An Industrial Training Project Report

On

AIR INDIA ENGINEERING SERVICE PVT. LTD.

NEW DELHI

Submitted to

PDM College of Engineering

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree

Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics And Communication Engineering

SUBMITTED BY:
Siddharth Singh
110916007
B-Tech ECE

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of many individuals and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to
all of them.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents, my faculty guide & member of AIR INDIA
ENGINEERING SERVICE PVT. LTD. for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in
completion of this project.

I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving me such
attention and time.

My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who have
willingly helped me out with their abilities.

I am highly indebted to MRS. PARAMJEET BHATIYA (SNR. AGM ENGR) , MR. RAJEEV SULTANA
(SNR. A/C ENGR) , MR. ONKAR SINGH (DEPUTY GENERAL MANAGER) and MR. VIBHU AGARWAAL
(SNR. AGM TRAINING INCHRAGE) for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing
necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in completing the project.

MR. RAJEEV SULTANA MR. ONKAR SINGH MR. VIBHU AGRWAAL

(SNR. A/C ENGR) ( DEPUTY GENERAL MANAGER ) (SNR. AGM TRAINING INCHARGE )

(ATEC SHOP )

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 AIR INDIA

ENGINEERING SERVICE
PVT. LTD.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 GALLERY (Aircraft)

Airbus A320

Boeing - 777-300ER

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE

Boeing - 787-8 Dreamliner

 About the Internship

Introduction
Air India’s Engineering division’s Engineering Training School, New Delhi offers undergraduate
students an opportunity to work and observe the ongoing maintenance, repair and overhaul(MRO)
process at their hangers and workshop at the IGI Airport, New Delhi. During the Internship the intern
is posted at various workshops in accordance to his engineering trade and field of interest. The
internship opportunity at Air India’s Engineering division is one of the best places in the country to
enhance one’s knowledge about aviation and aircrafts.

Air India Logo

About Air India

Air India is India’s national flag carrier. Although air transport was born in India on February 18, 1911
when Henri Piquet, flying a Humber bi-plane, carried mail from Allahabad to Naini Junction, some six
miles away, the scheduled services in India, in the real sense, began on October 15, 1932. It was on
this day that J.R.D. Tata, the father of Civil Aviation in India and founder of Air India, took off from
Drigh Road Airport, Karachi, in a tiny, light single-engine de Havilland Puss Moth on his flight to
Mumbai (then known as Bombay) via Ahmedabad. 38 Air India is largest operating commercial
airline in India. Air India operates nearly (get number form internet) flights daily; making its
engineering division of the most critical departments to ensure proper functioning of the fleet.
Having three regional centres ; in New Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta and Chennai; for overhaul and
maintenance of popular aircrafts such as the Airbus A-320 series and the Boeing 737 series has made
the Engineering department one of the most experienced and sought after aircraft maintenance
crews in the country.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
The Airline’s aircraft maintenance facilities are of the highest international standards. Indian Airlines
has developed state-of-the-art facilities for all aspects of maintenance, including engine overhaul.
These facilities are used not only by Indian Airlines but also by other airlines from time to time. Our
training facilities for Pilots are integrated at Hyderabad where Commanders and Captains are trained
in all types of aircraft in the Indian Airlines fleet. State-of-the-art full flight simulators are available
for A300, A320 and B737. Several international airlines also avail of these training facilities. Indian
Airline’s continuous technology up gradation also extends to other areas such as Reservations,
Passenger Handling Systems and Customer Service.

Air India has major infrastructure in Mumbai and Delhi, with 5,610 skilled engineers and technicians
capable of undertaking maintenance of all aircraft and engines currently in its fleet. There are in
addition three more major ports at Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Bangaluru.

Airbus A320neo

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Fleet Details
( 19-Feb-2018 )

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 ESDS : Electro-Static Discharge Sensitive
Devices

Introduction
An electrostatic-sensitive device (often abbreviated ESD) is any component (primarily electrical)
which can be damaged by common static charges which build up on people, tools, and other non
conductors or semiconductors. ESD commonly also stands for electrostatic discharge.

ESDS Warning Label

Electrostatic discharge is a serious issue in solid state electronics, such as integrated circuits.
Integrated circuits are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon and insulating materials
such as silicon dioxide. Either of these materials can suffer permanent damage when subjected to
high voltages; as a result, there are now a number of antistatic devices that help prevent static build
up.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Causes of ESD

One of the causes of ESD events is static electricity. Static electricity is often generated through
turbocharging, the separation of electric charges that occurs when two materials are brought into
contact and then separated. Examples of turbocharging include walking on a rug, rubbing a plastic
comb against dry hair, rubbing a balloon against a sweater, ascending from a fabric car seat, or
removing some types of plastic packaging.
In all these cases, the friction between two materials results in turbocharging, thus creating a
difference of electrical potential that can lead to an ESD event. Another cause of ESD damage is
through electrostatic induction. This occurs when an electrically charged object is placed near a
conductive object isolated from ground. The presence of the charged object creates an electrostatic
field that causes electrical charges on the surface of the other object to redistribute. Even though
the net electrostatic charge of the object has not changed, it now has regions of excess positive and
negative charges. An ESD event may occur when the object comes into contact with a conductive
path. For example, charged regions on the surfaces of Styrofoam cups or bags can induce potential
on nearby ESD sensitive components via electrostatic induction and an ESD event may occur if the
component is touched with a metallic tool.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Safety precautions while handling ESDS
components
The preventive measures for ESD are based on an Electrostatic Protective Area (EPA). The EPA can
be a small working station or a large manufacturing area. The principle behind an EPA is that there
are no highly charging materials in the vicinity of ESD sensitive electronics, all conductive materials
are grounded, workers are grounded, and charge build-up on ESD sensitive electronics is prevented.
The International standards used to define typical EPA are provided by International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) or American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The standards used at Air India
are specified as follows:

Identification
• There is a yellow Label on Component/Packing
• The component is wrapped in static protecting pink poly-packing

Dont’s for handling

• Do not touch the component directly. Touch the metal rack first.
• Do not touch the connectors and pins by hand.
• Do not use hydraulic fluid spilled bag/package for packing.
• Do not bring the component in contact with any object which may have
static charge.
• Do not use ordinary plastic and Styrofoam in proximity of ESDS devices.
• Do not use ordinary adhesive tapes on ESDS devices.

Do’s for handling

• Touch metal rack first so that static charge on your body is discharged.
• ESDS units must be stored/placed only on anti-static sheets.
• Unserviceable units must be handled with same care a serviceable ones.
• Blanking of all connectors should be done before handling ESDS units.
• Packing material and boxes used foe serviceable units should be reused
on unserviceable units removed from the aircraft.
• ESDS components should be issued with boxes and packing.
• Transportation trollies should have cushion on the bottom to avoid
damages to the component due to jerks.

Advantages of proper handling

• Reduced damage to the component.
• Reduced down-time and savings on repair of components.
• Improved technical reliability.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Cockpit Overview

Airbus A320 Cockpit

A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft, from which a pilot controls
the aircraft. The cockpit of an aircraft contains flight instruments on an instrument panel, and the
controls which enable the pilot to fly the aircraft. Most modern cockpits are enclosed, except on
some small aircraft, and cockpits on large airliners are also physically separated from the cabin. From
the cockpit an aircraft is controlled on the ground and in the air. Cockpit as a term for the pilot’s
compartment in an aircraft first appeared in 1914. Most Airbus cockpits are computerised glass
cockpits featuring fly-by-wire technology. The control column has been replaced with an electronic
sidestick. The following sections give an overview of the instruments present in a cockpit and the
ergonomics of its design.

Layout
Ergonomics and human factors concerns are important in the design of modern cockpits. The layout
and function of cockpit displays controls are designed to increase pilot situation awareness without
causing information overload. The layout of control panels in modern airliners has become largely
unified across the industry. The majority of the systems-related controls (such as electrical, fuel,
hydraulics and pressurization) for example, are usually located in the ceiling on an overhead panel.
Radios are generally placed on a panel between the pilot’s seats known as the pedestal. Automatic
flight controls such as the autopilot are usually placed just below the windscreen and above the
main instrument panel on the glare shield. A central concept in the design of the cockpit is the
Design Eye Position or "DEP", from which point all displays should be visible.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 An Airbus A-320 Cockpit

Instrument Panel

In the modern electronic cockpit, the flight instruments usually regarded as essential are MCP, PFD,
ND, EICAS, FMS/CDU and back-up instruments.

MCP
A mode control panel, usually a long narrow panel located centrally in front of the pilot, may be used
to control heading, speed, altitude, vertical speed, vertical navigation and lateral navigation. It may
also be used to engage or disengage both the autopilot and the auto throttle. The panel as an area is
usually referred to as the "glare shield panel". MCP is a Boeing designation (that has been informally
adopted as a generic name for the unit/panel) for a unit that allows for the selection and parameter
setting of the different auto flight functions, the same unit on an Airbus aircraft is referred to as the
FCU (Flight Control unit).

PFD
The primary flight display is usually located in a prominent position, either centrally or on on either
side of the cockpit. It will in most cases include a digitized presentation of the attitude indicator, air
speed and altitude indicators (usually as a tape display) and the vertical speed indicator. It will in
many cases include some form of heading indicator and ILS/VOR deviation indicators. In many cases
an indicator of the engaged and armed auto fight system modes will be present along with some
form of indication of the selected values for altitude, speed, vertical speed and heading. It may be
pilot selectable to swap with the ND.

ND
A navigation display, which may be adjacent to the PFD, shows the current route and information on
the next waypoint, current wind speed and wind direction. It may be pilot selectable to swap with
the PFD.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 A320 Cockpit

EICAS/ECAM
The Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (used for Boeing) or Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitor (for Airbus) will allow the pilot to monitor the following information: values for N1, N2 and
N3, fuel temperature, fuel flow, the electrical system, cockpit or cabin temperature and pressure,
control surfaces and so on. The pilot may select display of information by means of button press.

FMS
The flight management system/control unit may be used by the pilot to enter and check for the
following information: flight plan, speed control, navigation control, and so on.

Back-up instruments
In a less prominent part of the cockpit, in case of failure of the other instruments, there will be a set
of back-up instruments, showing basic flight information such as speed, altitude, heading, and
aircraft attitude.

Procedure to rectify the snag in the aircraft

A snag if found by the pilot, is reported in the technical log of the aircraft (one among the
documents present in the cockpit). The certifying Aircraft Maintenance Engineer (AME)has
to make sure, necessary action has been taken to rectify it before certifying that particular
aircraft for the next flight.

Other than that an aircraft undergoes routine checks like transit checks and extended transit
checks. These checks are carried out by technicians/ service engineers under the supervision
of an AME. A snag if found, is noted down and necessary action would be carried out which
will be again certified by the AME upon completion, in the concerned documents.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
ORGANIZATION ( MRO )

 Maintenance Department
 Operations
 Commercial
 HR Department
 Finance

We will confine our studies to Maintenance Department only.

