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One Dimensional Compressible Flow

COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

‰ Ideal Gas Relation

‰ Characteristics of Compressible Flow

‰ Isentropic Gas Flow

‰ Normal Shock Wave

‰ Non-isentropic Gas Flow

‰ Oblique Shock Wave

‰ Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Wave

Appendices (A-D)

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4.1 IDEAL GAS RELATION


• Compressible flow analysis requires:

1. Conservation of mass,
2. Conservation of linear momentum,
3. Conservation of energy,
4. Equation of state for an ideal gas.

• The equation of state for an ideal gas is

p = ρRT (4.1)

where p is pressure, ρ is density, R is the gas constant (286.9 J/kg⋅K


for air) and T is the absolute temperature (in K).

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• Gas constant R could be obtained from the universal gas constant ℜ


(8.314 J/mol⋅K) and the gas molecular weight ℵ (28.97 g/mol for air):


R= (4.2)

(
• For ideal gas, internal energy u is a function of temperature T and its
gradient defines the specific heat at constant volume cv:
( (
∂u du
cv = =
∂T V dT

Wiht cv almost constant, integrating the above relation yields


2 ( 2
∫1
du = ∫ cv dT
1
( (
u2 − u1 = cv (T2 − T1 ) (4.3)

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(
• In thermodynamic texts, enthalpy h is defined as

( ( p (
h = u + = u + RT (4.4)
ρ
(
• For ideal gas, enthalpy h is also a function of temperature T and the
gradient defines the specific heat at constant pressure cp:
( (
∂h dh
cp = =
∂T p
dT

With cp almost constant, integrating the above relation yields


2 ( 2
∫1
dh = ∫ c p dT
1
( (
h2 − h1 = c p (T2 − T1 ) (4.5)

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• The relationship between cp and cv could obtained from Eq. 4.4:


( (
( ( dh du
dh = du + R dT ⇒ = +R
dT dT
c p = cv + R (4.6)

and, the specific heat ratio k is (also constant — for air, k = 1.4)

cp
k= (4.7)
cv

Combining eqn. (4.6) and eqn. (4.7) yields

kR
cp = (4.8)
k −1
R
cv = (4.9)
k −1
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(
• In thermodynamic texts, with v = 1 ρ being the specific volume, the
relationship for entropy s could be written as
( ( (
T ds = du + p dv = du + p d (1 ρ ) (4.10)

From the definition of enthalpy:

( ( ⎛ p⎞ (
dh = du + d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = du + p d (1 ρ ) +
dp
⎝ρ⎠ ρ
( dp
dh = T ds + (4.11)
ρ

From eqn. (4.10) and eqn. (4.11), the change in entropy ds is

dT d (1 ρ ) dT dp
ds = cv +R = cp −R
T (1 ρ ) T p

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Integration of both equations above yield

T2 ρ
s2 − s1 = cv ln + R ln 1 (4.12)
T1 ρ2
T2 p
s2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 2 (4.13)
T1 p1

• From the Second Law of Thermodynamics, for an adiabatic and


frictionless flow, ds = s 2 − s1 = 0 and is known as isentropic flow,
where relationships among variables T, p and ρ could be derived as:

T2 ρ T p
cv ln + R ln 1 = 0 = c p ln 2 − R ln 2
T1 ρ2 T1 p1
R T ρ kR T p
ln 2 + R ln 1 = 0 = ln 2 − R ln 2
k − 1 T1 ρ2 k − 1 T1 p1

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Hence, for an isentropic flow,


k ( k −1) k
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ρ ⎞ p
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = 2 (4.14)
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠ p1

p
= constant (4.15)
ρk

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4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW


• Compressible flow behaviour could be characterised by the Mach
Number (Ma or M) which is defined as

V
Ma ≡ M = (4.16)
c

where V is the flow velocity and c is the speed of sound.

• Compressible flow could be classified to three categories:

1. Nearly-Incompressible flow — M ≤ 0.3


> Nearly symmetrical pressure wave,
> Change in density is negligible (< 5%),
> Hence, the Bernoulli equation could be used.

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2. Subsonic flow — 0.3 < M < 1.0


> Assymetrical pressure wave,
> Change in density becomes more significant (> 5%),
> When M → 1.0, there exists a plane that separates zone of
silence and zone of action and is called Mach wave.

3. Supersonic flow — M ≥ 1.0


> Mach wave transforms to Mach cone with angle:
c 1
μ = sin −1 = sin −1
V M
> Change in density is very significant,
> Shock wave phenomena could develop when flow is
obstructed by a solid body.

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• Condition when M = 1.0 is called sonic condition.

