In centralized computing all the processing is handled by a central system.

It is more
secure as all the data and processing is handled at single place . But if the central system
is down the whole system crashes.

In distributed computing a problem is divided into many tasks and these task are
completed by different systems connected through each other over the network. It is less
secure than centralized computing as data is distributed across several computers. But
even if one or two computer goes down the entire system does not crash. The other
computers continue their work. So you can upgrade your system without completely
shutting it down.

Definition of: centralized processing

centralized processing

Processing performed in one computer or in a cluster of coupled computers in a single location.

Access to the computer is via "dumb terminals," which send only input and receive output or "smart
terminals," which add screen formatting. All data processing is performed in the central computer.

Centralized processing evolved from the first computers in the 1950s, which were stand-alone with
all input and output devices in the same room. Starting in the 1960s, terminals were added
throughout a company's headquarters and branch offices, and each terminal was wired into the
central machine, whether local or via a remote communications method.

A centralized database (sometimes abbreviated CDB) is a database that is located, stored, and
maintained in a single location. This location is most often a central computer or database system,
for example a desktop or server CPU, or a mainframe computer. [1] In most cases, a centralized
database would be used by an organization (e.g. a business company) or an institution (e.g. a
university.) Users access a centralized database through a computer network which is able to give
them access to the central CPU, which in turn maintains to the database itself.[2]
All of the information stored on the Centralized Database is accessible from a large number of
different points, which in turn creates a significant amount of both advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages[edit]
Centralized databases hold a substantial amount of advantages against other types of databases.
Some of them are listed below:

 Data integrity is maximized and data redundancy is minimised,[6] as the single storing place of all
the data also implies that a given set of data only has one primary record. This aids in the
maintaining of data as accurate and as consistent as possible and enhances data reliability.
 Generally bigger data security, as the single data storage location implies only a one possible
place from which the database can be attacked and sets of data can be stolen or tampered with.
 Better data preservation than other types of databases due to often-included fault-tolerant setup.
 Easier for using by the end-user due to the simplicity of having a single database design.
 Generally easier data portability and database administration.
 More cost effective than other types of database systems as labor, power supply and
maintenance costs are all minimized.
 Data kept in the same location is easier to be changed, re-organized, mirrored, or analyzed.
 All the information can be accessed at the same time from the same location.[7]
 Updates to any given set of data are immediately received by every end-user.

Disadvantages[edit]
Centralized databases also have a certain amount of limitations, such as those described below:

 Centralized databases are highly dependent on network connectivity. The slower the internet
connection is, the longer the database access time needed will be.
 Bottlenecks can occur as a result of high traffic.
 Limited access by more than one person to the same set of data as there is only one copy of it
and it is maintained in a single location.[8] This can lead to major decreases in the general
efficiency of the system.
 If there is no fault-tolerant setup and hardware failure occurs, all the data within the database will
be lost.
 Since there is minimal to no data redundancy, if a set of data is unexpectedly lost it is very hard
to retrieve it back, in most cases it would have to be done manually.

Centralised databases vs. Distributed databases[edit]

The underlying idea of centralised databases is that they should be able to receive, maintain, and
complete every single request that the main system must perform by themselves. There is only one
database file, kept at a single location on a given network.
A distributed database, however, is a database in which all the information is stored on multiple
physical locations.[9] Distributed databases are divided into two
groups: homogeneous and heterogeneous. It relies on replication and duplication within its multiple
sub-databases in order to maintain its records up to date. It is composed of multiple database files,
all controlled by a central DBMS.
The main differences between centralised and distributed databases arise due to their respective
basic characteristics. Differences include but are not limited to:

 Centralized databases store data on a single CPU bound to a single certain

physical/geographical location. Distributed databases, however, rely on a central DBMS which
manages all its different storage devices remotely, as it is not necessary for them to be kept in
the same physical and/or geographical location.
 As outlined above, centralised databases are easier to maintain up to date than distributed
databases. This is so because distributed databases require additional (often manual) work to
keep the data stored relevant, and to avoid data redundancy, as well as to improve the overall
performance.[10]
 If data is lost in a centralised system, retrieving it would be much harder. If, however, data is lost
in a distributed system, retrieving it would be very easy, because there is always a copy of the
data in a different location of the database.
 Designing a centralised database is generally much less complex than designing a distributed
database, as distributed database systems are based on a hierarchical structure.

