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LUZON
Dagupan City, Pangasinan
IRRIGATION
CE 514
Submitted to:
Engr. Geronimo A. Carvajal
Submitted by:
Calimlim, Blessie
Distor, Jerome
Montemayor, Jovit
Santiago,Lyan Ruth R.
Flow of
Water into
and
throu
gh
Soils
FLOW OF WATER INTO AND THROUGH SOIL
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
DARCY'S LAW
-the rate of flow or the discharge per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient.
-an equation that describe the flow of fluid through a porous medium.
v = ki
q = vA
q = kiA
where:
q - flow rate
*Darcy’s law is valid as long as the flow is laminar. It is applied to soil
fraction finer than fine gravels.
PIEZOMETER
A piezometer is either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by
measuring the height to which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or
a device which measures the pressure (more precisely, the piezometric head)
of groundwater at a specific point.
A piezometer is designed to measure static pressures, and thus differs from a
pitot tube by not being pointed into the fluid flow.
TYPES OF PIEZOMETERS
ELECTRIC PIEZOMETERS
Electric piezometers consist of a deflecting diaphragm and a porous filter
separated by a small reservoir of water. Deflections of the diaphragm are
detected using a vibrating wire or a strain gauge and are converted to an
equivalent pressure using a suitable
calibration.
HYDRAULIC PIEZOMETERS
Hydraulic piezometers consist of a
porous filter enclosing a reservoir
of water, which is separated from a
pressure gauge by flexible, water
filled tubes. The tubes are used to
circulate water through the system,
removing air and ensuring that the
reservoir remains full of water.
point A = ρ x g x h
Where,
ρ = Density of liquid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
h = Rise of liquid in Piezometer glass tube
Absolute pressure at
Point A = Pa + ρ x g x h
Where, Pa is the atmospheric pressure
The permeability of a soil is the ability of water to move through it (permeate it). It
depends on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, notably particle size
distribution (the range of particle sizes present), pore space, pore size and the
continuity of the spaces.
The formal name is hydraulic conductivity, which refers to the ability of a soil to
conduct water. Hydraulic conductivity, or K, is measured in cm/hour – that is, how
far water will move through soil in a given time.
Soil permeability is a characteristic property of soil, and studying it helps to erect better
structures, construct stable foundations, and performs agricultural activities. Permeability
of soil depends upon various factors, and important related aspects.
The pumping test and percolation test can be used in the field to provide
information about the permeability of soils. The pumping test is an active way to
determine permeability whereas the percolation test is a passive way to find out
permeability of a soil sample under consideration. The percolation test can be
performed easily, and it does not cost much as well.
Determination of Permeability
Soil or any porous material has pores or voids that allow movement of air and
water through it. Through these voids, water travels and reaches the bottom of the
porous material. If the voids in a soil mass are more, it will allow water to pass
through easily and hence possess high permeability. On the other hand, a tightly
packed soil mass will have less space between its constituent particles, which will
not allow much water to pass through it and thus will have less permeability. Based
on the above logic, gravel will have higher permeability than clay because gravel is
a coarse aggregate and its constituent materials are loosely packed.
There are numerous factors that affect the permeability of a soil mass. Important
factors are mentioned below:
Porosity of the soil mass under consideration, soil compaction also impacts
permeability of soil.
Permeability from particle size of soil grain size, particle shape, and degree of
packing of soil mass constituents
Water movement in soils is quite simple and easy to understand in some ways and
quite complex and difficult to grasp in others. An object that is free to move tends to move
spontaneously from a state of higher potential energy to one of lower potential energy. So
it is with water. A unit volume or mass of water tends to move from an area of higher
potential energy to one of lower potential energy.
Unsaturated soil known also as partially saturated soil .Water flow when larger pores in
soil are filled with air is said to be unsaturated. Smaller pores hold and transmit water.
The unsaturated zone is the part of the subsurface between the land surface and the
groundwater table. The definition of an unsaturated zone is that the water content is below
saturation (for the specific soil). Hence, ‘unsaturated’ means that the pore spaces between
the soil grain particles or the pore space in cracks and fissures are partially filled with
water, partially with air. The unsaturated zone can be from meters to hundred of meters
deep.
If an unsaturated zone exists below the ground surface the water infiltrating through the
top soil will flow vertically through the unsaturated zone before the water recharges the
saturated zone. From the unsaturated zone, the water is lost by i) plant uptake
(transpiration), ii) direct soil evaporation and iii) recharge. In the unsaturated zone, the
driving force for the flow of water is the vertical gradient of the hydraulic head (consisting
of gravity and capillary forces), and the soil characteristics (unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity).
The vertical flow through an unsaturated soil is solved numerically using the Richards
Equation. This equation is developed by combining the Darcy’s law with the law of
conservation of mass and the result is a partial differential equation for one-dimensional
vertical flow in unsaturated soil.