Maintenance of Aircraft is carried out in three systems:

 Airframe or Structure
 Engine or Powerplant
 Avionics - Here we will discuss only the avionics part. Avionics is a combination of aviation
and electronics maintenance section.
 Line Maintenance Division -
 Major Maintenance Division
 Overhaul Division

Line maintenance
Rectification of the defects either reported by the pilots or observed by the engineers during days
operation or night stops is part of line maintenance

Major maintenance
Checks carried out at different intervals as stipulated by the a/c manufacturer also rectification of
the defects observed during these checks are part of major maintenance

Overhaul division
The avionics components so removed in the process of line maintenance and major maintenance are
sent to three avionics shops mentioned below

 Electrical Shop

 Instrument Shop

 Radio Shop

 ATEC Shop

 Jet shop

 Hydraulic Shop

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Electrical shop comprises of :
 Power control Instruments

 Aircraft Electrical Instruments

 Aircraft lights

Instrument shop comprises of :

 Air data systems

 Autopilot systems

 Gyroscopic Instruments

Radio shop comprises of:

 Navigation

 Communication

 Radar
Navigation comprises of:

 ADF : Automatic direction finder

 VOR : VHF Omni range

 ILS : Instrument landing system

 GPS : Global positioning system

 ATC : Air traffic controller

 DME : Distance measuring instrument

 TCAS :Traffic collision and avoidance system

 ALTIMETER

Communication comprises of:

 HF : High frequency

 VHF : Very high frequency

 ELT: Emergency locator t/x

 CVR: Cockpit voice recorder

Radar comprises of:

 Radar TX/RX

 Radar antenna

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Aircraft Fundamentals

Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner

Introduction
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air, or, in general, the
atmosphere of a planet. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the
dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. The human activity
that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. The following sections give a brief account of the aircraft.

Overview of an Aircraft
The parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:
1. The airframe comprises the mechanical structure and associated equipment.
2. The propulsion system (if it is powered) comprises the engine or engines
and associated equipment.
3. The avionics comprise the electrical flight control and communication systems.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Airframe
The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure. The main parts of the airframe are the
fuselage, wing, stabilising tail or empennage, and undercarriage. Fuselage is an aircraft’s main body
section containing the crew cockpit or flight deck, and any passenger cabin or cargo hold. In single-
and twin-engine aircraft, it will often also contain the engine or engines. The fuselage also serves to
position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, required for
aircraft stability. Wing The wings of an aircraft produce lift. Many different styles and arrangements
of wings have been used on heavier-than-air aircraft, and some lighter-than-air craft also have
wings. Most early fixed-wing aircraft were biplanes, having wings stacked one above the other.
Stabilising and control surfaces Most aircraft need horizontal and vertical stabilisers which act in a
similar way to the feathers on an arrow. These stabilising surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic
forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw. Flight control surfaces enable the pilot to
control an aircraft’s flight attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with,
the associated stabilising surface. Undercarriage, or landing gear, is the structure that supports an
aircraft when it is not flying and allows it to taxi, take off and land. Most commonly, wheels are used
but skids, floats, or a combination of these and other elements can be used, depending on the
surface. Many aircraft have undercarriage that retracts into the wings and/or fuselage to decrease
drag during flight.

Engine

An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates
mechanical power. The most common type of engine used in commercial aircrafts are jet engines. A
jet engine is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet which generates thrust by jet
propulsion. The exhaust nozzle produces thrust for the jet; the hot airflow from the engine is
accelerated when exiting the nozzle, creating thrust, which, in conjunction with the pressures acting
inside the engine which are maintained and increased by the constriction of the nozzle, pushes the
aircraft forward. The primary engine maintained at the MRO was the IAE V2500; which is a turbofan
variety of jet engine.

Jet Engine Cut-away diagram

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Avionics
Avionics is a term used to describe all of the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites
and spacecraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management
of multiple systems and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles.
The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location for avionic equipment, including control, monitoring,
communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their
avionics using 14 or 28 volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft
have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, 115 volts AC. International standards for avionics equipment
are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC).
The following gives a brief about some typical avionics equipments:
1.Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On-
board communications are provided by public address systems and aircraft intercoms.
2. Aircraft flight control systems; today automated flight control is common to reduce pilot error and
workload at key times like landing or takeoff. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during
World War II to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit precision targets from 25,000 feet. Today it’s
equipped on most commercial planes to reduce pilot error and workload at key times such as
landing or takeoff.
3. Flight recorder; commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as a “black box”,
store flight information and audio from the cockpit. They’re often recovered from a plane crash to
determine the cause of the incident.
4. Weather systems such as weather radar and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at
night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the
weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence are both indications of
strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate
around these areas.

Flight Dynamics and Control

Flight dynamics
It is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight
dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation in three dimensions about the vehicle’s center of
mass, known as pitch, roll, and yaw (quite different from their use as Tait-Bryan angles).

Flight Dynamics

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling or heeling of a ship) giving an
up-down movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle.
Pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft
nose measured by the angle of attack.
Yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as
sideslip.

Turning the aircraft

Unlike a boat, turning an aircraft is not normally carried out with the rudder. Instead the ailerons are
used to bank the aircraft. The forces on the plane cause the aircraft to turn in the same direction as
the bank, with a steeper bank causing a faster turn. While this is happening the nose of the aircraft
has a tendency to drop, and the aircraft may also yaw, so the nose is not pointing in the direction it
is flying. The elevators are used to counteract the first, and the rudder to counteract the second.

Alternate main control surfaces

Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example instead of elevators
at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tail plane may change angle. Most supersonic aircraft will
have a fully-moving tail. Some aircraft have a tail in the shape of a V, and the moving parts at the
back of those combine the functions of elevators and rudder. Delta wing aircraft may have "elevons"
at the back of the wing, which combine the functions of elevators and ailerons.

Secondary control surfaces

Trimming
Trimming controls allow a pilot to balance the lift and drag being produced by the wings and control
surfaces over a wide range of load and airspeed. This reduces the effort required to adjust or
maintain a desired flight attitude.

Trim Tabs - Trim tabs are used to adjust the position of an associated main control surface. They are
often hinged to the back edge of the control surface with a control in the cockpit. Some trim tabs on
light aircraft are fixed sheets of metal that can be bent while the aircraft is on the ground but cannot
be controlled in flight. Both types function by redirecting the air stream to generate a force which
holds the main control surface in the desired position. Because they are furthest from the pivot
point of the main control surface, their small aerodynamic effects are magnified by leverage to
achieve the deflection of the main surface.

Trimming Tail Plane - Except for very light aircraft, trim tabs on elevators are unable to provide the
force and range of motion desired. To provide the appropriate trim force the entire horizontal tail
plane is made adjustable in pitch. This allows the pilot to select exactly the right amount of positive
or negative lift from the tail plane while reducing drag from the elevators.

Control Horn - A control horn is a section of control surface which projects ahead of the pivot point.
It generates a force which tends to increase the surface's deflection thus reducing the control
pressure experienced by the pilot. Control horns may also incorporate a counterweight which helps
to balance the control and prevent it from "fluttering" in the airstream. Some designs feature
separate anti-flutter weights.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
In the simplest cases trimming is done by a mechanical spring which adds appropriate force to the
pilot's control.

Whilst carrying out certain flight exercises a lot of trim could be required in order to maintain the
desired angle of attack. This mainly applies to slow flight, where a lot of trim is required to maintain
the nose up attitude.

Trim doesn't only apply to the elevator, as there is also trim for the rudder and ailerons. The use of
this is to counter the affects of slip stream, or to counter the affects of the center of gravity being to
one side. This can be caused when there is a larger weight on one side of the aircraft compared to
the other, such as if one fuel tank has a lot more fuel in it then the other, or when there is heavier
people on one side of the aircraft then the other

Flight control
Aerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicle’s orientation (attitude) about its center of
mass. The control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate
rotational forces or moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, and thus rotate the
aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a distance
forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down.
Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag, for example to slow the
aircraft to a safe speed for landing. The two main forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in
the air and drag opposing its motion. Control surfaces may also be used to affect these forces
directly, without inducing any rotation. The main control surfaces of an aircraft are :

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Ailerons : Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the
left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a
lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to
rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. Centering the stick returns
the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft will continue to turn until opposite
aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.

Elevator : An elevator is mounted on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer on each side of the
fin in the tail. They move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the
elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push
down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack,
which generates more lift and more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and
stops the change of pitch. Many aircraft use a stabilizer — a moveable horizontal stabilizer — in
place of an elevator. Some aircraft, such as an MD-80, use a servo tab within the elevator surface to

aerodynamically move the main surface into position. The direction of travel of the control tab will
thus be in a direction opposite to the main control surface. It is for this reason that an MD-80 tail
looks like it has a ’split’ elevator system.

Rudder : The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of the
empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal
causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes the
nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the
yaw.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Aircraft Control surfaces

Slats and Flaps

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Other Controls
Spoilers - On very high lift/low drag aircraft like sailplanes, spoilers are used to disrupt airflow over
the wing and greatly reduce the amount of lift. This allows a glider pilot to lose altitude without
gaining excessive airspeed. Spoilers are sometimes called "lift dumpers". Spoilers, that can be used
asymmetrically are called spoilerons and are able to effect an aircraft's roll.

Flaps - Flaps are mounted on the back edge of each wing near the wing roots. They are deflected
down to increase the effective curvature of the wing and produce additional lift, and also reduce the
stalling speed of the wing. They are used during low speed, high angle of attack flight like descent for
landing. Some aircraft use flaperons instead, which can also be used for roll control.

Slats - are extensions to the front of a wing for lift augmentation, and are intended to reduce the
stalling speed by altering the airflow over the wing. Slats may be fixed or retractable - fixed slats (e.g.
as on the Fieseler Storch) give excellent slow speed and STOL capabilities, but compromise higher
speed performance. Retractable slats, as on most airliners, allow higher lift on take off, but retract
for cruising.

Air brakes - these are used on high speed aircraft and are intended to increase the drag of an
aircraft without altering the amount of lift. Airbrakes and spoilers are sometimes the same device -
on most airliners for example, the combined spoiler/airbrakes act to simultaneously remove lift and
to slow the aircraft's forward motion. Ground spoilers, which are a combination of airbrakes/flight
spoilers along with additional panels are deployed upon touchdown to assist braking the aircraft by
applying positive downward forces which also ensures that the aircraft remains planted firmly on the
ground. Conventional brakes, used in cars, are often ineffective at the high speeds of modern
aircraft as they will over heat and lose efficiency. Therefore increasing the drag of an aircraft with air
brakes and spoilers will eventually slow the aircraft down to a speed at which conventional brakes
become effective. Reversing the direction of the engines helps to obtain this speed.