Distributed data processing is a computer-networking method in which multiple computers across

different locations share computer-processing capability. This is in contrast to a single, centralized
server managing and providing processing capability to all connected systems. Computers that
comprise the distributed data-processing network are located at different locations but
interconnected by means of wireless or satellite links.
Arrangement of networked computers in which data processing capabilities are spread across the
network. In DDP, specific jobs are performed by specialized computers which may be far removed
from the user and/or from other such computers. This arrangement is in contrast to 'centralized'
computing in which several client computers share the same server (usually a mini or mainframe
computer) or a cluster of servers. DDP provides greater scalability, but also requires more network
administration resources.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/distributed-data-processing-DDP.html

A distributed database is a database in which storage devices are not all attached to a
common processor.[1] It may be stored in multiple computers, located in the same physical location;
or may be dispersed over a network of interconnected computers. Unlike parallel systems, in which
the processors are tightly coupled and constitute a single database system, a distributed database
system consists of loosely coupled sites that share no physical components.
System administrators can distribute collections of data (e.g. in a database) across multiple physical
locations. A distributed database can reside on organized network servers or decentralized
independent computers on the Internet, on corporate intranets or extranets, or on other
organization networks. Because distributed databases store data across multiple computers,
distributed databases may improve performance at end-user worksites by allowing transactions to
be processed on many machines, instead of being limited to one.[2]
Two processes ensure that the distributed databases remain up-to-date and
current: replication and duplication.

1. Replication involves using specialized software that looks for changes in the distributive
database. Once the changes have been identified, the replication process makes all the
databases look the same. The replication process can be complex and time-consuming
depending on the size and number of the distributed databases. This process can also
require a lot of time and computer resources.
2. Duplication, on the other hand, has less complexity. It basically identifies one database as
a master and then duplicates that database. The duplication process is normally done at a
set time after hours. This is to ensure that each distributed location has the same data. In
the duplication process, users may change only the master database. This ensures that
local data will not be overwritten.

The systems development life cycle (SDLC), also referred to as the application development
life-cycle, is a term used in systems engineering, information systems and software engineering to
describe a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system.[1] The
systems development lifecycle concept applies to a range of hardware and software configurations,
as a system can be composed of hardware only, software only, or a combination of both.[2]

System is a broad and a general term, and as per to Wikipedia; “A system is a set of interacting
or interdependent components forming an integrated whole” it’s a term that can be used in
different industries, therefore Software Development Life Cycle is a limited term that explains
the phases of creating a software component that integrates with other software components to
create the whole system.
 Below we’ll take a general look on System Development Life Cycle phases, bearing in
mind that each system is different from the other in terms of complexity, required
components and expected solutions and functionalities:

System Development Life Cycle Phases:

1- System Planning
The Planning phase is the most crucial step in creating a successful system, during this
phase you decide exactly what you want to do and the problems you’re trying to solve,
by:

 Defining the problems, the objectives and the resources such as personnel and costs.
 Studying the ability of proposing alternative solutions after meeting with clients, suppliers,
consultants and employees.

 Studying how to make your product better than your competitors’.

After analyzing this data you will have three choices: develop a new system, improve the
current system or leave the system as it is.

2- System Analysis
The end-user’s requirements should be determined and documented, what their
expectations are for the system, and how it will perform. A feasibility study will be made
for the project as well, involving determining whether it’s organizationally, economically,
socially, technologically feasible. it’s very important to maintain strong communication
level with the clients to make sure you have a clear vision of the finished product and its
function.

3- System Design
The design phase comes after a good understanding of customer’s requirements, this
phase defines the elements of a system, the components, the security level, modules,
architecture and the different interfaces and type of data that goes through the system.

A general system design can be done with a pen and a piece of paper to determine how
the system will look like and how it will function, and then a detailed and expanded
system design is produced, and it will meet all functional and technical requirements,
logically and physically.

4- Implementation and Deployment

This phase comes after a complete understanding of system requirements and
specifications, it’s the actual construction process after having a complete and illustrated
design for the requested system.

In the Software Development Life Cycle, the actual code is written here, and if the
system contains hardware, then the implementation phase will contain configuration
and fine-tuning for the hardware to meet certain requirements and functions.
In this phase, the system is ready to be deployed and installed in customer’s premises,
ready to become running, live and productive, training may be required for end users to
make sure they know how to use the system and to get familiar with it, the
implementation phase may take a long time and that depends on the complexity of the
system and the solution it presents.

5- System Testing and Integration

Bringing different components and subsystems together to create the whole integrated
system, and then Introducing the system to different inputs to obtain and analyze its
outputs and behavior and the way it functions. Testing is becoming more and more
important to ensure customer’s satisfaction, and it requires no knowledge in coding,
hardware configuration or design.

Testing can be performed by real users, or by a team of specialized personnel, it can

also be systematic and automated to ensure that the actual outcomes are compared
and equal to the predicted and desired outcomes.

6- System Maintenance
In this phase, periodic maintenance for the system will be carried out to make sure that
the system won’t become obsolete, this will include replacing the old hardware and
continuously evaluating system’s performance, it also includes providing latest updates
for certain components to make sure it meets the right standards and the latest
technologies to face current security threats.

What is system maintenance? What are its different types

BY DINESH THAKUR Category: Implementation and Evaluation

The results obtained from the evaluation process help the organization to determine
whether its information systems are effective and efficient or otherwise. The process of
monitoring, evaluating, and modifying of existing information systems to make required
or desirable improvements may be termed as System Maintenance.
System maintenance is an ongoing activity, which covers a wide variety of activities,
including removing program and design errors, updating documentation and test data
and updating user support. For the purpose of convenience, maintenance may be
categorized into three classes, namely:
i) Corrective Maintenance: This type of maintenance implies removing errors in a
program, which might have crept in the system due to faulty design or wrong
assumptions. Thus, in corrective maintenance, processing or performance failures are
repaired.
ii) Adaptive Maintenance: In adaptive maintenance, program functions are changed to
enable the information system to satisfy the information needs of the user. This type of
maintenance may become necessary because of organizational changes which may
include:
a) Change in the organizational procedures,
b) Change in organizational objectives, goals, policies, etc.
c) Change in forms,
d) Change in information needs of managers.
e) Change in system controls and security needs, etc.
iii)Perfective Maintenance: Perfective maintenance means adding new programs or
modifying the existing programs to enhance the performance of the information system.
This type of maintenance undertaken to respond to user’s additional needs which may
be due to the changes within or outside of the organization. Outside changes are
primarily environmental changes, which may in the absence of system maintenance,
render the information system ineffective and inefficient. These environmental changes
include:
a) Changes in governmental policies, laws, etc.,
b) Economic and competitive conditions, and
c) New technology.

Database administrator

Occupation

Names Database administrator, database analyst

Activity Information technology, information systems

sectors

Description

Competencies Databases design and

implementation, programmingskills, database

theory, networking basics, analytical

skills, critical thinking

Education At least a certificate with experience.

required

Database administrators (DBAs) use specialized software to store and organize data.[1]
 The role may include capacity planning, installation, configuration, database design, migration,
performance monitoring, security, troubleshooting, as well as backup and data recovery.[2]

Contents
[hide]

 1Skills
o 1.1Certification
 2Duties
 3See also
 4References
 5External links

Skills[edit]
List of skills required to become database administrators are:[3][4][5]

 Communication skills
 Knowledge of database Queries
 Knowledge of database theory
 Knowledge of database design
 Knowledge about the RDBMS itself, e.g. Microsoft SQL Server or MySQL
 Knowledge of structured query language (SQL), e.g. SQL/PSM or Transact-SQL
 General understanding of distributed computing architectures, e.g. Client–server model
 General understanding of operating system, e.g. Windows or Linux
 General understanding of storage technologies and networking
 General understanding of routine maintenance, recovery, and handling failover of a database
Database administrators benefit from a bachelor's degree or master's degree in computer science.
An associate degree or a certificate may be sufficient with work experience.[6]