Field capacity (FC) is the amount of water that a soil can hold against drainage by
gravity.
Permanent wilting point (PWP) is the moisture content in a soil at which plants
permanently wilt and will not recover.
Available water (AW) is the water content that the soil can hold between field capacity
and wilting point.
Readily available water (RAW) is that portion of available water that the crop can use
without affecting its evapotranspiration and growth. This portion is often indicated as a
fraction of available water (p) and is dependent primarily on the type of crop and
evaporative demand. A p value of 0.5 is commonly used. Shallow rooted crops such as
most vegetables, however, require high moisture levels for acceptable yields, so p is about
0.3. Deeper rooted crops will generally tolerate higher depletions, so p = 0.6 to 0.7. During
critical stages of growth (for example, flowering in corn), less depletion should be allowed
than at other stages.
The most useful measurement gives available water-holding capacity (AW) as a depth of
water per unit depth of soil expressed as mm of water per meter of soil depth (mm/m) or
inches of water per foot of soil depth (in/ft).
Soil Moistur
TAW = D AW
RAW = p TAW
p = percent of allowable depletion not resulting in crop stress
Field Capacity
Although there are several lab methods for determining field capacity, it may be faster and
more practical to estimate as follows:
(1) select a recently irrigated plot with no plants on it or make a small basin and fill with
water;
(2) cover the saturated soil with canvas or plastic to prevent evaporation; and
(3) take samples after the soil has drained to field capacity. The time required is usually
one day in coarse-textured soils, two days in medium-textured soils, and three to four days
in fine-textured soils. Samples of the soil taken after the indicated time period will be
approximately at field capacity. Table 2.5 can then be used to understand the concept of
field capacity for different soil textures by the "feel" method.
Soils that take up water rapidly will wet the root zone rapidly after the onset of
irrigation, and thus irrigations will usually be of short duration. The rate at which soils take
water is called the soil intake rate, and the rate at which water goes into the soil is
the infiltration rate. The intake rate of a soil will affect such management and design
factors as irrigation durations, flow rates to be used, and dimensions of the system.
The most important factors influencing the infiltration rate of water into the soil are:
1. Soil texture and structure. The coarser the texture and the more highly structured, the
higher the infiltration rates.
2. Soil surface conditions. Orientation of soil particles and compaction: after water
moves over a soil surface, soil particles are rearranged and the soil surface tends to seal.
3. Soil moisture content and moisture gradients. Generally, the drier the soil, the faster
the infiltration rate.
4. Time since the start of irrigation. Infiltration rate decreases with time until the basic
intake rate is reached.
5. Salt content in the water and soil. Soils high in soluble salts will typically exhibit
higher intake rates than soils from which salts have been leached.
6. High levels of sodium on the soil's exchange sites will severely affect infiltration if
structure collapses.
Infiltration rate, as used in border irrigation and sometimes in furrow irrigation, has
the units of velocity (l/t) and is the depth of water entering the soil profile per unit time. It
can also be thought of as the volume of water absorbed by a unit area per unit time. The
metric units commonly used to express infiltration rate are mm/hr or mm/mint In furrow
irrigation, where infiltration rate is expressed as a depth per unit time, an equivalent depth
is usually implied since movement is horizontal as well as vertical. The depth is obtained
by dividing the volume rate of infiltration per unit of furrow length by the product of unit
length and furrow spacing. In furrow irrigation, infiltration rate is commonly expressed as
the volume absorbed by a unit length of furrow in a unit time.
The movement of water from the soil surface into and through the soil is called water
intake. It is the expression of several factors including infiltration and percolation.
Infiltration:
Infiltration is the term applied to the process of water entry into the soil generally (but not
necessarily) through the soil surface and vertically downward. This process is of great
practical importance since its rate determines the amount of run-off over the soil surface.
In other words, infiltration refers to the entry and downward movement of water in to the
soil surface. Infiltration is a surface characteristic of a soil.
Infiltration rate:
It is the rate at which the water enters from the surface to the soil. Initially the infiltration
rate is more but afterwards it decreases because the soil gets wet. According to the rate of
entry of water from surface to the soil, infiltration rate is grouped in to four categories.
1. Very Slow: soils with less than 0.25cm per hour e.g. - very clay soils.
2. Slow: infiltration rate of 0.25cm to 1.25cm per hour e.g. Soils with high clay.
3. Moderate: infiltration rate of 1.25 to 2.5cm per hour. e.g. - sandy loam/ silt loam soils.
4. Rapid: infiltration rate is more than 2.5cm per hour e.g. deep/sandy silt loam soils.
A coarse surface textured, high water stable aggregates, more organic matter in the surface
soil and greater number of micro pores, all help to increase infiltration. As it is a dynamic
and quite variable character of soil, it can be controlled by management practices.
Cultivation practices that loosen the surface soil make it more receptive for infiltration e.g.
course organic matter mulches increases infiltration.