Spoilers

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Overview of Airbus A-320 Family of
Aircrafts

Specifications:
GENERAL

Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Passengers . . . . . . . Up to 180 (dense)
Typical Two-class . . . . . . 150

ENGINES
2 CFMI CFM56-5B or
2 IAE V2500 with up to 26,500lb thrust each

AVIONICS
Two crew member design
Two primary flight displays (PFD)
Two navigation displays (ND)
Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM)
Two Multipurpose Control and Display Units (MCDU)

DIMENSIONS

Span 111ft 10in

Length 123ft 23in
Height 38ft 7in
Fuselage width 12ft 11in
wing sweepback 24.96 deg. @ quarter chord
wing area 1,317.5sq ft
Range 2,700 - 2,900nm

WEIGHTS
MTOW 162,000lb
MLW 142,200lb
MZFW 134,500lb
operating weight empty 92,100lb
max fuel capacity. 6,300USg
Engine thrust 2x 25,000lb - 26,500lb

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BTECH ECE
PERFORMANCE

RANGE
Range (with 150 passengers):
2,900nm

SPEEDS
Max operating speed 350kts 0.82mach
Max cruise speed 487kts @
28,000ft 454kts @37,000ft

FIELD PERFORMANCE
TO field length 5,630ft
Landing field length 4

The Airbus A320 family consists of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger jet
airliners manufactured by Airbus Industry. The family includes the A318, A319, A320 and A321, and
the ACJ business jet. Final assembly of the family in Europe takes place in Toulouse, France, and
Hamburg, Germany. Since 2009, a plant in Tianjin in the People’s Republic of China has also started
producing aircraft for Chinese airlines. The aircraft family can accommodate up to 220 passengers
and has a range of 3,100 to 12,000 km (1,700 to 6,500 nmi), depending on model.
The first member of the A320 family—the A320—was launched in March 1984, first flew on 22
February 1987, and was first delivered in 1988. The family was soon extended to include the A321
(first delivered 1994), the A319 (1996), and the A318 (2003). The A320 family pioneered the use of
digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, in commercial aircraft. There
has been a continuous improvement process since introduction.

Airbus A320

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Aircraft Seat Chart

The A319/A320/A321 are narrow body, twin-engine, short / medium range aircraft, the A319 being
the shortened version of the A320, and the A321 being the stretched version of the A320. They both
offer an increased fuselage cross-section leading to an increased revenue potential through greater
passenger comfort with wider seats and aisle, greater overhead baggage volume, greater cargo
capacity, wide-body compatible container capability, quicker turn rounds. Introduced for airline
service in March 1988, the A320 represents the largest single advance in civil aircraft technology
since the introduction of the jet engine and results in a major stride forward in airline profitability.
A computer-managed system gives complete protection against excursions outside the normal flight
envelope and greatly improves the man / machine interface.

Airbus A320

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 (02-July-2018 to 07-July-2018)

Introduction
The ATEC ( Automatic Test Equipment Complex) shop is named after the ATEC series of computers,
which are placed within the shop. ATEC is a test bench which is used to “simulate” the real
environment of a unit in order to check its operation .
All units of the aircraft and its associated units are tested here.
Air India has two ATEC’s a Series 5 and a Series 6. Together both of these can test all the computers
used in the Airbus A-320 Family of Aircrafts. During my posting at the shop I was able to observe and
learn about component testing procedures and get an overview of the role of computers in modern
aircrafts. Currently ATEC’s Series 6 is been used here.
The ATEC’s Series 6 is the updated and the latest to its predecessor. It is robust.

ATEC’s Series 6

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
What is ATEC?
Automatic test equipment (ATE) is a machine that is designed to perform tests on different devices
referred to as a devices under test (DUT). An ATE uses control systems and automated information
technology to rapidly perform tests that measure and evaluate a DUT.
There are uncomplicated ATEs such as volt-ohm meters that measure resistance and voltage in PCs.
There are also complex ATE systems that have several test mechanisms that automatically run high-
level electronic diagnostics such as wafer testing for semiconductor device fabrication or for
integrated circuits. Most high-tech ATE systems use automation to perform the test quickly.

The objective of ATE is to quickly confirm whether a DUT works and to find defects. This testing
method saves on manufacturing costs and helps prevent a faulty device from entering the market.
Because ATE is used in a wide array of DUTs, each testing has a different procedure. One actuality in
all testing is that when the first out-of-tolerance value is detected, the testing stops and the DUT
fails the evaluation.

The procedure of checking a unit:

1. Firstly the adapter of the unit under test is checked through a software.
2. Then the unit is attached to the adapter.
3. The unit undergoes various test stages.
4. Step by step the testing takes place through a software which is controlled by the user.
5. If the test is successful the green bar is shown on the test else a red bar is seen and the test
does not continue further. The fault is detected and then the troubleshoot takes place.
6. Hence the full procedure is Software based.

The purpose of a test bench is to “simulate” the real environment of a unit in order to check its
operation .
A unit in operation generates or receives information which may be electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic
etc.
The main role of the ATEC 5000 station is generation and reception of electrical signals and
optionally pneumatic information for testing air data equipment.

There are 3 types of electrical signals :

 Analog Signal
 Discrete Signal
 Digital Signal

The test bench must be capable for these 3 types of signals (and for pneumatic information if option
is selected) of :
 Transmitting signals to the unit, hence the need for GENERATION SIMULATION devices.
 Receiving and analyzing the signals delivered by the unit , hence the need for MEASURING
devices.
 Making the Unit Under Test to Test Bench electrical connections, this is performed by the
SWITCHING assembly.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
ATEC 5000
The ATEC “Automatic Test Equipment Complex” is a programmable test bench, it allows –
 The execution of equipment test programs.
 The preparation and the debugging of these programs.

The ATEC 5000 is designed to cover all fields of application : ranging from airline equipment to highly
complex such as systems using the most advanced techniques and technology, electronic equipment
for ballistic missiles and space vehicles and also control of industrial and manufacturing processes.

It is managed by a multitask computer which ensure total autonomy in the preparation, modification
and execution of test program.
The measuring, generation-simulation and switching devices equipping the station are micro
programmable making for flexibility and high peed operation.

Capabilities
The ATEC bench can generate, acquire and measure AC/DC signals ranging from 0 to several
Gigahertz for varied applications such as digital, pneumatic, inertial, radio-communication and radio-
navigation.

Each hardware assembly is designed on a modular basis giving a maximum number of ATEC device
configurations to meet all needs. For this reason a number of options are available to extend the
basic configurations .

ATEC’s Series 5

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
ATEC Hardware
The ATEC station hardware is arranged and housed in standard bays and in an operator’s desk.
The hardware can be classified into-categories:
 Data processing
 Generation
 Simulation
 Measurement
 Switching and connecting
 Supply

ATEC Software
The ATEC software package is managed by the VME System and VERSADOS monitor.
It consists of two sub-systems :
 A program preparation sub-system comprising the editing and compiling tools.
 A program execution sub-system used to execute the program :
Either normal mode – execution of existing operational programs
Or program debug mode.

Depending on the options adopted, the software enables processing of programs in two language-
 ATOL Language ( Automatic Test Oriented Language ) property of AEROSPATIALE this is the
station’s language.
It is essentially test system oriented: i.e. control and programming of test system elementary
functions.
 ATLAS Language ( Automatic Test Language for All Systems )
The ATLAS language is a high level UUUT oriented language.
It is independent of the test system and the measuring or generation-simulation device
configuration.

The ATLAS program is adapted to the ATEC 5000 station by means of a wire list defining the
connections to be performed on the switching unit ( patch board , connector etc…
connections to the UNIT UNDER TEST )

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Aircraft ATA Chapters List

AIRCRAFT GENERAL

ATA
ATA Chapter name
Number
ATA 01 Reserved for Airline Use
ATA 02 Reserved for Airline Use
ATA 03 Reserved for Airline Use
ATA 04 Reserved for Airline Use
ATA 05 TIME LIMITS/MAINTENANCE CHECKS
ATA 06 DIMENSIONS AND AREAS
ATA 07 LIFTING AND SHORING
ATA 08 LEVELING AND WEIGHING.
ATA 09 TOWING AND TAXI
ATA 10 PARKING, MOORING, STORAGE AND RETURN TO SERVICE
ATA 11 PLACARDS AND MARKINGS
ATA 12 SERVICING - ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
ATA 18 VIBRATION AND NOISE ANALYSIS (HELICOPTER ONLY)
ATA 89 FLIGHT TEST INSTALLATION

AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

ATA
ATA Chapter name
Number
ATA 20 STANDARD PRACTICES - AIRFRAME
ATA 21 AIR CONDITIONING AND PRESSURIZATION
ATA 22 AUTO FLIGHT
ATA 23 COMMUNICATIONS
ATA 24 ELECTRICAL POWER
ATA 25 EQUIPMENT/FURNISHINGS
ATA 26 FIRE PROTECTION
ATA 27 FLIGHT CONTROLS
ATA 28 FUEL
ATA 29 HYDRAULIC POWER
ATA 30 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
ATA 31 INDICATING / RECORDING SYSTEM
ATA 32 LANDING GEAR
ATA 33 LIGHTS
ATA 34 NAVIGATION

ATA 35 OXYGEN
ATA 36 PNEUMATIC
ATA 37 VACUUM
ATA 38 WATER/WASTE
ELECTRICAL - ELECTRONIC PANELS AND MULTIPURPOSE
ATA 39
COMPONENTS
ATA 40 MULTISYSTEM
ATA 41 WATER BALLAST
ATA 42 INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS
ATA 44 CABIN SYSTEMS
ATA 45 DIAGNOSTIC AND MAINTENANCE SYSTEM
ATA 46 INFORMATION SYSTEMS
ATA 47 NITROGEN GENERATION SYSTEM
ATA 48 IN FLIGHT FUEL DISPENSING
ATA 49 AIRBORNE AUXILIARY POWER
ATA 50 CARGO AND ACCESSORY COMPARTMENTS

STRUCTURE

ATA
ATA Chapter name
Number
ATA 51 STANDARD PRACTICES AND STRUCTURES - GENERAL
ATA 52 DOORS
ATA 53 FUSELAGE
ATA 54 NACELLES/PYLONS
ATA 55 STABILIZERS
ATA 56 WINDOWS
ATA 57 WINGS

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
POWER PLANT
ATA
ATA Chapter name
Number
ATA 61 PROPELLERS
ATA 70 STANDARD PRACTICES ENGINE
ATA 71 POWER PLANT
ATA 72 ENGINE - RECIPROCATING
ATA 73 ENGINE - FUEL AND CONTROL
ATA 74 IGNITION
ATA 75 BLEED AIR
ATA 76 ENGINE CONTROLS

ATA 77 ENGINE INDICATING

ATA 78 EXHAUST
ATA 79 OIL
ATA 80 STARTING
ATA 81 TURBINES (RECIPROCATING ENGINES)
ATA 82 ENGINE WATER INJECTION
ATA 83 ACCESSORY GEARBOXES
ATA 84 PROPULSION AUGMENTATION
ATA 85 FUEL CELL SYSTEMS
ATA 91 CHARTS
ATA 92 Electrical System Installation

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Adapter used for the unit under test

1. Air Conditioning System Controller ( ACSC )

2. Spoiler And Elevator Computer ( SEC )
3. Flight Warning Computer ( FWC )
4. System Data Acquisition Concentration ( SDAC )
5. Display Management Computer( DMC )
6. Fuel Quantity Indication Computer (FQIS.C)
7. Fuel Quantity Indication Computer ( FQIC )
8. Engine Interface Unit ( EUI )
9. Flight Management And Guidance Computer ( FMGC )
10. Landing Gear Control Interface Unit ( LGCIU )
11. Engine Vibration Monitor Unit ( EVMU )
12. Elevator And Aileron Computer ( ELAC )
13. Brake And Steering Control Unit ( BSCU )
14. Bleed Monitoring Computer ( BMC )
15. Electronic Control Box ( APU-ECB )
16. Flight Control Unit ( FCU )
17. Flight Augmentation Computer ( FAC )
18. Centralized Fault Display Interface Unit ( CFDIU )
19. Flight Control Data Concentration ( FCDC )
20. Probe Heat Computer ( PHC )
21. Ecam Control Panel ( ECP )
22. Radio Management Panel ( RMP )
23. Indicator And Preselector ( PQIS I&P – FQIS )
24. ISFD ISI ISIS
25. SLAT / FLAP Control Computer ( SFCC )
26. Air Traffic Services Unit ( ATSU )
27. Cabin Pressure Controller ( CPC )
28. Multipurpose Control Display Unit ( MCDU )
29. Battery Charge Limiter ( BCL )
30. Liquid Crystal Display Unit ( LCDU725 )

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 (09-July-2018 to 28-July-2018)

The Radio Shop at Air India was responsible for the upkeep of Communication and navigational
instruments used in the Airbus A-320. During my posting at the workshop I was able to observe
numerous of these equipment’s such as the radar, microphones and other navigational aids such as
ILS, VOR, radio altimeter etc.
Communication systems are an essential part of any organizational system where coordination of
any scale is required. The aviation industry in by far the most coordinated operation in the world,
which makes the communication channels used in the industry its backbone. The communications
between airplane and ground stations are generally done using VHF range radio equipment when
within150-200 Km of the station and HF otherwise. Generally, VHF is the preferred band for
communication because of more precision in message delivery than HF.

Radio shop comprises of:

 Navigation
 Communication
 Radar
Navigation comprises of:

 ADF : Automatic direction finder

 VOR : VHF Omni range

 ILS : Instrument landing system

 GPS : Global positioning system

 ATC : Air traffic controller

 DME : Distance measuring instrument

 TCAS :Traffic collision and avoidance system

 ALTIMETER
Communication comprises of:

 HF : High frequency

 VHF : Very high frequency

 ELT: Emergency locator t/x

 CVR: Cockpit voice recorder

Radar comprises of:

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
  Radar TX/RX

 Radar antenna

Automatic Direction Finder

DESCRIPTION:

The Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) is the oldest and most widely used radio navigation system.
The automatic direction finder (ADF) is an airborne system used to determine the relative bearing
from the aircraft to the ground-based transmitter (with respect to the aircraft centerline). ADF is the
oldest of the radio navigation systems and one of the most widely used throughout the world,
because of the availability of numerous ground stations to tune the ADF. The concept of the ADF
navigation is based on the ability of the airborne system to provide the bearing indication with
respect to the aircraft centerline, based upon the direction of arrival of radio wave from a selected
station. If the indicator compass card is adjusted so the aircraft's present heading is set below the
Lubber Line (centerline), then the indicator pointer against the compass card provides a direct
magnetic bearing to the station.
ADF has been in use longer than most radio navigational aids, and its use has become quite
common. ADF was first mandatory aboard commercial air carriers in 1937. The simplicity of the
system and its independence of other systems are two reasons for it's continued use. ADF is used by
itself or in conjunction with a VOR system. Although VOR systems may be more accurate, ADF has an
advantage in that there are more ADF ground stations (low frequency beacons and standard
broadcasting) than there are VOR stations. This means that finding an ADF station close to the direct
line from the city A to city B is much more likely than finding a VOR station in the same path. ADF is
used for navigation, position fixing, and position holding.

THE ADF SYSTEM: The airborne portion of the ADF system consists of a Receiver, Control Unit,
Indicator, Fixed Loop Antennas, and a Sense Antenna. The ground facility consists of a Transmitter
and an Antenna. A typical ground facility used for ADF would be an AM radio station or a Non-
Directional Beacon (NDB).

RECEIVER: The ADF receiver contains the necessary circuits for the reception and processing of radio
signals (in the 190 to 1750 KHz range) to provide relative bearing information to an indicator. The
receiver also contains the circuits required to confirm the validity of the received signals and the
reliability of the receiver itself.

CONTROL: The ADF control unit provides the control and switching circuits to select the ADF receiver
operating mode and frequency.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
INDICATORS: There are several types of indicators that can be used with the system. All indicators
used with the ADF system indicate the bearing of the ground station. That is, the needle of the
indicator always points to the station that the receiver is tuned on. An ADF indicator will have the
needle rotating against a fixed Azimuth card. This type of indicator was also called as radio compass
indicator.

ANTENNAS: The ADF receiver requires two types of antenna. An Omni-Directional sense antenna is
required to help tune the receiver and loop antenna is required to provide the bearing. Depending
on the ADF system used, there are different antenna types (older systems require older antenna
types). These include loop antennas that are mechanically rotated, electrically rotated, or mounted
in a fixed position to the aircraft.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
OPERATION:
The 51Y-7 is the principal component of the Automatic Direction Finding System. The system may be
operated in either ANT Mode or ADF Mode.

 ANT MODE: When 51Y-7 is in the ANT Mode, the Loop Antenna circuits and the input to the
Bearing Servo System are disabled. The signal received by the Sense Antenna is applied to the
51Y-7 and processed to produce an audio output to the aircraft audio system.

 ADF MODE: In the ADF Mode, a signal received by the Fixed Loop Antenna is applied to the 51Y-
7 through a Quadrantal Error Corrector. The signal received by the Sense Antenna is also applied
to the 51Y-7. The Loop Sense signals are combined and processed in the 51Y-7 to produce
bearing information and audio output to the aircraft audio system.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTIONAL

RANGE
Description:
VOR, short for VHF omnidirectional radio range, is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft. A
VOR ground station broadcasts a VHF radio composite signal including the station’s identifier, voice,
and navigation signal. The identifier is typically a two- or three-letter string in Morse code. . The
navigation signal allows the airborne receiving equipment to determine a magnetic bearing from the
station to the aircraft (direction from the VOR station in relation to the Earth’s magnetic North at the
time of installation). VOR stations in areas of magnetic compass unreliability are oriented with
respect to True North. This line of position is called the "radial" from the VOR. The intersection of
two radials from different VOR stations on a chart provides the position of the aircraft. VORs are
assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz (megahertz) and 117.95 MHz (with 50 kHz spacing); this
is in the VHF (very high frequency) range. The first 4 MHz is shared with the ILS band. To leave
channels for ILS, in the range 108.0 to 111.95 MHz, the 100 kHz digit is always even, so
108.00, 108.05, 108.20, and so on are VOR frequencies but 108.10, 108.15, 108.30, and so on, are
reserved for ILS. The VOR encodes azimuth (lateral direction from the station) as the phase
relationship of a reference and a variable signal. The omni-directional signal contains a modulated
continuous wave (MCW) 7 wpm Morse code station identifier, and usually contains an amplitude
modulated (AM) voice channel. The conventional 30 Hz reference signal is on a 9960 Hz frequency
modulated (FM) subcarrier. The variable amplitude modulated (AM) signal is conventionally derived
from the lighthouse-like rotation of a directional antenna array 30 times per second. Although older
antennas were mechanically rotated, current installations scan electronically to achieve an
equivalent result with no moving parts. When the signal is received in the aircraft, the two 30 Hz
signals are detected and then compared to determine the phase angle between them. The phase
angle by which the AM signal lags the FM subcarrier signal is equal to the direction from the station
to the aircraft, in degrees from local magnetic north, and is called the "radial."

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
This information is then fed to one of four common types of indicators:

1. An Omni-Bearing Indicator (OBI) is the typical light-airplane VOR indicator and is shown in the
accompanying illustration. It consists of a knob to rotate an "Omni Bearing Selector" (OBS), and the
OBS scale around the outside of the instrument, used to set the desired course. A "course deviation
indicator" (CDI) is centered when the aircraft is on the selected course, or gives left/right steering
commands to return to the course. An "ambiguity" (TO-FROM) indicator shows whether following
the selected course would take the aircraft to, or away from the station.
2. A Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) is considerably more expensive and complex than a
standard VOR indicator, but combines heading information with the navigation display in a much
more user-friendly format, approximating a simplified moving map.
3. A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI), developed previous to the HSI, features a course arrow
superimposed on a rotating card which shows the aircraft’s current heading at the top of the dial.
The "tail" of the course arrow points at the current radial from the station, and the "head" of the
arrow points at the reciprocal (180° different) course to the station.
4. An Area Navigation (RNAV) system is an onboard computer, with display, and up-to-date
navigation database. At least two VOR stations, or one VOR/DME station is required, for the
computer to plot aircraft position on a moving map, or display course deviation relative to a
waypoint (virtual VOR station).

INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides
precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio
signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing
snow. Instrument approach procedure charts (or approach plates) are published for each ILS
approach, providing pilots with the needed information to fly an ILS approach during instrument
flight rules (IFR) operations, including the radio frequencies used by the ILS components or navaids
and the minimum visibility requirements prescribed for the specific approach.
Radio-navigation aids must keep a certain degree of accuracy (set by international standards of
CAST/ICAO); to assure this is the case, flight inspection organizations periodically check critical
parameters with properly equipped aircraft to calibrate and certify ILS precision. the ILS, follows two
signals: a localizer for lateral guidance (VHF); and a glide slope for vertical guidance (UHF). When
Navigation receiver is tuned to a localizer frequency a second receiver, the glide-slope receiver, is
automatically tuned to its proper frequency. The pairing is automatic. They are explained as follows:
1. Localizer : The localizer signal provides lateral information to guide the aircraft to the centerline
of the runway. It is similar to a VOR signal except that it provides radial information for only a single
course; the runway heading. Localizer information is displayed on the same indicator as the VOR
information.
2. Glide Slope: The Glide Slope is the signal that provides vertical guidance to the aircraft during the
ILS approach. The standard glide-slope path is 3° downhill to the approach-end of the runway.
Follow it faith fully and your altitude will be precisely correct when you reach the touchdown zone
of the runway.
3. Marker Beacons : Marker beacons are used to alert the pilot that an action (e.g., altitude check)
is needed. This information is presented to the pilot by audio and visual cues. The ILS may contain
three marker beacons: inner, middle and outer. The inner marker is used only for Category II
operations. The marker beacons are located at specified intervals along the ILS approach and are
identified by discrete audio and visual characteristics.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is an instrument approach system which provides precise
guidance to an aircraft approaching a runway and in some cases along the runway surface.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has defined three categories of visibility, the Third of
which is subdivided. All are defined in terms of Runway Visual Range (RVR) and, except category III,
Decision Height (DH). Due to some problems, category III has not been installed in India. The various
categories are defined in Table

Category Decision Height Minimum Visibility

I 200 feet 2400 feet
I 200 feet 1800 feet with lighting
II 100 feet 1200 feet
IIIa 100 feet 700 feet
IIIb 50 feet 150-700 feet
IIIc No DH no limitation
 Categories of ILS Approaches

Principle of Operation
An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems, one providing lateral guidance, the other vertical
guidance to aircraft approaching a runway.
The emission patterns of the localizer and glideslope signals. Note that the glideslope beams are
partly formed by the reflection of the glideslope aerial in the ground plane.
A localizer (LOC) antenna array is normally located beyond the departure end of the runway and
generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas. Two signals are transmitted on a carrier
frequency between 108 MHz and 111.975 MHz One is modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz and
these are transmitted from separate but co-located aerials. Each aerial transmits a fairly narrow
beam, one slightly to the left of the runway centerline, the other to the right. The localizer receiver
on the aircraft measures the difference in the depth of modulation of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals,
when this difference is zero the receiver aerial is on the centerline of the localizer which normally
coincides with the runway centerline.
A glideslope (GS) antenna array is sited to one side of the runway touchdown zone. The GS signal is
transmitted on a carrier frequency between 328.6 MHz and 335.4 MHz using a technique similar to
that of the localizer, the centerline of the glideslope signal being arranged to define a glideslope at
approximately 3° above the horizontal.
Localizer and glideslope carrier frequencies are paired so that only one selection is required to tune
both receivers.
Localizer and glideslope signals are displayed on a cockpit instrument, called a Course deviation
indicator (CDI), as vertical and horizontal needles (or an electronic display simulating needles). The
pilot controls the aircraft so that the needles remain centered on the display, the aircraft then
follows the ILS centerline. The signals are also fed into autopilot systems to allow approaches to be
flown on autopilot.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 (localizer and glideslope approach for aircrafts)

Components
A complete instrument landing system includes additional sub-systems in addition to the localizer
and glideslope systems described above.

