FESTO - Mechatronics Training Material

Learning System for Automation and Communication
Mechatronics
Training material
094 536
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The Festo Didactic learning system has been designed and developed
exclusively for vocational and ongoing training situations in the fields of
automation and communication. The training institution and / or the
instructor must ensure that trainees comply with the safety precautions
described in this workbook.
Festo Didactic hereby excludes any liability for damage or injury which
might occur to the trainee, the training institution and / or any third party
while using / applying the system outside a purely pedagogical situation,
unless Festo Didactic has caused the damage or injury intentionally or
through gross negligence.
Order no.: 094 536

Description: TEACHWARE MPS
Designation: D:MP-C-MECH-1-GB
Edition: 02/2000
Layout: B. Huber
Graphics: D. Schwarzenberger
Author: F. Ebel, E. von Terzi ... et al.
© Copyright by Festo Didactic GmbH & Co., D-73770 Denkendorf 2000

Passing on or copying this document and using or disseminating its
contents are forbidden unless explicitly authorised. Damages shall be
due in the event of any infringement. All rights reserved, particularly the
right to registered patents, utility models or design patents.
Parts of this workbook may be photocopied by the authorised user for
teaching purposes only.
3
Table of contents
Part A – General information
1 Project planning.....................................................................A-1
2 Material flow...........................................................................A-9
2.1 General..................................................................................A-10
2.1.1 Definition of terms..................................................................A-10
2.1.2 Analysis of material flow ........................................................A-12
2.2 Handling ................................................................................A-19
3 Planning of automated systems .........................................A-23

3.1 The logic diagram ..................................................................A-25
3.1.1 Basic logic functions ..............................................................A-25
3.1.2 Further logic operations .........................................................A-30
3.1.3 Establishing switching functions.............................................A-32
3.1.4 Simplification of logic functions ..............................................A-35
3.1.5 Karnaugh-Veitch diagram ......................................................A-37
3.2 Function diagrams of machines
and production lines...............................................................A-40
3.2.1 Representation of motions .....................................................A-41
3.2.2 Representation of signal elements, their lines of
application, branches and logical associations.......................A-43
3.2.3 The function diagram .............................................................A-45
3.3 The function chart ..................................................................A-48
Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

4
3.4 The Petri net ..........................................................................A-55

3.4.1 The basic concept of Petri nets ..............................................A-55
3.4.2 Elements of Petri nets ............................................................A-56
3.4.3 Example .................................................................................A-57
3.4.4 Characteristics of Petri nets ...................................................A-58
3.5 Communication analysis ........................................................A-64
4 Commissioning of complex
automated systems..............................................................A-71
4.1 Testing and performing the fine adjustment
of the pneumatic/mechanical or
hydraulic/mechanical drives ...................................................A-73
4.2 Checking the electrical connection between the
sensors and the PLC and calibrating as required...................A-74
4.3 Testing the emergency-off function........................................A-74
4.4 Forcing the PLC outputs and checking the
connection between the output card and
electrical drives or solenoid valves and performing
any required fine adjustment..................................................A-75
4.5 Loading the program..............................................................A-76
4.6 Testing all program functions and
operating modes ....................................................................A-76
4.7 Complete parameterisation ....................................................A-77
4.8 Documentation.......................................................................A-78
5 Maintenance .........................................................................A-79
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................A-80
5.2 What is meant by maintenance..............................................A-80
5.3 Service...................................................................................A-82
5.4 Inspection ..............................................................................A-83
5.5 Repairs ..................................................................................A-84
5.6 Fault documentation...............................................................A-86
5.7 Possible fault influence analysis (PFIA) .................................A-87
Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

5
6 Faultfinding ..........................................................................A-93
6.1 Systematic repairs in the event of malfunction .......................A-94
6.1.1 Prerequisite for systematic repairs.........................................A-94
6.1.2 Procedure ..............................................................................A-96
6.2 Faultfinding ............................................................................A-97
6.2.1 Systematic faultfinding ...........................................................A-98
6.2.2 Fault documentation ..............................................................A-99
6.2.3 Fault analysis....................................................................... A-101
6.3 Safety while faultfinding ....................................................... A-102
6.3.1 Recommissioning and powering up the system ................... A-103
6.3.2 Faultfinding in systems with the power
switched on.......................................................................... A-104
Part B – Theoretical basics
1 Safety recommendations ......................................................B-1

1.1 General safety recommendations ............................................B-2
1.2 Safety recommendations for electro-hydraulic
and electro-pneumatic systems ...............................................B-3
1.3 Safety recommendations for electrical systems .......................B-4
2 Fundamentals of electrical engineering.............................B-11

2.1 Direct current and alternating current.....................................B-12
2.2 DC circuit ...............................................................................B-13
2.3 Electro-magnetism.................................................................B-17
2.4 Capacitance...........................................................................B-19
2.5 Measurements in a circuit ......................................................B-20

6
3 Electrical components........................................................ B-23

3.1 Power supply unit...................................................................B-24
3.2 Electrical input elements ........................................................B-25
3.3 Sensors..................................................................................B-27
3.4 Relays and contactors............................................................B-35
3.5 Solenoids in electro-hydraulics...............................................B-39
3.6 Control cabinet.......................................................................B-45
3.7 Voltage supply of an electro-hydraulic system .......................B-49
4 Solenoid-operated directional control valves

in pneumatic systems......................................................... B-51
4.1 Overview ................................................................................B-52
4.2 Design principles....................................................................B-52
4.3 Actuation types ......................................................................B-55
4.4 Conversion of electrical to pneumatic signals.........................B-57
4.5 3/2-way solenoid valve, normally-closed position ...................B-59
4.6 3/2-way solenoid valve, normally-open position......................B-61
4.7 Solenoid valves with pilot control............................................B-62
4.8 Baseplate valves ....................................................................B-64
4.8.1 3/2-way solenoid valve with pilot control.................................B-65
4.8.3 5/2-way double solenoid valve with pilot control .....................B-67
5 Measuring instruments....................................................... B-71

5.1 Mechanical measuring instruments with
analog displays .....................................................................B-73
5.2 Electronic measuring instruments with
digital displays........................................................................B-80

7
6 PLC in automation technology ...........................................B-83

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................B-84
6.2 Areas of application of a PLC.................................................B-85
6.3 Basic design of a PLC............................................................B-89
6.4 The new PLC standard IEC 1131...........................................B-92
7 Design and mode of operation of a PLC ............................B-95

7.1 Structure of a PLC .................................................................B-96
7.2 Central control unit of a PLC ..................................................B-98
7.3 Function mode of a PLC ...................................................... B-101
7.4 Application program memory ............................................... B-103
7.5 Input module ........................................................................ B-105
7.6 Output module ..................................................................... B-107
7.7 Programming device /Personal computer ............................ B-110
8 Communication..................................................................B-113
8.1 The need for communication ............................................... B-114
8.2 Data transmission ................................................................ B-115
8.3 Interfaces............................................................................. B-116
8.4 Communication in the field area........................................... B-117

8
Part C – Exercises and solutions
Overview ........................................................................................... C-1

Exercise 1: Planning and control of work processes,
monitoring and evaluation of results................................................... C-5
Exercise 2: Testing, scoring and labeling – manual and
mechanical cutting, cutting-off and forming – joining ....................... C-11
Exercise 3: Installation of electrical modules and components......... C-13
Exercise 4: Measuring and testing electrical variables ..................... C-73
Exercise 5: Setting up and testing of electrical and
pneumatic controllers....................................................................... C-85
Exercise 6: Assembly of modules and components
to machines and systems................................................................C-111
Exercise 7: Checking and setting of functions in mechatronic
systems – maintenance of mechatronic systems ............................C-121
Exercise 8: Commissioning and operation of
mechatronic systems ......................................................................C-155
Part D – Appendix
Various assembly drawings

9
Introduction
Introduction
Mechatronic systems have been around for a long time. If you compare
products from the nineties with products that are twenty or thirty years
old, you will notice a growing interrelationship of software, electronic
signal management and fluid or electro-mechanical drives. Often
enough these three types of technology are combined or closely linked
within the same product.
You can find examples of this interrelationship in industry as well as in
household technology. Fully automatic washing machines, radio-
controlled garage doors, power tools with automatic speed regulation,
valve terminals, positioning units, intelligent microdrives – the list could
be continued indefinitely.
The mechatronic concept is even more obvious when applied to plant
engineering. Processes performed on assembly facilities, machine tools
or in materials processing are now controlled almost exclusively by
freely programmable electronic systems.
Nowadays PLC technology, industrial computers and CNC controls can
be found on almost every shop floor. Furthermore, communication
technology has also become an integral part of modern production
facilities.
On the one hand, workpiece-related data must to be passed on from
one production or processing stage to the next. On the other, relevant
data from production, logistics and maintenance must be available on
demand. So, no matter if we are talking about inventories, finished
products, customer-specific parameters, machine downtime or rate of
utilisation: the electronic links between production and processing
stages and production planning and control software has become
absolutely essential.

10
Introduction
Overview of our modular offerings

With the Learning System for Automation only a few additional components are required to move
from one technology to another or from one qualification level to the next. Our offering assumes
that – starting with Pneumatics – you will gradually extend your system to cover other control
technologies. This allows you to move from basic training to the training of complex processes
without the need for large-scale investment.

11
Introduction
Designed as programmable logic controllers, the EduTrainers are equipped with a SysLink
universal interface. This makes the PLC – in an ER or A4 frame – a central element of your
process-oriented training area. The EduTrainer enables control and monitoring of all processes –
from simple electro-pneumatic processes to complex virtual processes and industrial
manufacturing processes in the Modular Production System MPS.

12
Introduction

A-1
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Project planning

A-2
Chapter 1
Mechatronics specialists are responsible for the complete service life of

an industrial machine, from the initial planning phase through to its dis-
assembly and disposal. This cycle is illustrated in the chart below. The
individual sections correspond to the fields of activity of the mechatron-
ics specialist:
Fig. 1.1
Special attention must be devoted to the planning and design process

as it forms the basis for all of the following phases. In other words, it
determines the machine down times caused by specific faults, the speed
at which the faults can be found, the degree of difficulty in obtaining re-
placement parts, or the nature of the required optimisation phases.
Many machines and lines are developed to meet customer requirements
and are thus unique.

A-3
Chapter 1
A project is by definition a unique new undertaking, characterised by a Definition of terms:

specific goal, a particular organisational form, or a set of terms pertain- Project
ing to its contents, time frame, or costs. It generally involves a highly
complex sequence of events and the interaction of a variety of activities
performed by persons with a wide range of professional backgrounds,
problem-solving approaches and interests. This complexity places spe-
cial demands on the organisation, planning and management of proj-
ects.
Despite the unique nature of a specific machine, a project for the devel-
opment of a line essentially always involves the same phases:
· development of ideas
· definition of design specifications
· planning and design
· assembly and installation of the machine's pneumatic, hydraulic and
electrical systems
· installation of the switchgear cabinet
· design and realisation of the software
· final assembly
· test operation
· fine tuning and correction
· commissioning
· documentation
It goes without saying that these phases are not necessarily dealt with
consecutively. Generally, they overlap or parallel one another. Graphical
methods are often used to illustrate the overlap or parallel nature of the
individual phases and ensure the success of the project.

A-4
Chapter 1
The Gantt chart Gantt charts use a two-dimensional coordinate system. The horizontal
axis generally represents the time scale and the individual subtasks or
actions are entered along the vertical axis. The length of the bars indi-
cates the projected duration for the performance of the subtasks or ac-
tion. The relative length and position of the bars to one another
illustrates their temporal relationships. Overall, this technique is very
simple and easy to learn. While it lends itself well to the illustration of
'AND' associations and chains, 'OR' associations or reactions cannot be
represented using this technique.
Fig. 1.2

A-5
Chapter 1
As the development process of a machine or line becomes more com- Network analysis
plex, it becomes increasingly difficult to illustrate it using a Gantt chart.
For this reason, network analysis is often used to plan complex projects.
These networks consist of nodes and arrows. Depending on how these
nodes and arrows are defined, we distinguish between
· action arrow networks
· event node networks
· action node networks
The following will be concentrating on the action node network. In this
type, the actions are represented as rectangles. Each of the rectangles
contains exactly 8 items of information:
Action number Table 1.1
Description of action
EST D EET
LST BT LET
EST - earliest start time

LST - latest start time
D - duration of action
BT - buffer time
EET - earliest end time
LET - latest end time
The arrows between the rectangles represent the relationships of the

actions to one another. The actions are defined individually and placed
in the appropriate logical sequence.

A-6
Chapter 1
Fig. 1.3

A-7
Chapter 1
The result is exactly one connection between the start and end points.
The total duration of the project is the sum of the specified durations of
the individual actions. This is known as the critical path, as delays along
this path always result in delays for the project as a whole. A buffer time
is not available along the critical path. The earliest and latest starting
times are thus the same value. Certain buffer times result for the re-
maining connections depending on the specified times. This temporal
view of the project sequence makes it easier for project participants to
set priorities for their work.
The following sections contain information on the various development
phases as they apply to the training program for mechatronics special-
ists. Specifically, it includes:
· planning of complex automated lines
· installation of pneumatic systems
· installation of electrical systems
· vacuum technology
· sensor technology
· PLC technology
· analog signal processing
· technical communication
· commissioning
We did, however, have to consider the overall volume of this binder

while compiling the individual chapters. While the most important infor-
mation can be found in the various sections, we could not go into de-
tailed descriptions of individual issues. For this reason, please look upon
Section B as reference material, rather than a mechatronics training
manual.

A-9
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Material flow

A-10
Chapter 2
2.1 General
2.1.1 Definition of terms

Material flow is the linking of all processes for the acquiring, processing,
machining and distribution of material goods within defined areas.
An important aspect of the definition of the term is its limitation to mate-
rial goods, therefore excluding the transport of energy or of information.
However, material goods are not restricted solely to materials forming
part of the production process, i.e. raw material, semi-finished and fin-
ished products, but also other materials such as, for instance, waste,
pallets and packaging.
Roughly speaking – differentiation is made in material flow between
handling, conveying and transporting.
Handling Handling refers to all motion sequences used for the starting or ending
of production processes and also of transporting and storage. This in-
cludes, for instance, the insertion of a workpiece in a workpiece retainer
or the stacking of workpieces at a storage place. Handling therefore
includes all material flow processes taking place at a workstation.
Conveying Conveying is the movement in horizontal or vertical direction via limited
distances and is therefore generally restricted to in-plant processes.
Examples are: The supply of screws by means of a vibratory bowl
feeder and the transporting of vehicle bodies by means of overhead
conveyors.
Continuous conveyor These examples immediately highlight an important difference: in the
first example, a continuous conveyor is used. Continuous conveyors
operate continuously (at least over an extended time period).

A-11
Chapter 2
The second example involves an intermittent-flow conveyor. Each cabin Intermittent-flow

of the overhead conveyor has its own timetable, to which it operates, conveyor
with alternating travel operation, empty running and stops.
Steady-flow conveyors are generally more economical to operate than
intermittent-flow conveyors. Being of identical dead weight, these have
greater conveyor capacity whilst requiring less drive power. This is partly
due to the continuous operating mode, thereby eliminating the continu-
ous starting and decelerating of the drive, handling equipment and ma-
terial to be conveyed.
On the other hand, intermittent-flow conveyors are frequently more
flexible in application. As shown by the example, these are predomi-
nantly used for heavy individual loads.
Conveyors often have yet a secondary function resulting from the
dwelltime of the material being conveyed. For example, in the case of a
refrigerated conveyor, parts cool down to a point where they reach the
temperature required for further processing. Conveyors are also used as
buffers in order to harmonise the working cycle of several processing
stations.
The term ’transporting’ describes the movement of goods across larger, Transporting
generally horizontal distances. Transporting takes place on roads rail
and more rarely on waterways. As such, transport mainly involves exter-
nal, non-operational movement. Owing to its nature, transport is inter-
mittent, since the use of vehicles is necessary for transporting.
Differentiation is made between material to be conveyed in so far as this Material
has a significant effect on the method of conveying or transport. to be conveyed
Bulk material constitutes a load consisting of a large number of small Bulk materials
items, e.g. screws, rivets, and also plastics granular material or sand.
Bulk materials always require an enclosing container although, occa-
sionally, it is possible to convey these in pipelines, similar to fluids.
Fluid materials are generally transported in silo containers. However, to Fluid materials
meet internal conveying requirements, pipelines are used.
Packaged goods are unit loads which can be established according to Packaged goods
the number of items e.g. machine parts. Bulk materials may also be
treated as packaged goods, if these are packed in boxes or sacks.

A-12
Chapter 2
2.1.2 Analysis of material flow

The terms handling, conveying and transporting are contrasted by the
grading into different stages of material flow.
Material flow – stage 1 The first stage of material flow includes transport between the factory
and its suppliers or customers. This stage of material flow involves loca-
tional planning, which does not form part of MPS training and is there-
fore not discussed here.
Material flow – stage 2 The second stage of material flow includes movement within the factory
site between the various sectors of the operation, e.g. factory buildings.
Factory planning again takes into account material flow and evolves an
appropriate building plan. Again, this stage of material flow will not be
dealt with at this point.
Material flow – stage 3 The third stage of material flow includes the movement between the
individual departments of an operational area and, within the depart-
ments, the movements between the various workstations, machine
groups and storage areas, etc. This stage can be dealt with as part of
MPS.
Material flow – stage 4 The fourth stage of material flow involves movement on the workstation
itself. This stage deals primarily with handling equipment for the auto-
mation of material flow on the workstation. This represents a major as-
pect of MPS.
Qualitative assess- In order to determine the optimum layout of equipment and the respec-
ment of materials flow tive handling equipment involved, plus the possibly required storage and
buffer stores, it is necessary to establish the material flow. The first step
towards this involves the structure of the material flow. When designing
a project, the following questions should be answered for every product:
§ What equipment is connected with what other equipment?
§ In what order is the equipment started?
The answers to these questions provide a graph for each product as
shown in the following example:

A-13
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.1:
Graphic representation of
material flow for one prod-
uct
In practice, a production facility will not just produce one product, but a
multitude of products which, however, will run through the same equip-
ment. In this case, the following representation arranged according to
equipment is indicated:
Fig. 2.2:
Material flow sorted ac-
cording to equipment for
two products and one mod-
ule.
Left as per sequence, right
taking into consideration the
location of the equipment

A-14
Chapter 2
Quantitative assess- Although a graphic representation of material flow gives some idea
ment of material flow about the paths of material flow, it does not give any indication of the
incidence of transport. Only when the number of goods to be conveyed
within a specific unit of time is known, plus the required means convey-
ance and additional information about weight and dimensions, is it pos-
sible to optimise material flow.
Direct recording of Direct recording of material flow takes place during the production proc-
material flow ess, in that employees keep a list at the individual stations. Because of
the interruption of the normal production process as a result of this ac-
tivity, direct recording of material flow should be avoided.
Indirect recording of Indirect recording of material flow is the result of the product spectrum
material flow of the production operation and the actual number of items over a rep-
resentative period of time (e.g. a production week).
The component parts and modules are determined on the basis of parts
lists of each product and their overall number extrapolated within the
time period considered. The schedules of job operations produce the
structure of the materials flow and this then permits the numerical cal-
culation of the material flow between the equipment.
With indirect recording of material flow, care must be taken to ensure
that information is not recorded directly in a period of seasonal high or
low values. Particular care is also indicated during production of highly
seasonal products, such as Christmas goods.
ABC analysis In production operations which have a very large product spectrum, it
will not be possible to record all products. A better method, other than
statistical is to take into account particularly "important" products. This
can be determined by means of ABC analysis, which is an economics
procedure.
Products are sorted according to a criteria, e.g. according to profit
achieved. Products with the highest profits are listed on the left and
those with the lowest on the right. This scale of product order is repre-
sented graphically, in that the profit of each article is added to the profit
calculated thus far. If the same profit applies for each product, this will
result in a straight line.
However, in practice, the line is characteristically curved, which indicates
that, for instance, with 20% of products. 80% of profit is already being
achieved. This 20% of products represents the "important" ones and
must be taken into account particularly when planning the material flow.

A-15
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.3:
Selection of representative
products by means of ABC
analysis
Once the extent of material flow has been established on all conveying
distances, the structural representation can be entered, in that either the
numbers are entered on the connection line or the lines drawn in corre-
sponding width or number.
For quantitative material flow, a matrix form is also frequently used. A Matrix representation
material flow matrix is a square arrangement of cells. The equipment is
entered on the lefthand side and upper edge. For the sake of simplicity,
the numbers 1 to 6 are used in this example.
The lines (legend left) mean the starting point, the columns (legend top),
the destination points of the conveying distance. The incidence of trans-
port is entered in the cells. We shall use the following example, which
has already been used in the structural representation:
Conveying distance of section A: 1®3®5®6 100 pieces
Conveying distance of section B: 1 ® 4 ® 2 ® 4 ® 6 50 pieces
Conveying distance of section C: 1®2®3®4 150 pieces

A-16
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.4: to 1 2 3 4 5 6
Material flow matrix
from
1 A: 100
B: 50
C:150
2
B: 50
C: 150
3 A: 100
C: 50
4
B: 50 B: 50
5 A: 100
The conveying of 100 parts A from operational equipment 1 to opera-

tional equipment 3, for instance, is entered in the third column of the first
line. Please note that the outward and return travel between two lots of
operational equipment such as in section B, are to be entered in differ-
ent halves of the matrix.
Where identical parts are involved, the number of parts on an identical
distance may be combined in order to establish the overall incidence. In
the case of conveyors, capable of outward and return conveying, e.g.
overhead conveyors, a differentiation between the outward and return
distance is immaterial; since the greater of the two transport require-
ments are used.

A-17
Chapter 2
During the operational implementation, an ’ideal’ plan should first be Operational

drawn up, starting from the premises of minimum transport requirement implementation
and therefore minimal material flow costs. Taking into account the given
parameters (such as already existing buildings, equipment, site condi-
tions, etc.), this will form the basis for the ’real’ plan.
Proceeding along the lines of the intuitive process first of all, a quantita- Intuitive process
tive material flow plan is drawn up. In contrast with fig. 1.3, fig. 1.6 indi-
cates the extent of material flow by means of the number of lines. The
operational equipment is then arranged in such a way as that as few
connections as possible cross and to keep connections with a large
number of lines are as short as possible.
Fig. 2.5:
Optimisation of material
flow according to intuitive
process (left: initial situa-
tion, right: result).
The equipment is then entered in the factory building plans taking into
account their size and the space available.
In the triangular method, the building plan is covered with a triangulation Triangular method
system. Each node is a possible location for equipment.
The material flow matrix is used in triangular form (i.e. the total of out-
ward and return travel is entered in a matrix element. The matrix ele-
ment with the highest number determines the two devices with the most
intensive exchange of material. These are placed at two neighbouring
nodes. For all remaining equipment, the total of the matrix elements in
relation to the two already placed devices is calculated. The one with the
highest total is positioned directly near the first two, thus completing a
triangle. This same procedure is followed until all the equipment has
been placed.

A-18
Chapter 2
If this procedure does not provide a conclusive outcome, the calculation

can be narrowed down, where i is the total of products from the extent of
material flow mij and the distance sij to all previously placed equipment j
(and not just the neighbouring equipment) is calculated:
i
t i = å sij × mij
j =1
Numerical method In the case of more complex installations, computer-aided optimisation

material flow is indicated. Although it is possible to achieve precise cal-
culations, the amount of calculation nevertheless increases enormously
with the number of equipment used. This is why approximation methods
are used in practice.
With the interchanging method, you start with a random distribution of
equipment. Pairs of equipment are then interchanged up until the entire
material flow incidence can no longer be significantly reduced. If used
constructively, one operational device after another is placed, assuming
the most optimum position in relation to the equipment already placed.

A-19
Chapter 2
2.2 Handling
According to VDI guideline 2860, handling is a subsection of material Terminology

flow and has been defined as follows:
"Handling" is the creation, defined changing or temporary maintaining of
a specified spatial configuration of geometrically defined bodies within a
reference coordinate system. Additional conditions – such as, for in-
stance, time, quantity and motion path – may be specified."
The definition does not lay down any stipulations regarding the execu-
tion of handling – be it manual or mechanical. However, the following is
intended to examine the automation of handling, whereby mechanical
handling will be in the foreground of discussion. Differentiation between
handling devices is made according to whether these are fixed- pro-
grammed or freely programmed.
In the case of fixed-programmed handling devices, the motion if the de- Fixed-programmed
vice is defined structurally and can only be changed with a certain handling devices
amount of inconvenience. This has, for instance, been defined by
means of the stroke movement of pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, by
cam discs or limit switches of electromotive drives. Fixed-programmed
handling devices are used as pick-and-place robots in single-purpose
systems in large volume and mass production.
Fig. 2.6:
Typical motion sequence of
pick-and-place robot

A-20
Chapter 2
Pick-and-place robots use simple kinematics. In order to approach any

given point within a space, three options of movement are always re-
quired:
§ three translatory movements (straight linear displacement),
§ two translatory and one rotational movement,
§ one translatory and two rotational movements
§ or three rotational movements.
The options of movement (even if a translatory movement is involved),
are known as axes. In practice, pick-and-place robots are frequently
able to operate with less than three axes, if these are installed in such a
way that the starting point and terminal point of the required movement
is on a path with one or two axes. Fig. 2.6 illustrates a typical motion
sequence using two axes, i.e. a translatory and a rotational axis.
Path optimisation To keep the period of the pick-and-place process as short as possible,
the path is optimised. Fig. 2.7, for instance, suggests that there is no
need for the empty gripper to be lifted as during the return movement as
during the go movement. The vertical movement has three terminal
points. With a pneumatic or hydraulic drive, this can be realised by
means of series connected cylinders. With an electrical drive, limit
switches are positioned at the appropriate positions, whereby a middle
switch needs to be traversed.
With an electrical drive via cam discs or with a controllable motor (e.g.
stepper motor), the path can be precisely predetermined. In such cases,
the execution of the partial movements can be overlapping. The dis-
placement-time diagram (see fig. 2.7) clearly illustrates the time saving
between sequential and overlapping control.

A-21
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.7:
Overlapping control of mo-
tion from fig. 2.6, plus dis-
placement-time diagram
Similarly, the control of a pick-and-place device is generally simple. Ba- Pick-and-place

sic logic operations, e.g. on electrical or pneumatic basis, are adequate robot controllers
for the realisation of such simple sequence controls. However, the de-
velopment of electromotive drive technology and the availability of small
controllers is gradually reducing the need for fixed programmed solu-
tions.
Handling devices must be equipped with grippers, capable of gripping, Grippers
moving and releasing the workpiece. Grippers either establish a fric-
tionlocking or interlocking connection to the part. With the exception of
the handling of standard parts – interlocking grippers are always special
solutions.
Mechanical grippers are mainly driven pneumatically. With smaller Mechanical grippers
loads, frictional locking is effected by means of spring force. The pneu-
matic drive opens the gripper and releases the workpiece. This ensures
that in the event of failure of the controller or compressed air supply, the
part will not be dropped.
Pincer grippers have two swiveling fingers, which are fairly versatile in
application. By contrast, parallel grippers have two parallel moving fin-
gers.
Vacuum grippers hold the workpiece by means of vacuum in one or Vacuum grippers
several suction cups. A workpiece must have smooth surfaces for the
use of vacuum grippers. A vacuum pump is required for the supply of
vacuum grippers.

A-22
Chapter 2
Electromagnetic Magnetic grippers are used to grip soft-magnetic workpieces with the
grippers help of electromagnets. Critical is the permanent magnetisation, which
cannot be entirely eliminated even in the case of soft-magnetic work-
pieces. In order to release a workpiece safely, magnetic grippers must
be briefly pressurised with a short pulse in reverse polarity or AC volt-
age.
Modular system When examining simple handling tasks, it is possible to detect a basic
similarity time and again. The obvious answer is therefore for industry to
offer modular systems. Individual modules are available in various sizes
and of different functionality whereby it is possible, for instance, to use
arms of different length or to chose between a vacuum and pincer grip-
per.
Freely programmable Freely programmable handing devices differ from fixed-programmed
handling devices handling devices as far as two characteristics are concerned:
§ The control of the axes permits not only the approaching of a few
end positions, but also a targeted approach of any number of inter-
mediate positions, whereby any point within the range of the han-
dling device can be reached.
§ The motion sequence is not hard-wired, but stored in the main
memory of the control computer. In this way, the motion sequence
can be changed without mechanical intervention. In flexible produc-
tion cells or transfer lines, where different workpieces need to be
handled by identical handling devices, it is even possible to switch
the control computer between several prepared motion sequences.
Industrial robots Freely programmable handling devices with a greater number of axes
(depending on delimitation, five or six) are known as industrial robots.
Similar to pick-and-place robots, industrial robots require three axes to
transport a workpiece to a given point, the so-called main axes or arm
axes. However, a further three axes are required in order to swivel the
workpiece in the required direction, i.e. the hand joint axes. In practice,
hand joint axes are always rotational axes. Robots are categorised into
types, depending on how the main axes are divided into translatory and
rotational movements.

A-23
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Planning of automated systems

A-24
Chapter 3
When examining the planning phase of automated systems, several

individual processes become apparent. The sum total of these proc-
esses provides an overall impression of the machine or system to be
realised. Specifically, these processes are:
· the definition of the process-related, environmental and safety re-
quirements (design specifications)
· the planning and design of the mechanical components
· the planning of the automation sequence and development of the
control concept
· the planning and design of the electrical components.
The primary focus of the mechatronics specialist's attention is the plan-

ning of the automation sequence and development of the control con-
cept. Of course, it is feasible for the mechatronics specialist to be
involved in the other planning phases as well. Generally speaking, how-
ever, these tasks are handled by other departments and will not be cov-
ered in detail here.
A wide variety of methods and tools have been developed in recent
years for the planning of automation sequences, such as data flow dia-
grams, operation sequence charts and block text. Each of these meth-
ods has its own merits. Individual users also tend to develop their own
personal preferences in time, so a discussion about whether any of
these methods is clearly superior is pointless. In practice, a number of
methods are applied quite frequently. These include:
· DIN-compliant logic diagrams
· function diagrams
· function charts as per IEC 848 or DIN 40719 Part 6
· Petri nets
· communication analyses
These five methods will be introduced below and described in detail us-
ing practical examples.