Figure 4.1 Sound waves from a fixed and moving source

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Figure 4.1 (continued)

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Figure 4.1 (continued)

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• In aerodynamic texts, two more flow regimes are commonly added:

1. Transonic flow — 0.9 ≤ M ≤ 1.2


> A state of partial subsonic/supersonic condition causing
analysis to be more complicated.

2. Hypersonic — M > 5
> Fluid molecules begin to experience chemical reactions such
as air ionization, causing analysis to be too complex.

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Figure 4.2 Moving and static control volume of a pressure pulse

• The relationship for speed of sound c is derived by considering the


propagation of a pressure pulse.

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• To derive it, let’s start from the continuity equation (neglecting higher
order terms):

ρcA = ( ρ + δρ )(c − δV )A
ρc = ρc − ρ δV + c δρ − δρ δV
ρ δV = c δρ

From the linear momentum equation:

− cρcA + (c − δV )(ρ + δρ )(c − δV )A = pA − ( p + δp )A


2cρ δV − c(c δρ ) = δp
cρ δV = δp

Combining both relations above yields:

δp δp
c2 = ⇒ c= (4.17)
δρ δρ

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• For isentropic flow, Eq. 4.17 could be written as

∂p
c=
∂ρ s

From Eq. 4.15, its derivative yields

⎛ p ⎞
d ⎜⎜ k ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ρ ⎠
dp kp dρ
− k +1 = 0
ρ k
ρ
∂p dp kp
= = = kRT
∂ρ s dρ ρ

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Hence, the speed of sound for an isentropic flow is

kp
c= = kRT (4.18)
ρ

• For air in standard condition:

T = 288.15 K (15°C )
R = 286.9 J/kg ⋅ K
k = 1.401

Hence,

c = 340 .3 m/s = 1225 km/hr

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EXAMPLE 4.1

An aircraft flying at an altitude of 1000 m, passes directly above an


observer. If the aircraft is moving at Mach 1.5 with surrounding
ambient temperature of 20°C, obtain the time after which the observer
is able to hear the sound of the aircraft. Use gas constant
R = 287 J/kg⋅K and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.

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¾ Since Ma > 1.0, a Mach cone is formed. From the equation for Mach
cone angle:
1 1
μ = sin −1 = sin −1 = 41.8°
M 1.5
From the diagram above:
z z
tan μ = =
x Vt
z z z
t= = =
V tan μ M ⋅ c tan μ M kRT tan μ
1000
=
1.5 1.4(287 )(20 + 273.15) tan 41.8°
= 2.17 s

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4.3 ISENTROPIC GAS FLOW


• Main characteristics of an isentropic flow are:

1. No heat transfer across CS — adiabatic,


2. No friction between fluid molecules in CV — inviscid.

• For conservation of mass in one-dimensional flow, the general


continuity equation is used:

m& = ρAV = constant


dm& = d (ρAV ) = 0
AV dρ + ρV dA + ρA dV = 0

Dividing by ρAV gives:

dρ dA dV
+ + =0 (4.19)
ρ A V
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• For conservation of momentum, the general Bernoulli equation is used


(assuming steady flow and effect of elevation difference g dz is
negligible):

dp
+ V dV = 0
ρ
Dividing by V2:

dp dV
+ =0 (4.20)
ρV 2 V

• Combining Eq. 4.19 and Eq. 4.20 yields:

dρ dA dp
+ − =0
ρ A ρV 2
dA dp dρ dp ⎛ V2 ⎞
= − = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
A ρV 2
ρ ρV 2 ⎝ dp dρ ⎠

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For isentropic flow, c = dp dρ :

⎛ V2 ⎞
dA
=−
dV
⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = − (
dV
1− M 2 ) (4.21)
A V ⎝ c ⎠ V

Subsonic flow Supersonic flow


(Ma < 1) (Ma > 1)

dA > 0 dA > 0
dp > 0 dp < 0
dV < 0 dV > 0

dA < 0 dA < 0
dp < 0 dp > 0
dV > 0 dV < 0

Figure 4.3 Flow through diverging and converging ducts


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• Relation between ρ and M could be derived from Eq. 4.19-21:


ρ
=−
dA dV dV
− = (
1 − M 2 )−
dV ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V
= −⎜ ⎟ d ⎜

⎟ = − M dM
A V V V ⎝c⎠ ⎝c ⎠
dρ dρ
= − d (12 M 2 ) ⇒ = − ∫ d (12 M 2 )
ρ M

ρ ∫ρ 0 ρ 0

ρ
ln
ρ0
= − 12 M 2 ⇒ ρ = ρ 0 exp − 12 M 2 ( )

For density change ( ρ 0 − ρ ) ρ 0 < 5% (which is justified to be


neglected for incompressible flow assumption):