Localizer array and approach lighting

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Modern localizer antennas are highly directional. However, usage of older, less directional antennas
allows a runway to have a non-precision approach called a localizer back course. This lets aircraft
land using the signal transmitted from the back of the localizer array. This signal is reverse sensing so
a pilot would have to fly opposite the needle indication. Highly directional antennas do not provide a
sufficient signal to support a back course. In the United States, back course approaches are
commonly associated with Category I systems at smaller airports, that do not have an ILS on both
ends of the primary runway.
Marker Beacons
On some installations marker beacons operating at a carrier frequency of 75 MHz are provided.
When the transmission from a marker beacon is received it activates an indicator on the pilot's
instrument panel and the modulating tone of the beacon is audible to the pilot. The height at which
these signals will be received in an aircraft on the correct glideslope is promulgated. Although the
following three types of beacon are specified, in practice it is rare to find middle or inner markers
and outer markers are no longer universal.
Outer Marker
The outer marker should be located 7.2 km (3.9 NM) from the threshold except that, where this
distance is not practicable, the outer marker may be located between 6.5 and 11.1 km (3.5 and 6
NM) from the threshold. The modulation is two dashes per second of a 400 Hz tone, the indicator is
blue. The purpose of this beacon is to provide height, distance and equipment functioning checks to
aircraft on intermediate and final approach. In the United States, an NDB is often combined with the
outer marker beacon in the ILS approach (called a Locator Outer Marker, or LOM); in Canada, low-
powered NDBs have replaced marker beacons entirely.
Middle Marker
The middle marker should be located so as to indicate, in low visibility conditions, that visual contact
with the runway is imminent, Ideally at a distance of 1050m from the threshold. It is modulated with
a 1300 Hz tone as alternate dots and dashes.
Inner Marker
The inner marker, when installed, shall be located so as to indicate in low visibility conditions the
imminence of arrival at the runway threshold. This is typically the position of an aircraft on the ILS as
it reaches Category II minima. The modulation is 3000 Hz dots at 6 per secon

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER (CVR)

(cockpit voice recorder)

DESCRIPTION:

The cockpit voice recorder system consists of a Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and a control unit. This
system provides four separate channels of voice recording of either transmitted or received signals
that originate typically, at The Pilot’s Station, The Co-Pilot’s Station, The Passenger Public Address
System, and in The Cockpit Area. The cockpit area microphone is strategically located to pick up and
record voice signals while electronically suppressing the engine or turbine noises. The control unit,
containing the area microphone, preamplifier, and test switches, is remotely located in the recorder
unit.

It consists of an Endless Loop, Magnetic Tape Device that records all voice signals transmitted or
received by aircraft crew members for a maximum period of 30 Minutes of continuous operation,
voice recording beyond 30 Minutes of continuous operation are automatically erased. The unit is
housed in an international orange colored short equipment case and consists of a magnetic tape
recorder and an electronic chassis. Magnetic tape recordings are protected against aircraft accident.
The equipment case can withstand a temperature up to 11000C for 1 Hour. The recorder assembly
consists of following assemblies: -

1. DRIVE UNIT ASSEMBLY: It consists of a Bridge Assembly containing the Recording, Erase and
Monitor Heads; the Capstan Assembly, which controls Rate of Movement of the Tape; and the Chute
Subassembly, which introduces the Tape back into the Reel and Tape Assembly.

2. REEL AND TAPE ASSEMBLY: It consists of an Endless Loop of Magnetic Tape, 0.250 inch Wide by
0.0014 inch Thick. The tape is Oxide on one side and Graphite Lubricated on the other.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
3. REEL COVER ASSEMBLY: It consists of the Bulk Erase Coil; The Roller Assembly, made up of five
tape compacting rollers and their attaching hardware; and the Reel Cover. This assembly is installed
on the recorder assembly.

4. INSULATION ASSEMBLY: It is a special thermal-insulating package sealed with resilient material to

prevent scuff and damage. The coating provides complete self-sealing in the operational thermal
environment. The insulator unit fully enclose the inner casing (Drive Unit Assembly) of the recorder,
and protect it from shock and thermal damage.

5. RECORD AMPLIFIER BOARD ASSEMBLIES: It consists of four Amplifier Cards, which are identical
and fully interchangeable. Each amplifier card contains a single stage amplifier with record
equalization and record bias feed in. Each card has color-coded test points installed to facilitate
testing and fault isolation. The four identical cards plug into the card connectors located in the
recorder.

TIMER BOARD ASSEMBLY: It serves as an hour meter indicating the total hours that
power has been applied to the Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR). The hours are read directly from the
linear scale indicator.

(CVR POSITION/EMERGRNCY EQUIPMENTS LOCATION IN AIRCRAFT)

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

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DESCRIPTION:
 DME is a system combining Ground Based and Airborne Equipment to measure the distance of
the aircraft from a ground station. It is used primarily for Position Fixing, Approach to an Airport
and Figuring Ground Speeds.
 The Airborne DME consists of a Receiver-Transmitter (RT), a Control Unit, a Distance Indicator
and an Antenna.
 The Ground Based DME consists of a Receiver-Transmitter and an Antenna that operates only on
a single frequency.

RECEIVER-TRANSMITTER (RT): The transmitter section of the RT unit contains all the necessary
circuits to generate, amplify, and transmit the interrogating pulse pairs. The receiver section of the
RT unit contains the necessary circuits to receive, amplify, and decode the received pulses.
CONTROL UNIT: The control unit provides the necessary control and switching circuits for the
airborne DME-RT. The control unit may also provide the frequency selection for a VHF
communication or navigation receiver.
DISTANCE INDICATOR: The distance indicator displays the aircraft distance in nautical miles from the
ground station. The indicator will also display in the form of flag offer dashes, a warning that the
system is malfunctioning.
ANTENNA: The antenna is a single L - a band type antenna that transmits and receives with an omni
directional radiation pattern.
OPERATION:
 The pilot selects a VOR frequency. The selected frequency automatically selects a DME
channel that is paired with that frequency.
 The receiver-transmitter of the airborne DME transmits coded interrogating pulse pairs
to the ground station.
 The ground station receives these pulse pairs, delays 50 µs, and then transmits a coded
reply pulse pairs back to the airborne DME-RT.
 The airborne receiver-transmitter receives the reply pulse pairs and verifies that the
pulse pairs are valid.
 The airborne DME-RT computes the slant range (Line-Of-Sight) distance from the ground
station as follows: -
D = {(T – 50 µs)/12.359}
Where, D = Slant range distance in nautical miles from the ground station.
T = Time in µs b/w transmission of interrogation pulse pair and reception of corresponding
reply pulse pair.

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BTECH ECE
 50 µs = Delay at ground station b/w reception of DME interrogation & transmission of
reply.
12.359 = Time in µs for RF energy to travel one nautical mile and return.
 The distance is then sent to the distance indicator where it is displayed for pilot’s use.

POWER SUPPLY BOARD ASSEMBLY: The power supply provides zener stabilized and filtered D.C.
voltages of rated amperage for the operation of the recorder.

CONTROL UNIT: The control unit is a standard ATR, mounted panel unit that provides remote
control of the cockpit voice recorder (CVR). The control unit contains: -
 Area Microphone.
 Microphone Preamplifier Board Assembly.
 Headset Jack.
 Test Switches.
 Test Meter, which make it possible to test and monitor the tape remotely.
A CVR system is designed so that the recorder unit is self sufficient and the control unit may be
utilized for housing only the preamplifier card and its Microphone.

OPTIONAL EQUIPMENTS: The following equipment may complement the basic Cockpit Voice
Recorder and Control Unit: -
1. INVERTER: The inverter is an optional accessory, and is completely self contained. When married
with the recorder, the inverter replaces the aircraft AC electrical system by converting 28V DC to
400Hz 115V AC.
2. AREA MICROPHONES: Remote area microphones are mounted in locations for optimum cockpit
area coverage, usually overhead on the aircraft control panel.
3. ACOUSTIC UNDERWATER LOCATER ASSEMBLY: This unit is a battery powered device, which
radiates an acoustic signal into the surrounding water upon activation of its water sensitive switch.
The beacon consists of a self contained battery, an electronic module and a transducer. The battery
is shock mounted and separated from the electronic module by a bulkhead built into the case. The
opposite end of the beacons contains the Teflon insulated water sensitive switch.

OPERATION:
The Cockpit Voice Recorder is a voice quality, audio frequency device that provide four separate
channels of simultaneous voice recordings, which may be played back on ground equipment. The
recordings are made on an endless loop magnetic tape with a maximum record interval of 30
Minutes of continuous operation. All recorded data beyond 30 Minutes is automatically erased.

CHARACTERISTICS:
POWER : 400Hz, 115V AC maximum for
Normal Operation;
28V DC maximum with Inverter.
TAPE : 0.25 inch Wide & 0.0014 inch
Thick Endless Loop,
Magnetic Tape.
RECORDING DURATION : 30 Minutes maximum.
AUDIO INPUT IMPEDANCE : 5000 Ohms.
IMPACT SHOCK : 100g for 11 milliseconds.
FIRE : Withstand 11000C for 1 Hour.
SALT WATER IMMERSION : Unaffected.

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BTECH ECE
EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER

DESCRIPTION:
ARTEX ELT 110-406 is an automatic activated Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT). It is a device to
detect the aircraft after it has been crashed. It can be manually activated via the MANU-OF-AUTO
switch on the unit, or via the optional remote AUTO/MANU switch on the front of the aircraft. It gets
activated automatically with the longitudinal thrust of 5g for 55 milliseconds.
It is an Oran7ge plastic box of (216*82*60) mm dimension, fixed on a mounting tray and locked by a
metallic strap with “Quick Operating” latch.