A-25
Chapter 3
3.1 The logic diagram
Control systems – regardless of whether pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical

or electronic – are often restricted to the use of binary variables. “0” and
“1”, “off” and “on” or “low” and “high” are typical variables. This limitation
to two states permits Boolean algebra to be applied to the design of
control systems.
3.1.1 Basic logic functions

The push button shown represents a normally-closed contact. When this Negation
is unactuated, lamp H1 is illuminated, whereas in the actuated state, (NOT function)
lamp H1 goes off.
Fig. 3.1:
Circuit diagram
24V
S1
(I)
H1
(O)
0V
Push button S1 acts as signal input, the lamp forms the output. The ac-
tual status can be recorded in a truth table:
I O Fig. 3.2:
Truth table
0 1
1 0

A-26
Chapter 3
The Boolean equation is therefore as follows:
I = O (read: Not I equals O)
The logic symbol is:
Fig. 3.3:
NOT function
I 1 O
If 2 negations are switched in succession, then these cancel one an-

other.
Fig. 3.4:
2 logic NOT functions
I=I
I 1 I 1 I

A-27
Chapter 3
If two normally-open contacts are switched in series, the actuated lamp Conjunction
s illuminated only if both push buttons are actuated. (AND-function)
Fig. 3.5:
Circuit diagram
24V
S1
(I1)
S2
(I2)
H1
(O)
0V
I1 I2 O Fig. 3.6:
Truth table
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The truth table assigns the conjunction. The output assumes 1 only if
both input 1 and input 2 produce a "1"-signal. This is referred to as an
AND operation, which is represented as follows as an equation:
I1 Ù I2 = O

A-28
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.7:
AND function
I1 &
O
I2
In addition, the following algorithms apply for the conjunction:
aÙ0 = 0
aÙ1= a
aÙa = 0
aÙa = a
Disjunction Another basic logic function is OR. If the 2 normally-open contacts are
(OR-Function) switched in parallel, then the lamp is illuminated whenever a least one
push button is pressed.
Fig. 3.8:
Circuit diagram
24V
S1 S2
(I1) (I2)
H1
(O)
0V

A-29
Chapter 3
I1 I2 O Fig. 3.9:
Truth table
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
Fig. 3.10:
OR function
I1 >=1
O
I2
The logic operation is written in the form of the following equation:
I1 Ú I2 = O
The following algorithms also apply for the OR-operation:
bÚ 0 = b
bÚ1= 1
bÚ b = b
bÚ b = 1

A-30
Chapter 3
3.1.2 Further logic operations

The electrical realisation of a NOT-/AND-/OR-operation has already
been described in section B3.1. Each of these operations can of course
also be realised pneumatically or electronically. Boolean algebra also
recognises the following logic operations. The following table provides
an overview of these.
Fig. 3.11: Logic connections
Name Equation Truth table log. symbols pneumatic realisation electr. realisation electron. realisation
+
I
I O I O
I
Identity I=A 0 0 I 1 O O
1 1
R
O
I
I O I O R
Negation I=O 0 1 I 1 O
1 0 O
I
O
I1
I1 I2 O R
0 0 0 I1
Conjunction I1 I2 = O & O
>
I2
0 1 0 I2
I1 I2 I1 O
1 0 0
1 1 1
O I2
I1 O
O
I1 I2 I2
I1 I2 O
0 0 0 I1 >=1
Disjunction I1 I2 = O O
>
0 1 1 I2
I1 I2
1 0 1 R
1 1 1
O

A-31
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.12: Logic connections (continued)
Name Equation Truth table log. symbol pneumatic realisation electr. realisation electron. realisation
O
I1 I1
I1 I2 O
0 0 0 I1
Antivalence I1
> >
I2 1 O I1 I2
>
0 1 1 I2 I2
(exclusive I1 I2 = O I2 O
1 0 1
OR) 1 1 0
I1 I2 O
I1
I1 I2 O I1
0 0 1 I1
Equivalence I1 I2 = O
> >
I1 I2
>
I2
0 1 0 I2
I1 I2 = O 1 0 0 I2 O
1 1 1
I1 I2 O
O
R R
I1 K1
I1 I2 O
I1 O
0 0 1 I1
>
NAND I1 I2 = O & O I2
0 1 1 I2
1 0 1 I1 I2 I2
1 1 0 K1 O
O I1 I2 K1 R
I1 I2 O
I1 O
0 0 1 I1
>
NOR I1 I2 = O >=1 O
0 1 0 I2
1 0 0 I1 I2 I2
1 1 0 K1 O
R

A-32
Chapter 3
3.1.3 Establishing switching functions
Deriving Boolean equations from the truth table

Often, the logic operations shown in the previous section are not enough
to adequately describe a status in control technology.
Very often, there is a combination of different logic operations. The logic
connection in the form of a Boolean equation can be easily established
from the truth table.
The example below should clarify this:
Sorting station task

Various parts for built-in kitchens are to be machined in a production
system (milling and drilling machine). The wall and door sections for
certain types of kitchen are to be provided with different drill holes. Sen-
sors B1 to B4 are intended for the detection of the holes.
Fig. 3.13:
Sorting station
1.0
B4
B3
B1
B2

A-33
Chapter 3
Parts with the following hole patterns are for the ’Standard’ kitchen type.
These parts are to be advanced via the double-acting cylinder 1.0.
Fig. 3.14:
Hole pattern of parts
a
d b d d
a c a a c
d b d b d
Assuming that a drilled hole is read as a 1-signal, the following truth

table results.
a b c d y Fig. 3.15:
Truth table
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

A-34
Chapter 3
Two options are available in order to derive the logic equation from this
table, which lead to two different expressions. The same result is ob-
tained, of course, since the same circumstances are described.
Standard form, disjunctive

In the disjunctive standard form, all conjunctions (AND-operations) of
input variables with the result 1, are carried out as a disjunctive opera-
tion (OR-operation). With signal status 0, the input variable is carried out
as a negated operation and with signal status 1 as a non-negated op-
eration.
In the case of the example given, the logic operation is therefore as fol-
lows:
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú
y=
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d)
Conjunctive standard form

In the conjunctive standard form, all disjunctions (OR-operations) of the
input variable producing the result 0, are carried out as a conjunctive
operation (AND-operation). In contrast with the disjunctive standard
form, in this instance, the input variable is negated with signal status "1"
and a non-negated operation carried out with signal status "0".
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù
Y=
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d)

A-35
Chapter 3
3.1.4 Simplification of logic functions

Both equations for the example given are rather extensive, with that of
the conjunctive standard form being even longer still. This defines the
criteria for using the disjunctive or conjunctive standard from: The deci-
sion is made in favor of the shorter form of the equation. In this case,
the disjunctive standard form.
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú
Y=
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d)
This expression may be simplified with the help of a Boolean algorithm.

The most important rules in Boolean algebra are shown below:
aÚ 0 = a aÙ 0 = 0
aÚ1= 1 aÙ 1= a
aÚ a = a aÙ a = a
aÚ a = 1 aÙ a = 0
Commutative law
aÚb=bÚa aÙb=bÙa
Associative law
a Ú b Ú c = a Ú (b Ú c) = (a Ú b) Ú c
a Ù b Ù c = a Ù (b Ù c) = (a Ù b) Ù c
Distributive law
a Ù (b Ú c) = (a Ù b) Ú (a Ù c)
a Ú (b Ù c) = (a Ú b) Ù (a Ú c)
De Morgan’s rule
aÚ b = aÙ b aÙ b = aÚ b

A-36
Chapter 3
Applied to the above example, the following result is obtained:
= abcd Ú abcd Ú abcd Ú abcd Ú abcd Ú abcd

= abcd Ú abcd Ú abcd Ú abcd Ú abd(c Ú c)
= acd(b Ú b) Ú abd(c Ú c) Ú abd
= acd Ú abd Ú abd
y = acd Ú ad(b Ú b)
= (ac Ú a)d
= (c Ú a)d
= cd Ú ad
For reasons of clarity, the AND-operation symbol "Ù" has been omitted
in the individual expressions.
The basic principle of simplification is in the factoring out of variables
and reducing to defined expressions. However, this method does re-
quire a sound knowledge of Boolean algorithms plus a certain amount of
practice. Another option for simplification will be introduced in the fol-
lowing section.

A-37
Chapter 3
3.1.5 Karnaugh-Veitch diagram

In the case of the Karnaugh-Veitch diagram (KV diagram) the truth table
turns into a value table.
a b c d y No. Fig. 3.16:

Truth table
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 2
0 0 1 0 0 3
0 0 1 1 0 4
0 1 0 0 0 5
0 1 0 1 1 6
0 1 1 0 0 7
0 1 1 1 0 8
1 0 0 0 0 9
1 0 0 1 1 10
1 0 1 0 0 11
1 0 1 1 1 12
1 1 0 0 0 13
1 1 0 1 1 14
1 1 1 0 0 15
1 1 1 1 1 16
A total of 16 allocation options are available for the example, whereby

the value table must also have 16 squares.
Fig. 3.17:
Value table

A-38
Chapter 3
The results of the value table are transferred to the KV diagram accord-
ing to the diagram shown below. In principle, representation is again
possible in conjunctive or disjunctive standard form. The following, how-
ever, will be limited to the disjunctive standard form.
Fig. 3.18:
Value table
The next step consists of combining the statuses, for which "1" has
been entered in the value table. This is done in blocks whilst observing
the following rules:
§ The combining statuses in the KV diagram must be in the form of a
rectangle or square
x
§ The number of combining statuses must be a result of function 2 .
This results in the following:
Fig. 3.19:
Value table

A-39
Chapter 3
The variable values are selected for the established block and these in
turn combined disjunctively.
y1 = cd
y2 = acd
y = cd Ù acd
y = (c Ú ac) Ù d
y = (c Ú a) Ù d
y = cd Ú ad
Naturally, the KV diagram is not limited to 16 squares. 5 variables, for

5 6
instance, would result in 32 squares (2 ), and 6 variables 64 fields. (2 ).

A-40
Chapter 3
3.2 Function diagrams of machines and production lines
The function diagrams, logic symbols and lines of application covered in

the following chapter are contained in the VDI recommendations 3226
and 3260. These VDU recommendations were valid up until 1992 and
have been partially superseded by the DIN standard 40 719 Part 6 (IEC
848 modified) “Circuit documentation, rules for function charts".
The function diagrams mentioned above will be covered in this course
literature, as they were – and to some extent still are – commonly used
in the industry to illustrate motion sequences. They are also still used to
some extent in vocational training exams.
Function diagrams consist of a motion diagram and a control diagram.
The motion diagram can be a displacement-step or a displacement-time
diagram.
Purpose of the The function diagram is intended to facilitate the planning, design and
function diagram: development of control systems for machines and production lines. It is
not dependent on the type of control system or technology used.
The function diagram can also be used as a faultfinding aid in the event
of malfunctions. The principles of representation and symbols should be
identical in all cases to permit diagrams from a variety of international
sources to be read and understood without risk of confusion. The sim-
plest form of representation that clearly describes the process is often
sufficient.
Areas of application of Function diagrams are used for the representation of function se-
the function diagram: quences in mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical and electronic
control systems, as well as for combinations thereof such as electro-
pneumatic or electro-hydraulic systems.

A-41
Chapter 3
3.2.1 Representation of motions

The action (travel, stroke) of the piston rod of cylinder 1A from the re- Displacement-step
tracted position (sequence state 1) to the extended position (sequence diagram
state 2) on the one hand, and from the extended (sequence state 2) to
the retracted (sequence state 3) position on the other is represented
graphically by function lines (action lines) as shown below.
Fig. 3.20:
Displacement-step diagram

A-42
Chapter 3
Displacement-time This diagram is used to represent the displacement (travel) of power

diagram elements with a linear action over time. A variety of speeds can thus be
described roughly in the diagram.
Fig. 3.21:
Displacement-time diagram
If the strokes of a variety of power components are represented in scale,

the average speeds can be calculated precisely using the displacement-
time quotient.

A-43
Chapter 3
3.2.2 Representation of signal elements, their lines of application,

branches and logical associations
Fig. 3.22:
Example using
displacement-step diagram

A-44
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.23:
Example using displacement-time diagram

A-45
Chapter 3
3.2.3 The function diagram

Function diagrams consist of a motion diagram (displacement-step or
displacement-time) and a control diagram. The signal inputs of the ac-
tuators and the signal states required for their correct operation are rep-
resented in the control diagram. Together, the diagrams provide a
precise description of the work flow of the system to be controlled.
Fig. 3.24

A-46
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.25:
Example of a
function diagram

A-47
Chapter 3
Description of the mode of operation based on sequence state 2, repre-

sentative for all actions.
Fig. 3.26

A-48
Chapter 3
3.3 The function chart
Function charts represent processes that take place in a series of

clearly distinguished steps, i.e. sequence controls. The progression from
one step to the next depends on the step enabling conditions. One im-
portant characteristic is that only ever one step may be active or several
steps only if these have been explicitly programmed as steps to be si-
multaneously executed.
Typical examples for sequence controls are machine controls in the
sphere of production technology or receptive controllers in process
technology.
The need for configuration is not immediately indicated in the case of
small sequence-oriented controllers, but the need for improved func-
tional descriptions increases with the growing complexity of tasks. Lad-
der diagrams and statement lists are poorly suited for structured
description. Function charts (or also flow charts) were introduced as
auxiliary means for top-down analysis and for the representation of pro-
cesses function charts. The elements used for this type of description
and their use have been standardised internationally by IEC 848. The
IEC 848 standard with the addition of national definitions has been pub-
lished in DIN 40 719, P.6.
Function charts describe in the main two aspects of a controller in ac-
cordance with defined rules:
§ the actions to be executed (commands)
§ the sequence of execution
A function chart is therefore divided into two parts (fig. 3.27). The se-
quence part represents the time-related execution of the process.
The sequence part does not describe the actions to be executed indi-
vidually. These are contained in the action part of the function chart
which, for the example in question, consists of blocks on the right-hand
side of the steps.

A-49
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.27:
Function chart
for a test process
0 N Initial position
Part in lifting bracket
1 L Colour and material definition t = 0.5 s
Timer expired
2 S Lifting cylinder raise
Lifting cylinder up
3 L Defining thickness t = 1 s
Timer expired
4 N Ejecting cylinder advance
Ejecting cylinder advanced
5 N Ejecting cylinder retract
Ejecting cylinder retracted
6 S Lifting cylinder lower
Lifting cylinder down
The following provides a brief explanation of the individual elements

used to describe a function chart.

A-50
Chapter 3
Steps
A function chart is structured by means of steps. These are represented
by blocks and identified with the respective step number.
The output status of the controller is identified by the initial step.
Each step is assigned actions (commands) containing the actual execu-
tion parts of the controller.
Fig. 3.28:
Elements of function chart
Initial step 1
directed connections
Transition
Step 2
Action
Transitions
A transition is a link from one step to the next. The logic transition con-
dition associated with the transition is represented next to the horizontal
line across the transition. If the condition is met, the transition to the next
step takes place and this is then processed by the controller.
Sequence structures
Three basic forms of sequence structure may be created by means of
combining the step and transition elements:
§ Linear sequence
§ Sequence branch (alternative branch)
§ Sequence splitting (parallel branch)
Steps and enabling conditions must always alternate irrespective of the
form of the sequence structure. Sequence structures are processed
from top to bottom.

A-51
Chapter 3
In a linear sequence, only one transition follows a step and one step
each transition. Fig. 3.27 illustrates an example of a linear sequence.
Fig. 3.29:
Alternative branch
2
d g
3 5
e h
4
In the alternative branch shown in fig. 3.29, two or several transitions

follow a step. The partial sequence, whose transition condition has been
met first, is activated and processed. Since precisely one partial se-
quence may be selected with the alternative branch, the transition con-
ditions – d and g in fig. 3.29 – must be mutually exclusive.

A-52
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.30:
Parallel branch
2
3 5
e f
4 6
g
7
In the case of a parallel branch, of the transition condition is met, this

leads to the simultaneous activation of several partial sequences. The
partial sequences are evolved simultaneously, but completely independ-
ently of one another. The convergence of partial sequences is synchro-
nised. Only when all parallel partial sequences have been evolved, may
a transition to the next step underneath the double line – in this example
to step 7 – take place.
Action
Each step contains actions, the actual execution parts of the controller.
The action itself (fig. 3.31) is divided into three fields, whereby fields a
and c should only be represented if necessary.
Fig. 3.31:
Action a b c
a: Characterisation of actions to be executed

b: Description of action
c: Reference to all feedbacks associated with command

A-53
Chapter 3
The table contains the symbols defined in DIN 40 719, P.6 or IEC 848
used to describe the order of execution of the actions..
S Stored Tab.:
Mode of actions
N Not stored
D Delayed
F Enabled
L Limited
P Pulse-shaped
C Conditional
If an action needs to be described in more detail, a combination of letter

symbols should be selected in the order of this execution.
Example:
DCSF conditionally stored action after delay, subject to an additional
enabling condition after storage.

A-54
Chapter 3
Step refinement
As shown in fig. B15.6, each step may itself contain sequence struc-
tures. This facility is supported by the step-by-step refinement of a solu-
tion in the sense of a top-down design.
Fig. 3.32:
Step refinement
2.1 N Filling magazine
Part in magazine and gripper

in position 1 and ejecting cylinder retracted
2.2 S Ejecting cylinder out

Start
2 Part ejected
Release part
2.3 S Grip part
S Gripper to position 2
Part accepted and part release requested
2.4 S Part released

S Ejecting cylinder in
Part released
2.5 S Gripper in position 1

A-55
Chapter 3
3.4 The Petri net
3.4.1 The basic concept of Petri nets

Technical processes can be defined as systems with a finite number of
states and state transitions. Modeling methods that contain 'state' and
'state transition' objects and that are capable of representing the inter-
dependence between these objects are therefore well-suited to illustrat-
ing technical processes.
Graphing is therefore a suitable general method. A graph consists of
nodes and edges (connections). Meanings are assigned to these ele-
ments.
Petri nets are graphs. Two different meanings are defined for nodes:
· Positions represent system states
· transitions represent state transitions.
In graphical representation,
· states are symbolised by circles
and
· transitions are symbolised by rectangles.
The explicit representation of state transitions has two significant ad-

vantages:
· State transitions can be formulated independently of events. This is
very important in automation technology, as the automation system
should specifically affect the state transitions.
· A transition does not necessarily involve one state, but can change
any number of states over to their subsequent states. This can result
in synchronisation.

A-56
Chapter 3
3.4.2 Elements of Petri nets

The following is an overview of all Petri net elements:
Þ Positions symbolise system states or situations.
In our example that could be: "valve body VK being machined" or "ma-
chine being run empty". Positions are represented by circles.
Þ Transitions mark the changeover from one state to the subsequent
state.
Transitions represent events that are required to reach the following
state. In our example, that could mean "start condition fulfilled". Actions
are depicted as rectangles.
Þ Markers indicate the current state of the system.
Markers indicate the positions that represent the current state of the
system. They are represented as points. A net can have several mark-
ers.
Þ Edges link positions and transitions into a net.
Edges have a direction and are the transport medium for the markers.
They are represented as arrows.

A-57
Chapter 3
3.4.3 Example
The Petri net method will be applied to the production of valves in the
following example.
Fig. 3.33:
Initial state Petri net model of
the production of
pneumatic valves
Start
Machine valve body VB
Install valve
Fold carton slide VS VB removed from
processing center
Press sleeve into VB
VB machined and
VS assembled
Install VS in VB
Transport to station 3
Install actuating piston

and valve cap
Transport to station 4
and folded box available
VB – valve body
VS – valve slide Quality control and packing

A-58
Chapter 3
3.4.4 Characteristics of Petri nets

This example examines the list of requirements for Petri nets and details
their advantages as already mentioned above.
Hierarchical structure, refinement in stages and modularisation

Top-down and bottom-up methods can be applied effectively to Petri
nets. A lower-level net can be located behind any given position of the
net. For example, "machine valve body VK" can be refined in a new net:

A-59
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.34:
Step-by-step refinement of Petri nets

A-60
Chapter 3
A special advantage of Petri nets is that other modeling methods may

also be used to refine modules that are subordinate to the individual
positions. For example, actions that can be described more effectively
using continuous models can be integrated in this manner.
Representation and synchronisation of parallel sequences

The net can be branched after any position or transition. This permits
the representation of alternative and parallel branches.
Fig. 3.35

A-61
Chapter 3
Transitions are used to synchronise parallel branches:
Fig. 3.36
Representation of sequences and reactions to events

Sequences consist of a succession of positions (i.e. states, situations)
and transitions (state changes). Petri nets are thus ideal for the repre-
sentation of sequences.
Representation of time problems

The correct operation of real-time systems not only depends on the
proper implementation of the functions, but also the ability of the system
to guarantee a response to events within the required time.

A-62
Chapter 3
Specific requirements with regard to the timing of systems can include:

· guaranteed system response times to input changes (e.g. < 5 ms).
· interrogation of inputs within a fixed time grid (e.g. 10 ms for digital
regulators).
· guaranteed task changes in real-time multitasking systems (e.g. < 11
ms after the receipt of the hardware interrupt).
· time monitoring of states.
Models of real-time systems are therefore not only used to design and
analyze the functions of a system. The question of whether functions
can be realised within the given time framework is also a primary con-
sideration.
Real-time requirements are always associated with the logical function
of the system. For this reason, the time concept is included in function-
oriented models such as Petri nets when modeling real-time systems.
This results in "function-oriented performance models".
Applying the concept of time to Petri nets

The concept of time is introduced into Petri nets to permit the represen-
tation of not only the sequence of events, but also the durations be-
tween them. The result is a new class of Petri nets, the so-called "timed
Petri nets". Times can be assigned to the positions and transitions. This
results in the following meanings:
Timed When a marker reaches a position with a time value, the marker will not
positions be available for the indicated time. This determines the minimum dura-
tion of the state or situation described by the position. The following
transition cannot be switched until all previous positions have available
markers.
Timed A timed transition does not switch until its activation condition has been
transitions fulfilled and the specified delay time has elapsed.
All of the resources needed for time analysis are thus also available in
the world of Petri nets.

A-63
Chapter 3
Analysis of the modeled system

Petri nets can be represented mathematically using matrices. The "net
matrix" represents the net structure, the "starting marker vector" the
initial state of the system, and the "transition vectors" the conditions for
the state transitions. This permits the mathematical analysis of the
model. The availability of each state can be calculated, and the system
can be checked for potential lockups in which state transitions would no
longer be possible.
The computer simulation of models based on Petri nets is more com-
monly used than mathematical analysis, however. Simulations can be
used to discover logical faults and timing problems, and to analyze ex-
ceptional states. A wide variety of programs are currently available for
the analysis of Petri nets.
Program conversion
The direct conversion of automation system models to programs in
CASE environments is not possible yet. Petri net elements have been
introduced as actual programming language elements with the publica-
tion of IEC 1131 Part 3 for the programming of automated systems. A
number of manufacturers of process control computers and major con-
trol systems are currently developing systems that comply with this
standard and which will permit a systematic, structured approach using
hierarchical models. The implementation of Petri nets using common
high-level languages is also no problem, however.

A-64
Chapter 3
3.5 Communication analysis
In the past it was a common goal to integrate all required functions into
a single machine. Today, however, the trend is toward a modular ap-
proach with regard to machine functions. This is particularly useful in the
event of faults, as it simplifies their localisation. The machine or line also
becomes, in effect, an open system that is easier to expand or modify
as needed. From the control technology vantage point, this means a
change from large PLC systems with many electrical inputs and outputs
and complex programs toward several smaller control systems with sim-
pler programs. To ensure that these modules function as a complete
system, logical associations must be created with regard to their proc-
ess control and safety technology. The technical aspects of this com-
munication will be covered in Chapter 6. When planning automated
systems, the individual communication channels and signals must be
defined at an early stage, of course. This is done using communication
analysis. It uses symbols for the individual modules, with arrows mark-
ing the association and the direction of the signals between the symbols.
Fig. 3.37
A label on the arrow indicates which signal is being transferred on this

channel. The transmitter and receiver addresses complete the descrip-
tion.

A-65
Chapter 3
The following example will clarify this: A system consists of four mod-
ules. The purpose of this system is to check the height of workpieces
and recognise their color, drill the workpieces and check the drilled hole.
Module 1 separates the workpieces coming from a gravity-feed maga-
zine; Module 2 checks their height and determines their color. Module 3
takes care of the drilling and quality control of the drilled hole. Finally,
Module 4 sorts the workpieces according to their colors and places them
in the appropriate gravity-feed magazines. A communications analysis
between these 4 stations therefore could look like this:

Fig. 3.38
Chapter 3
A-66
Communication analysis
Storage Machining
station E65.0 (Free from 3) A64.0 (Turning complete) station
E65.1 (Red) A64.1 (Red) Testing
E65.2 (Black) A64.2 (Black) MW5
A64.3 (Aluminum) Clocking of
E65.4 (Thickness) A64.4 (Thickness) Removal Drilling information
E65.5 (Drill hole) A64.5 (Drill hole) AB64 MW4 when turning
E65.7 (Communication A64.7 (Communication complete
from 3) to 4) Holder
MW3
E65.0 (Gripper left table) A64.0 (Table free)

E65.7 (Communication to 3) A64.7 (Communication
A65.7
A65.1
A65.0
E65.7
E65.4 – M3.4
E65.3 – M3.3
E65.2 – M3.2
E65.1 – M3.1
from 4)
E64.0 (Free from 2) A65.0 (Free to 1)

E64.7 (Communication A65.7 (Communication
from 2) to 1)
A64.0 (Free to 2) E65.0 (Free from 1)

A64.7 (Communication E65.7 (Communication
E64.7 (Communication to 2)
E64.1 (Station 3 receptacle free)
E64.0 (Station 3 turning complete)
Distribution to 2) from 1)
Inspection
A64.7 (Communication to 3)
M3.4 – A64.4 Information “thickness”
M3.3 – A64.3 Information “aluminum”
M3.2 – A64.2 Information "black”
M3.1 – A64.1 Information "red”
station station

A-67
Chapter 3
The communications analysis is not complete simply with the definition

of the communications channels, however. The times or process steps
at which the channel must be opened or closed also must be deter-
mined. For example, material information must be transported together
with the relevant workpiece. If the system reports a new workpiece, the
previous results must be overwritten with the new information. The same
applies for enable and stop signals. A gripper, for example, may only
reach into another station between two precisely defined process steps.
These times and process steps can be determined using the function
chart in the second part of the communication analysis. The planned
sequence in the function chart permits the timing for safe access to
other modules to be determined with great accuracy. The function plans
for stations 3 and 4 were selected in the previous example to illustrate
this.

Fig. 3.39
Chapter 3
A-68
0 0
A 13 ON ON
A... or A31
3B7
3B1 4B1
3B3 & 4B4
3K2 &
4B5
3B8 4B8
1 S Set "Free 3 to 4” Start
Start (SM4) 1
Extend S "Operation” lamp ON (H401)
S "Operation” lamp ON H301
3B5
N 4K5 Extend gripper 4B6
S Retract 3.3A 3B5 4B6 (Gripper extended)
3B8 &
Free from 4 2
2 3K2 on
Turn S (turn rotary indexing table) Stop
S Reset "Free 3 to 4” Free 3 to 4

3B7
& SM4
3 30
Continue Red 3 4K3 Lower gripper
Lower N 4B3 Retract N 4K6 Retract gripper 4B5
Black ³1
S "Operation” lamp OFF (H401)
3B7 3B7 Aluminum
3K2 off 4B3 (Gripper lowered)

4 3K2 off 5
Stop1 S (rotary indexing table off) Stop2 S (stop rotary indexing table)
4 N 4.1A Close gripper 4B7 31
S H303 an (part accepted) Grip Off
4B7 (Gripper closed)

3B7
A1
5 S 4K4 Raise gripper 4B4
6 Extend 3.3A Lift
Clamp SD (clamp part t = 2s) 3B6
4B4 (Gripper raised)
3B6 3B6 6
Release S Set Free from 4
to 3
7 Extend 3.1A (drill feed on) 3B2 8
Drill S Continue
S 3K1 on (drill motor on) A...
S "Operation” lamp OFF H303
3B2 (drill in lower position)
3B6
9
S Extend 3.2A
Inspect (Extend inspection cylinder) 3B4
S Start inspection time (1s)
3B3 3B3
3B4 3B4
10 Retract 3.2A 11 Retract 3.2A
Drilled S (Retract inspection cylinder) 3B3 Drilled S (Retract inspection cylinder) 3B3
hole ok hole ok
S Set info "drilled hole OK” M5.5 S Set info "drilled hole OK” M5.5
3B3
12
Retract S Retract 3.1A (drill feed off) 3B1
drill
3B1
13
Drill S 3K1 off (drill motor off)
off
A1

A-69
Chapter 3
As a general rule, for safety reasons communications channels should

be kept open for the shortest possible time. Please note that the mod-
ules may have different cycle times. A synchronisation, generally based
on the slowest module, is necessary in such cases.

A-71
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Commissioning of complex
automated systems
Festo Didactic ·Mechatronics

A-72
Chapter 4
Once the assembly and installation of the machine is finished, the media
(pneumatics, hydraulics, electrical power and data networks) connected
and the PLC program developed, the final phase of the development of
a production system can begin – commissioning. This generally in-
volves the following steps:
1. Getting to know the system's functions
2. Testing and performing the fine adjustment of the pneu-
matic/mechanical or hydraulic/mechanical drives
3. Checking the electrical connections between the sensors and the
PLC and calibrating as required
4. Testing the EMERGENCY STOP function
5. Forcing the PLC outputs and checking the connections between the
output card and the electrical drives or solenoid valves and perform-
ing any required fine adjustment
6. Loading the program
7. Testing all program functions and operating modes
8. Complete parameterisation
9. Documentation
Of course, Item 1 can be skipped if the engineer commissioning the
system is already familiar with it and its functions. If the commissioning
is to be performed by others, however, it is absolutely essential that they
are informed about the machine's intended sequence of operation and
functions.

A-73
Chapter 4
4.1 Testing and performing the fine adjustment of the pneu-

matic/mechanical or hydraulic/mechanical drives
Due to the high power of the pneumatic and hydraulic drives, this phase
of commissioning involves a high risk of accidents. Always ensure that
all involved persons stay clear of the range of travel of the cylinders.
Also remove tools and other materials from the machine before testing.
We recommend performing the following steps in the order listed here.
1. Ensure that the complete system is depressurised.
2. Ensure that all power components are in their initial positions.
3. Check whether the valve bodies of all impulse valves are in the po-
sitions specified. If necessary, reverse them with the manual over-
ride.
4. Close all of the flow control valves that control the working speed of
the cylinders.
5. Slowly increase the air for the cylinders and valves, either by manu-
ally actuating the pressure regulator or using an automatic safety
start-up valve.
6. Slowly open the flow control valves.
7. Test the functions of the individual cylinders and drives without a
workpiece using the manual overrides.
8. At the same time, ensure that the mechanical limit switches are se-
curely installed and work reliably.
9. Test the functions of the individual cylinders and drives with a work-
piece.
10. Check that the specified power levels and speeds are being attained
and adjust as required.

A-74
Chapter 4
4.2 Checking the electrical connections between the sensors

and the PLC and calibrating as required
The next step ensures that the signals of the sensors and switches
reach the central control unit of the PLC and that the signals address
the correct inputs.
All PLC software has a mode or function which allows the individual in-
put bits to be displayed with their current status. So, for this step, con-
nect your PC or PLC programmer to the PLC and call up this mode or
function.
The allocation list can now be used to check whether the individual sen-
sor signals are actually reaching the central control unit and arriving at
the correct input.
4.3 Testing the EMERGENCY STOP function
The EMERGENCY STOP function ensures that the machine can be

stopped safely if necessary. The machine must be stopped using relays,
valves, contactors or special EMERGENCY STOP switching units. The
PLC program may not be used to control EMERGENCY STOP functions
(see also DIN EN 60204). Two basic strategies can be applied to fulfill
these requirements:
1. Shut-off of electrical power to all PLC output modules and emergency
supply for critical functions as needed by relay or contactor control-
lers (e.g. solenoid actuators)
2. Shut-off of the pneumatic or hydraulic power supply, resulting in de-
pressurisation of the system
There is little point in trying to determine which strategy is the superior
one, as each system has its own specific requirements.

A-75
Chapter 4
If strategy 2 is to be used, then this commissioning step must be used to

test whether all pneumatic cylinders and drives can be safely depres-
surised.
When using strategy 1, forcing a random output (also see next section)
must not cause an electrical signal at the output terminal of the PLC.
4.4 Forcing the PLC outputs and checking the connection

between the output card and electrical drives or solenoid
valves and performing any required fine adjustment
After the EMERGENCY STOP function has been tested, the must im-
portant precondition for the forcing of the outputs is fulfilled. Under cer-
tain circumstances, forcing may involve controlling great forces within
the machine at the simple touch of a button. At the same time, the rele-
vant safety interlocks will not be active as the PLC program is not
loaded. The danger of accidents and collisions is very high as a result,
and the only possible way to interrupt a command after it has been ac-
knowledged is the use of the EMERGENCY STOP button. One person
should always be near the EMERGENCY STOP button to shut off the
machine without delay if necessary.
The actual setting of the outputs themselves is performed using the PLC
programmer or the PC in the same software mode or function as men-
tioned in section 4.2 when checking the inputs. The outputs can be
turned on and off at will.
Next, use the allocation list to check whether the relevant PLC output is
transmitting its signal to the specified actuator. Open or inadvertently
swapped connections can be detected very quickly using this process.
Once you have completed these steps, it will be safe to assume that
there are no further faults in your hardware. Malfunctions occurring dur-
ing the remainder of the commissioning process can thus be localised
as software faults.

A-76
Chapter 4
4.5 Loading the program
This is the correct time to load the PLC program.

The actual process varies. In some cases the complete program is
loaded at once; in others the recommendation is made to load the indi-
vidual subprograms and check them one after the other. The latter op-
tion is especially useful for complex lines. This would permit the
automatic program to be tested first, followed by the step program, and
so on. In the case of function-oriented programming, it would also be
conceivable to activate individual modules first.
4.6 Testing all program functions and operating modes
As the commissioning steps become increasingly specific, it becomes

harder to offer general advice on the individual phases. The testing of all
program functions and operating modes is such a step. We will there-
fore restrict ourselves to a few general suggestions related to the test:
1. Does the line run through the complete automatic program?
2. Will alternate processes (different workpieces) and parallel se-
quences run?
3. Is the EMERGENCY STOP function available during all process
steps?
4. Are any dangerous motions still possible after EMERGENCY STOP
has been actuated?
5. Does the line restart in an uncontrolled manner when the
EMERGENCY STOP button is released?
6. Have all safety and protective interrogations been adequately con-
sidered?
7. Is the current operating mode displayed at all times?
8. Can the machine be reset and returned to its initial position in an
orderly manner from any conceivable position?
9. Is the EMERGENCY STOP function also available in reset mode?

A-77
Chapter 4
10. Do all of the remaining possible operating modes work as specified?

11. Is the EMERGENCY STOP function also available in these modes?
12. Does the control system retain its program when the power is
switched off?
13. Dos the system achieve the specified run times?
14. Does the quality of the workpiece meet the specifications?
15. ...
4.7 Complete parameterisation
Once the program sequence has passed its tests, continue with the fine
adjustment of the machine parameters. This includes adjusting speeds
and power levels, fine adjustment of the recording and output of analog
values, correct user interface output and error display, and the transfer
of data to upstream and downstream process steps, as well as higher-
order networks.

A-78
Chapter 4
4.8 Documentation
A draft of the documentation should already be available for commis-

sioning, as it is practically impossible to properly commission larger ma-
chines or lines without it. Experience has shown that a number of
changes are needed during commissioning. These should be incorpo-
rated in the draft documentation. Specifically, ensure that the docu-
mentation includes at least the following plans and descriptions:
- description of the machine's functions
- location diagram
- operating instructions
- sequence description
- circuit diagram
- terminal diagram
- pneumatic and/or hydraulic diagram
- PLC program on floppy disk (2 copies) and printout
- allocation list
- structure of the software modules used
- maintenance schedule
- parts and spares list
- parameterisation values
- list of special tools as required

A-79
Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Maintenance

A-80
Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
The ever increasing speed of working processes and work sequences

and the resulting higher machine cycles form the basis for the competi-
tiveness of products in national and international markets. In detail, this
includes:
§ higher machine utilisation
§ optimum efficiency
§ targeted maintenance
§ reduced downtimes
§ quicker recommissioning
§ optimisation of systems
In this context, the maintenance of industrial systems is of ever increas-
ing significance. Although heavily neglected until just a few years ago, it
now forms the basis for good productivity. In new production structures
such as teamwork, maintenance now firmly has its own place. For em-
ployees in these spheres of activity this means that extensive knowledge
is required in the area of control and automation technology.
5.2 What is meant by maintenance?
A production system can only produce efficiently through trouble-free

operation. One of the prime objectives in the operation of production
systems is therefore the reduction of downtimes as far as possible. This
is attempted in two ways. On the one hand, a fast reaction must be en-
sured in the event of any defect occurring during the operation of the
system. Fast and systematic faultfinding are imperative in order to en-
sure a speedy remedy and recommissioning of the system.
On the other hand, there is preventive maintenance. Every component
in a production system is subject to wear which, sooner or later, will lead
to failure and hence to malfunction or system failure. Preventive mainte-
nance, is therefore used to endeavour to prevent malfunction and
thereby to pre-empt unproductive downtimes.

A-81
Chapter 5
The term maintenance refers to all measures regarding the preservation

and re-establishing of the setpoint status and the determining and
evaluation of the actual state of technical resources of the system (DIN
31051).
Fig. 5.1:
Areas of maintenance
More specifically, maintenance can be divided into three areas (fig. 5.1):
§ Service
§ Inspection
§ Repairs.

A-82
Chapter 5
5.3 Service
The term Service refers to preventive measures to prolong operating

times. Servicing of technical installations covers:
§ the drawing up of a service schedule, which must be geared to the
particular aspects of the operation and system and must be manda-
tory,
§ the preparation of the implementation,
§ the implementation and
§ the feedback.
Fig. 5.2:
Service
The service schedule (or service instructions) is generally drawn up in

the form of a list and contains all the work to be carried out, measured
and test variables, the frequency of operations to be carried out and
special comments regarding the individual operations.
Service instructions Manufacturer Service/inspection instructions Product

example (DIN 31052) List No.
Con- Measured and test
sec Tasks to be carried out variable of process Frequency Comments
No. materials
1 El. motor
1.1 Check storage temperature 60 °C max. 3 monthly
1.2 Check condition of carbon 6 monthly
brushes
2. Gears
2.1 Check oil level Lubricating oil monthly
2.2 Change oil DIN 51517 - C 100 yearly

A-83
Chapter 5
5.4 Inspection
The wear and tear of components cannot always be detected with the
naked eye. It is therefore important, particularly with regard to safety
components to check the functioning and condition of certain compo-
nents at fixed intervals. Manufacturers of components or systems gen-
erally specify the time intervals for inspection.
Inspection covers all measures required to establish and evaluate the
actual state of a technical installation. These include:
§ the drawing up of an inspection schedule, which must be geared to
the particular aspects of the operation and system and must be
mandatory,
§ the preparation of the implementation,
§ the implementation,
§ the submission of the result of the actual state detected,
§ the evaluation of the results and
§ the conclusion of the required consequences (DIN 31051).
Fig. 5.4:
Inspection
In practice, the inspection and servicing schedules are combined into an

inspection and service schedule.

A-84
Chapter 5
5.5 Repairs
With repairs, differentiation should be made between planned repairs

and repairs in the case of malfunction.
Fig. 5.5:
Repairs
Planned repairs, for instance, are carried out after an inspection. Com-
ponents that were found to be faulty or worn during the inspection are
either repaired or replaced. In this way, the required status of the sys-
tem is maintained.

A-85
Chapter 5
In the event of an inadvertent interruption, repairs are to be carried out Systematic repairs
according to the following plan. in the event of
malfunction
Fig. 5.6:
Systematic repairs
The basic prerequisite for systematic repairs and faultfinding is knowl- Prerequisite for
edge of the system. This means that only when you have become fa- systematic repairs
miliarised with the system and know how it is structured, is it possible to
carry out targeted repairs.
Familiarisation with the system by:
§ closely observing the installation.
§ making available the entire system documentation.
§ knowing the product and the processing technology.
§ exchanging information with the user or operator.
A detailed explanation of systematic faultfinding on technical systems
can be found in the chapter on faultfinding, together with some practical
exercises on this subject.

A-86
Chapter 5
5.6 Fault documentation
When a fault has been found, it is not sufficient just to rectify this but, in
addition, the cause of the problem must be established. A useful aid for
this is a fault list, which should be kept on the installation. This list de-
scribes the faults and their causes. It may take different forms, such as
in the example below:
List of machine malfunctions

Mach. Date Malfunction Cause Fault Rectified by Measure
No. Time index*
This list may be useful in finding recurring faults and their causes. The
fault index* enables you to easily establish the nature of the fault.
A = Faulty working practice
(e.g. a retaining screw has not be properly tightened
on an assembly component)
M = Mechanical fault
(e.g. sensors are maladjusted)
E = Electrical fault
(e.g. relay is not energised or solenoid does not switch)
S = Control error
(e.g. program or program part is not activated)
L = Leakage fault
(e.g. air escaping from a threaded joint)
B = Operator error
(e.g. shut-off valve not closed)
W = Service error
(e.g. filter not cleaned)

A-87
Chapter 5
5.7 Possible fault influence analysis (PFIA)
The machine malfunctions list can form the basis for a systematic
analysis of faults which have occurred. A useful tool for this is for in-
stance the Possible Fault Influence Analysis method, (PFIA). The
original concept of this method was to identify beforehand potential er-
rors at the production planning stage and to provide appropriate meas-
ures to eliminate faults.
However, the PFIA method can also be used for the systematic analysis
and evaluation of errors which have already occurred and have been
logged in the malfunctions list.
The objective of PFIA is to establish those faults which occur frequently
or which are particularly serious on the basis of an evaluation of the sum
total, whereby solutions can then be found for these faults.
All potential faults are listed on a form and their frequency, significance
and detection evaluated using a figure between 1 and 10.
Multiplication of the three figures provides a risk priority figure (RPF) for
each fault. Means of eliminating faults are discussed and introduced for
all faults with a significant risk priority figure (e.g. >100).
Fault elimination measures of this type can for instance include design
modifications of the system or changes in the service schedule (e.g. a
component is to be regularly replaced as a preventive measure).

A-88
Chapter 5
PFIA example:
Prevention
Frequency
Sequence
Cons. No.
Measures
Detection
Detection
Signifi-
Cause
cance
Fault
RPF
1 wrong much mix-up better des- after 2 8 9 144 new
material shorter ignation assembly designation
service life as a result label
of destruc-
tive test
2
Fault Each frequently occurring or critical fault is listed.

Sequence Description of what happens when the fault occurs.
Cause List already known or suspected causes.
Prevention List already known measures for fault prevention.
Detection List test measures, which may lead to the detection of the
fault.
Measures List the measures introduced to prevent faults.
A potential solution of the exercise could be as follows:

Prevention
Frequency
Sequence
Cons. No.
Measures
Detection
Detection
Signifi-
Cause
cance
Fault
RPF
1 vacuum vacuum excessive workpieces regular daily cleaning of suction filter (->
suction filter generator contamina- are no Extending the service schedule)
blocked inoperative tion of longer
workpieces transported or
cleaning the workpieces prior to trans-
port to distribution station
(-> changing the production sequence)
2

A-89
Chapter 5
Practical exercise 1 PFIA

Name: Date:
Project name:
Problem definition
A machine malfunctions list drawn up for the MPS distribution station is
to be examined for systematic faults.
A PFIA protocol is to be created for the most frequently occurring faults
and a solution to the problem worked out.
Marginal conditions
A simplified PFIA method (without evaluation of fault) is to be used.
Task
1. Join a group, in which you would like to carry out the exercise!
2. Carry out the PFIA analysis for a fault with the help of the machine
malfunctions list!
3. Discuss the possible fault solution strategies!
4. Present your results to the whole group!
Worksheets
The following worksheets consist of:
§ the exercise sheet
§ the prepared machine malfunctions list
§ a form to log the PFIA.

A-90
Chapter 5
Machine malfunctions list for distribution station

Cons. Date Malfunction Cause Fault Rectified by Measure
No Time index*
1 6.3.95 Ejecting cylinder supply air tubing P Mr. Fisher Tubing replaced
10.45 does not retract fractured
2 6.3.95 No vacuum suction Suction filter P Mr. Smith Filter cleaned
16.20 blocked
3 7.3.95 Resetting not pos- Automatic/Manual E Mr. Fisher Switch replaced
8.30 sible changeover switch
on control console
defective
4 7.3.95 Ejecting cylinder Magazine sensing M Mr. Smith Sensor adjusted
17.40 advances, al- maladjusted
though no parts in
magazine
5 8.3.95 Metal part falls Suction filter P Mr. Fisher Filter replaced
7.15 from suction cup blocked
6 9.3.95 Ejecting cylinder Connection at E Mr. Fisher Terminal replaced
9.30 does not eject output 0.0 of PLC and reconnected
burnt-out
7 9.3.95 Vacuum insuffi- Filter blocked P Mr. Miller Filter removed
23.30 cient
8 10.3.95 Vacuum not avail- Filter has been P Mr. Smith Filter installed
14.40 able removed, Vacuum again, Vacuum
generator defective generator replaced
9 10.3.95 Short circuit at 1S1 Switch dirty E Mr. Smith 1S1 replaced
16.00
10 14.3.95 Vacuum insuffi- Suction filter P Mr. Fisher Filter replaced
10.50 cient blocked
11 14.3.95 Vacuum generator 1S3 maladjusted M Mr. Smith 1S3 readjusted
15.00 does not provide
suction
12 15.3.95 No vacuum suction Filter blocked P Mr. Smith Filter cleaned
16.15
13 15.3.95 Vacuum generator Valve exhaust P Mr. Miller Silencer cleaned
22.40 does not switch off contaminated
suction
14 16.3.95 Swivel actuator Short circuit at E Mr. Smith Line replaced
17.45 nonfunctional output 0.2 of PLC
15 17.3.95 Vacuum insuffi- Suction filter con- P Mr. Fisher Filter replaced
10.10 cient taminated

A-91
Chapter 5
Machine malfunctions list for distribution station

Cons. Date Malfunction Cause Fault Rectified by Measure
No Time index*
16 17.3.95 System remains Pressure drop in P Mr. Smith Line system
14.50 stalled system (service checked, Service
unit contaminated) unit cleaned
17 20.3.95 Swivel arm does 1S1 maladjusted M Mr. Fisher 1S1 readjusted
8.50 not return
18 20.3.95 Vacuum not avail- Filter contami- P Mr. Smith Filter replaced
15.30 able nated
Fault index*:
M= Mechanical fault
E= Electrical fault
P= Pneumatic fault

A-92
Chapter 5

A-93
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
Faultfinding

A-94
Chapter 6
6.1 Systematic repairs in the event of malfunction
In the event of an inadvertent interruption, repairs are to be carried out

according to the following plan.
Fig. 6.1
6.1.1 Prerequisite for systematic repairs

The basic prerequisite for systematic repairs and faultfinding is knowl-
edge of the system. This means that only when you have familiarised
yourself with the system and know how it is structured, will you be able
to carry out systematic repairs.
Familiarisation with the system by:
§ closely observing the installation.
§ making available the entire system documentation.
§ knowing the product and processing technology.
§ exchanging information with the user or operator.

A-95
Chapter 6
Structuring of the system into:
System and controller structure

§ Program flow charts
§ Function charts
§ Description
Mechanical design
§ Structure and support unit
§ Function units
§ Adjustment
Drive technology
§ Electrical system
§ Hydraulics
§ Pneumatics
§ Mechanical system
Final control element

§ same as previous (see Drive Technology)
Control system
§ Electrical relay control
§ Programmable logic controller
Signal generator
§ Binary sensors
§ Analogue sensors
§ Digital sensors
Power supply
§ Electrical
§ Hydraulic
§ Pneumatic

A-96
Chapter 6
6.1.2 Procedure
The first thing that must be done in the event of an error signal is to es-
tablish the actual status. The following options are available for this:
§ Discussing the fault with the user (Does the system operate incor-
rectly?)
§ Start failure
§ Stopping during process step
§ Faulty process
§ Incorrect working practice
Fig. 6.2

A-97
Chapter 6
6.2 Faultfinding
The actual faultfinding starts once the actual status has been estab-
lished and compared with the required status. This comparison fre-
quently leads to the discovery of the error source, if the fault is
§ visible (e.g. mechanical damage to a signal generator),
§ audible (e.g. leakage on a valve),
§ detectable by smell (e.g. cable burnt out)
If this is not the case, the fault can only be found and eliminated by
means of a systematic procedure.

A-98
Chapter 6
6.2.1 Systematic faultfinding

Again, the required/actual status comparison forms the basis for sys-
tematic faultfinding.
Fig. 6.3

A-99
Chapter 6
6.2.2 Fault documentation

Once a fault has been found, it is not sufficient just to rectify this, but at
the same time the cause of the problem should be determined. A useful
tool for this is a faults list, which should be kept with the installation. This
list describes the malfunctions and their causes. It may take a number of
different forms.
The following is an example:
Machine malfunctions list

Mach. Date Fault Cause Fault Rectified Measure
No. Time index * by
This list can be useful in detecting frequently recurring faults and their
causes. The fault index makes it easier to establish the nature of the
error.
A= Incorrect working practice
(e.g. a retaining screw is not properly tightened on an assembly
part)
M= Mechanical fault
(e.g. sensors are maladjusted)
E= Electrical fault
(e.g. relay is not energised or solenoid does not switch)
S= Controller error
(e.g. program or program part is not activated)
L= Leakage fault
(e.g. air escaping from threaded connection)
B= Operator error
(e.g. shut-off valve not closed)
W= Service error
(e.g. filter not cleaned)

A-100
Chapter 6
Example:
Mach. Date Fault Cause Fault Rectified Measure

No. Time index * by
1303 31.7.95 Distribution sta- Microswitch S1 M DEL
tion; Gravity feed maladjusted
magazine does
not operate cor-
rectly

A-101
Chapter 6
6.2.3 Fault analysis

With the help of the faults list, it is possible to establish whether a fault
or damage occurred and thus to pinpoint weak points in the system.
Once these have been identified, it is advisable to introduce technical
improvements. If damage has occurred, the following procedure should
be adopted.
Fig. 6.4

A-102
Chapter 6
6.3 Safety while faultfinding
The following points must be considered before working on the

line:
· Is it possible to switch off the power supply?
Þ Generally, switching off the power for large production lines is not
feasible, as the continued operation of other parts of the system
may be desirable or required.
· Is it possible to localise the fault without power?
Þ It is not possible to check the function of sensors without electrical
power, for example. It is also impossible to trace signals in the
control system. The functions of actuators can only be checked
using the manual override. The switching functions cannot be
checked, even using the manual override, if the pneumatic or hy-
draulic power is switched off.
· What will happen when the power is switched off?
Þ Consideration must be given to the load conditions of cylinders
and motors.
Þ Suspended loads will no longer be held with the power supply
switched off.
Þ With regard to the control system, please note that a programma-
ble logic controller will generally return to its initial position and all
signal latches and flags will be deleted.

A-103
Chapter 6
Faultfinding with power switched off is only feasible for faults that are Conclusion
immediately obvious. It is important to switch off the power during repair
work, however, as this involves manual intervention in the system. In
hydraulic systems, switching the pump off and emptying the accumula-
tor is mandatory.
Example: A workpiece is ejected by a pneumatic cylinder and jams me-
chanically.
Exhaust air restrictors are no longer effective and the cylinder will Caution
"shoot" forward when the mechanical lockup is cleared. Due to the dan-
ger of accidents, the power must be switched off during all mechanical
lockups!
· Switch off the power if personnel or equipment are not endangered,
by suspended loads, for example!
· Switch off the power in the event of fires or leaks!
· Switch off the power if the fault can be identified immediately!
· Switch off the power when repairing machines or lines!
6.3.1 Recommissioning and powering up the system

The positions of the drives must be known when switching on the power.
Cylinders controlled by impulse valves will not be in their home positions
after the power is shut off. Switching the power back on can cause sud-
den, dangerous cylinder movements.
The following rules must be observed when switching the power back
on:
1. Ensure that no one is in the work area.
2. Safety precautions must be observed (close safety screens).
3. Reduce the system pressure setting.
4. Slowly increase the pressures to their specified values (Soft start).

A-104
Chapter 6
6.3.2 Faultfinding in lines with the power switched on

Faultfinding in the In practice, faults that cannot be spotted immediately can only be found
signal input by proceeding in a systematic manner. A precondition for this systematic
approach is that the system is powered up to permit signals to be
tracked. Tracking signals involves determining whether a sensor has
been correctly approached or actuated. This must be performed with
great care and thoroughness, however.
Caution Uncontrolled actuation of sensors can trigger actions in the system

leading to a serious danger of accidents!
The following rules must be observed when checking sensors:

1. Reduce the system pressure.
2. Disconnect the sensor's signal line (3-wire sensor).
3. Interrupt the power supply at the power valve.
If the sensor was checked and found to function correctly, continue

faultfinding by systematically tracing the signal path. In purely pneumatic
control systems, the signal path can of course be traced by disconnect-
ing the hoses.
Caution Danger!
Disconnecting hoses in the control section may lead to cylinder move-
ments.
It is advisable to reduce the working pressure of the power valves when

tracing signals in purely pneumatic control systems.

A-105
Chapter 6
Faultfinding in the power section involves checking the function of Faultfinding

switching valves. This often requires testing whether the signal from the in the power section
control system is arriving correctly. Solenoid valves normally have an
LED to indicate incoming signals. To check the mechanical switching
operation in the valve, however, it may be necessary to remove the coils
from the valve or disconnect the valve plug.
Uncontrolled disconnection of coils or plugs can cause sudden cylinder Caution

movements.
Danger!
Disconnecting the return coil of an impulse valve can also trigger a cyl-
inder movement.
One option for checking power valves is to test the valve functions using
the manual override.
Danger! Caution
Uncontrolled use of the manual override can lead to uncontrolled cylin-
der movements!
The following rules must be observed when using the manual override:
1. The action that will be triggered by the override must be known
2. Reduce the system pressure.
3. Lock outputs on the valve as required.
· If the flow control valves or restrictors require checking, please ob- Faults in the speed
serve the drive carefully while changing the setting. If no change oc- control system and
curs, restore the original setting. drive
· Manual work on the power section of a line may only be performed
while the system is depressurised.

B-1
Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Safety recommendations

B-2
Chapter 1
1.1 General safety recommendations
High pressures, temperatures and forces occur in electro-hydraulic

systems. Energy is also stored, sometimes in large quantities. A whole
series of safety measures is necessary to rule out the possibility of dan-
ger to personnel and equipment during the operation of electro-hydraulic
systems. In particular, the valid safety regulations for electro-hydraulic
systems are to be observed!
Regulations The following safety regulations apply for the field of hydraulics:
and standards
§ accident prevention regulations, directives, safety rules and the
testing guidelines of the employers‘ liability insurance associations,
§ regulations on pressure vessels, pressurised gas vessels and filling
systems (pressure vessel regulations),
§ DIN standards, VDI directives, VDMA standard sheets and technical
rules for pressure vessels, containing in particular, notes and regu-
lations on dimensions, design, calculations, materials and permis-
sible loads as well as stipulations on functions and requirements.
Electro-hydraulic systems must comply not only with the regulations on
hydraulic systems but also with the regulations on electrical systems and
components (e.g. DIN VDE 0100).

B-3
Chapter 1
1.2 Safety recommendations for electro-hydraulic and electro-

pneumatic systems
§ Install the EMERGENCY STOP push-button in a place where it can

be easily reached.
§ Use standardised parts only.
§ Enter all alterations in the circuit diagram immediately.
§ The rated pressure must be clearly visible.
§ Check whether the installed equipment can be used at the maximum
operating pressure.
§ The design of suction lines should ensure that no air can be drawn
in.
§ Check the oil temperature in the suction line to the pump. It must not
exceed 60 °C.
§ The piston rods of the cylinders must not be subjected to bending
loads or lateral forces. Protect piston rods from dirt and damage.
§ Do not operate systems or actuate switches if you are not totally Start-up of an electro-
sure what function they perform. hydraulic system
§ All setting values must be known.
§ Do not switch on the power supply until all lines are connected.
Important:
Check that all return lines (leakage lines) lead to the tank.
§ When starting up the system for the first time, open the system
pressure relief valve almost completely and gradually set the system
to the operating pressure. Pressure relief valves must be installed in
such a way that they cannot become ineffective.
§ Carefully clean the system prior to start-up, then change the filter
cartridge.
§ Vent system and cylinders.
§ In particular, the hydraulic lines to the reservoir are to be carefully
vented. It is generally possible to effect venting at the safety and
shut-off block of the reservoir.
§ Special care is needed when handling hydraulic reservoirs. Before
the reservoirs are started up, the regulations stipulated by the ma-
nufacturer are to be studied carefully.

B-4
Chapter 1
Repair and § Repair work may not be effected on hydraulic systems until the fluid
maintenance of an pressure of the reservoir has been vented. If possible, separate the
electro-hydraulic reservoir from the system (using a valve). Never drain the reservoir
system unthrottled! Installation and operation are governed by the Technical
Rules for Pressure Vessels (TRB).
§ When repairs are completed effect a new start-up in line with the
safety regulations listed above.
§ All hydraulic reservoirs are subject to the provisions of the pressure
vessel regulations and must be inspected at regular intervals.
1.3 Safety recommendations for electrical systems
VDE 0113 contains stipulations governing the electrical equipment of

machining and processing machines with mains voltages up to 1000 V.
These regulations are wide-ranging and apply to the electrical equip-
ment of all stationary and mobile machines as well as machines in pro-
duction lines and conveying systems.
Effect of When live parts of an electrical system are touched, electric current
electric current flows through the human body. The effect of the current increases
on the human body
§ with increasing current and
§ duration of contact
There are two threshold values:
§ if the electric current is lower than the perceptibility threshold, it has
no effect on human beings.
§ up to the releasing threshold, an electric current is perceived, but the
possibility of injury or danger is unlikely.
§ above the releasing threshold, the muscles contract and cardiac
function is impaired.
§ values above the fibrillating threshold lead to ventricular fibrillation
and cardiac arrest as well as cessation of breathing and conscious-
ness; lengthy contact also causes serious burns. There is acute
danger to life and limb!

B-5
Chapter 1
The two following diagrams show that – compared to DC voltage lines –

AC power supply networks (50/60 Hz) with relatively small currents can
endanger human life.
Fig. 1.1:
Hazard zones with
alternating current
(50/60Hz)
Fig. 1.2:
Hazard zones with direct
current

B-6
Chapter 1
Internal resistance of In line with Ohm‘s law, the flow of current and thus the risk to human
the human body safety is greater:
§ the higher the voltage
§ and the lower the internal resistance of the person concerned.
When electrical current flows through the body to earth, 1300 W is given
as an approximate figure for the internal resistance of the body.
There is serious risk to life and limb from currents of 50 mA upwards.
Taking into account the internal resistance, this is equivalent to a con-
tact voltage of
50 mA · 1300 W = 65 V.
Caution Under extremely unfavourable conditions (clothes damp with perspirati-

on, large contact area) even voltages under 65 V can be fatal!
Protective measures The supply voltage in the signal control section of electro-hydraulic sys-
in the signal control tems is normally 24 V, and thus way below the critical contact voltage of
section 65 V. The mains voltage is stepped down in the power supply unit by an
isolating transformer.
Fig. 1.3:
Isolating transformer

B-7
Chapter 1
Protection against coming into contact with live parts is essential (and Protection against
stipulated) for both low and high voltages. This protection can take the direct contact
form of
§ insulation,
§ covering devices or
§ keeping at a safe distance.
Fig. 1.4:
Protection through
insulation
Fig. 1.5:
Protection through covers
L1
L2
L3
PEN

B-8
Chapter 1
Overload protection In contrast to the signal control section, the hydraulic assembly is gene-
devices rally operated at higher voltages. The measures for protection against
direct contact also apply here. In addition, components situated in areas
where they may be touched by personnel (e.g. housings) are earthed. If,
for example, a housing becomes live, this leads to a short circuit and the
upstream overload protection devices are activated. The layout of these
circuits and the response characteristics of the overload protection devi-
ces can differ considerably. The following devices are used:
§ fusible links,
§ circuit-breakers,
§ residual current operated circuit-breakers,
§ residual voltage operated circuit-breakers.
Fig. 1.6:
Protection through
keeping a safe distance

B-9
Chapter 1
In the event of danger, it must be possible to shut down a machine im- EMERGENCY STOP
mediately via an EMERGENCY STOP switch to separate all equipment switch
from the mains supply. The following regulations apply to the
EMERGENCY STOP circuit:
1. Necessary lighting must not be switched off using the EMERGENCY
STOP function.
2. Clamped workpieces must not be released by actuation of the
EMERGENCY STOP function.
3. Auxiliary and braking devices designed to peform functions such as
rapid shutdown of the machine must not be rendered ineffective.
4. Return movements must be initiated by actuation of the
EMERGENCY STOP function if this is necessary. They may, howe-
ver, only be initiated if this does not pose a risk to personnel.
5. The identification colour of the EMERGENCY STOP switch is bright
red; the area below the manual actuating element must be in the
contrasting colour yellow.
Further requirements for the EMERGENCY STOP circuit in electrical
and hydraulic systems are contained in DIN 31000.
In addition, each machine must be equipped with a master switch via Master switch
which the entire electrical equipment can be switched off for the duration
of cleaning, maintenance and repair work and during lengthy down-
times.
1. The master switch must be manually operated and may have only
one Off and On position with stops identified by 0 and 1.
2. In the Off position it should be possible to lock the switch in such a
way that manual and remote switch-on are prevented.
3. If there are several feed sources, it must be possible to interlock the
master switches in such a way that there is no risk or danger.

B-11
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Fundamentals of
electrical engineering

B-12
Chapter 2
2.1 Direct current and alternating current
A simple electrical circuit consists of a voltage source, a consuming de-

vice and a connecting line (supply line and return line). In physical
terms, what happens is that negative charge carriers – the electrons –
travel via the electrical conductor from the negative terminal of the vol-
tage source to the positive terminal. This movement of charge carriers is
called electric current. It should be noted that an electric current can
only flow in a closed conductor circuit.
A distinction is made between direct current and alternating current:
§ if the voltage in a circuit always acts in the same direction, a current
flows which also always has the same direction. We call this a direct
current or DC circuit.
§ in the case of alternating current or in an alternating current circuit,
the direction of the voltage changes with a certain frequency. As a
result, the current also changes its direction and strength continu-
ously.
Fig. 2.1:
Current strength over time

B-13
Chapter 2
2.2 DC circuit
The following illustration shows a simple DC circuit consisting of a volta-

ge source, electrical lines, a switch and a consumer (in this case a
lamp).
Fig. 2.2:
DC circuit
If the switch contact in the above circuit is closed, a current I flows via Technical direction
the consumer. The electrons travel from the negative terminal to the of current
positive terminal of the voltage source. Before scientists became aware
of the existence of electrons, the current direction was described as
from "plus" to "minus". This definition is still valid today – it is termed the
technical direction of current.
Every material puts up a certain level of resistance to electrical current. Electrical conductor
This resistance depends on, among other things, the atomic density and
the number of free electrons. It is generated by the collision of the free
mobile electrons with the atoms of the conductor material and the
restriction of movement of the electrons caused by these collisions. In
the field of control technology, copper is the most frequently used con-
ductor material. The electrical resistance of copper is particularly low.

B-14
Chapter 2
Source voltage At the negative terminal of a voltage source there is an electron surplus,
while at the positive terminal there is a shortage of electrons. This re-
sults in a difference in electron assignment between the two terminals.
This condition is known as source voltage.
Electrical resistance Every material puts up a certain level of resistance to electrical current.
This resistance depends on, among other things, the atomic density and
the number of free electrons. It is generated by the collision of the free
mobile electrons with the atoms of the conductor material and the
restriction of movement of the electrons caused by these collisions. In
the field of control technology, copper is the most frequently used con-
ductor material. The electrical resistance of copper is particularly low.
Ohm‘s law The relationship between voltage, current strength and resistance is
described by Ohm‘s law. Ohm‘s law states that in a circuit with constant
resistance the current strength changes in proportion to the change in
voltage:
§ if the voltage increases, the current strength also increases.
§ if the voltage falls, the current strength also decreases.
V = voltage unit: Volt (V)

V=R·I R = resistance unit: Ohm (W)
I = current strength unit: Ampère (A)

B-15
Chapter 2
In the field of mechanical engineering, power can be defined in terms of Electrical power
the work performed. The faster a task is performed, the greater the re-
quired power. Power therefore means work per unit of time.
In the case of a consuming device in a circuit, electrical energy is con-
verted into kinetic energy (e.g. electrical motor), light radiation (e.g. e-
lectrical lamp) or thermal energy (e.g. electrical heater, electrical lamp).
The faster the energy is converted, the greater the electrical power. In
this case, therefore, power means converted energy per unit of time. It
increases with increasing current and increasing voltage.
P = power unit: Watt (W)

P=V·I V = voltage unit: Volt (V)
I = current strength unit: Ampère (A)
The electrical power of a consuming device is also called electrical po-

wer consumption.
Calculation of the electrical power of a coil Example

A solenoid coil is supplied with a direct voltage of 24 volts. The resistan-
ce of the coil is 19.9 W. How great is the electrical power consumption?
First, the current strength is calculated::
V 24V
I= = = 1,206A
R 19,9W
This gives us the electrical power consumption:
P = V · I = 24 V · 1,206A = 28,944 W
Electrical controls are generally supplied with a direct current of 24 V.

