his
retainers.
 Mahabharata (Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty) One of the two major Sanskrit epics of India, valid
for both its high literary merit and its religious inspiration. It consists of a mass of legendary and didactic
material surrounding a central heroic narrative that tells of the struggle for supremacy between two
groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Together with the second major epic, the
Ramayana (Romance of Rama), the Mahabharata is an important source of information about the
evolution of Hinduism during the period of about 400BC – AD200. Contained withint the Mahabharata is
the Bhagavadgita (Song of the Lord) the single most important religious text of Hinduism.
 The Iliad - This, together with the Odyssey, is one of two ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer.
The poem is commonly dated to the late 9th or to the 8th century BC and many scholars believe it is the
oldest extant work of literature in the ancient Greek language, making it the first work of European
literature. The poem concerns events during the tenth and final year in the siege of the city of Ilion or
Troy, by the Greeks.
 The Odyssey - This is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. The poem was
probably written near the end of the eighth century BC, somewhere along the Greek-controlled
western Turkey seaside Ionia. The poem is, in part, a sequel to Homer’s Iliad and mainly centers on the
Greek hero Odysseus and his long journey home to Ithaca following the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten
years to reach his kingdom of Ithica after the ten-year Trojan War. During this absence, his son
Telemachus and wife Penelope must deal with a group of unruly suitors, called Proci, to compete for
Penelope’s hand in marriage, since most have assumed that Odysseus has died.
 The Divine Comedy – Long narrative poem originally titled Comedia written by Dante. The work is
divided into three major sections – Inferno, Purgatorio and Paradiso – which trace the journey of a man
from darkness and error to the revelation of the divine light, culminating in the beatific vision of God. It is
usually held to be one of the world’s greatest works literature.
 The Nibelungenlied – (Song of the Nibelungs) a middle German epic written about 1200 by an
unknown poet from the Danube region in what is now Austria. It is preserved in three main 13 th century
manuscript, A (now in Munich), B ( St. Gall), and C (Donaueshingen); modern scholars regard B as the
most trustworthy. The name Nibelung appears in the first part of the poem as the name of Siegfried’s
lands and peoples and his treasure, but, throughout the second, it is an alternate name for the
Burgundians.
 The Shah Nameh – this is a celebrated work completed in 1010 by the Persian epic poet Ferdowsi. It is
the composition in which the Persian national epic found its final and enduring form. Ferdowsi’s work
was based mainly on the Pahlavi (Middle Persia)Khvatay-namak, a history of the kings of Persia
 The Song of Roland - (French: La Chanson de Roland) is the oldest surviving major work of French
literature. It exists in various different manuscript versions which testify to its enormous and enduring
popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The oldest of these is the Oxford manuscript which contains a
text of some 4004 lines (the number varies slightly in different modern editions) and is usually dated to
the middle of the twelfth century (between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem is the first and most
outstanding example of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the eleventh and
fifteenth centuries and celebrated the legendary deeds of a hero.
The story told in the poem is based on a historical incident, the Battle of Roncevaux Pass on 15
August 778, in which the rear guard of Charlemagne's withdrawing Franks, escorting a rich collection of
booty gathered during a campaign in Spain, was attacked by Basques. In this engagement, recorded
by historian and biographer Einhard (Eginhard) in his Life of Charlemagne (written around 830), the
trapped soldiers were slaughtered to a man; among them was "Hruodland, Prefect of
the Marches of Brittany" (Hruodlandus Brittannici limitis praefectus).

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2. METRICAL ROMANCE – a long rambling story which embodies the ideals of medieval times
- Talks about the tales and adventures of the nobility, chivalry and knighthood
 Example: King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table by T. Mallory
3. METRICAL TALE – a long narrative poem which tells the lives of ordinary people.
- has an element of realism
 Example: Decameron by Boccaccio, Canterbury Tales by Chaucer
4. BALLAD – a narrative about heroic deeds, love episodes or romantic encounters, a supernatural
element but simpler than the epic, metrical romance and the metrical tale. The word ballad means
“dance song” because originally ballad-singing often formed the accompaniment of dancing games
and rhythmic swaying of the body.
 Example: Lord Randall, Lochinvar
3 types:
a. Popular or folk ballad – The popular ballad is a folk literature. It reflects the beliefs of the
common folk and may be considered primitive and elemental. The popular ballad was the
common people’s way of expressing their interests and ideals in a poetry that was cruder
and more naïve than the poetry of the nobility; yet it is this simplistic naiveté that grants the
folk ballad a more genuine feeling.
b. Broadside or journalistic ballad – so-called because it is printed on one side of a printer’s
sheet and hawked through the streets and at fairs by professional ballad-mongers. This type
of ballad took the place of the newspaper at a time when newspapers were unknown.
c. Literary ballad – Like all imitations, literary ballads usually lack the spirit of the original but
boast the finish of an individual art.
5. FABLIAU – a comical and often grotesque verse tale with plot often hinge on the comical treatment of
bodily functions: sex, flatulence or diarrhea. It was written by the unknown writers of the thirteenth or
fourteenth centuries. About 200 of them are in existence today. They are at the opposite pole from the
courtly poetry with pictures of knights and ladies and its elaboration of the subtleties of love. They
describe life and people and ridicule the absurdities and abuses of the time.
6. SOCIAL POEM – this form is either purely comic or tragic and it pictures the life of today. It may also aim
to bring out changes in the social conditions.
B. DRAMATIC POETRY – a stage presentation or production in verse form.

1. TRAGEDY – has a sad ending, main character often meets death, has a serious or somber tone.
- Example: Oedipus the King by Sophocles, Hamlet by Shakespeare
2. COMEDY – light and sprightly tone, always has a happy ending
- Example: The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare, Lysistrata by Aristophanes
3. FARCE – an exaggerated comedy based on broadly humorous situations. Ex. Tartuffe by Moliere
(1664)
4. HISTORICAL PLAY – a drama about the lives of outstanding figures in history. Ex.: Shakespeare’s King
John
5. MELODRAMA – a play with sensational actions, a sentimental love story, extravagant emotions, and
generally, a happy ending. Ex.: Pygmalion by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
6. DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE – a combination of drama and poetry, which presents the speech of a
single character “in a specific situation at a critical moment.” The speaker addresses one or more
persons who are present and who are listening to the speaker but remain silent. The speaker’s
personality and character, his relationship to others, his sense of values and attitude towards life are
indirectly gleaned from his monologue. Ex.: Helena’s Monologue in All’s Well That Ends Well by
Shakespeare
7. SOLILOQUY – like the monologue, the soliloquy is a passage spoken by a speaker in a poem or by a
character in a play, except that there is no one present to hear him (except the reader or the
audience, of course). The thoughts expressed, the emotions displayed, and the revelations made,
freely and without inhibition, give deep insights into the character. Ex.: Romeo’s soliloquy in Romeo
and Juliet by William Shakespeare
8. CHARACTER SKETCH – this is a particular type, classified by Laurence J. Zillman in the Art and Craft of
Poetry under dramatic poetry. It is a poem in which “the writer is concerned less with matters of
story, complete or implied, than he is with arousing sympathy, antagonism or merely interest for an
individual.” The poet serves as observer and commentator. Ex.: My Last Duchess by Robert Browning
9. MASQUE – is a form of court pageantry which was popular in England in the 16 th century. The actors
were dressed in lavished costumes against a lavish scenery and music.

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C. LYRIC POETRY – a short poem that expresses feelings which may or may not be set to music. It is the metrical
embodiment of the author’s thoughts and feelings, and becomes the direct and immediate channel of his
communication with his reader. Lyric poetry is not confined to emotions alone, it may in fact, also reflect
philosophical, reflective, interpretative and didactic thoughts.
1. ODE – a monodrama where the author is the actor himself who shares an unforgettable experience
in life; a poem addressed to some person or thing; most majestic type of lyric poetry; exalted in tone
and express a lofty praise for some person, object, event or idea. Example: Annabel Lee by Edgar
Allan Poe; Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode to a Nightingale by John Keats
2. ELEGY – a poem about death or mourning expressed in lamentation. Example: O Captain, My
Captain by Walt Whitman
3. SONNET – a poem of fourteen rhymed lines in iambic pentameter; was devised in Italy in the 1220’s
and was first perfected and popularized by Francesco Petrarch; Sir Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of
Surrey popularized it in England in 16th century.
a) Italian or Petrarchan sonnet – named after the Italian poet Francesco Petrarch who
perfected it. It consists of an octave (eight lines) which develops the theme, followed by a
sestet (six lines) which recapitulates the idea. The octave has a rhyme scheme of abba
abba and the sestet, cde cde or cdcdcd, or some other combinations.
b) English, Elizabethan or Shakespearian sonnet – named after William Shakespeare and
Queen Elizabeth I. it is divided into three quatrains (four lines) plus a couplet (two lines) with a
rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg. The idea is developed in the 3 quatrains and is
summarized or reinforced in the closing couplet.
c) Spenserian sonnet – named after the English poet Edmund Spenser. It is divided, like the
Shakespeare sonnet, into three quatrains and a closing couplet with a rhyme scheme of
abab bcbc cdcd ee.
4. SONG – a poem intended to be sung.
a) Secular – have non-religious themes; deals with different themes and emotions, including
present-day protest.
b) Sacred – includes hymns, anthems, oratories, cantatas; basically songs of praise to God.
5. PSALM – a religious song.
6. HYMN – a song of praise or adoration either sacred or secular
7. MODERN BALLAD – based on a narrative which serves as the poet’s inspiration. There is a story
behind the ballad. Example: Puff the Magic Dragon by Paul Simon
8. IDYLL – a poem of rural or pastoral feeling, the author expresses sentiment for his immediate
surroundings. Example: Trees by Joyce Kilmer
9. SIMPLE LYRIC – a short poem with verses that are musical and with a subjective and emotional tone.
10. HAIKU – a form of poetry that originated in Japan. A Haiku has three lines: the first and third lines
have five syllables each; the second line has seven. It depends on imagery. Each word or phrase
evokes an image. A haiku usually depicts a scene in nature and often implies a strong feeling.
PROSE
A. SHORT STORY –a narrative told by a known author with characters, setting, plot and time.
B. NOVEL - an extended form of the short story with several settings and more characters, minor and major
themes, main plot and subplots.
a. Bildungsroman – a novel chronicling the intellectual, spiritual, or moral development of a young
protagonist; this is also known as a coming-of-age novel
Ex: James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”
Charles Dicken’s “David Copperfield”
b. Dystopian – A novel set in an imagined future in an imagined society that purports to be utopian but
is revealed and terrifyingly restrictive and inhuman. The intent is usually to warn contemporary
readers that their own society is in danger of turning into this horrifying future world.
Ex: Seminal works include Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World and George Orwell’s
“Animal Farm” 1984; also Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale.
c. Epistolary novels – these are novels told through the medium of letters written by one or more of the
characters. This was one of the earliest forms of novel to be developed, originating with Samuel
Richardson’s Pamela in 1740. It remained one of the most popular up to the 19 th century. The novel’s
reliance on subjective points of view makes it the forerunner of the modern psychological novel.
Pamela is a story of a servant girl’s Victorian struggle against her master’s attempts to seduce her.

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Ex: Bridget Jones Diary; Samuel Richardson’s “Clarissa”; Alice Walker’s “The Color
Purple”
d. Gothic novel – European romantic, pseudomedieval fiction having a prevailing atmosphere of
mystery and terror. Its heyday was the 1790s but it was frequently revived thereafter. It was called
gothic because its imaginative impulse was drawn from the rough and primitive grander of
medieval buildings and ruins. Such novels were expected to be dark and tempestuous and full of
ghosts, madness, outrage, superstition and revenge.
Ex: Mary Shelley’s “Frankenstein”; Charlotte Bronte’s “Jane Eyre”; Edgar Allan Poe’s
“Short Stories”
e. Kunslerroman – a novel portraying the artistic realization or development of a maturing protagonist.
This is one type of bildungsroman. Ex: James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” &
Marcel Proust’s “Remembrance of Things Past”
f. Historical novel – is a novel that has as its setting a period of history and that attempts to convey the
spirit, manners and social conditions of a past age with realistic detail and fidelity to historical past.
g. Local Color Novel – A work that incorporates cultural details of a particular region-dialect,
mannerisms, though patterns – to portray a community, often sentimentally. Frequently includes
eccentric characters.
Ex: Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening” & Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”
h. Novel of manners – this is a work of fiction that recreates a social world, conveying with finely
detailed observation of the customs, values and mores of a highly developed and complex society.
The conventions of the society – codified behavior, acceptable forms of speech, and so on –
dominate the story, and characters are differentiated by the degree to which they measure up to
or fall below the uniform standard or ideal, of behavior.
Ex: the works of Jane Austen, which deal with the domestic affairs of English country
gentry families of the early 19th century
i. Picaresque novel - a popular sub-genre of prose fiction which is usually satirical and depicts,
in realistic and often humorous detail, the adventures of a roguish hero of low social class who lives
by his wits in a corrupt society. This style of novel originated in sixteenth century Spain and flourished
throughout Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It continues to influence modern
literature.
Ex: Miguel de Cervantes “Don Quixote” & Mark Twain’s “Huckleberry Finn”
j. Philosophical novel – a novel serving as a vehicle to explore philosophical ideas.
k. Psychological novel – a novel whose primary focus is on the character’s emotions and internal
motivations as they respond to external events.
Ex: Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” & Henry James’ “Portrait of a
Lady”
l. Roman-a-clef – this a novel that has the extraliterary interest of portraying identifiable, sometimes
real people more or less thinly disguised as fictional characters.
Ex: Ernest Hemingway’s “The Sun also Rises”
m. Social Protest – a novel that aims to illuminate and draw attention to contemporary social problems
with the goal of inciting change for the better.
n. Thesis – (Novel of Ideas) a novel that presents problems and argues in favor or a solution.
Ex: Harriet Beecher Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” & Charles Dikens’ “Hard Times”
C. MYTH – prose narratives considered sacred and true in societies where they are told; embodiment of
dogma or religious doctrines set in the remote past.
D. LEGENDS – prose narratives considered to be true in societies where they originated and thrived; set in
the distant past.
E. FOLKTALES – not an embodiment of dogma, told for entertainment, definitely fiction
F. PARABLES – stories containing morals or religious lessons and allegories
G. FABLES – characters are animals, expresses the follies of men without directly attacking them.
H. NON FICTION – is prose writing that presents and explains ideas or that tells about real people objects, or
events.
a. Biography is a form of non-fiction in which a writer tells the life story of another person
b. Autobiography is a form of nonfiction in which a person tells his or her own life story
c. Essay - a literary exposition expressing the author’s views or ideas about a subject, may be formal or
informal.
I. HISTORICAL PROSE such as chronicle, diary, journal and history