OPERATION:
The ELT is equipped with an impact “g” switch that will automatically activate the transmitter when
a “g” forces of at least 5g is applied to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, from nose to tail for 55
milliseconds. Due to this it transmits the standard swept tone on 121.5MHz and 243.0MHz. The
406.025MHz transmitter turns on every 50 seconds for 440 milliseconds (standard short message) or
520 milliseconds (optional long message).
During this time an encoded message is sent to the satellite. The information contained in this
message is shown below:
 Serial number of the Transmitter.
 Country code.
 I.D. code.
 Position coordinates (optional).
The 406MHz Transmitter will operate for 24 Hours and then shuts down automatically. The
121.5/243.0MHz Transmitter will continue to operate until the unit has exhausted the battery
power, which typically is at least 72 Hours.
One of the advantages of the 406MHz transmitter is that it will produce a much more accurate
position, typically 1 to 2 Km as compared to 15 to 20 Km for 121.5/243.0MHz Transmitters. It also
transmits a digital message which allows the search and rescue authorities to contact the
owner/operator of the aircraft through a database. Information contained in the database that may
be useful in the event of crash is shown below:
 Type of the aircraft.
 Address of the owner.
 Telephone Number of the owner.
 Aircraft registration number.

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 Alternate emergency contact.
Once the ELT is activated and the 406MHz signal is detected from the satellite and a position is
calculated, the 121.5/243.0MHz transmissions are used to home in on the crash site.

(Overview diagram of EPIRB/COSPAS-SARSAT communication system)

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BTECH ECE
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)
COMMUNICATION

DESCRIPTION:
The VHF communication system provides short-range (Line Of Sight) voice communication between:
 The Aircraft and Ground Stations.
 The Aircraft and other Aircraft.
VHF communication system transmits data in the form of codes. The frequency range allocated for
commercial aviation VHF communication is 118.00 to 136.975 MHz in 25KHz increments.
The VHF communication system receives RF energy via the antenna, processes the RF and sends
resulting audio to the Audio Integrating System. The VHF communication system also sends an audio
signal to the SELCAL system to alert the flight crew of an incoming call. During transmission, the VHF
communication system and RF energy transmitted via the antenna process the microphone audio
from the Audio Integrating System.
There are two VHF communication systems installed and wiring provisions for a third, and each
system contains the following components:
1. CONTROL PANEL: The control panels are located on the AFT electronic panel.
2. TRANSCEIVERS: The transceivers are located on the E2-1 shelf in the electronic
equipment compartment.
3. ANTENNA: The number-1 antenna is located on the top of fuselage and the number-2 antenna on
the bottom.

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BTECH ECE
The VHF communication system requires a primary input voltage of 27.5V DC at 1 ampere in receive
mode and 27.5V DC at 6 ampere (7.5 ampere maximum) in transmit mode.

OPERATION:
 The pilot selects the communication frequency of the Airport or Air Traffic Control that is
responsible for the airspace in which the aircraft is flying.
 The pilot actuated the transmitter section of the RT by pressing the microphone key.
 The pilot's voice is transformed into an electrical signal, amplitude modulated and mixed to
produced a signal that is radiated from the transmit antenna.
 The receiver section of the ground station RT receives the radiated signal, filter and mixes it and
then detects the modulated signal.
 A speaker or headset then transforms the modulated signal into an audio signal.
 The Airport or Air Traffic Controller replies using the same frequency.

HIGH FREQUENCY (HF)

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DESCRIPTION:
The HF communication system provides long range communication between:
 The Aircraft and Ground Stations.
 The Aircraft and other Aircraft.
The system operates in the 2 to 30 MHz frequency range in Amplitude Modulated or SSB mode to
transmit and receive information that can be in the form of a transmitted voice or a coded digital
signal.
The HF system uses the skip distance phenomena to achieve long distance transmission. Skip
distance transmission is most effective in the 2 to 30 MHz ranges and varies with frequency and time
of day.
The HF communication provides a reliable way to transmit and receive Flight Information, Landing
Instruction and Voice Communication. There are two HF communication systems HF-1 and HF-2
installed in the aircraft. Each HF communication system is composed of one receiver-transmitter, an
antenna coupler, lightning arrester, an antenna, a remote control unit, a microphone, a speaker or
handset and necessary relays. The HF-1&2 communication systems use 115V, 400Hz, 3-phase
primary power from 2.0000 to 29.9999 MHz or 2.8000 to 23.9999 MHz on channels spaced at 1KHz
or 100Hz.

RECIEVER-TRANSMITTER (RT): The RT provides transmit signal and power to the antenna, and
processes the received signal from the antenna. The HF RT operates in the 2.0000 to 29.9999 MHz
range providing USB and LSB data communication.
The RT contains the following circuit, a frequency synthesizer, a receiver, an exciter, and a power
supply. The transceiver may also contain circuit to monitor the VSWR of the antenna and
transmission line. The receiver portion consists of the necessary circuit to receive, demodulate,
amplify, and filter the received signal. The exciter contains the circuit to excite, modulate, amplify
and transmit the voice or coded data communication.

ANTENNA COUPLER: The HF probe operates in 2.0000 to 29.9999 MHz region of the radio spectrum.
An antenna coupler is required in HF system to maintain the quality of the received signal over a
wide range of frequency by matching the antenna to the transmitter.

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BTECH ECE
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System

The Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System (or TCAS) is an implementation of the Airborne
Collision Avoidance System mandated by ICAO to be fitted to all aircraft over 5700 kg or authorized
to carry more than 19 passengers, designed to reduce mid-air collisions.
In glass cockpit aircraft the TCAS display may be integrated in the ND (Navigation Display). In older
glass cockpit aircraft and those with mechanical instrumentation, the mechanical IVSI (Instantaneous
Vertical Speed Indicator - which indicates the speed with which the aircraft is descending or
climbing) is replaced by an electronic instrument which incorporates the TCAS display.

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The TCAS displays any other TCAS- or Mode C Transponder-equipped aircraft within a range selected
by the pilot, which can vary from 2.5 to about 30 miles. If another aircraft appears to be a potential
collision threat, a Traffic Advisory (TA) is issued. The TA warns the pilot that another aircraft is in
near vicinity, announcing "traffic, traffic", but does not offer any suggested course of action.
However, if the situation worsens and collision with another aircraft appears imminent, an audio
and visual warning, called a Resolution Advisory (RA) will occur, indicating the incoming aircraft, and
audibly signaling the action to be taken by the pilot. The suggestive action may be "positive",
suggesting the pilot changes course by announcing "descend, descend" or "climb, climb". By contrast
a "preventive" RA may be issued which simply warns the pilots not to deviate from their present
altitude, announcing, for example, "monitor vertical speed". Of course, the TCAS system in the other
aircraft will offer an alternate instruction so a collision can be avoided. TCAS II systems coordinate
their resolution advisories before issuing commands to the pilots. This ensures that both systems will
not issue the same command. It is desirable to have one aircraft go up and the other go down as the
TCASs will always increase separation between aircraft. When a threat has passed, the system
announces "clear of conflict". TCAS is an active interrogation system, which interrogates surrounding
aircraft transponders on 1030 MHz Once a transponder receives this interrogation, it then responds
on 1090 MHz Collision avoidance can also be passive, such as PCAS, or Portable Collision Avoidance
System, which listens to the replies generated by other interrogators. PCAS is typically a portable
system used in general aviation

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BTECH ECE
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM

(Cockpit Display Of GPWS)

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in
immediate danger of flying into the ground. Another common name for such a system is Ground-
Collision Warning System (GCWS).
The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by radio altimeter. A
computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the captain with visual
and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations ("modes").
The modes are:
 Excessive descent rate ("PULL UP" "SINKRATE")
 Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")
 Altitude loss after take off ("DON'T SINK")
 Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW - TERRAIN" "TOO LOW - GEAR" "TOO LOW - FLAPS")
 Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
Don Bateman, a Canadian born engineer, is credited with the invention of GPWS. He spearheaded
the development of GPWS in the late 1960s after a series of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)
accidents killed hundreds of people.
Prior to the development of GPWS there were an average of over 10 CFIT crashes a year. Since the
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration required large airplanes to carry such equipment in 1974, the
number of CFIT accidents have reduced significantly. In 2000 the FAA extended this requirement to
smaller commuter planes as well.

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Traditional GPWS does have a blind spot. Since it can only gather data from directly below the
aircraft, it must predict future terrain features. If there is a dramatic change in terrain, such as a
steep slope, GPWS will not detect the aircraft closure rate until it is too late for evasive action.
A new technology, the Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) solves this problem by
combining a worldwide digital terrain database with a Long-Range Navigation System such as Global
Positioning System, INS (Inertial Navigation System), Radio-Dependent navigational systems, or a
combination of the above. On-board computers can compare its current location with a database of
the Earth's terrain. Pilots will receive much more timely cautions and warnings of any obstructions to
the aircraft's path.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

(Cockpit Display Of GPS)

GPS or Global Positioning System is a system that works with navigation, tracking, and positioning. It
is worldwide, using radio-navigational systems that are stemmed from satellites. A grouping of 24
satellites and ground stations are used to calculate positions for a GPS. The accuracy of these
satellites for a GPS can be measured up even to a centimeter.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of
24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was originally intended for
military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available for civilian use.
GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day. There are no
subscription fees or setup charges to use GPS.

The GPS was initially used for military operations. Providing the military with precise locations and
navigations, the GPS is a wonderful asset. Standard Positioning Service and Precise Positioning
Service are the two levels of service that are provided by GPS. The first (SPS) is for consumer use of

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the GPS and is available worldwide. It gives accuracy of approximately 100 meters longitude and
latitude. The second (PPS) give military positioning of approximately 25 meters.
GPS, is the only fully-functional satellite navigation system. A constellation of more than two dozen
GPS satellites broadcasts precise timing signals by radio to GPS receivers, allowing them to
accurately determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) in any weather, day or night,
anywhere on Earth.
GPS has become a vital global utility, indispensable for modern navigation on land, sea, and air
around the world, as well as an important tool for map-making, and land surveying. GPS also
provides an extremely precise time reference, required for telecommunications and some scientific
research, including the study of earthquakes.

GPS usage by aircraft passengers

Most airlines allow passenger use of GPS units on their flights, except during landing and take-off
when other electronic devices are also restricted. Even though inexpensive consumer GPS units have
a minimal risk of interference, there is still a potential for interference. Because of this possibility, a
few airlines disallow use of hand-held receivers for safety reasons. However, other airlines integrate
aircraft tracking into the seat-back television entertainment system, available to all passengers even
during takeoff and landing.

(NAVSTAR GPS SYSTEM)

Precise time reference

Many systems that must be accurately synchronized use GPS as a source of accurate time. For
instance, the GPS can be used as a reference clock for time code generators or NTP clocks. Also,
when deploying sensors (for seismology or other monitoring application), GPS may be used to
provide each recording apparatus with a precise time source, so that the time of events may be
recorded accurately. Communications networks often rely on this precise timing to synchronize RF
generating equipment, network equipment and multiplexers.
The atomic clocks on the satellites are set to "GPS time". GPS time is counted in days, hours,
minutes, and seconds, in the manner that is conventional for most time standards. However, GPS
time is not corrected to the rotation of the Earth, ignoring leap seconds and other corrections. GPS
time was set to read the same as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since diverged
as leap seconds were added.
The GPS day is identified in the GPS signals using a week number along with a day-of-week number.
GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980. The week number is
transmitted in a ten-bit field, and so wraps round every 1024 weeks (7168 days). The transmitted
week number returned to zero at 00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999 (23:59:47 UTC on August 21,
1999). GPS receivers thus need to know the time to within 3584 days in order to correctly interpret
the GPS time signal. A new field is being added to the GPS navigation message that supplies the

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calendar year number in a sixteen-bit field, thus performing this disambiguation for any receivers
that know about the new field.
The GPS navigation message also includes the difference between GPS time and UTC, which is 14
seconds as of 2006. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time in order to display UTC time. They
may further adjust the UTC time adjust for a local time zone. New GPS units will initially show the
incorrect UTC time, or not attempt to show UTC time at all, after achieving a GPS lock for the first
time. However, this is usually corrected within 15 minutes, once the UTC offset message is received
for the first time. The GPS-UTC offset field is only eight bits, and so wraps round every 256 leap
seconds. There is also a leap second warning bit, to help GPS receivers tick UTC correctly through a
leap second, but its use is troublesome due to misunderstandings about its semantics.

RADIO ALTIMETER
DESCRIPTION:
It is the air borne Frequency-Modulated Continuous Wave instrument used to determine the
altitude above the terrain in the range from 0 to 2500 feet. It provides accurate reading to the pilot
about the aircraft altitude.
It consists of a receiver-transmitter, an indicator and a transmit and receive antenna. It also consists
of an optimized circuit for displaying altitude in the range from 0 to 2500 feet.

RECEIVER-TRANSMITTER (RT): The RT produces the transmit signal to processes the return signal to
produce Altitude information. It contains:
 A circuit required to produce, Modulate and Transmit an FM CW signal.
 The receiver section contains the circuit necessary for the reception of the returned FM CW
signal.
 The receiver sections also contain the circuit to filter, amplify and determine the frequency of
the returned signal.
 It contains a monitor circuit to determine the validity and reliability of the altitude.

ANTENNA: There are two antennas. One used for transmitting and other used for receiving. The
antenna is a cone type antenna mounted underneath the aircraft so there will be no obstruction of
the transmitted signal.

OPERATION:
 The aircraft approaches the runway along the desired glide path.
 The pilot set the DH index to the desired altitude.
 The received FM CW signal continuously updates the indicator.
 The indicator displays the altitude continuously through the descent.
 Altitude trip no 8 is annunciated and fasten seat belt sign is lit.
 The aircraft continues to descent. The DH annunciated light and the pilot begins the landing
procedure.
 The landing gear touches the runway and the indicator reads 0 feet.
 As the weight of the aircraft is placed on the landing gear, the indicator reads less than 0 foot.

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BTECH ECE
RADAR
Radar is an object-detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude,
direction, or speed of objects. The name RADAR is a contraction of the words Radio Detection And
Ranging. It can be used to detect aircraft, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar
dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which bounce off any object in their
path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave’s energy to a dish or antenna which is usually
located at the same site as the transmitter. The aviation uses of radar are air traffic control, aircraft
anti-collision systems, meteorological precipitation monitoring; altimetry and flight control systems.
The following are some uses and features of on-board Radar explained in
brief;

Category Decision Height Minimum Visibility

I 200 feet 2400 feet
I 200 feet 1800 feet with lighting
II 100 feet 1200 feet
IIIa 100 feet 700 feet
IIIb 50 feet 150-700 feet
IIIc No DH no limitation
Categories of ILS Approaches

Principle
A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in predetermined
directions. When these come into contact with an object they are usually reflected or scattered in
many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially well by materials of considerable electrical
conductivity—especially by most metals, by seawater, by wet land, and by wetlands. Some of these
make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals that are reflected back towards the
transmitter are the desirable ones that make radar work. If the object is moving either closer or
farther away, there is a slight change in the frequency of the radio waves, caused by the Doppler

Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the transmitter. Although the
reflected radar signals captured by the receiving antenna are usually very weak, these signals can be
strengthened by electronic amplifiers. More sophisticated methods of signal processing are also
used in order to recover useful radar signals. The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium
through which it passes is what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively long ranges—ranges
at which other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light,
are too strongly attenuated. Such things as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block visible
light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that are absorbed or scattered
by water vapor, raindrops, or atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars
except when detection of these is intended.

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Components
A radar’s major components are:
1. A transmitter that generates the radio signal with an oscillator such as
a klystron or a magnetron and controls its duration by a modulator.
2. A waveguide that links the transmitter and the antenna.
3. A duplexer that serves as a switch between the antenna and the transmitter or the receiver for
the signal when the antenna is used in both
situations.
4. A receiver. Knowing the shape of the desired received signal (a pulse),
an optimal receiver can be designed using a matched filter.
5. An Antenna.
6. An electronic section that controls all those devices and the antenna
to perform the radar scan ordered by software.
7. A link to the Navigational Display Unit.

Applications
The major applications of radar in aviation are as follows:
1. Plan Position Indicator (PPI) : The plan position indicator (PPI), I the most common type of
radar display. The radar antenna is usually represented in the center of the display, so the distance
from it and height above ground can be drawn as concentric circles. As the radar antenna rotates, a
radial trace on the PPI sweeps in unison with it about the center point.
2. Weather Indicator: Weather systems such as weather radar are important for aircraft flying at
night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the
weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning
activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather
systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.
3. Radar Altimeter : The radar altimeter is a more high-tech altimeter which uses radar to detect
the plane’s altitude. This type of altimeter is not affected by differences in air pressure, because it
does not measure air pressure at all. It measures your true altitude above whatever terrain you are
currently flying over. Rather than measuring altitude ASL, it measures altitude AGL (Above Ground
Level). A radar altimeter is highly accurate and thus of extreme importance to any airplane pilot.
Unfortunately, many smaller civilian aircraft still do not have one, instead relying on a pressure-
based altimeter.

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 WEATHER RADAR A320
The aircraft is equipped with an X-band weather radar system. This system
complies with ARINC Characteristics 708. The weather radar enables detection
and localization of the atmospheric disturbances in the area defined by the
antenna scanning: plus or minus 60 deg. of aircraft centerline and up to 240 NM
in front of the aircraft.
The transmitted radar beam can be deflected in elevation 15⁰ above or below the
aircraft reference axis.
In addition the weather radar system enables:
- detection of turbulence areas caused by the presence of precipitations
- presentation of terrain mapping information by the combination of the
orientation of the radar beam and of the receiver gain.
Five color displays are used to show precipitations and turbulences to the crew.
This system is associated to:
- the Air Data/ Inertial Reference Units (ADIRU) for the attitude information
- the Electronic Instrument System (EIS) for the generation of the distance scales
and the display of the radar images.
The weather radar image is shown on the Captain and First Officer Navigation
Displays (ND). The NDs are connected to the three Display Management
Computers (DMC) and to the Captain and First Officer EFIS control sections of the
FCU.
The ADIRUs give the attitude and ground speed information to the weather radar
system (Refer to 34-14-00). These data ensure the radar antenna stabilization and
the corrections of the Doppler mode (turbulence).
If the Enhanced GPWS is operative, the WR image is replaced by the terrain
image, on the Captain and First Officer NDs, during a terrain alert or a crew
action.

General Technical Characteristics

The weather radar system is mainly used to detect and localize various types of
atmospheric disturbances in the area scanned by the antenna. The system shows
the disturbance intensity through the use of colors which vary with the
atmospheric precipitation rate (refer to the correspondence table below).
The disturbances are shown to the crew members on the NDs with different
colors:

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 - black, green, yellow, red to quantify the precipitation rates
- magenta to represent the turbulence areas up to 40 NM.
NOTE : There is no detection of turbulence in clear sky.
The actual operating range of the system is 320 NM but the NDs display only up
to 240 NM. The peak power emitted is approximately 150 W. The antenna scans a
180 deg. sector in azimuth but the NDs display only 60 deg. either side of the
aircraft reference axis. The antenna has a tilt (pitch) coverage of plus or minus 15
deg. Stabilization limits are: plus or minus 25 deg. in the pitch axis and plus or
minus 40 deg. in the roll axis. The antenna scans the 180 deg. sector in azimuth 17
times per minute. The antenna which has a 30-inch diameter, radiates an RF
beam. The beam width is 3 deg. Additionally, the weather radar may be used as a
navigation aid. In the mapping mode, it allows identification of major changes in
the ground map: (e.g. a sea coast, an estuary, a lake, a mountain, an island, a big
city, etc.). Correspondence table
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
| LEVEL DETECTED | PRECIPITATION RATE | COLOR OF ECHOES |
|-----------------------------|--------------------------------.|-----------------------------|
| Z1 < 20 dBz | less than 1 mm/h | black |
| 20 less than or equal | from 1 to 4 mm/h | green |
| to Z2 < 30 dBz | | |
| 30 less than or equal | from 4 to 12 mm/h | yellow |
| to Z3 < 40 dBz | | |
| 40 less than or equal | from 12 to 50 mm/h | red |
| to Z4/Z5 < 50 dBz | | |
|-----------------------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| Turbulence | > 50 mm/h | magenta |

Weather Radar Antenna

The antenna movements are ensured by 2 DC motors and the angular positions
are recopied by 4 synchros. Every motor (azimuth and elevation) is mechanically
connected to a tachometer which supplies a rate signal (scan and elevation) back
to the transceiver. The RF signal (transmitted or received) is conveyed by a wave
guide between the antenna and the

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 transceiver. Energization of the antenna is 115VAC 400Hz through the selected
transceiver.

Weather Radar Control Unit

Gain, tilt and scan controls are located on the control unit. When any of these
controls are changed, signals are routed from the control unit to the transceiver
via an ARINC 429 control bus. For example, when gain is changed at the control
unit, logic converts this analog signal to digital and applies the digital gain signal
to the transceiver.

Weather Radar Wave guide and Wave guide Switch

A wave guide assembly ensures the RF connection between the WR antenna drive
and the WR transceiver dual mounting tray (connected to the wave guide switch).
The wave guide assembly is made up of rigid and flexible parts which have a
standard rectangular section (1 in. x 0.5 in.). The wave guide switch is integral
with the mounting tray. It ensures switching of the RF signal from the antenna to
each transceiver. Moreover control circuits recopy the wave guide switch position
to avoid transmission on a closed wave guide.