The alternating voltage from the power supply therefore has to be step-
ped down to 24 V and then rectified.

B-16
Chapter 2
Diodes Rectification is performed by semiconductor diodes. They allow the cur-

rent to flow in one direction and block it in the other. Their effect on e-
lectrical current can be compared to the effect of a non-return valve on
the pressure fluid in a hydraulic system.
Rectifier Various diode circuit arrangements can be used for rectification. The
most important circuit is the bridge or Graetz circuit. For the supply of
current to electronic controls (PLCs) or if sensors are used, the direct
voltage supplied by the rectifier must be smoothed using a charge ca-
pacitor and, if necessary, downstream filters (chokes or filter resistors).
Fig. 2.3:
Bridge rectifier circuit
with charge capacitor

B-17
Chapter 2
2.3 Electromagnetism
The solenoid coils, relays and contactors used in electro-hydraulics work

on the principle of electromagnetism:
§ every conductor through which current flows builds up a magnetic
field around itself.
§ the direction of current in the conductor determines the direction of
the field lines.
§ the current strength in the conductor influences the strength of the
magnetic field.
Fig. 2.4:
Illustration of an
electrical coil
To increase the magnetic field, the conductor through which the current
flows is wound in the form of a coil. If the field lines are then superimpo-
sed on the coil windings, the main direction of the magnetic field can be
established. If the coil possesses an iron core, the iron is also magneti-
sed. This makes it possible to generate considerably greater magnetic
fields than can be achieved using an air-core coil with the same amount
of current.

B-18
Chapter 2
Electromagnet An electromagnet must meet two conflicting requirements:

§ minimum current input (low energy consumption) and
§ maximum power through a strong magnetic field.
To simultaneously meet both criteria, electromagnets are made up of a
coil with iron core.
Inductive resistance If an alternating voltage is applied to a coil, the current – and thus also
with alternating voltage the magnetic field – is constantly increased and decreased. The change
in the magnetic field induces a current in the coil. The induced current
counteracts the current generated by the magnetic field. The coil there-
fore puts up a resistance against the alternating current. This resistance
is called inductive resistance.
Inductive resistance In the case of direct voltage, the voltage, the current and the magnetic
with direct voltage field only change upon switch-on. In this case, therefore, the inductive
resistance is only active at the time of switch-on.
The unit of inductance is the "Henry" (H):
Vs
1H = 1 = 1Ws
A

B-19
Chapter 2
2.4 Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two metallic plates with an intermediate insulati-

on layer (dielectric). The greater the capacitance of a capacitor, the mo-
re electrical charge carriers it stores at the same voltage.
Fig. 2.5:
Schematic illustration
of a capacitor
If a capacitor is connected to a direct voltage source, a charging current

flows for a short time. The two plates are electrically charged in oppo-
sing mode. If the connection to the voltage source is then interrupted,
the charge remains stored in the capacitor – until the charge is dissipa-
ted via a consuming device (e.g. a resistor).
The unit of capacitance is the "Farad" (F):
As
1F = 1
V

B-20
Chapter 2
2.5 Measurements in a circuit
The term "measurement" means the comparison of an unknown quan-

tity with a known quantity. Measuring instruments make it possible to
perform this comparison with a greater or lesser degree of precision.
The accuracy of a measurement depends on the precision of the mea-
suring instrument.
Rules for measuring When taking measurements in electrical circuits, the following rules
should always be observed:
§ never knock measuring instruments.
§ carry out a zero point check prior to measurement.
§ when measuring direct voltage or direct current, note the polarity of
the measuring instrument (terminal "+" of the measuring instrument
to positive terminal of the voltage supply).
§ select the largest measuring range before switching on the voltage.
§ observe the needle and gradually switch to smaller measuring ran-
ges. Read off the value at maximum needle deflection.
§ to avoid reading errors, always look at the needle vertically.
Example Indicating error

The indicating error of a voltmeter of class 1.5 is to be investigated by
measuring a battery voltage (approx. 9 V). The measuring range is ad-
justed once to 10 V and once to 100 V.
Measuring Permissible indicating error Percentage error

range
1,5 0,15V
10 V 10V · = 0,15V · 100 = 1,66%
100 9V
1,5 1,5V
100 V 100V · = 1,5V · 100 = 16,6%
100 9V
The sample calculation shows clearly that the greater the deflection of
the needle, the more precise the measurement. In other words: the
measuring range selected on the measuring instrument should ensure
that the indication is in the latter third of the measuring scale.

B-21
Chapter 2
Example 2.6:
Example of voltage
measurement
If current flows through a measuring instrument, there is a voltage drop Voltage measurement
via the measuring instrument. This affects all currents and voltages in
the circuit. The resulting measurement is therefore falsified not only by
the indicating error but also by the influence of the measuring instrument
on the circuit.
To measure electrical voltage, a suitable measuring instrument must be
connected parallel to the consuming device. To ensure that measuring
inaccuracies are kept to a minimum, only an extremely small current
may flow through the voltmeter. Otherwise, the current decreases due to
the consuming device, as does the voltage drop, and the measured
voltage is too small. For this reason, a voltmeter with a maximum pos-
sible resistance must be used. This resistance is also called the internal
resistance of the voltmeter.

B-22
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.7:
Voltage measurement
Current measurement If the current in a circuit is to be measured, the entire current must be
able to flow through the measuring instrument. For this purpose, the
current measuring instrument (ammeter) is connected in series with the
consuming device. Every current measuring instrument possesses a
specific internal resistance. This additional resistance reduces the flow
of current. The measured current is therefore smaller than the current
which flows in the circuit when no measuring instrument is connected.
To keep the measuring error as small as possible, only current measu-
ring instruments with an extremely low internal resistance may be used.
Fig. 2.8:
Current measurement

B-23
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Electrical components

B-24
Chapter 3
The signal control section in electro-hydraulic systems is made up of

electrical or electronic components. Depending on the task to be per-
formed, the signal control section can vary in design:
§ relatively simple controls use either electro-mechanical components
with contacts (e.g. relays) or a combination of components with
contacts and electronic components without contacts.
§ for complex tasks, on the other hand, stored-program electronic
controls (PLC’s) are mostly used.
3.1 Power supply unit
Electro-hydraulic control systems are generally supplied with electricity

not from their own voltage sources (e.g. batteries) but from the mains
supply via a power supply unit.
Safety note The components of the power supply unit form the power current sys-
tem (DIN VDE 0100) in an electrical circuit. The safety regulations for
power current systems must therefore be observed!
Fig. 3.1:
Modules of a
power supply unit

B-25
Chapter 3
A power supply unit consists of the following modules:

§ the mains transformer which transforms the alternating voltage of
the mains supply (e.g. 220 V) into the output voltage (mostly 24 V).
§ a smoothed direct voltage is generated by the rectifier and the capa-
citor.
§ the direct voltage is then stabilised by the in-phase regulator.
3.2 Electrical input elements
Switches are installed in a circuit to open or close the flow of current to

the consuming device. These switches are divided into the two main
groups "push-button switches" (push-buttons) and "control switches".
Both switch types are available for operation with normally-closed con-
tacts, normally-open contacts or changeover contacts.
Control switch
In control switches, the two switching positions are mechanically interlo-
cked. A switching position is maintained until the switch is activated on-
ce again.
Push-button
A push-button only opens or closes a current circuit for a short time. The
selected switching position is only active while the push-button is pres-
sed.

B-26
Chapter 3
Normally-open In the normally-open version, the circuit is open when the push-button is
contact in the normal position; i.e. not pressed. The circuit is closed when the
control stem is actuated; current then flows to the consuming device.
When the control stem is released, the push-button is returned to its
original position by spring pressure, and the circuit is then interrupted.
Fig. 3.2:
Normally-open contact:
sectional view
and circuit symbol
Normally-closed In the normally-closed version, the circuit is closed when the push-
contact button is in normal position. The spring action ensures that the contacts
remain closed until the push-button is pressed. When the push-button is
pressed, the switching contact is opened against the spring pressure.
The flow of current to the consuming device is interrupted.
Fig. 3.3:
Normally-closed contact:
sectional view and circuit
symbol

B-27
Chapter 3
The third variation is the changeover contact. These contacts combine Changeover contact
the functions of normally-closed and normally-open contacts in one unit.
Changeover contacts are used to close one circuit and simultaneously
open another. It should be noted, however, that both circuits are mo-
mentarily interrupted during changeover.
Fig. 3.4:
Changeover contact:
sectional view and circuit
symbol
3.3 Sensors
Sensors are used to record information about the status of a system and
to pass this information on to the control. In electro-hydraulic systems,
sensors are mainly used for the following tasks:
§ recording the proximity i.e. the position or the end position of drive
components,
§ measurement and monitoring of pressure and temperature of the
pressure fluid,
§ for material recognition.

B-28
Chapter 3
Limit switch A mechanical limit switch is an electrical switch which is activated when
a machine part or a workpiece is in a certain position. Activation is gene-
rally effected by a cam activating a movable operating lever. Limit swit-
ches are normally equipped with changeover contacts capable of
performing closing, opening or changeover of circuits.
Fig. 3.5: Moving contact piece

Mechanical limit switch: (spring inserted) 2 4
sectional view
and circuit symbol
Plunger
(insulated) 1
Securing hole Plastic housing
Pressure switch Pressure switches are used as control or monitoring devices. They can
be used to open, close or change between circuits when a preset pres-
sure is reached. The supply pressure acts on a piston surface. The re-
sulting force acts against an adjustable spring pressure. If the pressure
is greater than the force of the spring, the piston is moved and actuates
the contact assembly.
In pressure switches with mechanically actuated contact assemblies, a
diaphragm, a bellows or a Bourdon spring can be used in place of the
helical spring.

B-29
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.6:
Piston pressure switch:
sectional view
and circuit symbol
Recently, increasing use has been made of diaphragm pressure swit-

ches, where the contact is no longer mechanically actuated but electro-
nically switched. This also requires the use of pressure- or force-
sensitive sensors which exploit one of the following physical effects:
§ the resistance effect (diaphragm with strain gauge, change in e-
lectrical resistance with shape change),
§ the piezoresistive effect (change in electrical resistance with change
in mechanical tension),
§ the piezoelectric effect (generation of an electrical charge through
mechanical stress),
§ the capacitive effect (change in capacitance with change in mecha-
nical stress).
The pressure-sensitive element in this process is created through diffu-
sion, vapour-depositing or etching on the diaphragm. A suitable protecti-
ve electronic circuit supplies an amplified analogue signal. This signal
can be used for pressure indication or for further switching operations.

B-30
Chapter 3
Proximity sensors Non-contacting proximity sensors differ from mechanically actuated limit
switches by virtue of the means of actuation, without external mechani-
cal actuating force. A distinction is made between the following groups
of proximity sensors:
§ magnetically activated proximity sensors (Reed switch),
§ inductive proximity sensors,
§ capacitive proximity sensors and
§ optical proximity sensors.
Reed switches Reed switches are magnetically actuated proximity switches. They con-
sist of two contact reeds housed in a glass tube filled with inert gas.
When the switch enters a magnetic field e.g. the magnet on a cylinder
piston, the reeds are closed and output an electrical signal. The opening
function of reed contacts can be achieved by pre-stressing the contact
reeds using small magnets. This initial stress is overcome by the consi-
derably stronger switching magnets.
Reed switches are characterised by the following properties:
§ long service life,
§ maintenance-free,
§ switching time = 0.2 ms,
§ limited response sensitivity,
§ unsuitable for areas with strong magnetic fields (e.g. resistance wel-
ding machines).

B-31
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.7:
Reed switch,
normally-open contact
An inductive proximity sensor consists of an oscillating circuit (1), a trig- Inductive proximity
gering stage (2) and an amplifier (3). When a voltage is applied to the sensors
terminals, the oscillating circuit generates a high-frequency electro-
magnetic field which is emitted from the end face of the proximity sen-
sor. If a good electrical conductor is introduced into this oscillating
magnetic field, the oscillating circuit is dampened. The downstream trig-
gering stage evaluates the oscillating circuit signal and activates the
switching output via the amplifier.
Fig. 3.8:
Inductive proximity sensor

B-32
Chapter 3
Inductive proximity sensors are characterised by the following proper-

ties:
§ all materials with good electrical conductivity are recognised by in-
ductive proximity sensors. Their function is confined to neither
magnetisable materials nor metals; they also recognise graphite, for
example.
§ objects can be detected either moving or stationary.
§ objects with large surface areas are recognised more readily than
objects which are small compared to the sensor area (e.g. metal).
§ they are chiefly used as digital sensors.
Capacitive proximity Capacitive proximity sensors measure the change in capacitance in the
sensors electrical field of a capacitor caused by the approach of an object. The
proximity sensor consists of an ohmic resistor, a capacitor (RC oscilla-
ting circuit) and an electronic circuit. An electrostatic field is built up in
the space between active electrode and earth electrode. If an object is
then introduced into this stray field, the capacitance of the capacitor
increases, thus detecting not only highly conductive materials, but also
all insulators which possess a high dielectric constant. Materials such as
plastics, glass, ceramics, liquids and wood, for example.
Fig. 3.9:
Capacitive proximity sensor

B-33
Chapter 3
We distinguish between three types of optical proximity sensors: Optical proximity

sensors
§ through-beam sensors
§ retro-reflective sensors
§ diffuse sensors
The through-beam sensor consists of spatially separated transmitter Through-beam sensor

and receiver units. The components are mounted in such a way that the
transmitter is aimed directly at the receiver. If the light beam is interrup-
ted, the contacts open or close.
Fig. 3.10:
Through-beam sensor

B-34
Chapter 3
Retro-reflective sensor In retro-reflective sensors, the transmitter and the receiver are mounted
side by side in a common housing. For the correct function of these
sensors, a reflector must be mounted in such a way that the light beam
emitted by the transmitter is more or less totally reflected onto the recei-
ver. Interruption of the light beam causes the sensor to switch.
Fig. 3.11:
Retro-reflective sensor
Diffuse sensor The transmitter and receiver of the diffuse sensor are mounted in a si-
milar way to that of the retro-reflective sensor. If the transmitter is aimed
at a reflecting object, the reflected light is absorbed by the receiver and
a switching signal is generated. The greater the reflection properties of
the object in question, the more reliably the object can be detected.
Fig. 3.12:
Diffuse sensor

B-35
Chapter 3
3.4 Relay and contactor
The representation of relays and contactors in the electrical circuit dia-

gram is identical, as is their operating principle.
§ Relays are used to switch relatively small outputs and currents;
§ contactors to switch relatively large outputs and currents.
Relays are electro-magnetically actuated switches. They consist of a Relay

housing with electro-magnet and movable contacts. An electro-magnetic
field is created when a voltage is applied to the coil of the electro-
magnet. This results in attraction of the movable armature to the coil
core. The armature actuates the contact assembly. This contact as-
sembly can open or close a specific number of contacts by mechanical
means. If the flow of current through the coil is interrupted, a spring re-
turns the armature to its original position.
Fig. 3.13:
Relay: sectional view
and circuit symbol

B-36
Chapter 3
Application examples There are various types of relay; e.g. time-delay relays and counter re-
lays. Relays can be used for various regulating, control and monitoring
functions:
§ as interfaces between control circuits and load circuits,
§ for signal multiplication,
§ for separation of direct current and alternating current circuits,
§ for delaying, generating and converting signals and
§ for linking information.
Terminal designations Depending on design, relays possess varying numbers of normally-

and circuit symbols closed contacts, normally-open contacts, changeover contacts, delayed
normally-closed contacts, delayed normally-open contacts and delayed
changeover contacts. The terminal designations of the relays are stan-
dardised (DIN EN 50 005, 50011-13):
§ relays are designated K1, K2, K3 etc.
§ the coil terminals are designated A1 and A2.
§ the contacts switched by the relay are also designated K1, K2 etc. in
circuit diagrams.
§ There are additionally two-digit identification numbers for the swit-
ching contacts. The first digit is for numbering of all existing contacts
(ordinal number), while the second digit denotes the type of contact
(function number).
Function numbers 1 2 normally-closed contact

for relays 3 4 normally-open contact
5 6 normally-closed contact, time delay
7 8 normally-open contact, time delay
1 2 4 changeover contact
5 6 8 changeover contact, time delay

B-37
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.14:
Circuit symbols and termi-
nal designations of a relay
Contactors work on the same basic principle as relays. The typical fea- Contactor
tures of a contactor are:
§ double-break (2 break points per contact),
§ positive-action contacts and
§ closed arcing chambers (spark arresting chambers).
Fig. 3.15:
Relay

B-38
Chapter 3
A contactor possesses several contact elements, normally between 4

and 10. There are also different types of contactors with various combi-
nations of normally-closed contacts, normally-open contacts, changeo-
ver contacts, delayed normally-closed contacts etc. The contacts are
divided into main contact elements and auxiliary contacts (control con-
tacts).
§ Outputs of 4 - 30 kW are switched via main contact elements.
§ The auxiliary contacts can be used to simultaneously switch further
control functions or logic operations.
§ Contactors which only switch auxiliary contacts (control contacts) are
called contactor relays (control contactors).
§ For the purpose of classification, contactors with main contact ele-
ments for power switching are called power contactors (main con-
tactors).
In line with DIN 40 719, contactor combinations for switching on
threephase motors are designated by the letter K (for contactor) and M
(for motor) as well as a serial number. The serial number identifies the
function of the device; for example: K1M = mains contactor, three pha-
se, variable pole, single speed.

B-39
Chapter 3
3.5 Solenoids in electro-hydraulics
In electro-hydraulics, valves are actuated via solenoids. An iron core –

the armature – is installed in the coil winding of the solenoid. A non-
magnetic plunger is embedded in this armature. If the coil is then
supplied with current, a magnetic field is formed which energises the
armature. The plunger connected to the armature then switches the
valve gate (see illustration on next page).
Solenoids have two end positions.
§ The first end position is achieved during conductive continuity (sole-
noid energises, position C),
§ while the second end position is achieved in de-energised state via a
return spring (electro-magnetic decay, position A).
In each switching operation, the plunger additionally presses against the
return spring of the valve, thus reducing its force in the direction of
attraction.
§ At the beginning of the travel movement the magnetic force is small.
The motion of the armature therefore begins with a small idling stro-
ke (position A).
§ The control gate of the directional control valve is not switched (po-
sition B) until a greater magnetic force has been reached.
Fig. 3.16:
Stroke/force characteristic
of a DC solenoid

B-40
Chapter 3
DC and AC solenoids There are solenoids for direct current or alternating current. AC sole-
noids for 230 V are used less and less frequently for reasons of safety
(dangerous touch voltage).
Arcing When a solenoid is switched off, the flow of current is interrupted. The
collapse of the magnetic field creates a voltage peak in the opposite
direction. A protective spark suppression circuit is essential to prevent
damage to the solenoids or the contacts.
Types DC solenoids are produced as wet or dry designs, whereas AC sole-
noids are always dry solenoids.
Wet solenoid In wet solenoids, the armature chamber of the solenoid contains
hydraulic oil, in which the solenoid switches. The housings of these so-
lenoids have to be seal-tight (towards the outside). The armature cham-
ber is connected to the tank port to prevent high pressures on the
solenoid. The advantages of this nowadays common type of solenoid
are:
§ absolute seal-tightness and low friction due to the absence of a dy-
namically stressed seal at the plunger,
§ greatly reduced corrosion inside the housing and
§ cushioning of switching operations.

B-41
Chapter 3
Armature Coil Fig. 3.17:

Wet solenoid
Core
Emergency
manual override
Armature pipe Magnet
The term "dry solenoid" means that the solenoid is isolated from the oil. Dry solenoid
The plunger is sealed off from the oil in the valve body by a seal. The-
refore, in addition to the spring force and the friction of the control gate,
the solenoid has to overcome the friction between plunger and seal.
Armature Coil Fig. 3.18:

Dry solenoid
Core
Emergency Seal
manual override
Magnet

B-42
Chapter 3
Plug connector for When the valves are assembled the solenoid is screwed directly to the
solenoid valves valve body. This facilitates replacement in the event of malfunction.
(line sockets)) Three contacts (plug pins) protrude from the solenoid and it is via these
contacts that the solenoid coil is supplied with current. The spacing of
the plug-in contacts is laid down in DIN 43 650.
Fig. 3.19:
Solenoid with plug base
The line sockets are screwed onto these contacts using a captive chee-
se head screw. A fitted seal between solenoid base and line socket ser-
ves as protection against dust and water spray (protection type IP 65 to
DIN 40 050).
The housing dimensions of the line sockets vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer.
Fig. 3.20: Type A Type B

Line socket to DIN 43 650 (grey) (black)

B-43
Chapter 3
The inductivity of solenoid coils causes electro-magnetic energy to be Spark suppression in

stored when the circuit is switched on. The faster switch-off is effected, solenoid valves
the faster the energy is discharged and the higher the induced voltage
peak. This can cause insulation breakdown in the circuit or destroy the
switching contact as a result of an arc (contact-breaking spark).
To avoid damage to the contacts or the coil, the energy stored in the coil
must be discharged gradually after switch-off. A spark suppression cir-
cuit is required for this purpose. Various kinds of spark suppression cir-
cuit are suitable for this purpose. What is common to all spark
suppression circuits, however, is that, after switch-off, the change in the
current strength is not sudden but slow and regulated.
The two most common circuits are shown in the following illustrations:
§ circuit with one diode,
§ circuit with one capacitor and one resistor.
When effecting spark suppression using a diode, care should be taken
to ensurethat the diode is polarised in the direction of blocking when the
contact is closed.
Suppressor circuit for Circuit with suppressor circuit Fig. 3.21:

connector or adapter Suppressor circuit
(with status lamp) using diode
24V

B-44
Chapter 3
In DC solenoids, the polarity of the supply voltage is fixed. This allows

connection of an LED parallel to the coil for switching status display. The
most practical solution is to install the protective circuit and the switching
status display in an adapter which is plugged directly onto the solenoid
coil below the connecting plug. They can also be directly incorporated
into the connecting plug.
Fig. 3.22: Suppressor circuit for Circuit with suppressor circuit

Suppressor circuit using connector or adapter
capacitor and resistor (with status lamp)
24V

B-45
Chapter 3
3.6 Control cabinet
In all electrically activated systems, the signal control section is installed

in a control cabinet. Depending on their size and intended use, these
control cabinets are made of plastic or sheet metal. When constructing
control cabinets, the following standards must be observed:
§ DIN 41 488, Parts 1 to 3 stipulate panel widths for control cabinets
and switchgear.
§ the mounting racks for relays, contactors, stored-program controls
(PLC’s), plug-in cards etc. and the design of electronic devices, front
panels and racks for 19" frames are governed by DIN 41 494, Part
2.
§ VDE 0113 contains guidelines concerning the type and structure of
control cabinets, as well as regulations on the mounting height of the
equipment, which has to be accessible for adjustment and mainte-
nance work.
§ the standards DIN 40 050 and IEC 144 contain provisions on the
protection (shock protection) of personnel against electrical equip-
ment in the form of housings or cover panels and also lay down pro-
visions on the protection of equipment against water and dust
penetration as well as details of internationally agreed protection ty-
pes.
The signal-processing elements, such as relays and contactors, are
plugged onto a mounting rail (top-hat rail to DIN EN 50 022-27, 32 and
35) installed in the control cabinet. The electrical connections to the
sensors outside the control cabinet are routed via a terminal strip. This
is also plugged onto a mounting rail.

B-46
Chapter 3
Terminal allocation The control cabinet is generally fitted with a distribution board via which
all input and output signals are routed. The electrical circuit diagrams
and the terminal allocation list are required for production, installation
and maintenance of the control cabinets.
§ The terminals (distribution boards DIN 43 880) are drawn on the
electrical circuit diagrams.
§ In the terminal allocation list drawn up on the basis of the circuit dia-
gram, the internal (inside the control cabinet) and external connecti-
ons (on the system) are each allocated to one side of the terminal
strip. Each terminal is designated by an X and a serial number.
A detailed description of circuit documentation can be found in DIN 40
719, with details of terminal designations in DIN EN 50 011.
Example The following example shows how the electrical circuit diagram and the
terminal allocation list for the control cabinet are drawn up on the basis
of a task definition. The piston rod of a cylinder (1.0) is to advance when
a push-button (S1) is pressed once. A further start condition is that the
piston rod is in the retracted position – with the proximity switch (B1) in
the actuated state. The speed can be varied via a one-way flow control
valve. When it reaches the forward end position, the piston rod is to be
reversed by the electrical signal from the limit switch (S2).
Fig. 3.23:
Displacement-Step diagram

B-47
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.24:
Hydraulic circuit diagram

B-48
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.25:
Electrical circuit diagram
with terminal designations
Fig. 3.26:
Terminal allocation list

B-49
Chapter 3
3.7 Voltage supply of an electro-hydraulic system
A supply voltage of 24 V DC is required for the signal and power control

sections. The power supply section consisting of hydro pump and elect-
ric drive motor requires either 220 V or 380 V AC. The example shown
is the circuit of the electrical drive motor for a hydraulic pump.
L1 Fig. 3.27:
Voltage supply for an elect-
L2 380V 50Hz ric motor (3-phase)
L3
PE
220V F1
T
F3 + F3 K1
F2
U1
0V 24V V1 M
W1 3
PE
L1, L2, L3 = Phases of three-phase current F2 = Motor protective relay

N = Neutral conductor (thermal overcurrent relay)
PE = Protective conductor F3 = Fuses
F1 = Motor fuses T = Transformer

B-50
Chapter 3
Safety note Only suitably qualified electricians may perform work on electrical sys-
tems with voltages exceeding 50 volts AC/120 volts DC. It is strictly for-
bidden for others to perform work on such systems (danger to life and
limb!).
The controls shown here all use a safe low voltage of 24 V DC. Safety
voltages are voltages rated up to 50 V AC or 120 V DC. The use of the-
se voltages rules out the possibility of coming into contact with dange-
rous voltages.

B-51
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Solenoid-operated
directional control valves in
pneumatic systems

B-52
Chapter 4
4.1 Overview
Directional control valves control the path of the air flow in pneumatic or
electro-pneumatic control systems. The directional control valve controls
or blocks supply air to specific air supply lines, and/or exhaust air to the
surroundings via the exhaust opening.
The symbol of a valve provides information about
· its general functional characteristics and
· its function within the control system.
The symbol contains the number of power ports (air flow paths through
the valve), the number of switching positions and the actuation type of
the directional control valve.
Specific functions can be realised by different types of valves. The type
of valve determines the flow rate, pressure loss and switching speed.
For this reason, the type of valve to be used must be selected using
application-specific criteria.
The design of the valve affects its service life, actuating force, switching
time, type of actuation, and size.
4.2 Design principles
Various types of directional control valves are available:

· Seat valves
– ball poppet valves
– poppet valves
· Slide valves
– longitudinal slide valves
– longitudinal flat slide valves
– parallel slide gate valves

B-53
Chapter 4
The flow paths in seat valves are opened or closed by balls, poppets, Seat valves
slides or cones. The valve seats are generally fitted with rubber seals.
Seat valves are rugged and insensitive to contamination, have few
wearing parts and thus have a long service life. They require a relatively
high actuating force, however, to overcome the power of the return
spring and air pressure. Because of their size, poppet valves are well-
suited for applications requiring high flow rates.
Fig. 4.1:
3(R) Seat valves
left: ball poppet valve
right: poppet valve
2(A)
2(A)
1(P) 3(R)
1(P)

B-54
Chapter 4
Slide valves The effective seal of a longitudinal slide valve is ensured either by very
tight fit between the piston slide and valve body, or by the use of o-rings.
The actuating force of these valves is low, as virtually only the internal
friction of the valve must be overcome.
Fig. 4.2:
5/2-way valve with sus-
pended disk (seat valve)
12(Y) 5(R) 4(A) 1(P) 2(B) 3(S) 14(Z)
4(A) 2(B)
14(Z) 5(R) 1(P) 3(S) 12(Y)
The suspended disk principle has the advantage over the longitudinal
principle of relatively short switching travel slide, in addition to the lower
susceptibility to wear that it shares with the poppet valve.

B-55
Chapter 4
4.3 Actuation types
The actuation types of directional control valves depend on the require-

ments of the application. A variety of manual types are available, as well
as pneumatic and electrical types. These actuation types can also be
combined, for example, in solenoid-operated valves – the option of
manual actuation may prove useful during power failures.

B-56
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.3:
Actuation types Manually General
operation
Pushbutton
Lever
Lever with detent
Pedal
Mechanical Plunger
operation
Roller
Roller, monodirectional
Spring
Spring-centering
Compressed Direct operation by application

air of compressed air
Indirect operation, by application

of compressed air, pilot control
Electrical Single solenoid

operation
Two solenoids
Combined Pilot-controlled valve, double-

operation solenoid, manual override
Magnetic Permanent magnet

operation

B-57
Chapter 4
4.4 Conversion of electrical to pneumatic signals
Solenoid-operated valves make use of the respective advantages of

pneumatic and electrical energy and are referred to as electro-
pneumatic converters. They consist of a pneumatic valve for the signal
output and an electrical switching element, the magnetic coil. When an
electrical current flows through the coil, an electro-magnetic field is gen-
erated that acts on the coil armature connected to the valve stem.
The magnetic energy is only present as long as current is flowing
through the coil. The return spring then switches the valve back to its
normal position.
The 2/2-way solenoid valve shown below has two connections, the sup- 2/2-way valve,
ply air port 1 and the exhaust air port 2. The valve has two switching normally-closed posi-
positions, the normal position and the actuated position. No exhaust is tion
possible with the valve in the normal or normally-closed position. It is
therefore mainly used as a shut-off valve.

B-58
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.4:
2/2-way valve 2
normally-closed position
1 1
2 2

B-59
Chapter 4
4.5 3/2-way solenoid valve, normally-closed position
This normally-closed seat valve is actuated directly by a magnetic coil

and closed by a return spring. In this type of valve, the coil armature and
valve stem normally make up a unit known as the armature or armature
tube (the armature is hollow). The armature bore is known as the ex-
haust opening.
When an electrical signal is applied to the coil, an electro-magnetic field Functional principle
is generated that lifts the lower armature seal from the valve seat. The
compressed air can flow from input 1 to output 2 of the valve and the
exhaust opening 3 in the armature is closed by the upper armature seal.
The armature is pressed against the exhaust air seal.
An eccentric cam acting on the armature flange can be used as a man-
ual override. Turning the cam from zero (0) to one (1) actuates the valve
manually. The cam must be turned back to the zero position for normal
magnetic actuation to be effective, otherwise the valve is locked in the
normally-open position.

B-60
Chapter 4
Fig. 4.5:
3/2-way solenoid valve,
normally-closed position
1 3
3 3
2 2
1 1
Application Typical applications for this valve are the control of single-acting cylin-
ders, indirect actuation of other pneumatic valves and the feed or shut-
off of compressed air in control systems.

B-61
Chapter 4
4.6 3/2-way solenoid valve, normally-open position
The design of this valve is identical to that of the normally-closed valve.