ρ0 − ρ
= 1 − exp(− 12 M 2 ) < 0.05
ρ0
M < 0.320 ≈ 0.3

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• In the isentropic flow relationships, static quantities could be related


to the stagnation quantities through Eq. 4.15:
1k
p p0 ⎛ p⎞
= = constant ⇒ ρ = ρ ⎜ ⎟⎟
0⎜
ρ k ρ 0k ⎝ p0 ⎠

From the Bernoulli equation:

dp
ρ
(
+d V 1
2
2
) =
p 10 k dp
ρ0 p 1k
(
+ d 12 V 2 = 0 )
p 01 k
ρ0 ∫
p0
p dp
p 1k
+ ∫
V

0
( )
d 12 V 2 = 0
p
p 01 k ⎡ p −1 k +1 ⎤

ρ 0 ⎣1 − 1 k ⎦ p ⎥ + 2V
1 2
[ ]
V
0
=0
0

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k ⎛ p0 p ⎞ 1 2
⎜ − ⎟ − 2V = 0
k − 1 ⎜⎝ ρ 0 ρ ⎟⎠
(4.22)

Using the ideal gas equation (Eq. 4.1):

kR
(T0 − T ) − 12 V 2 = c p (T0 − T ) − 12 V 2 = 0 (4.23)
k −1
(
From the relationship above, total/stagnation enthalpy h0 could be
defined:
(
h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2 = pemalar (4.24)

Eq. 4.23 is divided by c 2 = kRT to yield the relationship for T:

kR ⎛ T0 − T ⎞ V 2 1 ⎛ T0 ⎞ M2
⎜ ⎟− = ⎜ − 1⎟ − =0
k − 1 ⎝ kRT ⎠ 2c 2 k − 1 ⎝ T ⎠ 2

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T0
=1+ 1
2
(k − 1)M 2 (4.25)
T

Through Eq. 4.14:

k ( k −1) k
⎛ T0 ⎞ ⎛ρ ⎞ p
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝T ⎠ ⎝ ρ ⎠ p

Thus, relationships for p and ρ are obtained:

p0
p
= 1+ [ 1
2
(k − 1)M 2 ]k (k −1) (4.26)

ρ0
= [1 + 1
(k − 1)M 2 ]1 (k −1) (4.27)
ρ 2

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• For sonic condition (M = 1.0):


k ( k −1) 1 ( k −1)
T∗ 2 p∗ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ρ∗ ⎛ 2 ⎞
= , =⎜ ⎟ , =⎜ ⎟ (4.28)
T0 1 + k p0 ⎝ 1 + k ⎠ ρ0 ⎝ 1 + k ⎠

For air, taking k = 1.4:

T ∗ T0 = 0.8333 , p ∗ p0 = 0.5283 , ρ ∗ ρ 0 = 0.6339

• Cross sectional area where sonic condition occurs is known as the


critical area A*, where the flow is in a state of choked. From
continuity equation:

A ρ∗ V ∗
ρAV = ρ A V∗ ∗ ∗
⇒ = ⋅
A∗ ρ V

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∗ ∗
where V = kRT is the velocity of the flow at sonic condition.
With V = Ma⋅ c = Ma kRT , hence,

A ρ∗
= ⋅
kRT ∗
=
(
1 ρ ∗ ρ0 ) (T T0∗
)
A∗ ρ Ma kRT Ma (ρ ρ 0 ) (T T0 )
k +1
A 1 ⎧1 + (k − 1) Ma ⎫
1 2 2 ( k −1)
= ⎨
2

A∗ Ma ⎩ 1 + 12 (k − 1) ⎭
(4.29)

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Figure 4.4 Relation between the critical area ratio and Ma

• At choked flow condition, maximum mass flow rate (M > 1.0):

m& ma x = ρ ∗ A∗V ∗ = ρ ∗ A∗ kRT ∗

• For air (k = 1.4), values from Eq. 4.25-29 are easier to be extracted
from the Isentropic Air Flow Table (Appendix A).

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• Eq. 4.29 can be used in the design of nozzles and diffusers for
supersonic flows.

Ma < 1 Ma = 1 Ma > 1 Ma > 1 Ma = 1 Ma < 1

Supersonic nozzle Supersonic diffuser


Figure 4.5 Nozzle and diffuser for supersonic flow

• The subsonic-supersonic flow transition in a nozzle or diffuser could


occur at the throat where M = 1.0.

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Figure 4.6 Effect of sonic condition to operation of converging nozzle

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Figure 4.7 Effect of sonic condition to operation of


converging-diverging nozzle

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EXAMPLE 4.2

An air flow with a Mach 3.5 velocity has a static pressure of


304 kPa (abs) and static temperature of 180 K. Calculate:
(a) Stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature,
(b) Pressure, temperature and the speed of sound for critical
condition,
(c) Flow velocity.
Use gas constant R = 287 J/kg⋅K and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.

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¾ (a) From App. A, for M = 3.5: p0 p = 76.27 , T0 T = 3.45 . Hence,


p0
p0 = p = 76.27(304 )
p
= 23186 kPa (abs) = 23.2 MPa (abs)
T0
T0 = T = 3.45(180 )
T
= 621 K
(b) At critical condition, for M = 1.0. From App. A:
p0 p = p0 p = 1.893 , T0 T = T0 T * = 1.2
*

Hence,
p*
p =
*
p0 =
1
(23.2)
p0 1.893
= 12.2 MPa (abs)

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T*
T =
*
T0 =
1
(621)
T0 1.2
= 518 K
c * = kRT = 1.4(287 )(518)
= 456 m/s
(c) Flow velocity:
V = M ⋅ c = M kRT
= 3.5 1.4(287 )(180 )
= 941 m/s

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EXAMPLE 4.3

In a subsonic-supersonic flow through a converging-diverging nozzle,


the reservoir pressure and temperature respectively are 10 atm (abs)
and 300 K. In the nozzle, there are two positions where A A = 6 ;
*

one in the converging section and the other in the diverging section.
Calculate the Mach number, pressure, temperature and flow velocity
at those two positions. Use gas constant R = 287 J/kg⋅K and specific
heat ratio k = 1.4.

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¾ In the reservoir, the fluid is in stagnation:


p0 = 10 atm (abs) = 1013 kPa (abs) , T0 = 300 K

From App. A, for A A = 6 :


*

M = 0.097 (subsonic) , M = 3.368 (supersoni c)


For converging section, M = 0.097 (subsonic). From App. A:
p0 p = 1.006 , T0 T = 1.002
Hence,

p=
p
p0 =
1
(1013) = 1007 kPa (abs)
p0 1.006

T=
T
T0 =
1
(300) = 299 K
T0 1.002
V = M ⋅ c = M kRT = 0.097 1.4(287 )(299)
= 33.6 m/s

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For diverging section, M = 3.368 (supersonic). From App. A:


p0 p = 63.13 , T0 T = 3.269
Hence,

p=
p
p0 =
1
(1013) = 16.0 kPa (abs)
p0 63.13

T=
T
T0 =
1
(300) = 91.8 K
T0 3.269
V = M ⋅ c = M kRT = 3.368 1.4(287 )(91.8)
= 647 m/s

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4.4 NORMAL SHOCK WAVE


• When a supersonic flow is resisted by a body or an obstruction, shock
waves will form.

M < 1.0 M > 1.0


V<c V>c

Subsonic Supersonic
Figure 4.8 Formation of shock wave

• Shock waves are thin (∼10−7 m) regions in a supersonic flow where


the fluid properties changes abruptly.

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• Crossing the shock wave:

p, ρ , T , s increases
M ,V , p0 decreases
(
h0 no change

M>1
M>1 M<1

M>1 M<1

Normal shock Oblique shock Bow shock

Figure 4.9 Typical types of shock waves

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Figure 4.10 Normal shock wave

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• List of relationships/equations used are (taking A constant):

1. Continuity equation
ρ1V1 = ρ 2V2
2. Momentum equation
( p1 − p2 )A = m& (V2 − V1 ) ⇒ p1 + ρ1V12 = p2 + ρ 2V22
3. Energy equation
( ( (
h0 = h1 + 12 V12 = h2 + 12 V22 ⇒ c pT1 + 12 V12 = c pT2 + 12 V22

4. Speed of sound
c 2 = kRT = k p ρ

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From the energy equation relationship above:

kRT1 V12 kRT2 V22


+ = +
k −1 2 k −1 2
c12 V12 c22 V22
+ = +
k −1 2 k −1 2

(

Taking the transition condition as sonic V = c : )
2 2
c12 V12 c∗ c∗ c22 V22
+ = + = +
k −1 2 k −1 2 k −1 2
c12 V12 k + 1 ∗2 c22 V22
+ = c = +
k −1 2 2(k − 1) k −1 2

c12 = 1
2(k + 1)c∗ 2 − 12 (k − 1)V12
c22 = 12 (k + 1)c ∗ − 12 (k − 1)V22
2

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Dividing the momentum equation with continuity equation yields:

p1 p
+ V1 = 2 + V2
ρ1V1 ρ 2V2
p1 p
− 2 = V2 − V1
ρ1V1 ρ 2V2
c12 c22
− = V2 − V1
kV1 kV2

Combining with the relationship from the energy equation above:


2 2
k + 1 c* k −1 k + 1 c* k −1
⋅ − V1 − ⋅ + V2 = V2 − V1
2 kV1 2 2 kV2 2
2
k +1 c* k −1
(V2 − V1 ) + (V2 − V1 ) = V2 − V1
2k V1V2 2k

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2
k + 1 c* k −1
⋅ + =1
2k V1V2 2k
2
c * = V1V2 (4.30)

• Eq. 4.30 is known as the Prandtl relation and could be manipulated


as follows:

⎛ c*2 ⎞⎛ c * 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =1
⎜ V12 ⎟⎜ V22 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
⎛ 2 c12 k − 1 ⎞⎛ 2 c 22 k − 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ k + 1 ⋅ V 2 + k + 1 ⎟⎜ k + 1 ⋅ V 2 + k + 1 ⎟ = 1
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 + k − 1⎟⎜ 2 + k − 1⎟ = k + 1
⎜M ⎟⎜ M ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠

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1+ 1
(k − 1)M 12
M =2 2

− 12 (k − 1)
2 2 (4.31)
kM 1

• The change in density across the normal shock wave could be


obtained from the continuity equation:

ρ 2 V1 V12 V12
= = = =
(k + 1)V12
ρ1 V2 V1V2 c ∗ 2 2c12 + (k − 1)V12
ρ2 (k + 1)M 12
=
ρ1 2 + (k − 1)M 12
(4.32)

• The change in pressure across the normal shock wave could be


obtained from the combination of continuity and momentum equation:

p 2 − p1 = ρ 1V12 − ρ 2V22 = ρ 1V1 (V1 − V2 )

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p 2 − p1 ρ 1V12 ⎛ V2 ⎞ kV12 ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
= ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = 2 ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ = kM 12 ⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟
p1 p1 ⎝ V1 ⎠ c1 ⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ2 ⎠
p2
p1
=1+
2k
k +1
( )
M 12 − 1 (4.33)

• The change in temperature across the normal shock wave could be


(
obtained from the ideal gas equation p = ρRT and = c pT :
h
(
T2 p2 ρ1 h2
= ⋅ = (
T1 p1 ρ 2 h1

⎤ 2 + (k − 1)M 1
T2 ⎡
( )
2
2k
= 1+ M1 −1 ⎥ ⋅
2

T1 ⎢⎣ k + 1 ⎦ (k + 1)M 1
2 (4.34)

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• The change in entropy across the normal shock could be obtained


from Eq. 4.12 or Eq. 4.13:

T2 ρ T p
s2 − s1 = cv ln + R ln 1 = c p ln 2 − R ln 2
T1 ρ2 T1 p1

If M1 = 1: s 2 − s1 = 0
M1 > 1: s2 − s1 > 0
M1 < 1: s2 − s1 < 0
For M1 < 1, this case violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
thus shock wave phenomena does not occur in subsonic flow.

• However, total/stagnation enthalpy across normal shock is always


constant:
( (
h01 = c pT01 = c pT0 2 = h0 2

T01 = T0 2 (4.35)
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From the entropy equation, compare stagnation quantities between


locations (1) and (2):

T0 2 p p
s2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 0 2 = − R ln 0 2
T01 p 01 p 01
p0 2 ⎛ s −s ⎞
= exp⎜ − 2 1 ⎟ (4.36)
p01 ⎝ R ⎠

• The loss in stagnation pressure compared to static pressure is given by


the Rayleigh Pitot-tube formula:

p0 2 p0 2 p01
= ⋅ (4.37)
p1 p01 p1

• For air (k = 1.4), Eq. 4.31-37 are easier obtained from the Normal
Shock Properties Table (Appendix B).

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Figure 4.11 Normal shock properties

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EXAMPLE 4.4

Consider a normal shock wave in air, with velocity, temperature and


pressure of the flow before crossing the shock of 680 m/s, 288 K and
101.3 kPa (abs). Calculate velocity, temperature, pressure and change
in entropy after crossing the shock. Use gas constant R = 287 J/kg⋅K
and specific heat ratio k = 1.4.

¾ Let the upstream region be denoted as (1) and downstream region as


(2). Speed of sound at (1):
c1 = kRT = 1.4(287 )(288)
= 340.2 m/s
V 680
M1 = 1 = = 2.0
c1 340.2
From App. B, for M1 = 2.0:
p 2 p1 = 4.5 , T2 T1 = 1.687 , M 2 = 0.5774

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Hence,
p2
p2 = p1 = 4.5(101.3) = 456 kPa (abs)
p1
T2
T2 = T1 = 1.687(288) = 486 K
T1
V2 = M 2 ⋅ c 2 = M 2 kRT2 = 0.5774 1.4(287 )(486)
= 255 m/s
and, the change in entropy:
kR 1.4(287 )
cp = = = 1005 J/kg ⋅ K
k − 1 1.4 − 1
T2 p
∴ s 2 − s1 = c p ln − R ln 2 = 1005 ln(1.687 ) − 287 ln(4.5)
T1 p1
= 93.6 J/kg ⋅ K

54
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.5

A Pitot tube is stationed on the fuselage of an aircraft to measure its


speed. If the static pressure measured is 1 atm (abs), determine the
Mach numbers for pressure values on the Pitot tube as follows:
(a) 1.276 atm (abs),
(b) 2.714 atm (abs),
(c) 12.06 atm (abs).

¾ For each case, check whether flow is subsonic or supersonic. From


App. B, for M = 1.0: p0 p = 1.893 .

p0∗ ∗
∴ p = ∗ p = 1.893(1) = 1.893 atm (abs)

0
p

(a) Since p 0 < p 0 , flow is subsonic.
From App. A, for p0 p = 1.276 :
M = 0 .6
55
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS


(b) Since p0 > p0 , flow is supersonic.
From App. B, for p0 2 p1 = 2.714 :
M = 1.3

(c) Since p0 > p0 , flow is supersonic.
From App. B, for p0 2 p1 = 12.06 :
M = 3 .0

56
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.5 NON-ISENTROPIC GAS FLOW


• In this topic, the nonisentropic flows that shall be discussed are:
1. Fanno flow — Adiabatic (no heat transfer) flow with friction in
constant cross-section duct,
2. Rayleigh flow — Non-adiabatic (with heat transfer) frictionless
flow in constant cross-section duct.

Figure 4.12 One-dimensional adiabatic gas flow with friction


57
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For Fanno flows, consider the following one-dimensional flow:

List of relationships/equations used are:

1. Continuity equation
dρ dV
ρV = constant ⇒ + =0
ρ V
2. Momentum equation — x-direction
pA − ( p + dp )A − τ w (πD ) dx = m& (V + dV − V )
dp 4τ w dx
+ + V dV = 0
ρ ρD
3. Energy equation
( (
h + 12 V 2 = h0 = c pT0 = c pT + 12 V 2 ⇒ c p dT + V dV = 0

58
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4. Ideal gas equation of state


dp dρ dT
p = ρRT ⇒ = +
p ρ T
5. Darcy friction factor relationship
8τ w
f = ⇒ τ w = 18 fρV 2 = 18 fkpM 2
ρV 2

Using the relationship for speed of sound c = kRT and Mach


number M = V c , these relationships could be derived:

2 1 + (k − 1)M
2
dp dx
= −k Ma
( )
f
p 21− M 2
D
dρ dV kM 2 dx
=− =
( )
f
ρ V 21− M 2 D

59
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

dp0 dρ 0 dx
= = − 12 kM 2 f
p0 ρ0 D
dT k (k − 1)M 4 dx
=
( )
f
T 2 1− M 2 D

2 1 + 2 (k − 1)M
2
dM 2 1
dx
= kM f
M 2
1− M 2
D

Integration of the above relation yields:

M ∗ =1 1− M 2 L∗ dx
∫ [ ] = ∫0 D
2
dM f
M 1 + 12 (k − 1)M 2 kM 4

1 − M 2 k + 1 ⎡ (k + 1)M 2 ⎤ L∗
+ ln ⎢ 2 ⎥
= f
kM 2 2k ⎣ 2 + (k − 1)M ⎦ D
(4.38)

60
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Other relationships could be derived in a similar manner:

T∗ dT M ∗ =1
1
(k − 1)
∫ =∫ dM 2
2
T T M 1+ 1
2
(k − 1)M 2
T k +1
=
T ∗ 2 + (k − 1)M 2
(4.39)

⎡ (k + 1)M 2 ⎤
12
V M kRT T
= =M =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ 2 + (k − 1)M ⎦
(4.40)
V∗ kRT ∗ T ∗

ρ V ∗ ⎡ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎤
12

= =⎢ ⎥
ρ ∗ V ⎣ (k + 1)M 2 ⎦
(4.41)

p ρ T
= ∗⋅ ∗
p ∗
ρ T

61
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

(k + 1) ⎤
12
p 1 ⎡
= ⎢ ⎥
p ∗ M ⎣ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎦
(4.42)

p0 p0 p p ∗
= ⋅ ⋅
p0∗ p p ∗ p0∗
( k +1) 2 ( k −1)
p0 1 ⎧ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎫
= ⎨ ⎬ (4.43)
p 0∗ M ⎩ k +1 ⎭

• From Eq. 4.38-43, changes in fluid properties with increasing values


in f could be summarised as in Table 4.1.

62
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Table 4.1 Characteristics of Fanno flows


Property Subsonic Supersonic
M, V ↑ ↓
p, ρ ↓ ↑
p0, ρ0 ↓ ↓
T ↓ ↑
s ↑ ↑

63
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.13 One-dimensional non-adiabatic frictionless gas flows

64
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• For Rayleigh flows, consider the following one-dimensional flow:

List of relationships/equations used are:

1. Continuity equation
ρ1V1 = ρ 2V2 = constant
2. Momentum equation — x-direction
( p1 − p2 )A = m& (V2 − V1 )
3. Energy equation

& (
( 1 2 ( 1 2
Q = m h2 + 2 V2 − h1 − 2 V1
& ) Q& δQ (
⇒ q= =
m& δm
(
= h0 2 − h01

4. Ideal gas equation of state


( (
, h0 2 − h01 = c p (T0 2 − T01 )
p1 p
= 2
ρ1T1 ρ 2T2

65
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Using the relationship for speed of sound c = kRT and Mach


number M = V c , the following relationships could be derived:

[
T0 2(k + 1)M 2 1 + 12 (k − 1)M 2
=
]
T0∗ (
1 + kM 2
2
) (4.44)

p k +1

= (4.45)
p 1 + kM 2

⎡ (1 + k )M ⎤
2
T
=
T ∗ ⎢⎣ 1 + kM 2 ⎥⎦
(4.46)

ρ V∗ 1 + kM 2
= =
ρ∗ V (1 + k )M 2 (4.47)

k ( k −1)
p0 1+ k ⎡ 2 + (k − 1)M 2 ⎤

= ⎢ ⎥ (4.48)
p 0 1 + kM 2 ⎣ k +1 ⎦

66
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• From Eq. 4.44-48, changes in fluid properties with respect to


increasing values of q could be summarised as in Table 4.2:

Table 4.2 Characteristics of Rayleigh flows


Heating Cooling
Property
Subsonic Supersonic Subsonic Supersonic
Ma, V ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑
T0 ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
T (
↑ 0 ≤ Ma ≤ 1 k ) ↓ (
↓ 0 ≤ Ma ≤ 1 k ) ↓
↓ ( 1 k ≤ Ma ≤ 1) ↑ ( 1 k ≤ Ma ≤ 1)
p, ρ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓
p0, ρ0 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑
s ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓

67
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.6 OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE


• Shock wave in two dimensions is known as oblique shock.

Figure 4.14 Oblique shock wave

68
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• If a body is (or could be approximated as) a particle, oblique shock


angle β is equivalent to Mach cone angle μ (see Fig. 4.1):

c 1
sin μ = = (4.49)
V M

• Consider a wedge-shaped body with deflection angle θ that produces


oblique shock of angle β. List of relationship/equations used:

1. Continuity equation
ρ1Vn1 = ρ 2Vn 2
2. Momentum equation — normal component
p1 − p2 = ρ 2Vn22 − ρ1Vn21
3. Momentum equation — tangential component
0 = ρ1Vn1 (Vt 2 − Vt1 )

69
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4. Energy equation
( (
h1 + 12 Vn21 + 12 Vt12 = h2 + 12 Vn22 + 12 Vt 22 = h0

From Fig. 4.14 (and relation 3 above), there is no change in the


tangential velocity component:

Vt1 = Vt 2 = Vt = constant

Thus, relations 1, 2 and 4 are similar to the case of normal shock, but
V and Ma need to be taken in its normal components:

V n1
M n1 = = M 1 sin β (4.50)
c1

Vn 2
M n2 = = M 2 sin (β − θ ) (4.51)
c2

70
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• The relationship θ-β-M1 could be obtained from Eq. 4.32 by replacing


M1 → Mn1 and V → Vn:

ρ2 (k + 1)M 12 sin 2 β tan β Vn1


= = =
ρ1 2 + (k − 1)M 12 sin 2 β tan(β − θ ) Vn 2

Solving for θ:

tan θ =
(
2 cot β M 12 sin 2 β − 1)
(
2 + M 12 k + cos 2 2β ) (4.52)

• Eq. 4.52 is plotted in Fig. 4.15 or in Appendix D, and it shows 2


solutions for β:

1. Weak shock — results in M > 1 downstream,


2. Strong shock — results in M < 1 downstream.

71
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.15 θ-β-Ma diagram for oblique shock wave

72
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.16 Supersonic flow past a wedge structure

73
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.6

Air at Mach 2 with 70 kPa (abs) pressure, flows through a 10° ramp
and forms a weak oblique shock as shown in the figure below.
Calculate:
(a) Shock angle β,
(b) Downstream Mach number M2,
(c) Downstream pressure p2,
(c) Total pressure downstream p02, measured by a Pitot tube.
M1 = 2.0

p1 = 70 kPa 10°

74
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

 (a) From App. D, for M1  2.0 and p1  70 kPa:


  39.3
(b) Normal component of M1:
M n1  M 1 sin   2.0 sin 39.3  1.267
From App. B:
M n 2  0.8031 , p 2 p1  1.707 , p 0 2 p1  2.609
Hence, the Mach number downstream:
M n2 0.8031
M2  
sin     sin 39.3  10
 1.64
(c) Pressure downstream:

p1  1.70770   119 kPa (abs)


p2
p2 
p1

75
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

(d) Total pressure downstream:


p0 2
p0 2  p1  2.60970   183 kPa (abs)
p1

76
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

4.7 PRANDTL-MEYER EXPANSION WAVE

Figure 4.15 Comparison between oblique shock and expansion wave

77
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• When supersonic flow is deflected from the adjacent flow, an


expansion wave is formed.

• Crossing this expansion wave:

1. M 2 > M 1 but ⇒ p 2 < p1 , ρ 2 < ρ1 , T2 < T1 ,


2. It is a continuous expansion region with upstream Mach wave
angle μ1 and downstream angle μ2,
3. Since changes in parameters are continuous (i.e. gradual
infinitesimal change), flow is isentropic (ds = 0).

• Expansion wave formed by a sharp concave angle is known as


Prandtl-Meyer expansion wave.

78
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Figure 4.16 Formation of expansion wave

• If dθ is a small angle between two Mach waves, using sine rule:

V + dV sin (π 2 + μ ) cos μ
= =
V sin (π 2 − μ − dθ ) cos(μ + dθ )
dV cos μ
1+ =
V cos μ cos dθ − sin μ sin dθ

79
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

For small angle θ (cos dθ ≅ 1, sin dθ ≅ dθ ) ,

dV cos μ 1
1+ = =
V cos μ − dθ sin μ 1 − dθ tan μ

Using series expansion (for x < 1) and neglecting high order terms:

1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + L
1− x
dV
1+ = 1 + dθ tan μ + L
V
dV V
dθ =
tan μ

80
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

From Eq. 4.49:

1 1
μ = sin −1 ⇒ tan μ =
M M 2 −1

Therefore, differential equation for the Prandtl-Meyer flow is


obtained:

dV
dθ = M 2 − 1 (4.53)
V

Integrating the above equation yields:

θ2 M2 dV
∫θ 1
dθ = ∫
M1
M 2 −1
V

81
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Combining with the relation M = V c and c = γRT :

dV dM dc
ln V = ln M + ln c ⇒ = +
V M c
2 −1 2
⎛ c0 ⎞ T k −1 2 ⎛ k −1 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0 =1+ M ⇒ c = c 0 ⎜1 + M ⎟
⎝ ⎠
c T 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ k − 1⎞
−⎜ ⎟M
= ⎝ ⎠ dM ⇒ dV =
dc 2 1 dM
c k −1 2 V k −1 2 M
1+ M 1+ M
2 2

Hence,
θ2 M2 M 2 − 1 dM
∫θ dθ = θ 2 − θ 1 = ∫
M1 k −1 2 M (4.54)
1+
1
M
2

82
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

• The integration above is known as the Prandtl-Meyer function:

M 2 − 1 dM
ν (M ) ≡ ∫
M2

M1 k −1 2 M
1+ M
2

With θ1 = 0 , and ν (M ) = 0 at M 1 = 1 , this yields

k +1 k −1 2
ν (M ) =
k −1
tan −1
k +1
( )
M − 1 − tan −1 M 2 − 1 (4.55)

• Eq. 4.55 and Eq. 4.49 is given in Appendix C for air (k = 1.4 ) .

83
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

EXAMPLE 4.7

A supersonic air flow with properties M1 = 1.5, p1 = 81.5 kPa (abs)


and T1 = 256 K passes an expansion angle (see figure below) that
deflects the flow through angle θ2 = 20°. Calculate M2, p2, T2, p02, T02,
and the upstream and downstream angles of the Mach lines.
M1 = 1.5

20°

84
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

¾ From App. C, for M1 = 1.5:


ν 1 = 11.91°, μ1 = 41.81°
ν 2 = ν 1 + θ1 = 11.91° + 20° = 31.91°
From App. C, for ν2 = 31.91°:

μ 2 = 26.95° , M 2 = 2.207
From App. A, for M1 = 1.5:

p01 p1 = 3.671, T01 T1 = 1.45

From App. A, for M2 = 2.207:

p0 2 p2 = 10.81, T0 2 T2 = 1.974
Flow through an expansion wave is isentropic:

p01 = p0 2 , T01 = T0 2

85
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Therefore,

p 2 p 0 2 p 01
p2  p1 
1
13.67181.5  27.7 kPa (abs)
p0 2 p01 p1 10.81
T2 T0 2 T01
T2  T1 
1
11.45256  188 K
T0 2 T01 T1 1.975
p 01
p 0 2  p 01  p1  3.67181.5  299 kPa (abs)
p1
T01
T0 2  T01  T1  1.45256  371 K
T1

Mach line upstream angle, 1  41.81


Mach line downstream angle,  2   2  26.95  20  6.95

86

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