Operation
Basic Principles
The weather radar system uses the principle of radio echoing. The weather radar
transceiver generates microwave energy in the form of electromagnetic pulses.
The energy is conveyed in space by a very high frequency wave (X band). When
this wave intercepts an appropriate target, part of the energy is reflected back to
the weather radar antenna then to the transceiver. The electronics circuits of the
transceiver measure the elapsed time between the transmission of the wave and
the reception of the echo to determine the target distance (it takes 12.36
microseconds for the electromagnetic wave to travel out and back for each
nautical mile of target range). The angular position of the target is detected by
the angular position of the antenna in its scanning in azimuth. As the quantity of
energy reflected to the antenna is proportional to the target density, the different
levels of atmospheric disturbances are shown on the displays by different colors.
The detection of the turbulence areas is based on the Doppler effect applied to
the movement of precipitation drops detected in clouds. Only movements parallel
to the aircraft centerline are detected.

Control and Indicating

The various system controls are grouped on the weather radar control unit and
EFIS control sections of the FCU. Radar image control on the NDs is achieved
through the scale selector switches located on Captain and First Officer EFIS
control sections of the FCU.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Radar control unit
The face of the radar control unit includes the following controls:
(a) A TILT selector switch, item 2, for controlling antenna elevation. Antenna
position is read in degrees, opposite the notch on the switch:
- either from 0 to 15 degrees upwards
- or from 0 to 15 degrees downwards.
(b) A GAIN potentiometer, item 3, for manually adjusting transceiver gain. Control
of gain is active only when VAR pushbutton switch is activated.
(c) A VAR pushbutton switch, item 4, which enables gain control.
(d) A SEC pushbutton switch, item 5, which is used to select an antenna scanning
sector of 90⁰ in place of 180⁰.
(e) A WX pushbutton switch, item 6, for selection of the weather mode.
(f) A WX/T pushbutton switch, item 7, for selection of the weather and turbulence
mode.
(g) An RCT pushbutton switch, item 8, which is used to energize the Rain Echo
Attenuation Compensation Technique (REACT) Circuitry which compensates for
rainfall echo attenuation.
(h) A GCR pushbutton switch, item 9, which is used to energize the ground clutter
image reduction circuitry which suppresses automatically the ground returns.
(i) A MAP pushbutton switch, item 10, for selection of the MAP display.
(j) A switch, item 1,
- with three stable positions RT1/OFF/RT2 which enables system energization and
selection of transceiver 1 or 2. The face of the control unit is provided with
integral lighting. The INTEG LT/MAIN PNL & PED potentiometer enables lighting
adjustment. The potentiometer is located on panel 111VU, at the left aft section
of the center pedestal 11VU.

EFIS control section (on the FCU)

Only the controls related to the selection and use of the radar image on the NDs
are described.
(a) A navigation display mode selector switch, item 1, made up of a rotary switch
enabling the selection of ROSE or ARC function for display of a weather radar
image on the CAPT and F/O NDs.
(b) A scale selector switch, item 2, common to EFIS, FMGS and radar systems,
which enables the selection of 10, 20, 40, 80, 160 or 320 operation range in

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 nautical miles (NM) for display of the weather radar image on the CAPT and F/O
NDs.
NOTE : In the event of one FMGC fault, there is an automatic transfer of the
weather radar image from one ND to the other one. Only one scale selector
switch can then control the weather radar image display.

A stabilization CPU It performs calculation of the elevation pointing

command necessary to keep the antenna pointing at a fixed tilt angle in space
independent of pitch and roll motions of the aircraft. The stabilization CPU
receives pitch and roll signals from the stabilization bus via the data bus
microprocessor. Elevation command output goes to the elevation drive servo
mechanism to control the antenna elevation axis.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
AUTOPILOT
An autopilot can be capable of many very time intensive tasks, helping the pilot focus on the overall
status of the aircraft and flight. Good use of an autopilot helps automate the process of guiding and
controlling the aircraft. Autopilots can automate tasks, such as maintaining an altitude, climbing or
descending to an assigned altitude, turning to and maintaining an assigned heading, intercepting a
course, guiding the aircraft between waypoints that make up a route programmed into an FMS, and
flying a precision or no precision approach. You must accurately determine the installed options,
type of installation, and basic and optional functions available in your specific aircraft. Many
advanced avionics installations really include two different, but integrated, systems. One is the
autopilot system, which is the set of servo actuators that actually do the control movement and the
control circuits to make the servo actuators move the correct amount for the selected task. The
second is the flight director (FD) component. The FD is the brain of the autopilot system. Most
autopilots can fly straight and level. When there are additional tasks of finding a selected course
(intercepting), changing altitudes, and tracking navigation sources with cross winds, higher level
calculations are required. The FD is designed with the computational power to accomplish these
tasks and usually displays the indications to the pilot for guidance as well. Most flight directors
accept data input from the air data computer (ADC), Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS),
navigation sources, the pilot’s control panel, and the autopilot servo feedback, to name some
examples. The downside is that you must program the FD to display what you are to do. If you do
not preprogram the FD in time, or correctly, FD guidance may be inaccurate. The programming of
the FD increases the workload for the pilot. If that increased workload is offset by allowing the
autopilot to control the aircraft, then the overall workload is decreased. However, if you elect to use
the FD display, but manually fly the aircraft, then your workload is greatly increased. In every
instance, you must be absolutely sure what modes the FD/autopilot is in and include that indicator
or annunciator in the crosscheck. You must know what that particular mode in that specific
FD/autopilot system is programmed to accomplish, and what actions will cancel those modes. Due
to numerous available options, two otherwise identical aircraft can have very different avionics and
autopilot functional capabilities.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
How To Use an Autopilot Function

The following steps are required to use an autopilot function:

1. Specify desired track as defined by heading, course, series of waypoints, altitude, airspeed, and/or
vertical speed.
2. Engage the desired autopilot function(s) and verify that, in fact, the selected modes are engaged
by monitoring the annunciator panel.
3. Verify that desired track is being followed by the aircraft.
4. Verify that the correct navigation source is selected to guide the autopilot’s track.
5. Be ready to fly the aircraft manually to ensure proper course/clearance tracking in case of
autopilot failure or misprogramming.
6. Allow the FD/autopilot to accomplish the modes selected and programmed without interference,
or disengage the unit. Do not attempt to “help” the autopilot perform a task. In some instances this
has caused the autopilot to falsely sense adverse conditions and trim to the limit to accomplish its
tasking. In more than a few events, this has resulted in a total loss of control and a crash.

Specification of Track and Altitude

A track is a specific goal, such as a heading or course. A goal can also be a level altitude, a selected
airspeed, or a selected vertical speed to be achieved with the power at some setting. Every autopilot
uses knobs, buttons, dials, or other controls that allow the pilot to specify goals. Image below shows
an autopilot combined with conventional navigation instruments. Most autopilots have indicators
for the amount of servo travel or trim being used. These can be early indicators of adverse
conditions, such as icing or power loss. Rarely will a trim indicator ever indicate full travel in normal
operation. Consistently full or nearly full travel of the trim servos may be a sign of a trim servo
failure, a shift in weight resulting in a balance problem, or airfoil problems such as icing or
inadvertent control activation.

A Simple Auto Pilot

Primary flight displays (PFDs) often integrate all controls that allow modes to be entered for the
autopilot. The PFD shown in Figure 4-2 offers knobs that allow you to enter modes without turning

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BTECH ECE
attention away from the primary flight instruments. Modes entered using the controls on a PFD are
transferred to the autopilot.

Engagement of Autopilot Function

Every autopilot offers a collection of buttons that allow you to choose and engage autopilot modes
and functions. Buttons used to engage autopilot modes appear along the bottom of the autopilot
shown in the image above

AUTOPILOT :
A plane can land by itself using a system that is often referred to as “autoland”. The pilots can
program the auto pilot to carry out the landing automatically whilst the pilots monitor the aircraft.
However there are limitations to when the autoland system can be used.
The Boeing 737 (the world’s most successful airliner) is limited to a maximum crosswind of 25kts
(15kts for many airlines) when carrying out an automatic landing (Category 3 / CAT III approach). The
autopilot is usually used to land in low visibility conditions when there are typically little or no winds
(fog will seldom form if it’s very windy!). As soon as the wind picks up, the average pilot is far better
at coping with the conditions than the auto pilot.
Automatic landings probably account for less then 3% of all landings on commercial flights. Many
pilots actually think it’s much easier to land the aircraft manually, as monitoring the auto pilot in the
autoland stage of flight is itself very demanding with a very high level of vigilance required at all
stages.
Automatic landings require a high level of automation monitoring that needs retraining every six
months for professional pilots. Autolands can only be performed under strict conditions that require
the certification of both the aircraft (often downgraded to no autoland capability due to technical
issues), both of the pilots and the airport itself. The pilots are still required to configure the aircraft
and control it’s speed. Any number of relatively minor technical issues can compromise many fail-
passive auto land systems, requiring a missed approach to be carried out and then a possible
diversion to an airport which is clear of fog or low cloud.
Can a plane take off automatically?
No. To dispel the myth; the vast majority of commercial aircraft (including all Boeing’s and Airbus’s)
have no automatic take-off capability – all take offs must be completed manually by the pilots with
the auto pilot usually engaged at around 1,000 ft above aerodrome level.

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
ANTI SKID AUTOBRAKE CONTROL UNIT
It consists of 4 wheel speed transducers and 4 control valves. The principle function of the control is
to process wheel speed information, sense impending wheel skids and produce connection currents.
The control unit receives wheel speed information from the 4 transducers and drives the 4 valves
with control currents which commands brake pressure radiations and prevent skids.

DESCRIPTION
The AACU is housed in a container and consists of 4 identical main wheel/BITE cards, 1 power supply
card, 1 switching logic card and 1 auto brake card. Indicators are mounted on the rear of the CU
connecting to the airplane.

OPERATION
The AACU senses the speed of the 4 types and 4 transducers connected to the 4 wheels convert the
speed into electrical signals. These electrical go to the modules, which compare these signals with
some reference signal. If not equal it implies skidding and the valve releasing the brake fluid is closed
thus avoiding the braking of that particular wheel. Hence all the 4 tires move synchronously at the
same speed.

LANDING GEAR ACCESSORY UNIT

ASSEMBLY
It consists of control and safety relays, solid-state circuits and related wiring and connectors
mounted in a chassis assembly. The accessory unit assembly includes air and ground sensing
indicators and test switches.

OPERATION
The LGAUA receives signals from proximity sensors on the landing gear. These signals are
transmitted to the solid state switching circuits in the accessory unit assembly to control the relays.
The relays provide the required control and indication of the landing gear. The air & ground sensing
indicators and test switches are used to check for malfunction in the accessory unit assembly and to
isolate the safety relays for airplane maintenance purposes.

The assembly controls and monitors the following systems: -

1. Safety Relays Systems (squat switches).

2. Landing Gear Rearing Systems.
3. Automatic Ground Speed Brake Systems.
4. Take Off Warning Systems

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 Bibliography
 Component Service Manuals, revenant Manufacturer.
 www.airindia.in, Air India Website

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE
 INDEX

 Acknowledgment

 About the Internship

 ESDS : Electro-Static Discharge Sensitive Devices

 Cockpit Overview

 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR ORGANIZATION

( MRO )

 Aircraft Fundamentals

 Gallery ( Aircraft )

 Overview of Airbus A-320 Family of Aircrafts

 ATECH SHOP

 RADIO SHOP

Siddharth Singh
BTECH ECE