The connections have been implemented in such a manner that the
valve is normally open, however. In this switching position the valve is
pressurised at port 1 via the armature. An electrical signal to the mag-
netic coil moves the armature and the upper armature seal shuts off the
compressed-air supply at the valve seat. At the same time, the lower
armature seal is released from the lower valve seat and exhaust air
travels from port 2 to port 3.
Fig. 4.6:
2 3/2-way solenoid valve,
normally-open position
1 3
1 1
2 2
3 3
This configuration is suitable for applications that require an initial Application

pneumatic signal without the availability of an electrical signal, or appli-
cations in which the piston rod of a cylinder is extended in its normal
position. The normally-open position corresponds to the logical NOT
function. If no signal is available at the magnetic coil (logical 0 signal), a
pneumatic signal is generated (logical 1 signal). This is also known as
negation.

B-62
Chapter 4
4.7 Solenoid valves with pilot control
The magnetic coil can be relatively small on a valve with pilot control.
This has two major advantages from the electrical engineering stand-
point:
· lower power consumption
· reduced heat generation.
An electrical signal is applied to the coil, actuating the armature of the
pilot control. The pilot control signal actuates the valve.
Fig. 4.7:
Signal flow
in a pilot control system

B-63
Chapter 4
This illustration shows the functional principle of a pilot control valve.
Fig. 4.8:
Pilot control

B-64
Chapter 4
4.8 Baseplate valves
The valves shown on the previous pages with direct connections are
rarely used these days. Modern systems are equipped with baseplate
valves and the appropriate connection technology. In other words, en-
ergy supply and exhaust is realised via baseplates. Several valves can
be mounted on a single baseplate to perform a wide variety of actions.
These valves are generally realised as slide valves with pilot control. All
connections come from below, the power supply and exhaust air are
ducted via the baseplate, and the outputs of the individual valves are led
outward laterally. The pilot control exhaust air is ducted and also re-
moved via the baseplate.
Fig. 4.9:
Baseplate with three sole-
noid valves

B-65
Chapter 4
4.8.1 3/2-way solenoid valve with pilot control

In the normal position the supply air at port 1 is applied to the valve pis- Description
ton. Pressure is also applied to the pilot control valve through a control of functions
path in the valve. An additional control path goes to the right side of the
piston and supports the spring in holding the piston in its normal posi-
tion. This control connection also effects a faster return. Port 2 is ex-
hausted via port 3.
Fig. 4.10:
3/2-way solenoid valve
with pilot control
When an electrical signal is applied, the armature is pulled to the left,

opening the passage through the pilot valve to the control surface of the
valve piston. (The left control surface of the piston is larger in diameter
and creates a force to the right which is stronger than the combined
force generated by the spring and the pressurised air on the holding
surface and therefore switches the piston to the right). This opens the
air flow from port 1 to port 2 and blocks port 3. When the control signal
is canceled, the armature reseats itself, which allows the spring and the
pressure applied to the right side of the piston to switch the valve back
to its normal position. The pilot control valve exhausts via port 82 and
the 3/2-way valve closes again.

B-66
Chapter 4
Note Proper exhaust of all connections must be ensured in order to trigger a

safe switching action.
4.8.2 5/2-way valve with pilot control

A valve with two power ports must be used for applications such as the
control of double-acting cylinders. 5/2-way valves are generally used for
this purpose. As a rule, these valves are also implemented as spool
valves.
Description In the valve's normal position, the spring and applied pressure hold the
of functions valve piston to the left. Port 1 is linked to port 2 and port 4 exhausts via
port 5. When an electrical signal is applied to the coil, the armature
opens the passage to the valve piston. The valve now opens the pas-
sage from the pressurised port 1 to 4, and power port 2 exhausts to 3.
When the electrical signal is canceled, the pressure on port 1 and the
spring switch the valve back to its normal position. The pilot control
valve exhausts via port 84.
Fig. 4.11:
5/2-way valve
with pilot control
Note This valve returns to its normal position in the event of a power failure.
This may result in a movement within the system.

B-67
Chapter 4
4.8.3 5/2-way double solenoid valve with pilot control

The valves described so far are switched back to their normal positions Description
by a return spring, that is, the coil switches the valve in one direction of functions
and the spring switches it in the opposite direction. The valve switches
back to its normal position as soon as current stops flowing through the
coil. This must be taken into consideration when designing a circuit.
In a double solenoid valve the return spring is replaced by a second coil.
If the last signal received was applied to coil Y2, the supply air flows
from 1 to 2 and the exhaust air from 4 to 5. When the signal is no longer
applied to Y2, the piston remains in its last position, that is, the switching
position is retained. The valve will not switch until a signal is applied to
the other coil. The supply air will now flow from 1 to 4 and the exhaust
air from 2 to 3.
Fig. 4.12:
5/2-way double solenoid
valve with pilot control
Unlike valves with return springs, double solenoid valves remain in their Note
last switching position even if no signal is applied to either coil. The
valve thus retains its setting. The use of these valves in electro-
pneumatic systems has many advantages. For example, the switching
signal to the coil need only be of a very short duration (10 - 25 ms).
Their electrical power requirements are thus modest. Cylinder positions
can thus be retained in circuits with complex sequences of operations
without the need for latching relays for the buffering of electrical signal
states.

B-68
Chapter 4
4.8.4 5/3-way valve with pilot control

Individual machines and lines often use valves that permit cylinders to
be positioned or motors to be stopped. EMERGENCY OFF conditions
frequently require the use of valves with a specific response in the event
of power failure. Multi-position valves fulfill these requirements. Cylin-
ders and motors can reach a wide variety of states through the selection
of various intermediate positions. Two intermediate settings are mainly
used in pneumatics.
Fig. 4.13:
Normal position
closed
Fig. 4.14:
Normal position
exhausted
A spring centering mechanism switches both types of valves to the mid-

dle position when no control signal is applied. While the cylinder remains
under pressure in the normally-closed position, in the normally-
exhausted position it comes to a stop in a depressurised (floating) state.

B-69
Chapter 4
5/3-way valve, normally-closed Description

of functions
Port 1 is closed in the normal position, as are outputs 2 and 4. When an
electrical signal is applied to Y1, the piston is displaced to the right,
opening the passage from 1 to 4. Output 2 exhausts to 3. The control
signal must be applied until the working motion is complete. When the
control signal is canceled, the spring centering mechanism returns the
piston to mid-position. If an electrical signal is now applied to Y2, the
piston is displaced to the left, opening the passage from 1 to 2 while port
4 exhausts to 5. In this direction, the control signal must also be applied
until the working motion is complete.
Fig. 4.15:
5/3-way solenoid valve
with pilot control,
normally-closed

B-71
Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Measuring instruments

B-72
Chapter 5
In many cases, the information "live" / "not live" is sufficient to trace a

fault. Voltage testers with an LED to indicate the required information
can be used for this purpose. More recent units can even be used to
roughly determine the voltage level. If, however, the exact voltage or
current needs to be determined (when testing analog sensors, deter-
mining actual switching voltages or detecting shorts within the coils of
relays or solenoids etc.), a multimeter is required.
Multimeters fall into one of two categories depending on their display:
· Mechanical instruments with analog displays.
· Electronic instruments with digital displays.
In principle however, voltage, current and resistance can be measured
with either type. The last of these three multimeter functions also makes
conventional continuity testers superfluous.

B-73
Chapter 5
5.1 Mechanical measuring instruments with analog displays
Mechanical measuring instruments with analog displays are pointer in-

struments. The illustration below shows the front view of such a unit.
Fig. 5.1:
Front view of a mechanical
measuring instrument with
an analog display

B-74
Chapter 5
The measuring element, which is often realised as a moving-coil unit

due to the need for high accuracy, is the central component of a me-
chanical instrument. This moving-coil unit consists of a magnetic coil
mounted on a pivot and surrounded by a permanent magnet.
Moving-coil measuring With the field lines shown here, the moving coil will turn clockwise.
instrument
Fig. 5.2:
Moving-coil measuring
instrument

B-75
Chapter 5
Fig. 5.2:
Continuation
1. Permanent magnet with pole 6. Pointer counterweight

pieces 7. Zero-point adjuster
2. Soft-iron core 8. Pointer shaft
3. Moving coil 9. Jewel bearing
4. Coil spring
5. Pointer
When an electrical current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is

generated that reacts to the field of the permanent magnet, applying
torque to the pointer axis. This torque must be restrained, however, as
the magnetic energy generated should provide information on the volt-
age or the current flowing through the coil. For this reason, preliminary
tension is applied to the pivoting magnetic coil by two mechanical
springs. The magnetic coil thus moves into the field of the permanent
magnet up to the point at which the torque of the coil is balanced
against the springs. The power of the magnetic field, and thus that of
the current flowing through the coil, is now indicated by the pointer and
scale.
All moving-coil units are identified by symbols on the scale that indicate
their quality.

B-76
Chapter 5
Fig. 5.3:
Symbols Moving-coil instrument with permanent magnet
Zero setting
Error class of instrument in percentage

1,5 of full-scale value
4 Test voltage 4KV
Measurement of DC and AC voltage
Use in horizontal position
Please observe operating instructions
Due to their design, moving-coil units are only suitable for direct currents
and DC voltages, and are limited to 50 mA or 0.3 V. A number of inter-
nal circuits are required to measure higher currents and voltages or pe-
riodic quantities.
Measuring The direct/periodic quantity ranges are selected using the multimeter's
periodic quantities selector switch. To determine exact values, the user must be informed
about the nature of the electrical quantities. When selecting the peri-
odic-quantity range (often marked in red) for example, alternating volt-
age is internally converted to direct voltage by a rectifier. The display
often contains several scales due to the mathematical properties of rec-
tification. The user can read the appropriate value on the alternating-
voltage section.

B-77
Chapter 5
The objective is to measure the voltage across two terminals, or the Measuring
voltage drop across a load such as a lamp, a motor or solenoid valve. voltages
The result is the following switching diagram:
Fig. 5.4:
Switching diagram
To measure voltage, the multimeter is always switched in parallel to the

load. As the maximum permissible voltage for the moving coil unit is 0.3
V, the voltage must be divided when measuring higher voltages. This is
accomplished by switching various highly accurate resistors in series
with the moving-coil unit as appropriate to the required measuring
ranges.
Fig. 5.5:
Basic circuit

B-78
Chapter 5
When measuring unknown voltages, start with the highest measuring

range to avoid destroying the moving-coil unit with excessive voltage.
Reduce the measuring range until the pointer is finally in the last third of
the scale.
Caution If a multimeter is applied in parallel while set to current measurement,
the resulting short circuit will destroy the multimeter.
Measuring current The current flowing through a load (lamp, solenoid valve, etc.) is to be
determined. In this case, the multimeter must be inserted into the circuit
in series with the load.
Fig. 5.6:
Switching diagram
The internal resistance of the multimeter is extremely low while in the

current measurement mode (and very high when measuring voltages) to
prevent the multimeter from adversely affecting the circuit.
Remember that the maximum operating current of the moving-coil unit
must not exceed 50 mA. To permit the measurement of higher currents,
resistors are switched in parallel to the measuring unit to provide current
division corresponding to the measuring range.

B-79
Chapter 5
Fig. 5.7:
Basic circuit
To prevent the destruction of the moving-coil unit, the same precaution

applies as for voltage measurements.
When measuring unknown currents, start with the highest measuring
range. Reduce the measuring range one step at a time until the pointer
is in the last third of the scale.
A battery in the multimeter (1.5 V) serves as a source of current. The Measuring resistance
strength of this current permits the resistance of an unknown load to be
calculated using Ohm's law.

B-80
Chapter 5
5.2 Electronic measuring instrument with digital displays
Electronic measuring instruments with digital displays return their meas-

ured values as a numerical output on a multiple-digit 7-segment display.
The illustration below shows the front panel of an electronic measuring
instrument.
Fig. 5.8:
Front view of an electronic
measuring instrument
with a digital display

B-81
Chapter 5
All of the above considerations for the use of mechanical measuring

instruments apply equally to digital instruments. The most important
difference between the two types is the electronic, rather than electro-
mechanical output of the measurement data. We will not describe the
specific functions of electronic instruments in detail, however.
As a further difference, electronic measuring instruments often have an
extended range of functions. In addition to measuring current, voltage
and resistance, electronic instruments may measure capacitance, de-
termine frequencies, perform logic tests, etc.

B-83
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
PLC in automation technology

B-84
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
The first Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) was developed by a

group of engineers at General Motors in 1968, when the company was
looking for an alternative to replace complex relay control systems.
The new control system had to meet the following requirements:
§ Simple programming
§ Program changes without system intervention (no internal rewiring)
§ Smaller, cheaper and more reliable than corresponding relay control
systems
§ Simple, low cost maintenance
Subsequent development resulted in a system which enabled the simple
connection of binary signals. The requirements as to how these signals
were to be connected was specified in the control program. With the
new systems it became possible for the first time to plot signals on a
screen and to file these in electronic memories.
Since then, three decades have passed, during which the enormous
progress made in the development of micro electronics did not stop
short of programmable logic controllers. For instance, even if program
optimisation and thus a reduction of required memory capacity initially
still represented an important key task for the programmer, nowadays
this is hardly of any significance.
Moreover, the range of functions has grown considerably. 15 years ago,
process visualisation, analogue processing or even the use of a PLC as
a controller, were considered as Utopian. Nowadays, the support of
these functions forms an integral part of many PLCs.
The following pages in this introductory chapter outline the basic design
of a PLC together with the currently most important tasks and applica-
tions.

B-85
Chapter 6
6.2 Areas of application of a PLC
Every system or machine has a controller. Depending on the type of

technology used, controllers can be divided into pneumatic, hydraulic,
electrical and electronic controllers. Frequently, a combination of differ-
ent technologies is used. Furthermore, differentiation is made between
hard-wired programmable (e.g. wiring of electro-mechanical or elec-
tronic components) and programmable logic controllers. The first is used
primarily in cases, where any reprogramming by the user is out of the
question and the job size warrants the development of a special con-
troller. Typical applications for such controllers can be found in auto-
matic washing machines, video cameras, cars.
However, if the job size does not warrant the development of a special
controller or if the user is to have the facility of making simple or inde-
pendent program changes, or of setting timers and counters, then the
use of a universal controller, where the program is written to an elec-
tronic memory, is the preferred option. The PLC represents such a uni-
versal controller. It can be used for different applications and, via the
program installed in its memory, provides the user with a simple means
of changing, extending and optimising control processes.

B-86
Chapter 6
Fig. 6.1:
Example of a
PLC application
The original task of a PLC involved the interconnection of input signals

according to a specified program and, if "true", to switch the corre-
sponding output. Boolean algebra forms the mathematical basis for this
operation, which recognises precisely two defined statuses of one vari-
able: "0" and "1" (see also chapter 3). Accordingly, an output can only
assume these two statuses. For instance, a connected motor could
therefore be either switched on or off, i.e. controlled.
This function has coined the name PLC: Programmable logic controller,
i.e. the input/output behaviour is similar to that of an electro-magnetic
relay or pneumatic switching valve controller; the program is stored in an
electronic memory.
However, the tasks of a PLC have rapidly multiplied: Timer and counter
functions, memory setting and resetting, mathematical computing op-
erations all represent functions, which can be executed by practically
any of today’s PLCs.

B-87
Chapter 6
The demands to be met by PLC’s continued to grow in line with their

rapidly spreading usage and the development in automation technology;
e.g. visualisation, i.e. the representation of machine statuses such as
the control program being executed, via display or monitor. Also control-
ling, i.e. the facility to intervene in control processes or, alternatively, to
make such intervention by unauthorised persons impossible. Very soon,
it also became necessary to interconnect and synchronise individual
systems controlled via PLC by means of automation technology. Hence
a master computer facilitates the means to issue higher-level com-
mands for program processing to several PLC systems.
The networking of several PLCs as well as that of a PLC and master
computer is effected via special communication interfaces. To this ef-
fect, many of the more recent PLCs are compatible with open, stan-
dardised bus systems, such as Profibus to DIN 19 245. Thanks to the
enormously increased performance capacity of advanced PLCs, these
can even directly assume the function of a master computer.
At the end of the seventies, binary inputs and outputs were finally ex-
panded with the addition of analogue inputs and outputs, since many of
today’s technical applications require analogue processing (force meas-
urement, speed setting, servo-pneumatic positioning systems). At the
same time, the acquisition or output of analogue signals permits an ac-
tual/setpoint value comparison and as a result the realisation of auto-
matic control engineering functions, a task, which widely exceeds the
scope suggested by the name (programmable logic controller).
The PLCs currently on offer in the market place have been adapted to
customer requirements to such an extent that it has become possible to
purchase an eminently suitable PLC for virtually any application. As
such, miniature PLCs are now available with a minimum number of in-
puts/outputs starting from just a few hundred Dollars.

B-88
Chapter 6
Many PLCs can be expanded by means of additional input/output, ana-

logue, positioning and communication modules. Special PLCs are avail-
able for safety technology, shipping or mining tasks. Yet further PLCs
are able to process several programs simultaneously – (multitasking).
Finally, PLCs are coupled with other automation components, thus cre-
ating considerably wider areas of application.
Fig. 6.2:
Example of a PLC:
Siemens S7-300

B-89
Chapter 6
6.3 Basic design of a PLC
The term ’programmable logic controller’ is defined as follows by IEC

1131, Part 1:
"A digitally operating electronic system, designed for use in an industrial
environment, which uses a programmable memory for the internal stor-
age of user-oriented instructions for implementing specific functions
such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic, to control,
through digital or analog inputs and outputs, various types of machines
or processes. Both the PC and its associated peripherals are designed
so that they can be easily integrated into an industrial control system
and easily used in all their intended functions."
A programmable logic controller is therefore nothing more than a com-
puter, tailored specifically for certain control tasks.
Fig. 6.3 illustrates the system components of a PLC.
Fig. 6.3:
System components
PLC-program
of a PLC
Input module Central control unit Output module
Sensors Actuators
The function of an input module is to convert incoming signals into sig-

nals which can be processed by the PLC and to pass these to the cen-
tral control unit. The reverse task is performed by an output module.
This converts the PLC signal into signals suitable for the actuators.
The actual processing of the signals is effected in the central control unit
in accordance with the program stored in the memory.

B-90
Chapter 6
The program of a PLC can be created in various ways: via assembler-

type commands in ’statement list’, in higher-level, problem-oriented lan-
guages such as structured text or in the form of a flow chart such as
represented by a sequential function chart. In Europe, the use of func-
tion block diagrams based on function charts with graphic symbols for
logic gates is widely used. In America, the ’ladder diagram’ is the pre-
ferred language by users.
Depending on how the central control unit is connected to the input and
output modules, differentiation can be made between compact PLCs
(input module, central control unit and output module in one housing) or
modular PLCs.
Fig. 6.4 shows the FX0 controller by Mitsubishi as an example of a
compact PLC and the A120 by Modicon, and the FPC405 by Festo as
examples of a modular PLC.
Fig. 6.4:
Compact PLC, modular
PLC, PLC plug-in cards

B-91
Chapter 6
Modular PLCs may be configured individually. The modules required for

the practical application – apart from digital input/output modules which
can, for instance, include analogue, positioning and communication
modules – are inserted in a rack, where individual modules are linked
via a bus system. This type of design is also known as series technol-
ogy. Two examples of modular PLCs are shown in figs. 6.2 and 6.4.
These represent the familiar modular PLC series by AEG Modicon and
the S7-300 series by Siemens.
A wide range of variants exists, particularly in the case of more recent
PLCs. These include both modular as well as compact characteristics
and important features such as space saving, flexibility and scope for
expansion.
The card format PLC is a special type of modular PLC, developed dur-
ing the last few years. With this type, individual or a number of printed
circuit board modules are in a standardised housing. The Festo FPC
405 is representative of this type of design (Fig. 6.4).
A further special PLC type is the programmable valve terminal. Special
inputs, the PLC itself and pneumatic valves are integrated in these units
in an effort to reduce the installation complexity significantly. The termi-
nal itself serves as the switchgear cabinet.
Fig. 6.5:
Festo valve terminal
The hardware design for a programmable logic controller is such that it

is able to withstand typical industrial environments as regard signal lev-
els, heat, humidity, and fluctuations in current supply and mechanical
impact.

B-92
Chapter 6
6.4 The new PLC standard IEC 1131
Previously valid PLC standards focussing mainly on PLC programming

were generally geared to current state of the art technology in Europe at
the end of the seventies. This took into account non-networked PLC
systems, which primarily execute logic operations on binary signals. DIN
19 239, for example, specifies programming languages which possess
the corresponding language commands for these applications.
Previously, no equivalent, standardised language elements existed for
the PLC developments and system expansions made in the eighties,
such as processing of analogue signals, interconnection of intelligent
modules, networked PLC systems etc. Consequently, PLC systems by
different manufacturers required entirely different programming.
Since 1992, an international standard now exists for programmable logic
controllers and associated peripheral devices (programming and diag-
nostic tools, testing equipment, man-to-machine interfaces etc.). In this
context, a device configured by the user and consisting of the above
components is known as a PLC system.
The new IEC 1131 standard consists of five parts:
§ Part 1: General information
§ Part 2: Equipment requirements and tests
§ Part 3: Programming languages
§ Part 4: User guidelines (in preparation with IEC)
§ Part 5: Messaging service specification (in preparation with IEC)
Parts 1 to 3 of this standard were adopted unamended as European

Standard EN 61 131, Parts 1 to 3. As such, they also hold the status of
a German standard.
The purpose of the new standard was to define and standardise the
design and functionality of a PLC and the languages required for pro-
gramming to the extent where users were able to operate using different
PLC systems without any particular difficulties.

B-93
Chapter 6
The most important stipulations of DIN IEC-1131 are:

§ The new standard takes into account as many aspects as possible
regarding the design, application and use of PLC systems.
§ The extensive specifications serve to define open, standardised PLC
systems.
§ Manufacturers must conform to the specifications of this standard
both with regard to purely technical requirements for the PLC as well
as the programming of controllers.
§ Any variations must be fully documented for the user.
After initial reservations, a relatively large group of interested people

(PLCopen) has been formed to support this standard. A large number of
major PLC suppliers are members of the association, i.e. Allen Bradley,
Klöckner-Moeller, Philips, to mention a few. PLC manufacturers such as
Siemens or Mitsubishi also offer control and programming systems
conforming to IEC-1131.
The initial programming systems are already available in the market and
others are being developed at the time of going to press. The norm
therefore stands a good chance of being accepted and succeeding.

B-95
Chapter 7
Chapter 7
Design and mode of operation

of a PLC

B-96
Chapter 7
7.1 Structure of a PLC
With computer systems, differentiation is generally made between

hardware, firmware and software. The same applies for a PLC, which is
essentially based on a micro computer.
The hardware consists of the actual device technology, i.e. the printed
circuit boards, integrated modules, wires, battery, housing, etc.
Firmware is the software part, which is permanently installed and
supplied by the PLC manufacturer. This includes fundamental system
routines, used for starting the processor after the power has been swit-
ched on. Additionally, there is the operating system in the case of pro-
grammable logic controllers, which is generally stored in a ROM, a read-
only memory, or in the EPROM.
Finally, there is the software, which is the user program written by the
PLC user. User programs are usually installed in the RAM, a random
access memory, where they can be easily modified.
Fig. 7.1:
Fundamental design Data bus
of a microcomputer
Micro- ROM RAM Input- Output-

processor module module
(CPU) Operating- Program
system and data
Address bus
Control bus

B-97
Chapter 7
Fig. 7.1 illustrates the fundamental design of a microcomputer. PLC

hardware – as in the case of almost all of today’s microcomputer sys-
tems – is based on a bus system. A bus system is a number of electrial
lines divided into address, data and control lines. The address line is
used to select the address of a connected bus station and the data line
to transmit the required information. The control lines are necessary to
activate the correct bus station either as a transmitter or sender.
The major bus stations connected to the bus system are the micropro-
cessor and the memory. The memory can be divided into memory for
the firmware and memory for the user program and data.
Depending on the structure of the PLC, the input and output modules
are connected to a single common bus or – with the help of a bus inter-
face – to an external I/O bus. Particularly in the case of larger modular
PLC systems, an external I/O bus would be more usual.
Finally, a connection is required for a programming device or a PC, no-
wadays mostly in the form of a serial interface.
Fig. 7.2 illustrates the Festo FPC 101 as an example.
Fig. 7.2:
Festo FPC 101

B-98
Chapter 7
7.2 Central control unit of a PLC
In essence, the central control unit of a PLC consists of a microcompu-

ter. The operating system of the PLC manufacturer makes the universal
computer into a PLC, optimised specifically for control technology tasks.
Design of the Fig. 7.3 illustrates a simplified version of a microprocessor which repre-
central control unit sents the heart of a microcomputer.
Fig. 7.3:
Design of a microprocessor Data bus
ALU Command register

Control bus Control bus
Accumulator Program counter
Arithmetic unit Control unit
Address bus
A microprocessor consists in the main of an arithmetic unit, control unit

and a small number of internal memory units, so-called registers.
The task of the arithmetic unit – the ALU (arithmetic logic unit) – is to
execute arithmetic and logic operations with the data transmitted.
The accumulator, AC for short, is a special register assigned directly to
the ALU. This stores both data to be processed as well as the result of
an operation.
The instruction register stores a command called from the program
memory until this is decoded and executed.

B-99
Chapter 7
A command consists of an operation part and an address part. The

operation part indicates which logic operation is to be carried out. The
address part defines the operands (input signals, flags etc.), with which
a logic operation is to be executed.
The program counter is a register, which contains the address of the
next command to be processed. The following section will be dealing
with this in greater detail.
The control unit regulates and controls the entire logic sequence of the
operations required for the execution of a command.
Today’s conventional microcomputer systems operate according to the Instruction cycle within
so-called "by-Neumann principle". According to this principle, the com- central control unit
puter processes the program line by line. In simple terms, you could say
that each program line of the PLC user program is processed in se-
quence.
This applies wholly irrespective of the programming language, in which
the PLC program is written, be it in the form of a text program (state-
ment list) or a graphic program (ladder diagram, sequential function
chart). Since these various forms of representation always result in a
series of program lines within the computer, they are subsequently pro-
cessed one after the other.

B-100
Chapter 7
In principle, a program line, i.e. generally a command, is processed in

two steps:
§ fetching the command from the program memory
§ executing the command
Fig. 7.4:
Command sequence Data bus
Microprocessor Memory
Command Command
register
Control signals Command
Program-
counter
+1
Addresses
Address bus
The contents of the program counter are transferred to the address bus.
The control unit then causes the command at a specified address in the
program memory, to be relayed to the data bus. From there, the com-
mand is read to the instruction register. Once the command has been
decoded, the control unit generates a sequence of control signals for
execution.
During the execution of a program, the commands are fetched in se-
quence. A mechanism which permits this sequence is therefore requi-
red. This task is performed by a simple incrementer, i.e. a step enabling
facility in the program counter.

B-101
Chapter 7
7.3 Function mode of a PLC
Programs for conventional data processing are processed once only

from top to bottom and then terminated. In contrast with this, the pro-
gram of a PLC is continually processed cyclically.
Fig. 7.5:
Cyclical processing
of a PLC program
Image table
Inputs
Inputs
PLC program
Image table
Outputs
Outputs

B-102
Chapter 7
The characteristics of cyclical processing are:

§ As soon as the program has been executed once, it automatically
jumps back to the beginning and processing is repeated.
§ Prior to first program line being processed, i.e. at the beginning of
the cycle, the status of the inputs is stored in the image table. The
process image is a separate memory area accessed during a cycle.
The status of an input thus remains constant during a cycle even if it
has physically changed.
§ Similar to inputs, outputs are not immediately set or reset during a
cycle, but the status stored intermediately in the process output
image. Only at the end of a cycle are all the outputs physically swit-
ched according to the logic status stored in the memory.
The processing of a program line via the central control unit of a PLC
takes time which, depending on PLC and operation can vary between a
few microseconds and a few milliseconds.
The time required by the PLC for a single execution of a program inclu-
ding the actualisation and output of the process image, is termed the
cycle time. The longer the program is and the longer the respective PLC
requires to process an individual program line, the longer the cycle.
Realistic time periods for this are between approximately 1 and 100 mil-
liseconds.
The consequences of cyclical processing of a PLC program using a
process image are as follows:
§ Input signals shorter than the cycle time may possibly not be re-
cognised.
§ In some cases, there may be a delay of two cycle times between the
occurence of an input signal and the desired reaction of an output to
this signal.
§ Since the commands are processed sequentially, the specific beha-
viour sequence of a PLC program may be crucial.
With some applications it is essential for inputs or outputs to be acces-

sed directly during a cycle. This type of program processing, bypassing
of the process image, is therefore also supported by some PLC sys-
tems.

B-103
Chapter 7
7.4 Application program memory
Programs specifically developed for particular applications require a

program memory, from which these can be read cyclically by the central
control unit. The requirements for such a program memory are relatively
simple to formulate:
§ It should be as simple as possible to modify or to newly create and
store the program with the help of a programming device or a PC
§ Safeguards should be in place to ensure that the program cannot be
lost – either during power failure or through interference voltage
§ The program memory should be cost effective
§ The program memory should be sufficiently fast in order not to delay
the operation of the central control unit.
Nowadays, three different types of memory are used in practice:

§ RAM
§ EPROM
§ EEPROM
The RAM (random access memory) is a fast and highly cost effective RAM
memory. Since the main memory of computers (i.e. PLCs) consist of
RAMs, they are produced in such high quantities that they are readily
available at low cost without competition.
RAMs are read/write memories and can be easily programmed and mo-
dified.
The disadvantage of a RAM is that it is volatile, i.e. the program stored
in the RAM is lost in the event of power failure. This is why RAMs are
backed up by battery or accumulator. Since the service life and capacity
of modern batteries are rated for several years, RAM back-up is relati-
vely simple. Despite the fact that these are high performance batteries it
is nevertheless essential to replace the batteries in good time.

B-104
Chapter 7
EPROM The EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is also a fast

and low cost memory which, in comparison with RAM, has the added
advantage of being non-volatile, i.e. remanent. The memory contents
therefore remain intact even in the event of power failure.
Fig. 7.6:
Example of an EPROM
For the purpose of a program modification, however, the entire memory

must first be erased and, after a cooling period, completely reprogram-
med. Erasing generally requires an erasing device, and a special pro-
gramming unit is used for programming.
Despite this relatively complex process of erasing, – cooling – re-
programming EPROMs are very frequently used in PLCs, since these
represent reliable and cost effective memories. In practice, a RAM is
often used during the programming and commissioning phase of a ma-
chine. On completion of the commissioning, the program is then trans-
ferred to an EPROM.
EEPROM The EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM), EEROM (e-

lectrically erasable ROM) and EAROM (electrically alterable ROM) or
also flash-EPROM have been available for some time. The EEPROM in
particular, is used widely as an application memory in PLCs. The
EEPROM is an electrically erasable memory, which can be subse-
quently written to.

B-105
Chapter 7
7.5 Input module
The input module of a PLC is the module, which sensors are connected
to. The sensor signals are to be passed on to the central control unit.
The important functions of an input module (for the application) are as
follows:
§ Reliable signal detection
§ Voltage adjustment of control voltage to logic voltage
§ Protection of sensitive electronics from external voltages
§ Screening of signals
Fig. 7.7:
Block diagram
Optocoupler Signal to of an input module
Error
Input Signal the
voltage
signal delay control unit
detection
The main component of today’s input modules which meets these requi-
rements is the optocoupler.
The optocoupler transmits the sensor information with the help of light,
thereby creating an electrical isolation between the control and logic
circuits, thereby protecting the sensitive electronics from spurious exter-
nal voltages. Nowadays advanced optocouplers guarantee protection for
up to approximately 5 kV, which is adequate for industrial applications.
The adjustment of control and logic voltage, in the straightforward case
of a 24 V control voltage, can be effected with the help of a breakdown
diode/resistor circuit. In the case of 220 V AC, a rectifier is connected in
series.
Depending on PLC manufacturer reliable signal detection is ensured
either by means of an additional downstream threshold detector or a
corresponding range of breakdown diodes and optocouplers. Precise
data regarding the signals to be detected is specified in DIN 19 240 .