Certification[edit]
There are many certifications available for becoming a certified database administrator. Many of
these certifications are offered by database vendors themselves. Database administrator
certitifications may be earned by passing a series of tests and sometimes other requirements.
Schools offering Database Administration degrees can also be found.[7]
For example:

 IBM Certified Advanced Database Administrator - DB2 10.1 for Linux, Unix and Windows[8]
 IBM Certified Database Administrator - DB2 10.1 for Linux, Unix, and Windows[8]
 Oracle Database 12c Administrator Certified Professional[9]
 Oracle MySQL 5.6 Database Administrator Certified Professional[10]
 MCSA SQL Server 2012[11]
 MCSE Data Platform Solutions Expert [12]

Duties[edit]
A database administrator's responsibilities can include the following tasks:[13]
 Installing and upgrading the database server and application tools
 Allocating system storage and planning storage requirements for the database system
 Modifying the database structure, as necessary, from information given by application
developers
 Enrolling users and maintaining system security
 Ensuring compliance with database vendor license agreement
 Controlling and monitoring user access to the database
 Monitoring and optimizing the performance of the database
 Planning for backup and recovery of database information
 Maintaining archived data
 Backing up and restoring databases
 Contacting database vendor for technical support
 Generating various reports by querying from database as per need
 Managing and monitoring data replication
 Acting as liaison with users

What is a Database Administrator?

Database administrators – DBAs, for short – set up databases according to a
company's needs and make sure they operate efficiently. They will also fine-tune,
upgrade and test modifications to the databases as needed.

With information so readily available in this era of apps, tablets and social media, data
has become the new treasure organizations must protect and cherish. More than
anyone else, database administrators are relied on as the guardians of this treasure,
implementing security measures to ensure sensitive data doesn't fall into the hands of
unruly pirates while also managing the databases that help store and organize it.

The job involves resolving complex issues, so attention to detail is an essential trait in
this profession, as is a passion for problem-solving. Communication skills are also
important since DBAs often work as part of a team with computer programmers and
managers. Ongoing maintenance of a database requires being on call. These
professionals are employed in a wide range of settings in the public and private sectors,
and some DBAs work as consultants to organizations.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects 11 percent employment growth for database
administrators by 2026, which means that 13,700 new jobs will need to be filled by then.

IT outsourcing
By Vangie Beal

IT outsourcing is a phrase used to describe the practice of seeking resources -- or subcontracting -- outside of an
organizational structure for all or part of an IT (Information Technology) function. An organization would use IT
outsourcing for functions ranging from infrastructure to software development, maintenance and support. For

example, an enterprise might outsource its IT management because it is cheaper to contract a third party to do so

than it would be to build its own in-house IT management team. Or a company might outsource all of its data

storage needs because it does not want to buy and maintain its own data storage devices. Most large organizations

only outsource a portion of any given IT function.

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is the integrated management of core business processes,
often in real-time and mediated by software and technology.
ERP is usually referred to as a category of business-management software — typically a suite of
integrated applications—that an organization can use to collect, store, manage, and interpret data
from these many business activities.
ERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using
common databases maintained by a database management system. ERP systems track business
resources—cash, raw materials, production capacity—and the status of business commitments:
orders, purchase orders, and payroll. The applications that make up the system share data across
various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, accounting, etc.) that provide the
data.[1] ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to
outside stakeholders.[2]
Enterprise system software is a multibillion-dollar industry that produces components supporting a
variety of business functions. IT investments have become the largest category of capital
expenditure in United States-based businesses over the past[which?]decade. Though early ERP
systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.[3]
The ERP system integrates varied organizational systems and facilitates error-free transactions and
production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency. However, developing an ERP system
differs from traditional system development.[4] ERP systems run on a variety of computer
hardware and network configurations, typically using a database as an information repository.[5]