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ELEMENTS OF FICTION
A. PLOT – a series of events that give the story its meaning and effect. In most stories, these events arise out
of the conflict experienced by the main character.
ELEMENTS OF A PLOT:
1. EXPOSITION – the introduction which gives the setting, creates the tone, presents the characters and
other facts necessary to understanding the story.
2. FORESHADOWING – the use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in the story.
3. INCITING FORCE – the event or character that triggers the conflict
4. CONFLICT – the essence of fiction. The conflict creates the plot. Common conflicts are:
 MAN vs MAN – puts one person in rivalry with another
 MAN vs NATURE – a run-in with the forces of nature. On one hand, it expresses the inconsequentiality
of one man in the vastness of the universe. On the other, it puts a man’s strength and will to live to
the test.
 MAN vs SOCIETY – the values and customs of the society are challenged. The character may come
to an untimely end as a result of his convictions. Or, he may bring others around to a sympathetic
point of view --- or it may be decided that society was right after all.
 MAN vs SELF – internal conflict which tests the character’s values. Sometimes, people are their own
worst enemy.
5. RISING ACTION – a series of events that builds from the conflict. This begins with the inciting force and
ends with the climax.
6. CRISIS - the conflict reaches a turning point. At this point, the opposing forces in the story meet and the
conflict becomes most intense. May occur before or at the same time of the climax.
7. CLIMAX – the result of the crisis and the moment of highest interest and greatest emotion. It is the high
point of the story for the reader.
8. FALLING ACTION – events after the climax which close the story.
9. RESOLUTION (DENOUEMENT) – concludes the action.
B. CHARACTERS – the textual representation of a human being.

In literature, as in real life, we can evaluate character in three ways:
a) what the individual says
b) what the individual does
c) what others say about him or her
 MAJOR CHARACTERS - almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They have good and
bad qualities. Their goals, ambitions or values change.
 ROUND CHARACTERS are convincing and true-to-life and changes as a result of what
happens to him. They have many different and sometimes even contradictory traits.
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERS undergo some type of change or development in the story often
because of what happens to him. A dynamic character progresses to a higher level of
understanding in the course of the story.
 MINOR CHARACTERS - almost always flat or two-dimensional figures. They have only one or two
striking qualities. The predominant quality is not balanced by an opposite quality.
 FLAT CHARACTERS are stereotyped, shallow and often symbolic.
 STATIC CHARACTERS do not change throughout the course of the story.
Seven Common Character Types

by Terry W. Ervin II
Confidante- someone in whom the central character confides, thus revealing the main character’s
personality, thoughts, and intentions. The confidante does not need to be a person.
Dynamic Character - a character which changes during the course of a story or novel. The change in
outlook or character is permanent. Sometimes a dynamic character is called a developing character.
Flat Character - a character who reveals only one, maybe two, personality traits in a story or novel, and the
trait(s) do not change.
Foil - a character that is used to enhance another character through contrast. Cinderella’s grace and

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beauty as opposed to her nasty, self-centered stepsisters is one clear illustration of a foil many may recall
from childhood.
Round Character - a well-developed character who demonstrates varied and sometimes contradictory
traits. Round characters are usually dynamic (change in some way over the course of a story).
Static Character – a character that remains primarily the same throughout a story or novel. Events in the
story do not alter a static character’s outlook, personality, motivation, perception, habits, etc.
Stock Character - a special kind of flat character who is instantly recognizable to most readers. Possible
examples include the “ruthless businessman”, “shushing old librarian” or “dumb jock.” They are not the
focus nor developed in the story.
C. SETTING – this is where the story/action takes place.

Stories actually have two types of setting: Physical and Chronological.
The physical setting is of course where the story takes place. The “where” can be very general—a small
farming community, for example—or very specific—a two story white frame house at 739 Hill Street in Scott City,
Missouri. Likewise, the chronological setting, the “when,” can be equally general or specific.
D. POINT OF VIEW – source and scope of the narrative voice.
o First Person POV – The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only personal thoughts
and feelings or what he sees and is told by the other characters in the story. He cannot tell the
reader the thoughts and feelings of other characters.
o Third Person Objective - The narrator is an outsider who can only report what he sees and hears.
He tells us what is happening but not the thoughts of the characters.
o Third Person Limited – The narrator is an outsider who sees the mind of only one character.
o Omniscient – The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds of more than one
character.
E. TONE / MOOD
o TONE is the author’s attitude, stated or implied, towards a subject. This is revealed through
choice of words and details within the story.
o MOOD is the climate of feeling in a literary work. The choice of setting, objects, details, images
and words all contribute towards creating a specific mood.
F. SYMBOLISM – A person, place or object which has a meaning in itself but suggests other meanings as
well.
G. THEME – The main idea or underlying meaning of a literary work. A theme may be stated or implied.
FOUR WAYS IN WHICH A THEME MAY BE EXPRESSED:

1. Themes are expressed and emphasized by the way the author makes us feel. By sharing feelings of
the main character you also share the ideas that go through his mind.
2. Themes are presented in thoughts and conversations. Authors put words in their character’s mouths
only for good reasons. One of these is to develop the story’s themes. Look for thoughts that are
repeated throughout the story.
3. Themes are suggested through the characters. The main character usually illustrates the most
important theme of the story. What does the main character learn in the course of the story?
4. The actions or events in the story are used to suggest the theme. People naturally express ideas and
feelings through their action. One thing authors think about is what an action will “say”.
Other literary terms:

 Checkov’s gun – this refers to the insertion of an apparently irrelevant object early in a narrative for a
purpose that is revealed later.
 Cliffhanger – the narrative ends unresolved and draws the audience back to a future episode for the
resolution.
 Defamiliarization – forces the reader to recognize common things in an unfamiliar or strange way to
enhance perception of the familiar.
 Epiphany – a sudden revelation of insight-usually with a symbolic role in the narrative.
 Foreshadowing – the organization or presentation of events and scenes in a work of fiction or drama so
that the reader or observer is prepared to some degree for what occurs later in the work. This can be
part of the general atmosphere of the work or it can be a specific scene or object that gives a clue or
hint as to a later development of the plot.
 Flashback – a literary or theatrical technique that involves the interruption of the chronological
sequence of events by interjection of events or scenes of earlier occurrence, often in the form of
reminiscence.

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 Magic Realism – a Latin American literary phenomenon characterized by the incorporation of fantastic
or mythical elements matter-of-factly into otherwise realistic fiction. The term was applied to literature in
the late 1940s by Cuban novelist Alejo Carpentier, who recognized the tendency of his region’s
traditional storytellers as well as contemporary authors to illumine the mundane by means of the
fabulous. Prominent among the magic realists in addition to Carpentier, were the Brazilian Jorge
Amado, the Argentines Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortazar, the Columbian Gabriel Garcia Marquez
and the Chilean Isabel Allende.
 Satire – this refers to the usually topical literary composition holding up human or individual vices, folly,
abuses, or shortcomings to censure by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque irony or other methods,
sometimes with an intent to bring about improvement.
 Stream-of-consciousness – a narrative technique in nondramatic fiction intended to render the flow of
myriad impressions – visual, auditory, physical, associative, and subliminal – that together with rational
thought impinge on the consciousness of an individual. The term was first used by the psychologist
William James in The Principles of Psychology in 1890.
PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
The Literary Periods
1. Pre-colonial (-- to 1564)
Characteristics
a. Based on oral traditions
b. Crude on ideology and phraseology
Literary Forms
Oral Literature
a. Riddles (bugtong) battle of wits among participants
Tigmo – Cebu; Paktakon – Ilonggo; Patotdon – Bicol
b. Proverbs or aphorisms (salawikain) – express norms or codes of behavior, community

beliefs or they instill values by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse
c. Tanaga - a mono-riming heptasyllabic quatrain expressing insights and lessons on life is

"more emotionally charged than the terse proverb and thus has affinities with the
folk lyric."
Basahanon (Bukidnon) or extended didactic sayings
Daraida and daragilon (Panay)
Folk Songs is a form of folk lyric which expresses the hopes and aspirations, the people's lifestyles as well
as their loves. These are often repetitive and sonorous, didactic and naïve
Ida-ida (Maguindanao); tulang pambata (Tagalog) or cansiones para
abbing (Ibanag).
a. Hele or oyayi – lullaby: Ili-ili (Ilongo)
b. Love songs the panawagon and balitao (Ilongo)
c. Serenade or Harana (Cebuana)
d. Ambahan (Mangyan) – 7-syllable per line poem that are about human relationships and
social entertainment
e. Kalusan (Ivatan) - work songs that depict the livelihood of the people; soliranin or Tagalog
rowing songs; mambayu a Kalinga rice pounding song
f. Tagay (Cebuano and Waray) – drinking song
g. Kanogan (Cebuano) – song of lamentation for the dead; Annako (Bontoc)
h. Duplo verbal jousts/games during wakes
i. Parang sabil uses for its subject matter the exploits of historical and legendary heroes. It tells of a
Muslim hero who seeks death at the hands of non-Muslims.
Folk Tales
a. Myths – how certain animals possess certain characteristics, why some places have waterfalls,
volcanoes, mountains, flora or fauna
b. Legends – explain the origin of things
c. Fables – use animal characters and allegory
d. Fantastic stories – deal with underworld characters such as “tiyanak”, “aswang”, “kapre” and others
Epics. These epics revolve around supernatural events or heroic deeds and they embody or validate
the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community. These are sung or chanted to the accompaniment of
indigenous musical instruments and dancing performed during harvests, weddings or funerals by chanters. The
chanters who were taught by their ancestors are considered "treasures" and/or repositories of wisdom in their
communities.

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“narratives of sustained length based on oral tradition revolving around supernatural events or
heroic deeds” (Arsenio Manuel)
The Philippine epic is also called Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hudhud (Ifugao);
and Ulahingan (Manobo)
Ex: Lam-ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen (Maranao);
Ulahingan (Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the
Buhong Sky from Tuwaang--Manobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon); and Tudbulol (T'boli).
2. Spanish Colonization Period (1565 – 1863)

Characteristics
a. It has two distinct classifications: religious and secular
b. It introduced Spanish as the medium of communication
Literary Forms
Religious Literature - Religious lyrics written by ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish and
Tagalog were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the Spanish
language.
Pasyon – long narrative poem about the passion and death of Christ. The most popular
was “Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu Cristong Panignoon Natin” by Aguino de Belen
Senakulo – dramatization of the pasyon, it shows the passion and death of Christ
Secular (non-religious) Literature

a. Awit - colorful tales of chivalry made for singing and chanting Ex: Ibong Adarna
b. Korido – metrical tale written in octosyllabic quatrains Ex: Florante at Laura by Francisco
Baltazar
Prose Narratives – written to prescribe proper decorum Ex: Modesto de Castro's "Pagsusulatan ng
Dalawang Binibini na si Urbana at si Feliza" and Joaquin Tuason's "Ang Bagong Robinson" (The
New Robinson) in 1879
III. Nationalistic/ Propaganda & Revolutionary Period (1864 – 1896)

Characteristics: planted seeds of nationalism in Filipinos; language shifted from Spanish to Tagalog;
Addressed the masses instead of the “intelligentsia”
Literary Forms
1. Propaganda Literature - Reformatory in objective
Political Essays – satires, editorials and news articles were written to attack and expose the evils
of Spanish rule (Diariong Tagalog – founded by Marcelo del Pilar; La Solidaridad – whose
editor-in-chief is Graciano Lopez-Jaena)
Political Novels: Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo – Jose Rizal’s masterpieces that paved the
way to the revolution
2. Revolutionary Literature – more propagandistic than literary as it is more violent in nature and
demanded complete independence for the country
a. Political Essays – helped inflame the spirit of revolution: Kalayaan – newspaper of the society,
edited by Emilio Jacinto
b. Poetry: True Decalogue – Apolinario Mabini; Katapusang Hibik ng Pilipinas – Andres Bonifacio;
Liwanag at Dilim – Emilio Jacinto
IV. American Colonial Period (1910 – 1945)
A. Period of Apprenticeship (1910-1930)
1. Filipino Writers imitated English and American models
2. Poems written were amateurish and mushy, which phrasing and diction is awkward and
artificial
a. Short Stories: Dead Stars – Paz Marquez Benitez; The Key – Paz Latorena; Footnote to
Youth – Jose Garcia Villa
b. Novels: Childe of Sorrow – first novel in English, by Zoilo Galang
B. Period of Emergence (1920-1930)
1. Highly influenced by Western literary trends like Romanticism and Realism.
a. Short Stories – most prevalent literary form; Jose Garcia Villa – earned the international
title “Poet of the Century”
V. Japanese Occupation (1942 - 1960)
A. War Years (1942-1944)
1. Tagalog poets broke away from the Balagtas tradition and instead wrote in simple language
and free verse
2. Fiction prevailed over poetry
a. 25 Pinakamabuting Maikling Kathang Pilipino (1943) – compilation of the short story
contest by the military government: Suyuan sa Tubigan – Macario Pineda; Lupang
Tinubuan – Narciso Reyes; Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa – Liwayway Arceo
B. Period of Maturity and Originality (1945-1960)

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1. Bountiful harvest in poetry, fiction, drama and essay
2. Filipino writers mastered English and familiarized themselves with diverse techniques
3. Literary “giants” appeared
a. Palanca Awards for Literature: Jose Garcia Villa, Nick Joaquin, NVM Gonzales, Bienvenido
Santos, Gregorio Brillantes, Gilda Cordero Fernando, National Artist Awards, Jose Garcia Villa ii.
Nick Joaquin
VI. Contemporary/Modern Period (1960 – PRESENT)

A. Characteristics
1. Martial Law repressed and curtailed human rights, including freedom of the press
2. Writers used symbolisms and allegories to drive home their message, at the face of heavy censorship
3. Theater was used as a vehicle for protest, such as the PETA (Phil. Educational Theater Association)
and UP Theater.
4. From the eighties onwards, writers continue to show dynamism and innovation
Award-Winning Filipino Authors and Their Works

Jose Corazon de Jesus (1896-1932) was popularly known as “Batute”. He created his own generation with his
first book of poems. Mga Gintong Dahon (1920) revealed that a new temper was at work in Tagalog poetry, for
the poems were concerned with non-traditional themes as passion-slaying, grief-induced insanity, and lover’s
suicide.
Jose Garcia Villa (1906-1997) his short stories and poems did much to establish Philippine writing alongside
Tagalog and Spanish literatures. His “Footnote to Youth” (1931) heralded the arrival of a Filipino author steeped
in the Anglo-American literary tradition.
Amado V. Hernandez (1903-1970) wrote two novels that reflected the political and economic troubles of the
1950s. Luha ng Buwaya (1962) depicted the plight of the peasantry and how exploitation by the landlords
taught them to organize in order to fight for their rights.
Lualhati Bautista She is known for novels that were adapted for movies such as "Bata, Bata, Pa'no ka ginawa?"
in 1998 and "Dekada '70" in 2002.
 Ang Hukom - Written in Tagalog, the story revolves around the judge, the assistant and the verdict.
 Seven Short Stories - Compilation of some of the writings of Lualhati Bautista.
N. V. M. Gonzales Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzales was the first recipient of the Commonwealth Literary
Contest in 1940. He received the National Artist Award in 1990.
 The Happiest Boy in the World [From the book Seven Hills Away] - Situated in the island of Mindoro, it
is a short story that talks about provincial life.
Nick Joaquin Also known under his pseudonym "Quijano de Manila," Nick Joaquin is so far the
most distinguished Filipino writer in English Writing. He was awarded as the National Artist for Literature in 1973.
 Culture and History [Excerpt] In the last chapter of this book, Nick Joaquin tries to attest that there is
a Filipino identity.
 BUSINESSWORLD (PHILIPPINES): WEEKENDER: Portrait of Vivian Velez as stage actress
The article features the play, Larawan, and an interview with Vivian Velez
 May Day Eve [Excerpt]
One of the best short narratives that believed to pioneer the literary style called "magic realism".
Bienvenido Lumbera. A critic, librettist and poet, Beny created famous musical plays such as the "Tales of
the Manuvu and Rama Hari" at "Hibik at Himagsik Nina Victoria Laktaw."
 A Eulogy of Roaches The analogous poem depicts the roaches of the general public.
 Agunyas sa Hacienda Luisita A poem that commemorates the massacre of farmers in Tarlac.
 Ang Ating Bagong Panatang Makabayan Pledged by the protestors in 2008, it sardonically
condones corruption.
 Paggunita sa Pamamaslang A poem about the massacre executed by the Ampatuan Family in
2009.
 Toward a National Literature Originally a speech, it was delivered by Lumbera himself to an assembly
of writers.
 Tribute to Alex Remollino A poetry dedicated by Bienvenido Lumbera to his friend.
Alejandro Roces. Anding won the Best Short Story award for "We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers" in the United
States. He received the Rizal Pro Patria, one of the highest recognitions given by the Republic of the Philippines.
As a nationalist, he was known for promoting Ati-atihan, Moriones and Penafrancia Festivals, to name a few.
 I wrote as I wrote Roces bids farewell in this last article published in Philippine Star.
 My Brother's Peculiar Chicken The humorous short tale was featured in Martha Foley's Best American
Stories.

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 We Filipinos are Mild Drinkers A funny short story set during World War II.
Edith Tiempo. She is the only female among the receivers of the National Artist Award in Literature.
 Bonsai A poem, surreally written about love.
 The Black Monkey Though typically short for a short story, the baffling plot and intricate details
contribute well.
References:
 College English for Today, Book I, Revised Edition, Jovita N. Fernando, Pacita L. Habana, and Alicia L. Cinco
 Developmental Reading 1, Alejandro S. Bernardo
 Grammar in Context 3, Sandra N. Elbaum
 Grammar Practice (for Upper Intermediate Studets), New Edition, Elaine Walker and Steve Elseworth
 Introduction to Literature, 4th Edition, Arsenia B. Tan
 Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of Literature, (Springfield, Massachusetts)
 New Webster’s Dictionary and Roget’s Thesaurus, (Book Essentials, Inc., New York,1992),
 Philippine Literature: A History and Anthology, Revised Edition, Bienvenido Lumbera & Cynthia Nograles
Lumbera

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I.

He subscribes to the Congressional Dígest. Some food is difficult to digést.

NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE

they they them their, theirs

Ex: (as subjects) Dan and I bought the used car.

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014) 1

3. Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a definite person or thing.

Plural: both few many several others

Singular or plural: all any most none some

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CASE PRONOUNS USE IN SENTENCE

Ex: Who wrote the Decalogue? (subject)

PRONOUN or ADJECTIVE (modifier)?

AS MAIN VERB AS AUXILIARY VERB

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The simple tenses

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2. Past perfect progressive Continuing action interrupted by another

Continuing future action completed before another.

VOICES of the VERB

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3. Adverbs as intensifiers: they emphasize, amplify or downtone

 An adverb does not require an object while a preposition requires an object

Ex: Joanna and Susanna are twins.

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Ex: Come for a visit whenever you can.

Ex: The roads where partly flooded; nevertheless, we kept on driving.

b. With commas and conjunctions

Faulty parallelism in comparison:

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014) 9

II. THE CLAUSE

III. THE PHRASE

IV. THE PARAGRAPH

 A paragraph is a series of related sentences that represents a unit of thought.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

 In the next, the topic sentence is at the end.

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

V. READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES

VI. VOCABULARY BUILDING

VOCABULARY BUILDING SKILLS

A. Using CONTEXT clues

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

 Greek roots Ex: anthrop - human - anthropology (study of humankind)

 Latin roots Ex: animus - mind, spirit - animate (make lively)

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

TWO LITERARY FORMS

Trochus (trochaic foot, / x) – accented, unaccented

Dactyl (dactylic foot, / x x) – accented, two unaccented

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

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A. NARRATIVE POETRY – tells a story in verse form

EPICS OF THE WORLD

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Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

B. DRAMATIC POETRY – a stage presentation or production in verse form.

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)

B. CHARACTERS – the textual representation of a human being.

Seven Common Character Types

Prepared by: Arlene A. Balleras (rev. June 2014)