B-106
Chapter 7
The screening of the signal emitted by the sensor is critical in industrial

automation. In industry, electrical lines are generally loaded heavily due
to inductive interference voltages, which leads to a multitude of interfe-
rence impulses on every signal line. Signal lines can be screened either
via shielding, discrete cable ducts etc, or alternatively the input module
of the PLC assumes the screening via an input signal delay.
This therefore requires the input signal to be applied for a sufficiently
long period, before it is even recognised as an input signal. Since, due
to their inductive nature, interference impulses are primarily transient
signals, a relatively short input signal delay of a few milliseconds is suffi-
cient to filter out most of the interference impulses.
Input signal delay is effected mainly via the hardware, i.e. via connection
of the input to an RC module. In isolated cases, however, it is also pos-
sible to produce an adjustable signal delay via the software.
The duration of an input signal delay is approximately 1 to 20 millise-
conds – depending on manufacturer and type. Most manufacturers offer
especially fast inputs for tasks, where the input signal delay is then too
long to recognise the required signal.
Differentiation is made between positive and negative switching connec-
tions when connecting sensors to PLC inputs. In other words, differenti-
ation is made between inputs representing a current sink or a current
source. In Germany for instance, in compliance with VDI 2880, positive
switching connections are mainly used, since this permits the use of
protective grounding. Positive switching means that the PLC input re-
presents a current sink. The sensor supplies the operating voltage or
control voltage to the input in the form of a 1-signal.
If protective grounding is employed, the output voltage of the sensor is
short-circuited towards 0 volts or the fuse switched off in the event of a
short-circuit in the signal line. This means that a logic 0 is applied at the
input of the PLC.

B-107
Chapter 7
In a number of countries, the use of negative switching sensors is com-

monplace, i.e. the PLC inputs operate as a power source. In these ca-
ses, a different protective measure must be used to prevent a 1-signal
from being applied to the input of the PLC in the event of a shortcircuit
on the signal line. Possible methods are the earthing of the positive
control voltage or insulation monitoring, i.e. protective grounding as a
protective measure.
7.6 Output module
Output modules conduct the signals of the central control unit to final
control elements, which are actuated according to the task. In the main,
the function of an output – as seen from the application of the PLC –
therefore includes the following:
§ Voltage adjustment of logic voltage to control voltage
§ Protection of sensitive electronics from spurious voltages from the
controller
§ Power amplification sufficient for the actuation of major final control
elements
§ Short-circuit and overload protection of output modules

B-108
Chapter 7
In the case of output modules, two fundamentally different methods are

available to achieve the above: Either the use of a relay or power elect-
ronics.
Fig. 7.8:
Block diagram of an output
module Optocoupler
Signal from Short-circuit Output
the Amplifier
monitoring signal
control unit
The optocoupler once again forms the basis for power electronics and
ensures the protection of the electronics and possibly also the voltage
adjustment.
A protective circuit consisting of diodes must protect the integral power
transistor from voltage surges.
Nowadays short-circuit protection, overload protection and power ampli-
fication are often ensured with fully integral modules. Standard short-
circuit protection measures the current flow via a power resistor so as to
switch off in the event of short-circuit; a temperature sensors provides
overload protection; a Darlington stage or alternative power transistor
stages provide the necessary power.
The permissible power of an output module is usually specified in a way
which permits differentiation to be made between the permissible power
of an output and the permissible cumulative power of an output module.
The cumulative power of a module is almost always considerably lower
than the total of individual permissible ratings, since power transistors
transmit heat to one another.

B-109
Chapter 7
If relays are used for the outputs, then the relay can assume practically
all the functions of an output module: The relay contact and relay coil
are electrically isolated from one another; the relay represents an ex-
cellent power amplifier and is particularly overload-proof, only short-
circuit protection must be ensured via an additional fuse. In practice,
however, optocouplers are nevertheless connected in series with relays,
since this renders the actuation of relays easier and simpler relays can
be used.
Relay outputs have the advantage that they can be used for different
output voltages. By contrast, electronic outputs have considerably hig-
her switching speeds and a longer service life than relays. In most ca-
ses, the power of the very small relays used in PLCs corresponds to that
of the power stages of electronic outputs.
In Germany for example, outputs are also connected positive switching
in accordance with VDI 2880, i.e. the output represents a power source
and supplies the operating voltage to the consuming device.
In the case of a short circuit of the output signal line to earth, the output
is short-circuited, if normal protective grounding measures are used.
The electronics switch to short circuit protection or the fuse switches off,
i.e. the consuming device cannot draw any current and is therefore un-
connected and rendered safe. (In accordance with DIN 0113, the dee-
nergised status must always be the safe status.)
If negative switching outputs are used, i.e. the output represents a cur-
rent sink, the protective measure must be adapted in such a way, that
the consuming device is rendered safe in the event of a short circuit on
the signal line. Again, protective grounding with isolation monitoring or
the neutralising of the positive control voltage are standard practice in
this case.

B-110
Chapter 7
7.7 Programming device /Personal computer
Each PLC has a programming and diagnostic tool in support of the PLC
application.
§ Programming
§ Testing
§ Commissioning
§ Fault finding
§ Program documentation
§ Program storage
These programming and diagnostic tools are either vendor specific pro-
gramming devices or personal computers with corresponding software.
Nowadays, the latter is almost exclusively the preferred variant, since
the enormous capacity of modern PCs, combined with their comparati-
vely low initial cost and high flexibility, represent crucial advantages.
Also available and being developed are so-called hand-held program-
mers for mini control systems and for maintenance purposes. With the
increasing use of notebook personal computers, i.e. portable, battery
operated PCs, the importance of hand-held programmers is steadily
decreasing.

B-111
Chapter 7
Any programming software conforming to IEC 1131-1 should provide Essential software
the user with a series of functions. Hence the programming software system functions
comprises software modules for:
§ Program input
Creating and modifying programs in one of the programming langu-
ages via a PLC.
§ Syntax test
Checking the input program and the input data for syntax accuracy,
thus minimising the input of faulty programs.
§ Translator
Translating the input program into a program which can be read and
processed by the PC, i.e. the generation of the machine code of the
corresponding PC.
§ Connection between PLC and PC
This data circuit effects the loading of a program to the PLC and the
execution of test functions.
§ Test functions
Supporting the user during writing and fault elimination and checking
the user program via
– a status check of inputs and outputs, timers, counters etc.
– testing of program sequences by means of single-step operations,
STOP commands etc.
– simulation by means of manual setting of inputs/outputs, setting
constants etc.
§ Status display of control systems
Output of information regarding machine, process and status of the
PLC system
– Status display of input and output signals
– Display/recording of status changes in external signals and internal
data
– Monitoring of execution times
– Real-time format of program execution.

B-112
Chapter 7
§ Documentation
Drawing up a description of the PLC system and the user program.
This consists of
– Description of the hardware configuration
– Printout of the user program with corresponding data and identi-
fiers for signals and comments
– Cross-reference list for all processed data such as inputs, outputs,
timers etc.
– Description of modifications.
§ Archiving of user program
Protection of the user program in non volatile memories such as
EPROM etc.

B-113
Chapter 8
Chapter 8
Communication

B-114
Chapter 8
8.1 The need for communication
By communication, we understand the transfer of information i.e. data

between the programmable logic controller and other data processing
devices, whereby these devices are used as an auxiliary means for spe-
cific control tasks, e. g. input of data takes place via a computer, output
of data via a printer controlling still remains the task of the PLC.
Automation increases the need for communication. Data needs to be
continually passed on from production to other operational areas. This
provides an overview of the production status and the individual tasks
(production data acquisition).
Automated systems nowadays are equipped with complex error and
fault detection systems. Fault indications and warnings must be gener-
ated, centralised and communicated automatically to the operator. To
this end, a printer – for logging – or an electronic display is connected to
the controller.
In some cases, data is to be transferred to the PLC by a computer in an
active process, or several control devices are combined into one system
network.
Mechatronik · Festo Didactic

B-115
Chapter 8
8.2 Data transmission
How can the PLC communicate with other data processing devices?
The individual bits, which are combined into one data word, must be
transmitted from one piece of data terminal equipment to another.
Basic differentiation is made here between two methods: parallel or se-
rial data transmission.
Parallel data transmission means that a separate line must be available
for each individual binary signal. When signal generators for example,
are connected to a programmable logic controller, a separate wire is
installed for each push button, limit switch, limiting value encoder and
sensor to a terminal strip and from there to the input of the PLC. All in-
formation (“push button actuated”, “cylinder advanced”) can in this way
be transmitted simultaneously (parallel) to the PLC. Since in the case of
parallel transmission of input and output signals, a line is required for
each signal generator, literally miles of cable bundles are installed over-
all for correspondingly complex machines.
For the parallel transmission of a data word, sufficient lines must there-
fore be available to transmit all bits of this data word simultaneously.
With serial data transmission only one binary signal is transmitted at a
time. Again, using the example of the PLC: If several modules of a PLC
are interconnected, it is not necessary for a individual line to be installed
for each input or output, instead the information regarding inputs or out-
puts is transmitted consecutively (serial).
Accordingly only one data line is therefore required for the serial tans-
mission of data words, irrespective of the number of bits, to transmit the
binary signals consecutively. In order to now be able to represent the
various signals in the form of a related data word, it is necessary to
agree the transmission speed, word length and specific start and end
characters.

B-116
Chapter 8
8.3 Interfaces
Different coding procedures, transmission and operating methods as

well as different methods of data protection make it essential to define
electrical, functional and mechanical characteristics of interfaces in
standards.
Voltage interfaces Current interface

Designation V.24 Centronics 20 mA
Transmission mode serial asynchro- parallel serial asynchro-
nous nous
Mode of operation full duplex simplex full duplex
Standard V24 Centronics TTY
RS-232-C TTL
Transmission distance Up to 30 m up to 2 m up to 1000 m
6
transmission speed 20 000 Bit/s 10 Bit/s 20 000 Bit/s
Logic level 15 V ³ ‘0’ ³ 3 V ‘1’ ³ -2,4 V ‘1’ = Current off
Data line -3 V ³ ‘1’ ³ -15 V ‘0’ ³ -0,8 V ‘0’ = Current on
A parallel interface is also known as a Centronics interface. 8 data lines

are available for data transmission, i.e. 8 bits may be transmitted simul-
taneously. The Centronics interface is very frequently used – over small
distances – for the connection of printers.
The most frequently used interface for serial data transmission is the
V.24 interface.
The Centronics and V.24 interface are both voltage interfaces. Bits are
represented for ’0’ or ’1’ via a specified voltage level. In order to create
this signal level, a joint ground line must be incorporated for the V.24
interface. In the case of a Centronics interface, each data line has its
own ground line.
In the case of both interfaces, additional lines have been defined for
data flow control apart from the data and ground lines.

B-117
Chapter 8
Considerably more simple than via a V.24 interface is a connection con-

figured via a serial 20 mA interface. All this current-loop interface needs
is a transmitter and receiver loop for the transmission of data. A
constant current of 20 mA signals the ’0’ level (logic 0), "current off" sig-
nals the ’1’ level (logic 1) on the data line. This interface is widely used
in control technology due to its interference immunity.
8.4 Communication in the field area
A multitude of information has to be transported within automated sys-

tems and machines. Simple binary sensor signals, analogue signals of
measuring sensors or proportional valves, and also recorded data and
parameters for the control of processes need to be exchanged reliably
between the control technology components of an automated system.
The data exchange for this must take place within specified reaction
times, since system parts could otherwise continue to operate un-
controlled.
A fieldbus is a serial, digital transmission system for these signals and
data. All stations on a fieldbus must be in a position to receive the com-
munication from other bus stations and to exchange data in accordance
with the agreed protocol. A bus station, taking the initiative for the data
exchange is known as a master. Bus stations receiving or supplying
data purely on the instruction of the master are termed slaves.
Two-wire cables consisting of either twisted pairs or coaxial cables are
used for the transmission of data in bus systems. The extent of wiring
for bus coupled systems is therefore minimal.
A multitude of different bus systems is available in the market place,
which can basically be divided into 2 groups: closed and open bus sys-
tems.

B-118
Chapter 8
By closed systems we understand systems, which are

§ vendor-specific,
§ do not have any transmission protocol disclosure and
§ are not compatible. Furthermore, they do not permit interfacing with
devices of other manufacturers and adaptation associated with high
expenditure.
Closed systems, for instance, are SINEC L1 by Siemens, SUCOnet K
by Klöckner-Moeller, Data Highway by Allen Bradley, Festo Fieldbus,
Modnet by AEG/MODICON.
Open systems, in contrast have

§ standardised interfaces and protocols,
§ declared protocols and
§ a multitude of devices by different manufacturers may be connected
to the bus.
Open systems, for instance, are Profibus, Interbus-S, CAN, SINEC L2,
ASI.
The advantages of networking with open bus systems are as follows:

§ Decentralisation of control function
§ Coordination of processes in separate areas
§ Realisation of control and production data flow parallel to material
flow
§ Simplification of the installation and reduction of wiring costs (two-
wire bus)
§ Simplification of the commissioning of a system (greater clarity,
pretested subsystems)
§ Reduction in service costs (central system diagnostics)
§ Use of equipment by different manufacturers in the same network
§ Process data transmission right up to planning level

C-1
Exercises
Exercises:
1. Planning and control of work processes, monitoring and evaluation of

results
2. Testing, scoring and labeling – manual and mechanical cutting,
cutting-off and forming – joining
3. Installation of electrical modules and components
4. Measuring and testing of electrical variables
5. Setup and testing of electrical and pneumatic controllers
6. Assembly of modules and components to machines and systems
7. Checking and setting of functions in mechatronic systems –
maintenance of mechatronic systems
8. Commissioning and operation of mechatronic systems

C-2
Exercises
The exercises provided in this workbook are relevant to the vocational

training as a mechatronics specialist in Germany (as shown in the
excerpts from the outline syllabus below):
No. Element of the occupational profile Accom- Useful training

panying material
exercise
1 Vocational training, labor and

collective-bargaining legislation
2 Establishment and organisation of the
training facility
3 Occupational health and safety
4 Environmental protection
5 Company and technical communication
6 Planning and control of work 1, 6 All MPS stations
processes, monitoring and evaluation
of results
7 Quality management 7 All MPS stations
8 Testing, scoring and labeling 2 MPS distributing
station
9 Manual and mechanical cutting, cutting- 2 MPS distributing
off and forming station
10 Joining 2 MPS distributing
station
11 Installation of electrical modules and 2, 5 All MPS stations
components
12 Measuring and testing of electrical 4 All MPS stations
variables
13 Installing and testing of hardware and All MPS stations,
software components TP300, VEEP
14 Setup and testing of electrical, 3, 5 All MPS stations,
pneumatic and hydraulic controllers TP100, TP200,
TP500, TP600,
TP700, FluidSIM-P,
FluidSIM-H,
Fluidstudio-P,
Fluidstudio-H

C-3
Exercises
No. Element of the occupational profile Accom- Useful training

panying material
exercise
15 Programming of mechatronic systems All MPS stations ,

TP300, VEEP
16 Assembly of modules and components 3, 5, 6 All MPS stations
to machines and systems
17 Assembly, dismantling, securing and All MPS stations
transporting of machines, systems and
plant
18 Testing and setting of functions in 5, 7 All MPS stations ,
mechatronic systems VEEP
19 Commissioning and operation of 8 All MPS stations ,
mechatronic systems VEEP
20 Maintenance of mechatronic systems 5, 7 All MPS stations

C-5
Exercise 1
Exercise 1
Planning and control of work processes, monitoring and evaluation of
results
1. Defining work steps in accordance with functional, production or

economic criteria
2. Defining and ensuring workflow in accordance with organisational
and information criteria
3. Planning team work, assigning tasks
4. Planning and equipping workplaces
5. Job-related requisitioning and provisioning of materials, tools and
aids
6. Preparing machine tools for the process
7. Preparing, testing and maintaining tools, machine tools, testing and
measurement equipment and other equipment, and taking measures
to eliminate faults
8. Checking, evaluating and documenting own work and others' work
9. Documenting material, spare parts, working time and technical tests

C-6
Exercise 1
Planning and control of work processes, monitoring and evaluation of results (6)
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: Drawing up a work plan
Training aim Trainees know how to plan the development process of a machine as a
project. They can use various planning methods, and they can
determine time relationships, possible work sequences and parallel
activities.
Issue The following activities leading to the initial commissioning of an MPS

station have been defined, and the time required to accomplish them
has been determined as stated:
No. Activity Time

required
1 Assembling the mechanical elements according to drawings 2 hours

2 Defining the control requirements (emergency stop, operational 4 hours
modes, visualisation …)
3 Planning control processes 2 hours
4 Selecting, installing, piping and wiring pneumatic and electrical 4 hours
input and power components in accordance with drawings;
testing
5 Installing and wiring the PLC board in accordance with drawings; 4 hours
testing
6 Developing the PLC program 10 hours
7 Final assembly and testing 1 hour
8 Trial run 1 hour
9 Adjustments and corrections 3 hours
10 Initial commissioning 1 hour
11 Preparing documentation 4 hours
It can be assumed that steps 2 and 3 can be performed at the same

time as step 1. Steps 4 and 5 can also be simultaneous. Step 6,
programming, takes place in the course of steps 4, 5 and 7. All other
steps must be sequential.

C-7
Exercise 1
1. Draw up a Gantt chart to plan the steps to be executed. Assignment

2. Draw up a network (action node network)!
3. Enter the critical path into the network and determine minimum
project duration!

C-8
Exercise 1

C-9
Exercise 1
Solutions

C-10
Exercise 1

C-11
Exercise 2
Exercise 2
Testing, scoring and labeling - manual and mechanical cutting,
cutting-off and forming - joining
1. Sawing plastic and metal sheets, plates and profiles as described

2. File and deburr surfaces and shapes of workpieces flat, angled and
parallel to measure to an accuracy of ± 0,2 mm and to a surface
finish Rz of between 6.3 and 40 µm
3. Drill holes to a location tolerance of ± 0,2 mm by drilling, enlarging
and profile countersinking, and ream drill holes to accuracy as per
IT 7 and to a surface finish Rz of between 4 and 10 µm
4. Cut internal and external thread with screw tap and threading die
5. Turn workpieces to an accuracy of ± 0,1 mm and a surface finish Rz
of between 4 and 63 µm using different turning chisels
6. Mill workpieces to an accuracy of ± 0,1 mm and a surface finish Rz
of between 10 and 40 µm with various milling machines using face
miller
7. Make connections using screws, nuts and washers and secure with
securing elements, in particular spring washers, tooth-lock washers
and paints
8. Make screw connections taking into account sequence of parts and
torque
9. Pin together parts with form fit, taking the characteristics of the
joining surfaces into account
10. Select adhesive and create bonds between identical and different
materials

C-12
Exercise 2
Manual and mechanical cutting, cutting-off and forming - joining

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Issue Build the Changer module
Assignment 1. Make the holder

2. Make the complete lever
– Make the bearing bush
– Make the liner
– Make the pivoted lever
3. Make the shaft
4. Assemble the changer module
Resources – Drawings: holder

complete lever
bearing bush
liner
pivoted lever
shaft
changer module
Original drawings can be found in part D (appendix)

C-13
Exercise 3
Exercise 3
Installation of electrical modules and components
1. Assemble drawers, housings and switchgear combinations

2. Select, install, connect and label components for electrical auxiliary
and switching equipment
3. Install and label components for control, measuring and monitoring
4. Define cable paths on the basis of building and local conditions
5. Select, prepare, lay and connect lines taking mechanical and
electrical load, laying method and intended purpose into account
6. Attach connection elements – in particular cable shoes, wire sleeves
and plugs – to lines
7. Connect lines by soldering, clamping and insertion
8. Wire modules and equipment using various types of wiring based on
documentation and samples
9. Correct faults and document changes
1. Setting up the MPS board Subtasks

2. Providing power
3. Connecting EMERGENCY STOP switchgear
4. Connecting PLC supply
5. Connecting PLC inputs
6. Connecting PLC outputs

C-14
Exercise 3
Setting up the MPS board

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Issue · Mechanically set up the MPS board

· Use the technical documents provided for this purpose
· Organise the necessary teamwork
Assignment 1. Assemble mounting rail and cable ducts

2. Assemble and label clamps, I/O terminal and EMERGENCY STOP
mechanism
3. Assemble and label PLC with mounting system
4. Install and label PLC modules
Resources - Drawings
- Board components
- Tools
Original drawings can be found in part D (appendix)

C-15
Exercise 3
Providing power
Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Wire the power supply Issue

1. Define cable paths based on building and local conditions Assignment

- Circuit diagrams Resources

- Wiring material
- Tools

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Exercise 3
C-16
24V
4.1
A -XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V

A
schwarz weißrosa
black white-pink
24V 24V 24V 24V -XOG2 24V 24V -XIG2 24V 24V
9 10 21 22 9 10 21 22
-XMA1 -XMG2
B B
C C
24V 0V
Einspeisung 24V/DC
D 6A max. D
Current supply 24V/DC
6A max. -XMA1 -XMG2
11 12 23 24 11 12 23 24
-XMF1 11 12 23 24 -XMV2 11 12 23 24
-XOG2 0V 0V -XIG2 0V 0V -XOV2 0V 0V -XIV2 0V 0V

rosabraun rosabraun
violett violett
pink-brown pink-brown
violett violett
weißblau weißblau
white-blue white-blue
-XK1 -XK1 -XK1 -XK1
E 0V 0V 0V 0V -XK1 0V 0V -XK1 0V 0V E
0V
4.1
24V-VERSORGUNG 24V VERSORGUNG KABEL XMF1 TERMINAL XMV2

KABEL XMA1 (STATION) TERMINAL XMG2 (BEDIENPULT) (FOLGESTATION) (VORGAENGERSTATION)
24V POWER SUPPLY 24V POWER SUPPLY CABLE XMF1 TERMINAL XMV2
CABLE XMA1 (STATION) TERTMINAL XMG2 (CONTROL CONSOLE) (SUBSEQUENT STATION)) (PRECEDING STATION))
F Datum 05/96 Einspeisung
F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung Power supply
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co.
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface BLATT 3
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-17
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-18
24V
4.1
A -XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V A

schwarz weißrosa
black white-pink
24V 24V 24V 24V -XOG2 24V 24V -XIG2 24V 24V
9 10 21 22 9 10 21 22
-XMA1 -XMG2
B B
C C
24V 0V
Einspeisung 24V/DC
D 6A max. D
6A max. -XMA1 -XMG2
12 -XMF1 -XMV2
11 12 23 24 11 23 24 11 12 23 24 11 12 23 24

rosabraun rosabraun
violett violett
violett violett
weißblau weißblau
-XK1 -XK1 -XK1 -XK1
E 0V 0V 0V 0V -XK1 0V 0V -XK1 0V 0V E
0V
4.1

F Datum 05/96 Einspeisung F
MPS
Bearb HJP Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung Power supply
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Siemens S5-95U, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-19
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-20
24V
4.1
A -XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V

A
schwarz weißrosa
black white-pink
24V 24V 24V 24V -XOG2 24V 24V -XIG2 24V 24V
9 10 21 22 9 10 21 22
-XMA1 -XMG2
B B
C C
24V 0V
Einspeisung 24V/DC
D 6A max. D
6A max. -XMA1 -XMG2
-XMF1 11 -XMV2
11 12 23 24 11 12 23 24 12 23 24 11 12 23 24

rosabraun rosabraun
violett violett
violett violett
weißblau weißblau
-XK1 -XK1 -XK1 -XK1
E 0V 0V 0V 0V -XK1 0V 0V -XK1 0V 0V E
0V
4.1

F Datum 05/96 Einspeisung
F
MPS
Bearb HJP ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung Power supply
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. ASA Micro 612, I/O Interface
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-21
Exercise 3
Connecting EMERGENCY STOP switchgear

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Connect the EMERGENCY STOP switchgear Issue

1. Define cable paths on the basis of building and local conditions Assignment

- Wiring material
- Tools

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-22
24V 24V
3.8 5.1
-XK1 24V 24V 24V

NOT-AUS EMERGENCY- QUITTIEREN
A STOP NOT-AUS A
-S7 1 -S8 3
ACKNOWLEDGE
2 EMERGENCY-STOP 4
-XMG2 20 19 18
B B
-XIG2 I7 I6 I5
5.3
T11 T12 T22 T12 T33 T34 A1 13 23 33 41
-A1 PNOZ
C C
X1 X2 A2 14 24 34 42
7.7 5.3
-XOG2 O7
-XMG2 8
D D
X1
-H7
NOT-AUS X2
EMERGENCY-STOP
-XMG2 23
-XG2 0V
E E
-XK1 0V -XK1 0V
0V 0V
3.8 5.1
F Datum 15.04.97 NOT-AUS

F
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung EMERGENCY-STOP
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-23
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-24
24V 24V
3.8 24V 24V 24V 24V 5.1
-XK1 -XK1 -XK1 -XK1
A A
Quittieren
NOT-AUS NOT-AUS
1 3
-S7 -S8
EMERGENCY 2 Acknowledge 4
STOP EMERGENCY
STOP
B B
20 19 18
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
I7 I6 I5
-XIG2 -XIG2 -XIG2
C T11 T12 T22 T12 T34 A1 13 23 33 41 C
-A1
NOTAUS-Relais PNOZ / EMERGENCY-STOP relay PNOZ
D D
X1 X2 A2 14 24 34 42
O7
-XOG2
7.7 5.2 8
-XMG2
NOT-AUS
EMERGENCY STOP X1
E -H7 E
X2
23
-XMG2
0V -XG2
-XK1 -XK1 0V
0V 0V
3.8 5.1
F Datum 23.04.97 MPS NOT-AUS

F
Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung EMERGENCY-STOP
Gepr. --- Siemens S5-95U, I/O Interface
BLATT 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-25
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-26
24V 24V
3.8 24V 24V 24V 24V 5.1
-XK1 -XK1 -XK1 -XK1
A A
Quittieren
NOT-AUS NOT-AUS
1 3
-S7 -S8
EMERGENCY 2 Acknowledge 4
STOP EMERGENCY
STOP
B B
20 19 18
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
I7 I6 I5
-XIG2 -XIG2 -XIG2
C T11 T12 T22 T12 T34 A1 13 23 33 41 C
-A1
NOTAUS-Relais PNOZ / EMERGENCY-STOP relay PNOZ
D D
X1 X2 A2 14 24 34 42
O7
-XOG2
7.7 5.5 8
-XMG2
NOT-AUS
EMERGENCY STOP X1
E -H7 E
X2
23
-XMG2
0V -XG2
-XK1 -XK1 0V
0V 0V
3.8 5.1
F Datum 23.04.97 MPS NOT-AUS

F
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung EMERGENCY-STOP
Gepr. --- ASA Micro 612, I/O Interface
BLATT 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-27
Exercise 3
Connecting PLC supply

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Connect the PLC supply Issue

1. Define cable paths on the basis of building and local conditions Assignment

- Wiring material
- Tools

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-28
24V 24V
4.7 6.1
A 33 A
-XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V
-A1
4.5 34
-A4 24V -A4 R/S C B D A -A5 24V C A
B B
a3
a4
a1
a3
a4
a1
c3
c4
c1
c3
c4
c1
c24
c24
a31
a32
a24
a31
a32
a24
a15
-A2 -A3
FPC 101 E/A Erweiterung
I/O Unit
C C
a2
a5
c2
c5
a9
a2
a5
c2
c5
a9
D D
-A4 0V PE -A5 0V PE
E -XK1 0V -XK1 0V E
0V 0V
4.7 6.1
F Datum 05/96 SPS Versorgung

F
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC supply
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-29
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-30
24V 24V
4.7 6.1
A A
4.7
B B
L+ a1 a11 b1 a1 a11 b1
-A2 -A3
C C
AG 95U 8E
M a10 a20 b20 a10 a20 b20
D D
E E
0V 0V
4.7 6.1
F Datum 25.11.96 SPS Versorgung F

MPS
Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung PLC supply
Gepr. Siemens S5-95U, I/O Interface
--- BLATT 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-31
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-32
24V 24V
4.8 6.1
A 24V 24V
A
-XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 -XK1
33
-A1
4.6 34
B B
1 1
COM
COM B
COM A
24 VDC -A2 -A3 -A4
ASA Micro 612 DEO 216 DAO 216
24 RET 11 11
C C
COM D
COM C
OUT 4A
OUT 3A
OUT 2A
OUT 1A
D D
E -XK1 0V -XK1 0V -XK1 0V E

0V 0V
4.8 6.1
F Datum 05.02.97 SPS Versorgung F

MPS
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC supply
Gepr. ASA Micro 612, I/O Interface
--- BLATT 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-33
Exercise 3
Connecting PLC inputs

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Connect PLC inputs Issue



- Wiring material
- Tools

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-34
24V 24V
5.7
0V 0V
5.7 10.1
A A
B B
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
graurosa rotblau weißgrün braungrün weißgelb gelbbraun weißgrau graubraun

D grey-pink red-blue white-green brown-green white-yellow yellow-brown white-gray grey-brown D
-A4 I0.0 I0.1 I0.2 I0.3 I0.4 I0.5 I0.6 I0.7
E0.0 E0.1 E0.2 E0.3 E0.4 E0.5 E0.6 E0.7

I0.0 I0.1 I0.2 I0.3 I0.4 I0.5 I0.6 I0.7
-A2 SPS FPC 101 B / PLC FPC 101 B

E E
E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1
EINGANG BIT 0 EINGANG BIT 1 EINGANG BIT 2 EINGANG BIT 3 EINGANG BIT 4 EINGANG BIT 5 EINGANG BIT 6 EINGANG BIT 7
I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1
INPUT BIT 0 INPUT BIT 1 INPUT BIT 2 INPUT BIT 3 INPUT BIT 4 INPUT BIT 5 INPUT BIT 6 INPUT BIT 7
F Datum 3.06.96 SPS-Eingänge E0.0-E0.7
F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I0.0-I0.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC100, I/O Interface
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
3.4 4.5

B B
3 3 3 3 3
-S1 -S2 -S3 -S4 -S5
4 4 4 4 4
C C
-XMG2
13 14 15 16 17
-XIG2 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4
D D
-A4 I1.0 I1.1 I1.2 I1.3 I1.4 I1.5 I1.6 I1.7
E1.0 E1.1 E1.2 E1.3 E1.4 E1.5 E1.6 E1.7

I1.0 I1.1 I1.2 I1.3 I1.4 I1.5 I1.6 I1.7
E -A2 SPS FPC 101 / PLC FPC 101 E
START RICHTEN SONDERFUNKTION AUTOMATIK / SCHRITT STOP NICHT AUFGELEGT NOT-AUS
START RESET SPECIAL FUNCTION AUTOMATIC / STEP STOP NOT CONNECTED EMERGENCY-STOP
F Datum 3.06.96 SPS-Eingänge E1.0-E1.7

F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I1.0-I1.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-36
A A
B B
-XMF2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
C E/A-Kopplung / I/O Interface C
weiß grün rosabraun/violett

white green pink-brown/violet
0V
D D
-A5 I0.0 I0.2
E10.0 E10.1 E10.2 E10.3 E10.4 E10.5 E10.6 E10.7

I10.0 I10.1 I10.2 I10.3 I10.4 I10.5 I10.6 I10.7
E -A3 E/A-Erweiterung / I/O Unit E
E/A-KOPPLUNG
CS_Net nicht belegt CS_R nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt
I/O INTERFACE
CS_Net not used CS_R not used not used not used not used not used
F Datum 25.06.97 MPS SPS-Eingänge E10.0-E10.7 F
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I10.0-I10.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A

B B
C C
-XMV2
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
-XIV2 I0 I1 I2 I3 0V
D I4 I5 I6 I7
D
-A5 I1.0 I1.1 I1.2 I1.5 I1.7
E11.0 E11.1 E11.2 E11.3 E11.4 E11.5 E11.6 E11.7

I11.0 I11.1 I11.2 I11.3 I11.4 I11.5 I11.6 I11.7
E E
-A3 E/A-Erweiterung / I/O Unit
E/A-KOPPLUNG
CP_D0 CP_D1 CP_D2 nocht belegt nicht belegt CP_Net nicht belegt CP_S
I/O INTERFACE
CP_D0 CP_D1 CP_D2 not used not used CP_Net not used CP_S
F Datum 25.06.97 SPS-Eingänge E11.0-E11.7 F
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I11.0-I11.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-37
C-38
Exercise 3

C-39
Exercise 3

C-40
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
24V 24V
5.8
0V 0V
A 5.8 10.1 A

B B
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
grey-pink red-blue white-green brown-green white-yellow yellow-brown white-grey grey-brown
b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9
32 ,00 32 ,01 32 ,02 32 ,03 32 ,04 32 ,05 32 ,06 32 ,07

E E
-A2 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 32 ,00
S5-95U Eingang Bit 0 Eingang Bit 1 Eingang Bit 2 Eingang Bit 3 Eingang Bit 4 Eingang Bit 5 Eingang Bit 6 Eingang Bit 7
AG 32 ,07
I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1
Input Bit 0 Input Bit 1 Input Bit 2 Input Bit 3 Input Bit 4 Input Bit 5 Input Bit 6 Input Bit 7
F Datum 21.11.96 MPS SPS Eingänge E32.0-E32.7 F

Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I32.0-I32.7
Gepr. --- Siemens S5-95U, I/O Interface
BLATT 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-41
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-42
A A
3.5 4.6
B B
3 3 3 3 3
-S1 -S2 -S3 -S4 -S5
4 4 4 4 4
C C
13 14 15 16 17
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
D D
-XIG2 I0 -XIG2 I1 -XIG2 I2 -XIG2 I3 -XIG2 I4
b12 b13 b14 b15 b16 b17 b18 b19
33 ,00 33 ,01 33 ,02 33 ,03 33 ,04 33 ,05 33 ,06 33 ,07

E E
-A2
START RICHTEN AUTO / MAN STOP NOT-AUS 33 ,00
S5-95U START RESET AUTO / MAN STOP EMERGENCY-
AG STOP 33 ,07
F Datum 25.11.96 SPS Eingänge E33.0-E33.7

F
MPS
Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I33.0-I33.7
--- BLATT 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
-XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2

B B
E/A - Kopplung / I/O Interface

white green pink-brown-violet
C C
0V
D D
b12 b13 b14 b15 b16 b17 b18 b19
64 ,00 64 ,01 64 ,02 64 ,03 64 ,04 64 ,05 64 ,06 64 ,07

E -A3 E
S5-95U Bit 0 / CP_D0 Bit 1 / CP_D1 Bit 2 / CP_D2 Bit 3 / CS_Net Bit 4 / CS_R Bit 5 / CP_Net Bit 6 / CP_S Bit 7 / frei 64 ,00
8E
64 ,07
F Datum 21.11.96 MPS SPS Eingänge E64.0-E64.7

F
Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs E64.0-E64.7
Siemens S5-95U, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- BLATT 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-43
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Exercise 3
C-44
A A
B B
C C
-XMV2 13 -XMV2 14 -XMV2 15 -XMV2 18 -XMV2 20 -XMV2 23/24
D I0 I1 I2 I5 I7 D
-XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2
0V
b12 b13 b14 b15 b16 b17 b18 b19
64 ,00 64 ,01 64 ,02 64 ,03 64 ,04 64 ,05 64 ,06 64 ,07

E -A3 E
S5-95U Bit 0 / CP_D0 Bit 1 / CP_D1 Bit 2 / CP_D2 Bit 3 / CS_Net Bit 4 / CS_R Bit 5 / CP_Net Bit 6 / CP_S Bit 7 / frei 64 ,00
8E
64 ,07
F Datum 21.11.96 MPS SPS Eingänge E64.0-E64.7

F
Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs E64.0-E64.7
Siemens S5-95U, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- BLATT 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-45
Exercise 3

C-46
Exercise 3

C-47
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Exercise 3
C-48
24V 24V
5.8
0V 0V
A 5.8 10.1 A
B B
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
grey-pink red-blue white-green brown-green white-yellow yellow-brown white-grey grey-brown
IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 IN8
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

E E
-A2 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 0.1
Micro 612 Eingang Bit 0 Eingang Bit 1 Eingang Bit 2 Eingang Bit 3 Eingang Bit 4 Eingang Bit 5 Eingang Bit 6 Eingang Bit 7
0.8
Input Bit 0 Input Bit 1 Input Bit 2 Input Bit 3 Input Bit 4 Input Bit 5 Input Bit 6 Input Bit 7
F Datum 05.02.97 MPS SPS Eingänge E0.1-E0.8 F

Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I0.1-I0.8
Gepr. --- ASA Micro 612, I/O Interface
BLATT 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
3.4 4.5

B B
3 3 3 3 3
-S1 -S2 -S3 -S4 -S5
4 4 4 4 4
C C
13 14 15 16 17
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
D D
-XIG2 I0 -XIG2 I1 -XIG2 I2 -XIG2 I3 -XIG2 I4
IN9 IN10 IN11 IN12 IN13 IN14 IN15 IN16
0.9 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16

E E
-A2
START RICHTEN SONDERFUNKTION AUTO / MAN STOP frei frei NOT-AUS 0.9
Micro 612 START RESET SPECIAL FUNCTION AUTO / MAN STOP not used not used EMERGENCY-
STOP 0.16
F Datum 04.02.97 SPS Eingänge E0.9-E0.16

F
MPS
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I0.9-I0.16
--- BLATT 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-49
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-50
A A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
-XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2
B B
E/A - Kopplung / I/O Interface

white green pink-brown-violet
C C
0V
D D
I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E -A3 E
DEO 216 Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 1
CS_NET frei CS_R frei frei frei frei frei
not used not used not used not used not used not used 8
F Datum 05.02.97 MPS SPS Eingänge E1-E8

F
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I1-I8
ASA Micro 612, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- BLATT 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A

B B
C C
-XMV2 13 -XMV2 14 -XMV2 15 -XMV2 18 -XMV2 20 -XMV2 23/24
D I0 I1 I2 I5 I7 D
-XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2
0V
I14 I15 I16 I17 I18 I19 I20 I21
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
E -A3 E
DEO 216 Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 9
CP_D0 CP_D1 CP_D2 frei frei CP_NET frei CP_S
not used not used not used 16
F Datum 05.02.97 MPS SPS Eingänge E9-E16

F
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I9-I16
--- BLATT 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-51
C-52
Exercise 3

C-53
Exercise 3
Connecting PLC outputs

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Connect PLC outputs Issue



- Wiring material
- Tools

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-54
A A
-A2 SPS FPC 101 B / PLC FPC 101 B
A0.0 A0.1 A0.2 A0.3 A0.4 A0.5 A0.6 A0.7
O0.0 O0.1 O0.2 O0.3 O0.4 O0.5 O0.6 O0.7
-A4 O0.0 O0.1 O0.2 O0.3 O0.4 O0.5 O0.6 O0.7

weiß braun grün gelb grau rosa blau rot
white brown green yellow gray pink blue red
B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
D D
0V 0V
6.7
E E
E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1
AUSGANG BIT 0 AUSGANG BIT 1 AUSGANG BIT 2 AUSGANG BIT 3 AUSGANG BIT 4 AUSGANG BIT 5 AUSGANG BIT 6 AUSGANG BIT 7
I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1
OUTPUT BIT 0 OUTPUT BIT 1 OUTPUT BIT 2 OUTPUT BIT 3 OUTPUT BIT 4 OUTPUT BIT 5 OUTPUT BIT 6 OUTPUT BIT 7
F Datum 3.06.96 SPS-Ausgänge A0.0-A0.7 F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O0.0-O0.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A -A2 SPS FPC 101 / PLC FPC 101

A
A1.0 A1.1 A1.2 A1.3 A1.4 A1.5

O1.0 O1.1 O1.2 O1.3 O1.4 O1.5

-A4 O1.0 O1.1 O1.2 O1.3 O1.4 O1.5
B B
-XOG2 O0 O1 O2 O6
1 2 3 7
-XMG2
C C
X1 X1 X1 X1
-H1 -H2 -H3 -H6
X2 X2 X2 X2
D D
E 3.4 E
START GRUNDSTELLUNG SONDERFUNKTION KOMMUNIKATION NICHT AUFGELEGT
START INITIAL POSITION SPECIAL FUNCTION COMMUNICATION NOT CONNECTED
F Datum 3.06.96 SPS-Ausgänge A1.0-A1.5

F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O1.0-O1.5
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface BLATT 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-56
A -A3 E/A-Erweiterung / I/O Unit

A
A10.0 A10.1 A10.2 A10.3 A10.4 A10.5 A10.6 A10.7

O10.0 O10.1 O10.2 O10.3 O10.4 O10.5 O10.6 O10.7
-A5 O0.0 O0.1 O0.2 -XOG2 O0.6 -A5 O0.7

graurosa rotblau weißgrün gelbbraun graubraun
grey-pink red-blue white-green yellow-brown grey-brown
B B
0V
weißblau
white-blue
C E/A-Kopplung / I/O Interface C
-XMF2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
D D
E E
E/A-KOPPLUNG
CS_D0 CS_D1 CS_D2 nicht belegt nicht belegt Vernetzung (-S108) nicht belegt CS_S
I/O INTERFACE
CS_D0 CS_D1 CS_D2 not used not used Networking (-S108) not used CS_S
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O10.0-O10.7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A -A3 E/A-Erweiterung / I/O Unit A
A11.0 A11.1 A11.2 A11.3 A11.4 A11.5 A11.6 A11.7

O11.0 O11.1 O11.2 O11.3 O11.4 O11.5 O11.6 O11.7

-XOG2 O6 -A5 O1.2
B -XOV2
B
O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 0V
-XMV2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
C C
D D
E E
E/A-KOPPLUNG
Vernetzung (-S108) nicht belegt CP_R nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt
I/O INTERFACE
Networking (-S108) not used CP_R not used not used not used not used not used
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O11.1-O11.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100 I/O Interface
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-57
C-58
Exercise 3

C-59
Exercise 3

C-60
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1
-A2 Ausgang Bit 0 Ausgang Bit 1 Ausgang Bit 2 Ausgang Bit 3 Ausgang Bit 4 Ausgang Bit 5 Ausgang Bit 6 Ausgang Bit 7
A S5-95U 32 ,00 A
AG Output Bit 0 Output Bit 1 Output Bit 2 Output Bit 3 Output Bit 4 Output Bit 5 Output Bit 6 Output Bit 7 32 ,07
32 ,00 32 ,01 32 ,02 32 ,03 32 ,04 32 ,05 32 ,06 32 ,07

a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9
B braun grün rosa blau rot

B
weiß gelb grau
white brown green yellow grey pink blue red
C C
-XMA1 1 -XMA1 2 -XMA1 3 -XMA1 4 -XMA1 5 -XMA1 6 -XMA1 7 -XMA1 8
D D
0V
6.8
E E
F Datum 22.11.96 SPS Ausgänge A32.0-A32.7

F
MPS
Bearb DEL Siemens S5-95U, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O32.0-O32.7
--- BLATT 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-61
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-62
Start Grundstellung CS_D0 CS_D1 CS_D2 CS_S CP_R
-A2
A S5-95U Start Initial position 33 ,00 A
AG 33 ,07
33 ,00 33 ,01 33 ,02 33 ,03 33 ,04 33 ,05 33 ,06 33 ,07
a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19
B O0 O1 O2 O6 B
-XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2
1 2 3 7
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
C C
X1 X1 X1 X1
-H1 -H2 -H3 -H6

X2 X2 X2 X2
D D
E E
3.5
F Datum 22.11.96 MPS SPS Ausgänge A33.0-A33.7 F

--- BLATT 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

-A2
A Start Initial position 33 ,00 A
S5-95U
AG 33 ,07
33 ,00 33 ,01 33 ,02 33 ,03 33 ,04 33 ,05 33 ,06 33 ,07

a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19
B graurosa rotblau weißgrün graubraun B

grey-pink red-blue white-green grey-brown
0V
C -XOG2 O0.6 C
gelbbraun weißblau
yellow-brown whiteblue
D E/A-Kopplung / I/O Interface D
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
E -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 E
F Datum 22.11.96 SPS Ausgänge A33.0-A33.7 F

MPS
--- BLATT 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-63
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-64
-A2
A Start Initial position 33 ,00 A
S5-95U
AG 33 ,07
33 ,00 33 ,01 33 ,02 33 ,03 33 ,04 33 ,05 33 ,06 33 ,07
a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19
B O2 B
-XOV2
3
-XMV2
C C
D D
E E

F
MPS
--- BLATT 13
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-65
Exercise 3

C-66
Exercise 3

C-67
Exercise 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-68
E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1
-A2 Ausgang Bit 0 Ausgang Bit 1 Ausgang Bit 2 Ausgang Bit 3 Ausgang Bit 4 Ausgang Bit 5 Ausgang Bit 6 Ausgang Bit 7
A Micro 612 0.1 A
Output Bit 0 Output Bit 1 Output Bit 2 Output Bit 3 Output Bit 4 Output Bit 5 Output Bit 6 Output Bit 7 0.8
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
OUT1B OUT2B OUT3B OUT4B OUT5C OUT6C OUT7C OUT8C
B braun grün rosa blau rot

B
weiß gelb grau
white brown green yellow grey pink blue red
C C
-XMA1 1 -XMA1 2 -XMA1 3 -XMA1 4 -XMA1 5 -XMA1 6 -XMA1 7 -XMA1 8
D D
0V
6.8
E E

F
MPS
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O0.1-O0.8
--- BLATT 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Start Grundstellung
-A2
A Start Initial position 0.9 A
Micro 612
0.12
0.9 0.10 0.11 0.12

OUT9D OUT10D OUT11D OUT12D
B O0 O1 O2 O6 B
-XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2
1 2 3 7
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
C C
X1 X1 X1 X1
-H1 -H2 -H3 -H6
X2 X2 X2 X2
D D
E E
3.5
F Datum 04.02.97 MPS SPS Ausgänge A0.9-A0.12

F
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O0.9-O0.12
--- BLATT 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-69
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-70
Bit 0 BIT 1 BIT 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7
-A4 CS_D0 CS_D1 CS_D2 frei frei frei frei CS_S
A not used not used not used not used 1 A
DAO 216
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10
B graurosa rotblau weißgrün graubraun B

grey-pink red-blue white-green grey-brown
0V
C -XOG2 O0.6 C
gelbbraun weißblau
yellow-brown whiteblue
D E/A-Kopplung / I/O Interface D
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
E -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 E
F Datum 05.02.97 SPS Ausgänge A1-A8

F
MPS
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O1-O8
Gepr. ASA Micro,612 I/O Interface
--- BLATT 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7

-A4 frei frei CP_R frei frei frei frei frei
A not used not used not used not used not used not used not used 9 A
DAO 216
16
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

O6 O15 O16 O17 O18 O19 O20 O21
-XOG2
B B
O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 0V
-XOV2 -XOV2 -XOV2 -XOV2 -XOV2 -XOV2 -XOV2 -XOV2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
-XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2
C C
D D
E E
F Datum 05.02.97 SPS Ausgänge A9-A16 F

MPS
Bearb DEL ASA Micro 612, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O9-O16
--- BLATT 13
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-71
C-73
Exercise 4
Exercise 4
Measuring and testing electrical variables
1. Select procedure and measuring instruments, estimate measurement

error and set up measuring devices
2. Measure voltage, current, resistance and power in DC circuit and
calculate their interrelationship
3. Test electrical characteristic data of modules and components

C-74
Exercise 4
Measuring and testing electrical variables

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Training aim Trainees know how to measure current and voltage consumption of
electrical actuators. They can determine DC power and resistance of the
actuator on the basis of measurement results.
Assignment 1. Determine the current consumption and the voltage drop across an
actuated solenoid valve.
2. Develop a pertinent measurement circuit.
3. When this is done, measure the resistance and the power of the
magnet coil.
Measurement circuit
V(b) =
I(b) =
R=
P=
Resources - Power pack

- Solenoid valve
- Measuring instrument

C-75
Exercise 4
Trainees know how to determine operating and output voltage and Training aim
currents of an electronic sensor. They can set up specified
measurement circuits, and they can record characteristic curves and
represent them graphically.
Determine operating current as well as DC resistance and power Assignment

consumption of an electronic sensor on the basis of operating voltage.
Set up the following circuit and determine the relevant values.
V(b) 0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 24 V 28 V Sensor in non-damped

condition
I(b)
R
P

C-76
Exercise 4
Assignment What measurement error can creep into the circuit shown above? How
can it be avoided?
Repeat the measurement for a damped sensor!
Sensor in damped condition V(b) 0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 24 V 28 V

I(b)
R
P
Transfer the V-I characteristic curve of the two measurements to a

diagram.

C-77
Exercise 4
Determine the operating voltage and operating current as well as the Assignment
output voltage on the basis of output current. Set up the following
measurement circuit.
The sensor is in damped condition Caution
I(off) 0 mA 5 mA 10 mA 15 mA 20 mA 25 mA 30 mA 35 mA 40 mA
V(off)
I(b)
V(b)

C-78
Exercise 4
Training aim Trainees know how to determine the switch-on and switch-off voltage of
a PLC input and how to describe it graphically and calculate the
hysteresis. At the same time, they become familiar with the functions of
PLC input modules.
Assignment Set up the following measurement circuit. Connect your PC to the PLC,
put it online and follow on the screen what switch-on voltage switches
the logical condition of the input from ‘0’ to ‘1’. Then determine the
switch-off voltage, i.e. the voltage that switches the logical condition of
the output from ‘1’ to ‘0’. Enter the two curves into the diagram below
and calculate the hysteresis.
V (start) =
V (switch-off) =

C-79
Exercise 4
V (hysteresis) =

C-80
Exercise 4
Training aim Trainees know how to determine the switch-off current of a PLC output
in the event of an overload and to compare it with the switch-off current
stated in the documentation.
Assignment Set up the following measurement circuit. Connect your PC to the PLC,
put it online and set the logical condition of an output to ‘1’. Slowly
increase the current and determine the point at which the output
switches off. Compare the logical condition with the electrical condition
of the output. What differences are there?
I(a) in A 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.1
Logical
condi-
tion
Elec.
condi-
tion
V(a_max) =

C-81
Exercise 4
Solutions
V(b) = Must be measured

I(b) = Must be measured
R = Follows
P = Follows
V(b) 0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 24 V 28 V Sensor in non-damped

condition
I(b)
R
P

C-82
Exercise 4
This type of circuit is called a current-measuring circuit. The voltage

measured is falsified by the voltage drop across the ammeter. For
precise results it is better to carry out an additional voltage
measurement.
Sensor in damped condition V(b) 0V 4V 8V 12 V 16 V 20 V 24 V 28 V

I(b)
R
P

C-83
Exercise 4
I(off) in 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
mA
V(off)
I(b)
V(b)
V (switch-on) = Must be measured

V (switch-off) = Must be measured
V (hysteresis) =

C-84
Exercise 4
I(a) in A 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.1
Logical
condi-
tion
Elec.
condi-
tion
I(a_max) = Must be determined

C-85
Exercise 5
Exercise 5
Setting up and testing of electrical and pneumatic controllers
1. Set up and connect electrical and pneumatic controllers

2. Connect, test and adjust devices for supplying electrical and
pneumatic energy
3. Measure and set pressure in pneumatic systems
4. Analyse tasks, particularly motion sequences and interaction at the
interfaces of the system to be controlled
5. Understand control concepts and select control devices
6. Set up electrical and pneumatic circuits to solve given problem
7. Install sensors, actuators and converters
8. Test and set the interaction of associated functions, localise faults
taking interfaces into account

C-86
Exercise 5

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Set up and connect electrical and pneumatic controllers - install sensors, actuators and
converters - test and set the interaction of associated functions, localise faults taking
interfaces into account
Issue Because it wants to automate a particular process, your company has

acquired a production station. You are responsible for the electro-
pneumatic activation of the mechanically pre-assembled station.
Assignment 1. The station must be set up and tested in accordance with the
pneumatic circuit diagram.
2. All electrical components must be wired and tested in accordance
with the electrical circuit diagrams.
Resources - Mechanically pre-assembled station

- Tools
- Pneumatic circuit diagram
- Electrical circuit diagrams
- Simulation box

C-87
Exercise 5

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: Set up and connect electrical and pneumatic controllers
1. Pipe the station. Assignment

2. Use the technical documents provided for this purpose.
3. Organise the necessary teamwork.
1. Laying cable ducts Subtasks

2. Piping all pneumatic components
· Install and pipe pneumatic elements, using cable ducts and tube
straps. Make sure that piping is not only esthetically pleasing but that
it also ensures that potential errors are reduced or can be localised
more quickly.
3. Operational test of pneumatic components
· Ensure that the system is depressurised.
· Check that all power components are in their initial position.
· Check that the valve bodies of all double solenoid valves are in the
specified position. If necessary, adjust by manual override.
· Close all flow control valves controlling the working speed of the
cylinders.
· Slowly increase the air in cylinders and valves, either with the
pressure regulator on the service unit or with an automatic safety
start-up valve.
· Slowly open the flow control valves.

C-88
Exercise 5
· Check the operation of the individual cylinders and drive units, both
without workpiece using the manual override.
· Verify the mounting and safe switching of the limit switches.
· Check the operation of the individual cylinders and drive units with
workpiece.
· Verify that stated power levels and speeds are reached and make
changes if necessary.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1A -2A -3A

-1B1 -1B2 -3S1 -3S2
A A

B -2B1 B
4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -2Y1 -2Y2 -3Y1 -3Y2
C 5 3 5 3 5 3 C
1 1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
WARTUNGSEINHEIT AUSSCHIEBEZYLINDER VAKUUMGREIFER SCHWENKZYLINDER
SERVICE UNIT EJECTING CYLINDER VACUUM SUCTION CUP SWIVEL DRIVE

F F
Datum 20.06.96 MPS Station Verteilen Pneumatik
Bearb. HJP Distribution Station Pneumatic
Bezeichnung 20.11.97 DEL Gepr. WLL Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. Ers.d. FOLGE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-89
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-90
-1B1 -1B2 -2B1 -3B1

A A
-1A -2A -3A -4A
B B
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -1Y2 -2Y1 -3Y1 -4Y1
C 5 3 5 3 5 3 51 3 C
1 1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
WARTUNGSEINHEIT HEBEZYLINDER AUSWERFZYLINDER PRÜFZYLINDER STOPPZYLINDER
SERVICE UNIT LIFTING CYLINDER EJECTING CYLINDER CHECKING CYLINDER STOPPER

F F
Datum 10.06.96 MPS Station Prüfen Pneumatik
A8;C8 neu 20.11.97 DEL Bearb. HJP Testing Station Pneumatic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1A -2A -3A
A -1B1 -1B2 -2B1 -2B2 -3B1 -3B2 A

B B
4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -1Y2 -2Y1 -3Y1
C 5 3 5 3 5 3 C
1 1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
WARTUNGSEINHEIT VORSCHUBZYLINDER PRÜFZYLINDER SPANNZYLINDER
SERVICE UNIT FEED CYLINDER CHECKING CYLINDER CLAMPING CYLINDER

F F
Datum 25.06.97 MPS Station Bearbeiten Pneumatik
Bearb. DEL Festo Didactic GmbH & Co.
Processing Station Pneumatic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-91
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-92
-1B1 -1B2 -2B1 -2B2

A A
-1A -2A -3A
B B
4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -2Y1 -3Y1
C 5 3 5 3 51 3 C
1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
WARTUNGSEINHEIT WEICHE 1 WEICHE 2 STOPPER
SERVICE UNIT SWITCH 1 SWITCH 2 STOPPER

F F
Datum 20.06.96 MPS Station Sortieren Pneumatik
Bearb. HJP Sorting Station Pneumatic
A6; C6 11.11.97 DEL Gepr. WLL Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-93
Exercise 5
1. Wire the station. Assignment

1. Wiring all electrical components Subtasks

· Use cable ducts and cable straps. Make sure that wiring is not only
esthetically pleasing but that it also ensures that potential errors are
reduced or can be localised more quickly.
2. Operational test of electrical components
· Verify the operation of all sensors. Activate all sensors manually and
verify output signal (LED to I/O terminal).
· Verify the operation of all actuators. Activate the actuators by
connecting the simulation box to the I/O terminal.
· Verify the coordinated operation of actuators and sensors. Correct
settings if necessary.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Exercise 5
C-94
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
-XIA1 0V 24V 0V 24V 24V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V
B P1 = P 2 B
-1B1 -1B2 -3S1 -3S2 -2B1 -B4
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
AUSSCHIEBEZYLINDER IST SCHWENKZYLINDER IN POSITION FREI WERKSTÜCK MAGAZIN FREI

AUSGEFAHREN EINGEFAHREN MAGAZIN FOLGESTATION ANGESAUGT IST LEER
EJECTING CYLINDER SWIVEL DRIVE IN POSITION NOT USED WORKPIECE MAGAZINE NOT USED
RETRACTED EXTENDED MAGAZINE SUBSEQ: STATION PICKED UP EMPTY
F Datum 3.06.96 Eingänge
F
MPS Station Verteilen
Bearb HJP Distribution Station Inputs
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A

B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
A1 -3Y1 A1 -3Y2 A1 -2Y2 A1 -2Y1 A1

-1Y1
A2 A2 A2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
AUSSCHIEBEZYLINDER SCHWENKANTRIEB ZU POSITION VAKUUM FREI

EINFAHREN MAGAZIN HEBEZYLINDER AUS EIN
EJECTING CYLINDER SWIVEL DRIVE TO POSITION VACUUM NOT USED
RETRACT MAGAZINE LIFTING CYLINDER OFF ON
F Datum 3.06.96 Ausgänge
F
MPS Station Verteilen
Bearb HJP Distribution Station Outputs
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-95
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-96
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
-XIA1 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V 0V 24V
B B
-B5 -B6 -B7 -1B2 -1B1 -2B1 -3B1
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
WERKSTÜCK IST HEBEZYLINDER IST AUSWERFZYLINDER PRÜFZYLINDER NICHT AUFGELEGT

AUS METALL IM HEBEWINKEL ROT UNTEN OBEN IST HINTEN IST UNTEN
WORKPIECE LIFTING CYLINDER IS EJECTING CYLINDER TESTING CYLINDER NOT CONNECTED
METALLIC IN LIFTING DEVICE RED LOWERED RAISED IS RETRACTED IS DOWN
F Datum 3.06.96 Eingänge
F
MPS Station Prüfen
Bearb HJP Testing Station Inputs
Bezeichnung 20.11.97 DEL Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
-XIA1 24V 0V

24V 0V U
B B
MCR-R/U
-A6
-XMA1
20
C Uref Ue 0V -XIA1 I7
C
grau
grey
gelb
yellow
grün
green
-P1
D D
E E
ANALOGSPANNUNGSVERSORGUNG
FÜR POTENTIOMETER
VOLTAGE SUPPLY FOR
DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
F Datum 26.04.94 Analog Potentiometer F
MPS Station Prüfen
Bearb SPW Testing Station Analogue Sensor
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-97
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-98
A A
B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
-1Y1 A1 -1Y2 A1 A1 A1 A1
-2Y1 -3Y1 -4Y1
A2 A2 A2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
HEBEZYLINDER AUSWERFZYLINDER PRÜFZYLINDER FREI

NACH UNTEN NACH OBEN NACH VORN NACH UNTEN
LIFTING CYLINDER EJECTING CYLINDER TESTING CYLINDER NOT USED
LOWERED RAISED EXTEND DOWNWARDS
F Datum 06/96 Ausgänge F
MPS Station Prüfen
D5 neu 20.11.97 DEL Bearb HJP Testing Station Outputs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A

B B
-B8 -B7 -3B1 -3B2 -1B1 -1B2 -2B1 -2B2
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
WERKSTÜCK IN RUNDSCHALTTISCH SPANNZYLINDER IST VORSCHUBZYLINDER BOHRMASCHINE PRÜFZYLINDER

DER AUFNAHME POSITIONIERT EINGEFAHREN AUSGEFAHREN EINGEFAHREN AUSGEFAHREN EINGEFAHREN AUSGEFAHREN
WORKPIECE IN ROTARY INDEXING CLAMPING CYLINDER FEED CYLINDER DRILLING UNIT CHECKING CYLINDER
RETAINER TABLE AT POSITION RETRACTED EXTENDED RETRACTED EXTENDED RETRACTED EXTENDED
F Datum 3.06.96 Eingänge F
MPS Station Bearbeiten
Bearb HJP Processing Station Intputs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-99
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-100
A A
B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
A1 A1 -1Y1 A1 -1Y2 A1 A1 A1
-K1 -K2 -3Y1 -2Y1
A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
FREI BOHRMASCHINE RUNDSCHALTTISCH BOHRMASCHINE SPANNZYLINDER PRÜFZYLINDER FREI

MOTOR AN MOTOR AN SENKEN HEBEN EINFAHREN AB
NOT CONNECTED DRILLING UNIT ROTARY INDEXING TABLE DRILLING UNIT CLAMPING CYLINDER CHECKING CYLINDER NOT CONNECTED
MOTOR ON MOTOR ON LOWER RAISE RETRACT ADVANCE
F Datum 3.06.96 Ausgänge F
MPS Station Bearbeiten
Bearb HJP Processing Station Outputs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
24V 24V
A A
-XIA1 24V 24V

B 11 11 B
-K1 -K2
14 14
C C
+ +
-M1 M -M2 M
24VDC = 24VDC =
- -
D D
-XIA1 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
BOHRMASCHINE RUNDSCHALTTISCH
MOTOR AN MOTOR AN
DRILLING UNIT ROTARY INDEXING TABLE
MOTOR ON MOTOR ON
F Datum 26.04.94 Station Bearbeiten Ansteuerung Motoren F
MPS
Bearb SPW Processing station Motor control
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-101
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-102
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
B B
-1B1 -1B2 -2B1 -2B2 -B5 -B6 IR
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
WEICHE 1 WEICHE 1 WEICHE 2 WEICHE 2 WERKSTÜCK BEI RUTSCHE VOLL FREI

UNBETÄTIGT BETÄTIGT UNBETÄTIGT BETÄTIGT BANDANFANG
SWITCH 1 SWITCH 1 SWITCH 2 SWITCH 2 WORKPIECE AT SLIDE FULL NOT USED
RETRACT EXTEND RETRACT EXTEND FRONT END
F Datum 03.06.96 Eingänge F
MPS Station Sortieren
Bearb HJP Sorting Station Inputs
B2:5 11.11.97 DEL Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A

B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
A1 A1 A1 A1
-1Y1 -2Y1 -K1 -3Y1
A2 A2 15.2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
WEICHE 1 WEICHE 2 BANDMOTOR EIN STOPPER FREI

AUSFAHREN AUSFAHREN
SWITCH 1 SWITCH 2 BELT MOTOR ON STOPPER NOT USED
EXTEND EXTEND
F Datum 03.06.96 Ausgänge
F
Bearb HJP Sorting Station Outputs
D4; F4 11.11.97 DEL Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-103
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
24V
C-104
24V
A -XIA1 24V A
B 11 B
-K1
14
C C
+
-M1 M
24VDC
=
-
D D
-XIA1 0V
0V 0V
E E
TRANSPORTBAND
CONVEYOR BELT
F Datum 26.04.94 Bandmotor

F
Bearb SPW Sorting Station Motor
B2; C2 11.11.97 DEL Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

C-105
Exercise 5

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Connect, test and adjust devices for supplying electrical and pneumatic energy
Because it wants to automate a particular process, your company has Issue

acquired a production station. You are responsible for connecting,
testing and adjusting the devices supplying the assembled station with
electrical and pneumatic energy.
1. Connect pneumatic supply to the service unit. Set pressure from the Assignment
service unit to 6 bar and verify operation of pneumatic supply.
2. Connect and test electrical supply.
- Mechanically, pneumatically and electrically pre-assembled station Resources

- Tools
- Pneumatic circuit diagram
- Electrical circuit diagrams
- Multimeter
1. Connect electrical and pneumatic supply devices. Assignment

2. Adjust electrical and pneumatic supply.
3. Test electrical and pneumatic supply.

C-106
Exercise 5
Subtasks · Piping the pneumatic supply unit

· Setting and testing supply pressure
P = ______ bar
· Connecting electrical power supply unit

· Verifying necessary power
Pel = _____ Watt
· Verifying supply voltage

C-107
Exercise 5

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Analyze tasks, particularly motion sequences and interaction at the interfaces of the
system to be controlled
Describe the operation of the station on the worksheet. Assignment

Especially when describing systems, trainees should make statements
about material transfer and information flow between the stations.
– Mechanically, pneumatically and electrically commissioned station Resources

C-108
Exercise 5
Work sheet: description of functions

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Describe the function of _____________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-109
Exercise 5
Processes and conditions of the components of a station are normally Problem

shown in diagram form. The two types of diagrams used are motion
diagrams (displacement-step diagrams, displacement-time diagrams)
and control charts.
The labeling of the operand type used can be taken into account when a
motion diagram or control chart is prepared.
The instructor can use the worksheet in different ways depending on the
desired training aim and degree of difficulty:
He can have trainees prepare a displacement-step diagram, a
displacement-time diagram or a control chart for one module, for several
modules or for the entire station.
The information requested is entered in the fields of the worksheet.
– Mechanically, pneumatically and electrically commissioned station Resources

C-110
Exercise 5
Worksheet: Graphic representation

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Prepare the ______________________________________ diagram for
_________________________________________________________

C-111
Exercise 6
Exercise 6
Assembly of modules and components to machines and systems
1. Identify modules and components and check for unimpaired condition

2. Carry out preliminary assembly
3. Install pneumatic components
4. Cut piping and tubing to length, lay, connect and check for leaks
5. Install, set and connect sensors
6. Test functions during installation process

C-112
Exercise 6
Assembly of modules and components to machines and systems

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: :
Identify modules and components and check for unimpaired condition, carry out
preliminary assembly, install and check pneumatic components, test functions
Issue Because it wants to automate a particular production process, your

company has acquired a production station. You are responsible for
assembling the station, which was delivered in an unassembled
condition, for drawing up a work plan and determining what material is
needed for the work.
Assignment 1. Drawing up a work plan

2. Listing the necessary work material
3. Setting up the mounting system
4. Identifying modules and components and checking them for
unimpaired condition
5. Pre-assembling the individual modules
6. Positioning the individual modules on the profile board
7. Testing the modules’ functions
8. Adjusting the modules to each other
9. Fitting components to the mounting plate
Resources - Unassembled station

- Tools
- Construction drawings (in part D)

C-113
Exercise 6
Work plan Instructions for

the worksheet
After reading all the necessary information about the station from the
technical documents, the trainee should plan the procedure to construct
and commission the station.
The following procedure is possible:
In a first step, the trainee collects all operations deemed necessary and
enters them in the worksheet. Once this is done, the trainee decides
what order is best for the operations and numbers them in accordance
with the intended order in the column marked “planned sequence”.
The completed worksheet should also be used while the system is
actually being set up. During setup the trainee should record the
sequence in which operations are carried out.
The trainee should enter the actual position number in the “sequence
executed” column. If one operation had not previously been entered at
all, it is now entered in the list of “Additionally required operations”.
Alternative:
Each trainee prepares his/her own work plan. Prior to the actual setup of
the circuit, work plans are discussed in the group and a common work
plan is drawn up.

C-114
Exercise 6
Worksheet: work plan

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: :
In the work plan, name the operations to be carried out while setting up
and commissioning the station. Determine the sequence of the
operations in the “planned sequence” column.
Step Planned Sequence

sequence executed
Additionally required operations:

C-115
Exercise 6
Materials Instructions for

the worksheet
On the basis of the work plan, the trainee lists all required Materials on
the worksheet. As in the case of the “work plan” worksheet, the
completed “Materials” worksheet should also be used during actual
setup. The trainee records whether a working item was needed or not,
or whether a working item had been forgotten.
Alternative:
Here again, an individual trainee’s list of Materials can be discussed in
the group and a common list of Materials prepared (cf. Instructions for
the worksheet: work plan).

C-116
Exercise 6
Worksheet: Materials
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: :
Enter all the tools, testing equipment and incidentals you think you will
require to construct and commission the station in the list below.
Tools, Req. Not Consumables Req. Not

testing equipment req. req.
Additionally required:

C-117
Exercise 6
Self-test, structure and function Instructions for

the worksheet
This worksheet contains a few general questions on the structure and
function of the circuit.
Trainees can use this worksheet as a self-test to assess the quality of
their own work and recognise their weaknesses.
The instructor can also use this worksheet for trainee assessment. An
additional column may be added after the questions to allow the
instructor to assess the quality of the work performed on a scale of 0 to
10. Additional empty fields are available for questions that the instructor
may find important.

C-118
Exercise 6
Worksheet: self-test, setup and operation

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: :
Answer the following questions by checking yes or no.

If you answer a question with ‘No’, please complete the corresponding
task.
Yes No
Was the work plan complete?
Was the sequence of the work plan respected?
Was the ‘Materials’ overview complete?
Does the setup match the circuit diagram?
– Does the wiring match the electrical circuit diagram?
– Does the piping match the pneumatic circuit diagram?
Is mechanical operation possible without compressed air?
Is the circuit fully functional?

C-119
Exercise 6
Worksheet: Graphic representation

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: :
Prepare the ______________________________________diagram for
_________________________________________________________

C-121
Exercise 7
Exercise 7
Checking and setting of functions in mechatronic systems -
maintenance of mechatronic systems
1. Select test and measurement procedure and diagnostic systems,

test electrical variables and signals at interfaces
2. Connect analog and digital signal processing modules and check
their input and output signals
3. Check measuring devices for the measurement of motion
sequences, temperature and pressure
4. Check and adjust devices for detecting limit values, in particular
switches and sensors
5. Evaluate actuators for safety, set actuators
6. Check control and monitoring devices, set control parameters
7. Set setpoints for process-related variables, in particular for motion
sequences and pressure
8. Systematically localise faults in mechanical, hydraulic, electrical,
pneumatic and hydraulic modules (taking interfaces into account) by
means of visual check, test and measurement and with the aid of
test systems and test programs
9. Check and set electrically and electronically controlled drives
10. Check for possible causes of faults, assess possibilities for
elimination and initiate repair
11. Test and document single functions and overall function

C-122
Exercise 7
Checking and setting of functions in mechatronic systems

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: Maintenance
Training aim Trainees are able to draw up the maintenance plan for a mechatronic
system. They can analyse mechatronic systems and their environmental
situation, find relevant information about the components used,
determine and understand activities, define cycles and assess the time
required for the work.
Issue You have been put in charge of a new machine. There is no

maintenance plan for this machine.
Assignment Prepare a maintenance plan for the station. Take into account the
environment (dust, humidity, temperature) of your training shop.
Resources - Commissioned station

C-123
Exercise 7
Maintenance plan
Cycle Time Tech- Module or Activities to be carried out Resp.
nolo- component
gy

C-124
Exercise 7
Checking and setting of functions in mechatronic systems

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: Systematic faultfinding
Training aim Trainees know how to systematically localise, identify and eliminate
disruptions and faults in mechatronic systems. They develop a
methodical procedure which also allows them to eliminate faults in
systems they are not familiar with.

C-125
Exercise 7
Faultfinding
Objective General
A systematic faultfinding procedure is absolutely necessary when faults
occur in a system. This reduces the time spent on corrective
maintenance and repair and cuts down on cost-intensive downtime.
Types of faults and their distribution
The following chart shows the main fault locations in PLC-controlled
systems. It is the result of a study by Siemens AG, Erlangen.
Main fault locations in a

PLC-controlled system

C-126
Exercise 7
The results of this study have an important effect for the vocational and
continuing training of service personnel:
If 95% of all faults are outside the PLC in sensor and actuator
technology, in mechanical parts or in the power supply, then training
with regard to faultfinding must focus on this type of hardware fault.
Execution
With the help of the problem description and of the motion or function
diagram, trainees will be able to find the step where the fault has
occurred.
Potential fault locations can then be determined. By systematically
testing and measuring the various system elements, trainees can then
zero in on the fault, find it and ultimately eliminate it.
After all necessary repairs have been carried out, the system can be put
back in operation.
Fault locations Faults should only be inserted in the execution part of the sequence.
This is because faults in the RESET sequence or in the CYCLE STOP
sequence cannot be localised in a displacement-step diagram.
Faults in the return stroke are more difficult to find than faults in the
forward stroke of an actuator. If, for instance, the tube from the final
control element to the forward stroke connector of the cylinder is
blocked, the cylinder will not extend.
The same fault cause has a totally different and much less evident effect
in the connection between the final control element and the return stroke
connector of the cylinder. The cylinder piston rod shoots out from its
back end position, and, most of the time, it does not reach its front end
position.
In addition to faults in the controller parts, mechanical faults or defective
elements can also be inserted.

C-127
Exercise 7
· Cylinder jammed Possible element faults

· Valve reset spring damaged
· Valve control membrane damaged
· Valve pilot piston blocked
· Cylinder piston seal damaged
· Relay contact burnt out
· Coil defective
· Pneumatic limit valve defective
Faults in the pneumatic part of the system Fault insertion

Block tube connectors with a sufficiently large wad of paper or with glue.
Tubes should never be blocked with solid objects, because these
objects could then turn into dangerous projectiles.
In practice, faults simulated by blocking up a tube usually occur in the
form of a kinked tube.
Faults in the electrical part of the system

The electrical signal connection should be interrupted at the terminal
strip. To achieve this, an insulated cable end is fitted with a cable end
sleeve and reconnected. In practice, faults simulated in this manner
usually occur in the form of a broken cable.

C-128
Exercise 7
Timing of fault Important information for instructors!

The fault situation should always occur after commissioning. This means
that the system has already been duly operated and that assembly
faults such as faulty wiring or piping can be ruled out.
Position of the faulty circuit

At the start of the faultfinding exercise, the circuit should be in its initial
position. The trainee should then start up the system in accordance with
specified start conditions. If the system is not in its initial position, it
should be at the fault position.
Number of faults
Under normal conditions, only one fault should be inserted in a circuit. If
several faults are inserted at the same time, they should be logically
interrelated, because in practice it is extremely rare for a number of
unconnected faults to occur at the same time in the same system.

C-129
Exercise 7
Practical exercise
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: faultfinding
You are employed in the service and maintenance section of Cylinder & Issue
Co. company. The production department informs you that a fault has
occurred in station xyz.
The station is in the status in which the fault occurred. Additional conditions
1. Check the station for faults, using a systematic approach. Assignment

2. Eliminate the fault.
3. Put the station back into operation.
- Worksheets on faultfinding Resources

- Technical documentation for the station

C-130
Exercise 7
Instructions for Faultfinding – determination of required status

the worksheet
The instructor specifies the desired diagram form in the space provided.
· displacement-step diagram
· displacement-time diagram
For the rest of the faultfinding exercise it is absolutely essential for
trainees to have a correct diagram at their disposal.
This must be ensured by the instructor!
Trainees’ results can either

· be assessed together with the instructor and entered into a common
diagram
or
· the instructor can provide a correct diagram for trainees to continue
the faultfinding exercise.

C-131
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: determination of required status

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Prepare the _______________________________ diagram with the

help of the documents given to you.

C-132
Exercise 7
Instructions for Faultfinding – comparison of required and actual status

the worksheet
Enter the jointly established solution into the diagram.
It is recommended to agree on a particular symbol to mark the fault,
such as circling it in red.

C-133
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: comparison of required and actual status

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Determine the actual status of the system on the basis of the following
documents:
· positional sketch and problem description
· graphic representation
If the correct function is not available (comparison of required and actual
status), mark the spot where the fault occurs clearly on the diagram.

C-134
Exercise 7
Instructions for Faultfinding – fault description

the worksheet
With this worksheet the trainee must formulate in writing what has been
learned about the process of the station or system.
Trainees must review the findings and results of the previous
worksheets to find and correct their own mistakes.
This also develops the trainee’s ability to clearly explain a concrete
situation to other team members and at the same time to record it in
writing.

C-135
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: fault description

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
You have marked the fault location in the ‘comparison of required and
actual status’ worksheet.
In a few words, describe the process up to the stoppage of the station or
system.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-136
Exercise 7
Instructions for the Faultfinding – localising faults in the pneumatic system

worksheet
Potential faults must be numbered so that they can be classified in the
subsequent worksheet on ‘Fault localisation’.
Pneumatic elements at the beginning or end of a possibly faulty
pneumatic connection are to be entered in the ‘Tube connector’ column
with component name and with the number stated in the pneumatic
circuit diagram.
Example
Potential fault no. Connection

Beginning End
1 5/2-way double pilot valve 1.1 One-way flow control valve 1.01

C-137
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: fault determination in the pneumatic system

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· After you have determined the actual status of the system, think
about the possible cause of the fault.
· What pneumatic connection might be faulty?
· Write down all the possibilities. Name the elements at the beginning
and end of the connection to ensure non-ambiguous identification.
Potential fault no. Connection
Beginning End

C-138
Exercise 7
Instructions for Faultfinding – determining faults in the electrical system

the worksheet
Potential faults must be numbered so that they can be classified in the
subsequent worksheet on ‘Fault localisation’.
Potential fault no. Current path no. Current path function

1 16 Rotary actuator in slide position

C-139
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: fault determination in the electrical system

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· After you have determined the actual status of the system, think
about the possible cause of the fault.
· What current path might be faulty?
· What is the function of the current path?
· Write down all possibilities!
Potential fault no. Current path no. Current path function

C-140
Exercise 7
Instructions for Faultfinding – localising faults in the pneumatic system

the worksheet
The ‘Check’ column must show the procedure followed to check the
tube connector.
The result of the testing action must be entered in the ‘Result’ column.
Measuring and testing report
Potential Connection
fault no. Beginning End Check Result
1 5/2-way double pilot DRV 1.01 Remove tube from the no pressure
valve 1.1 5/2-way double pilot
valve at connection 4(A)
Example The fundamental difference between measuring and testing must be

made clear within the context of the measuring and testing report.
DIN 1319 part 1 gives the following definitions.

· Measuring
is the experimental process by which a specific value of a physical
variable is determined as a multiple of a unit or reference value.
· Testing
serves to determine whether the object of the test (test specimen,
sample, measuring device) fulfills one or several agreed or
prescribed or expected conditions, in particular, whether specified
fault limits or tolerances are maintained. Testing can be subjective –
through sensory perception or with the help of an auxiliary device – or
objective, using measuring or testing devices.

C-141
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: fault localisation in the pneumatic system

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Investigate the possible causes for the pneumatic faults you have
found.
· Use the same fault numbering as in the ‘Fault determination in the
pneumatic system’ worksheet.
· Record your procedure while verifying tube connectors.
· Write down the result of the testing action.
Potential Connection
fault no. Beginning End Check Result

C-142
Exercise 7
Instructions for Faultfinding – localising faults in the electrical system

the worksheet
Under ‘measuring points’ enter the contacts across which measuring
occurs.
In the ‘Check’ column, the trainee should specify the measurement
method used to investigate this potential fault.
Results of the testing action are to be entered in the ‘Result’ column.

Poten- Current
tial fault path no. Measuring point Check Result
no.
1 21 K8 relay terminal 11 Test for continuity with K8 relay was actuated, K8
ohmmeter (in de-energised make contact was closed,
K8 relay terminal 14 state); manually activate K8 high-resistance measurement
relay result:
Relay contact defective
Example The fundamental difference between measuring and testing must be

made clear within the context of the measuring and testing report.
DIN 1319 part 1 gives the following definitions.

· Measuring
is the experimental process by which a specific value of a physical
variable is determined as a multiple of a unit or reference value.
· Testing
serves to determine whether the object of the test (test specimen,
sample, measuring device) fulfills one or several agreed or
prescribed or expected conditions, in particular, whether specified
fault limits or tolerances are complied with. Testing can be subjective
– through sensory perception or with the help of an auxiliary device –
or objective, using measuring or testing devices.

C-143
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: fault localisation in the electrical system

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· Investigate the possible causes for the faults you have found.
· Use the same fault numbering as in the ‘Fault determination in the
electrical system’ worksheet.
· Record your procedure while verifying line connections.
· Write down the result of the testing action.

Poten- Current
tial fault path no.
Measuring points Check Result
no.

C-144
Exercise 7
Instructions for the Faultfinding – fault elimination

worksheet
Once the fault has been found, it should be eliminated without delay. A
defective connection should be replaced. It may be possible to repair a
defective electrical line connection or a mechanical fault.
Important!
For safety reasons, the instructor must point out that voltage and
pressure supply should be switched off prior to eliminating faults.

C-145
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: fault elimination

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
After you have localised the fault, you must record your procedure to
eliminate it in this worksheet.
Describe each of your steps in detail!
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
If the system does not fulfill the desired function, return to the first
worksheet and repeat the faultfinding process.
Get new worksheets.

C-146
Exercise 7
Faultfinding: recommissioning
Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
· After you have identified, localised and eliminated the fault(s),

recommission the system in accordance with its required status.
· Readjust the specified required times.
· Document your procedures in keyword form.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-147
Exercise 7
Testing and setting of functions in mechatronic systems

Name: Date
Project name:
Task: Analysis of causes and effects of faults
Trainees know how to apply cause and effect analysis to mechatronic Training aim
systems. They understand the significance of this method for potentially
assessing the effect of disruptions. They can develop methods to
ensure that faults that pose health hazards, or faults that are difficult to
eliminate or discover, do not occur or can be found quickly.

C-148
Exercise 7
Practical exercise 1 FMEA

Name: Date
Project name:
Issue A machine malfunction list for an MPS station is to be examined for

systematic faults. An FMEA report is to be drawn up for the most
frequent fault; a solution is to be found for the problem.
Additional conditions A simplified FMEA method (without fault assessment) should be used.
Assignment 1. Join the group with which you would like to execute this task.
2. Carry out the FMEA analysis for a fault on the basis of the machine
malfunction list.
3. Discuss possible fault elimination strategies.
4. Present your results to the entire group.

C-149
Exercise 7
Machine malfunction list for the Distributing station

No. Date and Fault Cause Fault Eliminated Action taken
time index* by
1 6.3.99 Ejecting cylinder Supply air tube P H. Fischer Replaced tube

10.45 does not retract kinked
2 6.3.99 No suction Suction filter P H. Schmidt Cleaned filter
16.20 blocked
3 7.3.99 Reset does not Defective E H. Fischer Replaced switch
8.30 work ‘automatic/manual’
switch on control
desk
4 7.3.99 Ejecting cylinder Magazine M H. Schmidt Adjusted sensor
17.40 extends although interrogation
magazine is empty defective
5 8.3.99 Piece of metal falls Suction filter P H. Fischer Replaced filter
7.15 out of vacuum blocked
generator
6 9.3.99 Ejecting cylinder Connection to PLC E H. Fischer Replaced clamp
9.30 does not eject output 0.0 burnt and reconnected
out
7 9.3.99 Suction too weak Blocked filter P H. King Removed filter
23.30
8 10.3.99 No partial vacuum Filter had been P H. Schmidt Refitted filter,
14.40 removed, vacuum replaced vacuum
generator defective generator
9 10.3.99 Short-circuit at 1S1 Dirty switch E H. Schmidt Replaced 1S1
16.00
10 14.3.99 Suction too weak Blocked suction P H. Fischer Replaced filter
10.50 filter
11 14.3.99 Vacuum generator 1S3 maladjusted M H. Schmidt Readjusted 1S3
15.00 does generate
vacuum
12 15.3.99 No suction Blocked filter P H. Schmidt Cleaned filter
16.15
13 15.3.99 Vacuum generator Valve exhaust dirty P H. King Cleaned silencer
22.40 does not switch off
suction
14 16.3.99 Swivel cylinder Short-circuit at E H. Schmidt Replaced line
17.45 does not swivel PLC output 0.2
15 17.3.99 Suction too weak Suction filter dirty P H. Fischer Replaced filter
10.10

C-150
Exercise 7
Machine malfunction list for the Distributing station

time index* by
16 17.3.99 System does not Pressure drop in P H. Schmidt Checked line system,
14.50 work the system cleaned service unit
(service unit dirty)
17 20.3.99 Swivel arm does 1S1 maladjusted M H. Fischer 1S1 readjusted
8.50 not swivel in
18 20.3.99 No suction build- Dirty filter P H. Schmidt Replaced filter
15.30 up
Fault index*:
M= Mechanical fault
E= Electrical fault
P= Pneumatic fault

C-151
Exercise 7
Machine malfunction list for the Testing station

time index* by
1 5.3.,11.30 Part is not ejected Defective valve P King Replaced valve
2 15.3.,7.20 Aluminum parts are 2B5 defective E McDonald Replaced sensor
ejected as plastic
parts
3 4.4., 18.50 Good parts are Sensor 2B1 E Burger Readjusted
ejected as bad parts bounces sensor
4 5.5., 23.00 Plastic parts are Short on wire at E King Rewired
ejected as aluminum PLC input E32.0
parts
5 23.5., 9.10 PLC goes into stop Solenoid valve E King Replaced solenoid
mode when part is consuming too coil
raised much current
6 23.6., 14.50 Aluminum parts are Broken wire at E Burger Wire shortened
ejected as plastic XIA1, I0 and reclamped
parts
7 15.8.,23.10 Aluminum parts are 2B2 maladjusted M McDonald Readjusted
pushed against the sensor
slide
8 7.9., 12.45 Linear axis does not Axis under M Burger Released and
work pressure from locked mounting
sensor strut
9 13.9., 14.25 Plastic parts are 2B5 defective, E McDonald Replaced sensor
ejected as aluminum short at output
parts
10 17.9., 7.00 Machine does not EMERGENCY E McDonald Replaced
start STOP defective EMERGENCY
STOP
11 11.10. 17.00 Plastic parts are 2B5 maladjusted E Burger Adjusted sensor
ejected as aluminum
parts
12 29.10, 13.30 Good parts are Analog sensor E Burger Carried out
ejected as bad parts maladjusted reference travel
13 12.11, 10.00 System stops Swarf in machine E King Cleaned machine
terminal box terminal box
14 13.11., 13.00 Linear cylinder does Service unit dirty P McDonald Cleaned service
not work unit and filter
15 22.12., 14.35 Red plastic parts are 2B7 optic sensor E King Cleaned sensor
identified as black dirty

C-152
Exercise 7
Machine malfunction list for the Processing station

time index* by
1 5.3.,11.35 System does not 3B3 maladjusted M King Adjusted sensor
start
2 19.3.,7.20 Parts are not Drill bit broken off M McDonald Replaced drill bit
drilled
3 4.4., 10.50 Drilled hole out of Swarf in material M Burger Cleaned material intake
line intake
4 5.4., 22.00 System does not 3M1 defective E King Replaced motor
start
5 23.4., 9.25 Aluminum part Burr on workpiece M King Report problem to QA
gets caught on drill
6 23.5., 14.50 Rotary indexing Trip cams M Burger Adjusted trip cams
table does not maladjusted
position
7 2.6., 11.10 No drill forward Restrictor dirty P McDonald Replaced restrictor
stroke
8 7.9., 11.50 AB32 does not Short-circuit at E Burger Reinsulated wires
switch A32.2
9 13.9.,14.25 Part pulled out by Chuck cylinder P McDonald Increased clamping
drill clamping pressure pressure
too low
10 15.9, 7.33 Part is thrown out Cylinder clamping P Burger Reduced clamping
of mount by chuck pressure too high pressure
cylinder
11 16.9., 16.00 Drill tears part Clamping device P King Increased pressure
away clamping pressure
too low
12 27.9., 7.00 Machine does not Defective fuse E McDonald Replaced fuse
start
13 12.10.,12.5 Chuck cylinder Pressure too high P McDonald Reduced clamping
0 pushes part out of pressure
device
14 24.10., Rotary table does Defective sensor E Burger Replaced sensor
13.55 not stop
15 1.11., 8.00 Drill tears part Pressure too low P King Increased pressure
away
16 23.12., All parts are 3B4 sensor E King Readjusted sensor
14.50 identified as bad maladjusted
parts

C-153
Exercise 7

C-155
Exercise 8
Exercise 8
Commissioning and operation of mechatronic systems
Once the installation is complete, the system can be commissioned.

Installation and programming errors can be eliminated at this stage.
Care and caution are the keywords when commissioning a machine or
system. Even if subsystems have already been operated under trial
conditions, it should not be forgotten that when a machine or system is
commissioned some of the power elements could move unexpectedly.
This could lead to injury to the commissioning personnel or to machine
or system damage. A suddenly extending piston rod can crush a hand.
A rotary indexing table starting at the wrong time can break a drill bit.
Electric installations must be checked before a controller can be
commissioned. Faults can easily creep in, particularly during connection.
A project should be divided into function groups. The various functions
can then be commissioned individually and sequentially.
It is recommended to begin commissioning with individual devices,
continuing with functional groups and finishing with the entire system:
· I/O testing of the controller based on the tested switchgear cabinet
and using the same approach of driving outputs or operating of
sensors etc. directly on the machine/system.
· Commissioning can, for instance, start with the main electrical circuit
without the data-processing components or user software being
active. Testing rotational direction of motors.
· Commissioning of functional groups individually and together.
· Handover report documenting realisation of machine/system
functional characteristics as specified in the customer’s order.

C-156
Exercise 8
Practical exercise
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: commissioning station
Issue In order to optimise the production process of his company, a customer

has purchased a ___________________________________ station.
You are the supplier’s service technician, and you have been given the
job of commissioning the station at the customer’s premises.
Additional conditions The station has arrived at the customer’s premises in its original
packaging. In accordance with the customer’s order, individual
components have been preassembled.
Assignment 1. Using the parts list, check that delivery is complete.

2. Gradually commission the station.
3. Draw up a commissioning report.
Resources - Worksheets on commissioning

- Technical documentation for the station

C-157
Exercise 8
Commissioning mechanical components Instructions for

the worksheet
In this worksheet trainees should describe the procedure followed while
commissioning mechanical components.
Special attention should be given to reporting on
· planning
· realisation and
· checking.

C-158
Exercise 8
Commissioning mechanical components

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Commission the _____________________

mechanical components of the
________________________________________ station.
Planning What function is being realised with this module?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Where could there be mechanical problems?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
What resources are needed?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-159
Exercise 8
What safety precautions must be taken?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Plan your time.

(How much time do you need for the individual steps?)
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Briefly describe your procedure Realisation
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
How can you check your own work? Check
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-160
Exercise 8
How long did the job actually take?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-161
Exercise 8
Commissioning pneumatic elements Instructions for

the worksheet
commissioning pneumatic components.
· planning
· realisation and
· checking.

C-162
Exercise 8
Commissioning pneumatic components

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Commission the ____________________

pneumatic components of the
________________________________________ station.
Planning What resources are needed?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
On the basis of the pneumatic circuit diagram, draw up a list of the

pneumatic elements used
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
What adjustments are possible to optimise the motion sequence?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-163
Exercise 8
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Plan your time.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-164
Exercise 8
Check Carry out a function test and describe what you have paid attention to.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-165
Exercise 8
Commissioning electrical parts Instructions for

the worksheet
commissioning electrical components.
· planning
· realisation and
· checking.

C-166
Exercise 8
Commissioning electrical components

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Commission the _______________________

electrical components of the
________________________________________ station.
Planning What preconditions must be fulfilled to carry out electrical

commissioning work?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
What are the main electrical/electronic elements being used?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
What measuring points are available, and what resources are needed?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-167
Exercise 8
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Plan your time.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-168
Exercise 8
Check How can you check your own work?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-169
Exercise 8
Commissioning the entire system Instructions for

the worksheet
In this worksheet trainees should report on their tasks while
commissioning the entire system.
They should make use of the information gathered while commissioning
the individual components.

C-170
Exercise 8
Commissioning the entire system

Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
Commission the ______________________________ station.
Planning What resources are needed?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
On the basis of the pneumatic circuit diagram, draw up a list of the

pneumatic elements used.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
What adjustments are possible to optimise the motion sequence?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-171
Exercise 8
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Plan your time.

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

C-172
Exercise 8
Check Carry out a function test and describe what you have paid attention to.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

D
List of various assembly drawings
Number German title Title
Aufnahme Receptacle
Buchse Bush
Hebel, vollst Lever, complete
Lagerbuchse Bearing bush
Schwenkhebel Swivelling lever
Welle Shaft
035 690 Modul Bohren Drilling module
035 695 Modul Bohrloch prüfen Drill-hole checking module
036 200 Modul Heben Lifting module
120 880 Station Verteilen Distributing station
120 881 Station Prüfen Testing station
120 882 Station Bearbeiten Processing station
120 887 Station Sortieren Sorting station
121 255 Weiche Switch
151 481 Modul Rundschalttisch Rotary indexing table
162 259 SPS-Board S95U PLC board S95U
162 261 SPS-Board ASA PLC board ASA
162 385 Modul Stapelmagazin Stack magazine module
162 387 Modul Umsetzen Changer module
167 000 Modul Rutsche 210 Slide module 210
167 023 SPS-Board IPC PLC board IPC
170 467 Modul Rutsche 130 Slide module 130
170 650 SPS-Board FPC PLC board FPC
170 676 Modul Sortieren Sorting belt module
172 938 Umrüstsatz Messen Conversion kit for Measuring
module
184 795 SPS-Board S7 PLC board S7
374 135 Transportband Conveyor belt

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Learning System for Automation and Communication

Order no.: 094 536

© Copyright by Festo Didactic GmbH & Co., D-73770 Denkendorf 2000

Part A – General information

3 Planning of automated systems .........................................A-23

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

3.4 The Petri net ..........................................................................A-55

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

Part B – Theoretical basics

1 Safety recommendations ......................................................B-1

2 Fundamentals of electrical engineering.............................B-11

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

3 Electrical components........................................................ B-23

4 Solenoid-operated directional control valves

5 Measuring instruments....................................................... B-71

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

6 PLC in automation technology ...........................................B-83

7 Design and mode of operation of a PLC ............................B-95

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

Part C – Exercises and solutions

Overview ........................................................................................... C-1

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

Overview of our modular offerings

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

Mechatronics specialists are responsible for the complete service life of

Special attention must be devoted to the planning and design process

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

A project is by definition a unique new undertaking, characterised by a Definition of terms:

Festo Didactic · Mechatronics

Mechatronics · Festo Didactic

Action number Table 1.1

EST - earliest start time

The arrows between the rectangles represent the relationships of the

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We did, however, have to consider the overall volume of this binder

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2.1.1 Definition of terms

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The second example involves an intermittent-flow conveyor. Each cabin Intermittent-flow

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2.1.2 Analysis of material flow

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The conveying of 100 parts A from operational equipment 1 to opera-

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During the operational implementation, an ’ideal’ plan should first be Operational

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If this procedure does not provide a conclusive outcome, the calculation

Numerical method In the case of more complex installations, computer-aided optimisation

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According to VDI guideline 2860, handling is a subsection of material Terminology

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Pick-and-place robots use simple kinematics. In order to approach any

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Similarly, the control of a pick-and-place device is generally simple. Ba- Pick-and-place

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