Permeability:
It is defined as the characteristic that determines how fast air and water move through the
soil describes what is known as permeability.
Once the water has entered into the top layer, its subsequent slow or rapid movement
within the soil indicates its rapid or slow permeability. The permeability basically depends
upon pore size distribution in the soil. Larger the number of macro pores (non-capillary
pores), the greater is the permeability. The movement of water becomes slow in subsoil
layers due to their compactness and low organic matter content but with deep-rooted
plants, there is an increased permeability even in such sub soil layers. Permeability
increases with the increasing fine texture.
Number of micro pores: More the number of macro pores higher is the permeability.
Soil aggregates: Larger the size of capillary pores, greater is the permeability.
Depth of soil: Permeability decreases with the depth, as the sub soil layers are more
compact and have less organic matter
Coarseness of soil texture: In coarse textured soil, permeability is more, however
fine textured soil is less.
Salt concentration: Salt concentration affects permeability adversely. If the sodium
is high in water; it would cause ready dispersion of soil and thus reduces permeability.
Soil moisture status: Permeability decreases as the soil becomes drier and increases
when soil becomes wet.
Organic matter content: more organic matter in the soil results in more
permeability.
The permeability is considered slow, if it is less than 2.5 cm per hour, moderate if it is
about 5.0 cm per hour. Like infiltration, permeability can be also controlled to a extent by
suitable management practices. Continuous tillage reduces permeability, while the growth
of deep-rooted crops like pulses or legumes, grasses and tress increases permeability. The
permeability of soil varies with its moisture status and usually decreases as the soil
becomes drier because air enters in to soil and reduces the permeability.
Percolation:
The down ward movement of water through saturated or nearly saturated soil due to the
forces of gravity is known as percolation. Percolation occurs when water is under pressure
or when the tension is smaller than about 1/3 atmosphere.
Percolating water goes deep into the soil until it meets the free water table. Percolation
studies are important for two reasons-
1)Percolating water is only source of recharge of ground water, which can be again be
profitably used through springs and wells for irrigation.
2)Percolating water carries plant nutrients like Calcium, Magnesium deep into lower
layers and depositing them beyond the reach of roots of common field crops. In sandy or
open textured soils, there is a rapid loss of water through percolation.
Capillary movement:
Once the flow due to gravitational forces has been ceased (stopped), the water moves in
the form of thin or capillary film from a wet region to dry region. This type movement goes
through the finer or micro-pores and it continues until the thickness of moisture film
surrounding the soil particles is equal to both the regions (wet and dry regions). Capillary
may be in all directions i.e. it may be downward, lateral or upwards from a low tension to
high-tension area, since thicker film have lower tension; water from thicker film around
the soil particles flows to thinner film. The greater the difference between the thicknesses
of the film, the quicker is the capillary movement up to certain point and as difference
narrows, the movement of water film also becomes slow and may cease (stop).
Hydrologic Implications
Anisotropy and Hillslope Hydrology
Chorley (1978) took issue with the Hortonian model (Horton, 1941) of overland flow. The
Hortonian runoff model essentially says that when the rate of precipitation exceeds the
infiltration capacity of the soil, overland flow will occur (precipitation-infiltration capacity
= overland runoff). Instead, Chorley formulated a more elaborate model of hillslope
hydrology that accounted for layered profiles with flow restricting layers, subsurface
lateral flow or throughflow,” and the focusing of infiltrating water to the bottom of the hill
(F
Because of downhill drainage, footslopes tend to have higher antecedent moisture than
higher backslope and summit positions. He also noted that hydraulic conductivities in
coarse soils were faster when the soils were at least 80% saturated and capillary forces
were negligible. This is a significant departure from the Hortonian model, since Chorley’s
scenario can lead to rapid, saturated flow in select areasof a watershed, even though
precipitation rates never exceeded the infiltration rates of the soil. These limited areas
prone to surface runoff include: i) footslope positions near surface water bodies, ii)
concavities where streamlines converge near the land surface (Fig. 2), and iii) areas of thin
soil cover, where infiltration is limited by an underlying impermeable formation.
The “concavities” mentioned above include both profile concavities and contour (lateral)
concavities. On a topographic map, contour concavities appear bay-like or
horseshoe-shaped. Both profile and lateral concavities force flowlines to converge at an
area that becomes more saturated than the rest of the landscape. Anisotropic behavior, with
horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kx) greater than vertical hydraulic conductivity (Ky),
enhances the process of subsurface lateral flow and partial area saturation (Fig. 3).
Zaslavsky and Rogowsky (1969) and Burt and Trudgill (1985) presented a model for the
combined effects of hill slope angle and soil anisotropy (Figure 3). The angle of the
flowline through the soil (beta) can be calculated from the land surface slope angle (alpha),
the lateral hydraulic conductivity (Kx), and the vertical conductivity (Ky) using the
equation: