You are on page 1of 19

78581$1',)(5(16,$/'$1

+$03,5$17$</25
7XUXQDQGDQ$WXUDQ0HQHQWXNDQQ\D
7XUXQDQ,PSOLVLW7XUXQDQ3DUDPHWHU
GDQ*DULV6LQJJXQJ
'LIHUHQVLDOGDQ+DPSLUDQ7D\ORU

Konsep turunan sebagai bagian utama dari


kalkulus dipikirkan pada saat yang bersamaan oleh
Newton dan Leibniz dari tahun 1665 sampai dengan
tahun 1675 sebagai suatu alat untuk menyelesaikan
berbagai masalah dalam geometri dan mekanika. Sir
Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) , ahli matematika dan
fisika bangsa Inggris dan Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646 - 1716), ahli matematika bangsa Jerman
dikenal sebagai ilmuwan yang menemukan kembali
kalkulus. Kalkulus memberikan bantuan tak ternilai
pada perkembangan beberapa cabang ilmu pengetahuan
lain. Dewasa ini kalkulus digunakan sebagai suatu
alat bantu yang utama dalam menyelesaikan berbagai
permasalahan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi.
Selanjutnya, suatu fungsi yang mempunyai turunan
sampai tingkat tertentu dapat dihampiri oleh suatu
suku banyak, yang dikenal sebagai hampiran Taylor.

7XUXQDQGDQ$WXUDQ0HQHQWXNDQQ\D
(PSDW0DVDODK%HUWHPDNDQ7XUXQDQ
.LWDPHPSXQ\DLHPSDWPDVDODK\DQJVHSLQWDVODOXWLGDNVDOLQJEHUKXEXQJDQ3HUWD
PD WHQWDQJ JUDGLHQ JDULV VLQJJXQJ SDGD VXDWX NXUYD NHGXD WHQWDQJ ODMX VHEXDK EROD
\DQJ GLMDWXKNDQ WHJDN OXUXV GDUL NHWLQJJLDQ WHUWHQWX NHWLJD WHQWDQJ SHUEHVDUDQ ROHK
OHQVDGDQNHHPSDWWHQWDQJUDSDWPDVVDVXDWXEDWDQJWDNKRPRJHQ0HVNLSXQYHUVLGDUL
NHHPSDW PDVDODK WHUVHEXW EHUEHGD WHWDSL VHPXDQ\D PHPSXQ\DL JDJDVDQ PDWHPDWLND
\DQJVDPD\DLWXWHQWDQJNRQVHSWXUXQDQIXQJVLGLVDWXWLWLN
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

x 0DVDODK3HUWDPD*UDGLHQ*DULV6LQJJXQJ .LWDDNDQPHQHQWXNDQEHVDUQ\DJUDGL
HQJDULVVLQJJXQJSDGDJUDILNIXQJVL\ [ GLWLWLN3  
\ 6ROXVL 0DVDODK 6DODK VDWX FDUD SHPHFDKDQ PDVDODK LQL
\ [
DGDODK GHQJDQ PHQJJDPEDUNDQ SDUDERO \ [ VHFDUD
JDULV
VLQJJXQJ EHUKDWLKDWL GDQ NHPXGLDQ FREDODK PHQJJDPEDUNDQ JDULV
3  VLQJJXQJ SDGD NXUYD LQL GL WLWLN 3   0HVNLSXQ FDUD LQL
PDVXN DNDO WHWDSL NHWHOLWLDQQ\D VDQJDW WHUEDWDV NDUHQD GL
VHNLWDU WLWLN   JDODWQ\D HUURUQ\D  DNDQ VHPDNLQ EHVDU
  [ 6HNDUDQJ NLWD PHQFRED FDUD ODLQ \DQJ NHWHOLWLDQQ\D OHELK
VHPSXUQD\DLWX WHNQLNSHUKLWXQJDQOLPLWIXQJVL8QWXNLQL
*E*DULV6LQJJXQJ SHUKDWLNDQ*EGHQJDQVDNVDPD

\ [ 3LOLKODKWLWLN4 [  [ GHQJDQ[ GLGHNDW [  DWDX[ ! 


JDULVPHOD
OXL3GDQ4
GHQJDQMDUDN[ NHFXNXSNHFLO *UDGLHQWDOLEXVXU34 DGD
4 [[ ODK
[  

[ 
[ 
'HQJDQWHNQLNSHUKLWXQJDQOLPLWIXQJVLMLND[ PHQGHNDWL
3 
PDNDJUDGLHQWDOLEXVXU34 DNDQPHQGHNDWLJDULVVLQJJXQJGL
[ WLWLN3-DGLJUDGLHQJDULVVLQJJXQJGLWLWLN3 DGDODK
[  [   [  
*E7DOL%XVXU.XUYD PJ V OLP OLP 
[o [  [o [ 

x 0DVDODK .HGXD /DMX 3DGD VXDWX PHGLXP WHUWHQWX VHEXDK EROD GLMDWXKNDQ WHJDN
OXUXV GDUL VXDWX NHWLQJJLDQ GDQ SDQMDQJ OLQWDVDQQ\D W PHWHU VHWHODK W GHWLN .LWD
DNDQPHQHQWXNDQODMXERODWHUVHEXWVHWHODKGHWLN

z z 6ROXVL0DVDODK /DMX UDWDUDWD GDULJHUDNDQ EROD SDGD


VHODQJZDNWXWHUWHQWXDGDODKKDVLOEDJLGDULVHOLVLKMDUDN
GHW z P WHPSXK GHQJDQ VHOLVLK ZDNWXQ\D $PELOODK VHODQJ
W  P
ZDNWX>W@GHQJDQW !  GLVLQLGDSDWMXJDVHODQJ>W@
W GHW z W P
W   3DGDVHODQJZDNWXW  GHWLNSDQMDQJOLQWDVDQ
ERODDGDODK
W  

W 
'HQJDQ WHNQLN SHUKLWXQJDQ OLPLW IXQJVL ODMX EROD SDGD
SHUPXNDDQWDQDK GDWDU
VDDWW DGDODK
W   W   W  
Y  OLP OLP 
*E%RODMDWXK W o  W  W o W 

x 0DVDODK .HWLJD 3HUEHVDUDQ ROHK /HQVD 0DVDODK LQL VHULQJ WHUMDGL GDODP
NHKLGXSDQ VHKDULKDUL 6HRUDQJ SHPRWUHW GDSDW PHPSHUEHVDU DWDX PHPSHUNHFLO
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

XNXUDQIRWRQ\DGHQJDQVXDWXIDNWRU3HUEHVDUDQLQLGDSDWGLEXDWEHUYDULDVL GDUL WLWLN


NHWLWLNGHQJDQVHEXDKFHUPLQ\DQJEHUEHQWXNNXUYD-LNDSUR\HNVLGDULVXDWXVHODQJ
\DQJ SDQMDQJQ\D / DGDODK VHODQJ GHQJDQ SDQMDQJ /  PDND IDNWRU SHUEHVDUDQQ\D
DGDODK/ /

 [
OD\DU .LWD PHPSXQ\DL VHEXDK ODPSX VOLGH OD\DU
EHUEHQWXNJDULVGDQOHQVDGLOHWDNNDQVHSHUWL
OHQVD
SDGD *E 6LVWHP LQL PHQJDWXU SUR\HNVL
WLWLN SDGD VOLGH \DQJ NRRUGLQDWQ\D[ NH WLWLN
 [
VOLGH SDGD OD\DU \DQJ NRRUGLQDWQ\D [ 3UR\HNVL
: ODPSX VHODQJ>DE@SDGDVOLGHDGDODKVHODQJ>DE@
*E3HUEHVDUDQROHK/HQVD SDGDOD\DU

.LWDDNDQPHQHQWXNDQIDNWRUSHUEHVDUDQGL[ 

 [ OD\DU 6ROXVL 0DVDODK $PELOODK VHODQJ >[@


DWDXEROHKMXJDVHODQJ>[@3UR\HNVLVHODQJ
>[@ SDGD VOLGH DGDODK VHODQJ >[@ SDGD
OD\DU 3DQMDQJ VHODQJ >[@ DGDODK / [
 GDQ SDQMDQJ SUR\HNVLQ\D DGDODK / [
 VHKLQJJDIDNWRUSHUEHVDUDQQ\DDGDODK
 [ VOLGH
/ [  

*E3HUEHVDUDQROHK/HQVD / [ 
'HQJDQWHNQLNSHUKLWXQJDQOLPLWIXQJVLIDNWRUSHUEHVDUDQGL[ DGDODKOLPLWGDUL
IDNWRUSHUEHVDUDQSDGDVHODQJ>[@XQWXN[ PHQGHNDWL\DLWX
[  [   [  
3  OLP OLP 
[ o  [  [o [ 

x 0DVDODK.HHPSDW5DSDW0DVVD 6HEXDK EDWDQJ WDN KRPRJHQ SDQMDQJQ\D 


FP0DVVDEDWDQJGDULWLWLN VDPSDLNHWLWLN
\DQJ MDUDNQ\D [ FP GDUL XMXQJ NLUL EDWDQJ
[ FP DGDODK[ JUDP0DVVDGDULWLWLN VDPSDLNH
WLWLNWHQJDKQ\DDGDODKJUDPGDQGDULWLWLN
[
VDPSDLNHWLWLNXMXQJNDQDQQ\DDGDODK
PDVVDEDWDQJVHSDQMDQJ JUDP 6HPDNLQ NH NDQDQ UDSDW PDVVD
VHODQJ>[@DGDODK[ JUDP PDVVD SHU VDWXDQ SDQMDQJ  EDWDQJ VHPDNLQ
EHVDU .LWD DNDQ PHQHQWXNDQ UDSDW PDVVD
*E5DSDW0DVVD%DWDQJ JUDPFP GLWLWLN[ SDGDEDWDQJ
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

6ROXVL0DVDODK 3HUKDWLNDQUDSDWPDVVDEDWDQJSDGDVHODQJ>  [@3DGDVHODQJLQL


PDVVD EDWDQJQ\D DGDODK [   JUDP VHGDQJNDQ SDQMDQJ VHODQJQ\D DGDODK [  
x

JUDPVHKLQJJDUDSDWPDVVDQ\DDGDODK
[ 
JUDPFP
[
'HQJDQWHNQLNSHUKLWXQJDQOLPLWIXQJVLUDSDWPDVVDEDWDQJGL[ DGDODKOLPLWGDUL
UDSDWPDVVDQ\DSDGDVHODQJ>[@XQWXN[ PHQGHNDWL\DLWX
x

[  [   [  
U  OLP OLP 
[o [ [o [ 

3HUKDWLNDQ JDJDVDQ PDWHPDWLND SDGD SHPHFDKDQ NHHPSDW PDVDODK LQL -LND NLWD
PHPSXQ\DLIXQJVL
I [  [
PDNDEHVDUDQ\DQJDNDQNLWDFDULDGDODK
I [  I 
OLP 
[o [ 
'LGDODPNDONXOXVEHVDUDQLQLPHQ\DWDNDQODMXSHUXEDKDQQLODLIXQJVLI [ WHUKDGDS[ GL
WLWLN[ \DQJDNDQNLWDGHILQLVLNDQVHEDJDLWXUXQDQSHUWDPDGDULIXQJVLI GL[ 

7XUXQDQGL6DWX7LWLN
6HFDUDXPXPODMXSHUXEDKDQQLODLIXQJVLI [ WHUKDGDS[ GLWLWLN[ F DGDODK
I [  I F
OLP 
[oF [F
%HVDUDQLQLNLWDGHILQLVLNDQVHEDJDLWXUXQDQSHUWDPDGDULIXQJVLI GL[ F7XUXQDQSHU
WDPDGLVDWXWLWLNGLGHILQLVLNDQVHEDJDLEHULNXW
'HILQLVL   0LVDONDQ IXQJVL I WHUGHILQLVL SDGD VHODQJ WHUEXND , \DQJ PHPXDW F
7XUXQDQSHUWDPD GLVLQJNDW WXUXQDQ GDULIXQJVLI GLWLWLNFGLWXOLVIc F GLGHILQLVLNDQ
VHEDJDL
I [  I F
I c F OLP 
[oF [F
ELODOLPLWLQLDGD
'HQJDQSHQJJDQWLDQ[ F  K\DQJPHQJDNLEDWNDQ[ o F œ K o GDQ[  F K
WXUXQDQIXQJVLI GLF GDSDWGLWXOLVNDQGDODPEHQWXN
I F  K  I F
I c F OLP 
Ko K
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

\
3HUKDWLNDQ *E \DQJ PHPSHUOLKDWNDQ VLWXDVL JHRPHWUL
I [ I WXUXQDQIXQJVLI GLWLWLNF-LND
I FK
I [  I F
JDULV OLP
VLQJJXQJ [oF [ F
I F
DGDPDNDIc F DGDGDQNLWDNDWDNDQEDKZDIXQJVLIWHUGLIH
UHQVLDONDQ GL F PHPSXQ\DL WXUXQDQGDSDW GLWXUXQNDQGLIH
F [ [
UHQVLDEHOGLF $UWLJHRPHWULGDULWXUXQDQIXQJVLI GLWLWLNF
FK DGDODK JUDGLHQ JDULV VLQJJXQJ SDGD JUDILN IXQJVL I GL WLWLN
F I F VHGDQJNDQDUWLILVLVQ\DDGDODKODMX SHUXEDKDQ QLODL
*E7XUXQDQ)XQJVLI GLF IXQJVLI WHUKDGDSSHXEDK[ GLWLWLNF
%HULNXWLQLFRQWRKSHUKLWXQJDQWXUXQDQGLVDWXWLWLNGHQJDQGHILQLVLQ\D

&RQWRK-LNDI [  KLWXQJODKI c  
[
 
I [  I    [  
-DZDE I c  OLP OLP [  OLP OLP  
[ o [ [ o  [ [ o   [ [   [ o  [ 
&DUDODLQ
 
I   K  I     K  
I c  OLP OLP   K  OLP OLP  
Ko K Ko K Ko    K K Ko    K 

&RQWRK-LNDJ [  [  [KLWXQJODKJc  
-DZDE
J [  J  [   [   [   [ 
Jc  OLP OLP OLP OLP [  
[o [ [o [ [ o [  [o

J   K  J    K      K  
&DUDODLQ Jc  OLP OLP
Ko K Ko K
K K

OLP OLP K  
Ko K Ko

3DGD FRQWRK EHULNXW GLSHUOLKDWNDQ EHEHUDSD IXQJVL \DQJ WLGDN WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ GL


VDWXWLWLNNDUHQDOLPLWQ\DWDNKLQJJDDWDXEHURVNLODVL
&RQWRK7XQMXNNDQEDKZDIXQJVLI [  [ WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLN
I [  I  [     
OLP OLP OLP    f 
-DZDE.DUHQDPDNDI c  WLGDNDGD
[o [  [ o  [ [ o  [
VHKLQJJDIXQJVLI WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLN
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

­
°[ VLQ   [ z 
&RQWRK6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVLJ [  ® [ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLN
°̄   [ 


J [  J  [ VLQ   
OLP OLP [
-DZDE .DUHQD
OLP VLQ WLGDNDGDPDND
[o [ [o [ [ o [
Jc  WLGDNDGDVHKLQJJDIXQJVLJ WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLN
&DWDWDQ 'HQJDQSHQJJDQWLDQW   [[ o  œ W o f[ o  œ W o f GLSHUROHK

OLP VLQOLP VLQ W WLGDNDGD 
[o [ W orf

6HFDUDLQWXLWLIVLWXDVLLQLPXGDKGLOLKDWNDUHQDIXQJVLVLQXV\DQJEHURVNLODVLWLGDNPHP
SXQ\DLOLPLWXQWXNSHXEDK\DQJPHPEHVDUDWDXPHQJHFLOWDQSDEDWDV\DLWXOLPLWGLWDN
KLQJJDQ\D WLGDN DGD 8QWXN ODWLKDQ SHPEDFD WXQMXNNDQ OLPLWQ\D WLGDN DGD GHQJDQ
PHQJJXQDNDQGHILQLVLIRUPDOGDULOLPLWGLWDNKLQJJD

7XUXQDQ.LULGDQ7XUXQDQ.DQDQ
6HMDODQGHQJDQ NRQVHSOLPLW NLULGDQOLPLW NDQDQ NRQWLQX NLULGDQ NRQWLQX NDQDQ
NLWDPHPSXQ\DLNRQVHSWXUXQDQNLULGDQWXUXQDQNDQDQGDULVXDWXIXQJVLGLVDWXWLWLN
'HILQLVL  0LVDONDQIXQJVLI WHUGHILQLVLSDGDVHODQJ DF@7XUXQDQNLUL GDULIXQJVL
I GLFGLWXOLV Ic F GLGHILQLVLNDQVHEDJDL
I [  I F I F  K  I F
Ic F OLP DWDX Ic F OLP 
[ o F [ F K o  K
ELODOLPLWLQLDGD
 0LVDONDQ IXQJVL I WHUGHILQLVL SDGD VHODQJ >FE  7XUXQDQ NDQDQ GDUL
IXQJVLI GLFGLWXOLV Ic F GLGHILQLVLNDQVHEDJDL
I [  I F I F  K  I F
Ic F OLP DWDX Ic F OLP 
[ o F [F K o  K
ELODOLPLWLQLDGD
+XEXQJDQ DQWDUD WXUXQDQ GL VDWX WLWLN GHQJDQ WXUXQDQ NLUL GDQ WXUXQDQ NDQDQQ\D
GLEHULNDQROHKWHRUHPDEHULNXW
7HRUHPD  0LVDONDQ IXQJVL I WHUGHILQLVL SDGD VHODQJ WHUEXND , \DQJ PHPXDW F
0DND
IXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLF œ Ic F Ic F 
&DWDWDQ 3HQJJXQDDQWHRUHPDLQL-LND Ic F z Ic F PDNDIXQJVLI WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQ
VLDONDQ GL F -LND IXQJVL I WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ GL F PDND I c F Ic F Ic F 
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

6HEDOLNQ\D MLND Ic F Ic F  PDND IXQJVL I WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ GL F GHQJDQ


I c F Ic F Ic F 

&DWDWDQGLDWDVPHQ\DWDNDQEDKZDXQWXNIXQJVL\DQJWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVDWXWLWLN
WXUXQDQ NLUL DWDX WXUXQDQ NDQDQ GL WLWLN LWX VDPD GHQJDQ WXUXQDQQ\D 'DODP NDVXV WX
UXQDQNLULGDQWXUXQDQNDQDQGLVDWXWLWLNWLGDNVDPDIXQJVLQ\DWLGDNPXQJNLQWHUGLIH
UHQVLDONDQGLWLWLNLWXSHUKDWLNDQFRQWRKEHULNXW

&RQWRK6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVLI [  _[_ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLN

%& [  [ t  
-DZDE 'DODPEHQWXNWDQSDQLODLPXWODNDWXUDQIXQJVLI GLWXOLV

I [ [
'[  [  
7XUXQDQNLULIXQJVLI GLWLWLNDGDODK
I [  I  [  
Ic  OLP OLP OLP   
[ o  [  [ o  [ [ o 

VHGDQJNDQWXUXQDQNDQDQQ\DDGDODK
I [  I  [ 
Ic  OLP OLP OLP  
[ o  [ [ o  [ [ o 

.DUHQD I c  z I c  PDND I c  WLGDNDGD\DLWXIXQJVLI WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL

&RQWRK6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVLJ [  [ VLQ [ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLN


-DZDE 3LOLKODKVHODQJWHUEXND, Ù SÙ S Ž 'I \DQJPHPXDWWLWLN8QWXN[  
GDQ[  , EHUODNX
[ VLQ [ [  VLQ [ GDQ [  [  [ 
DNLEDWQ\D
J [  J  [ VLQ [  
Jc  OLP OLP
[ o [ [ o [
[   VLQ [ VLQ [
OLP  OLP  
[ o
 [  [ [ o [

8QWXN[ ! GDQ[  , EHUODNX


[ VLQ [ [  VLQ [ GDQ [ [ [ 
DNLEDWQ\D
J [  J  [ VLQ [   [  VLQ [ VLQ [
Jc  OLP OLP OLP OLP 
[ o [ [ o [ [ o [ [ [ o [
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

.DUHQD Jc  z Jc  PDND Jc  WLGDNDGD\DLWXIXQJVLJ WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL

+XEXQJDQDQWDUD)XQJVL7HUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGHQJDQ.HNRQWLQXDQQ\D
-LNDIXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLFPDNDWXUXQDQIXQJVLI GLF GLWHQWXNDQROHK
I [  I F
I c F OLP 
[oF [F
3HUKDWLNDQEHQWXNOLPLWLQLGLVLQLOLPLWSHQ\HEXWQ\DQRO.DUHQDI c F DGD\DLWX OLPLW
EHQWXN SHFDKDQQ\D DGD PDND OLPLW SHPELODQJQ\D MXJD KDUXV QRO $QGDLNDQ OLPLW LQL
WLGDN QRO PDND OLPLW EHQWXN SHFDKDQQ\D SDVWL rf \DQJ EHUWHQWDQJDQ GHQJDQ I c F
DGD $NLEDWQ\D OLP I [  I F  \DQJEHUDUWLEDKZDIXQJVLI NRQWLQXGL
[oF

-DGLVHNDUDQJNLWD PHPSXQ\DL WHRUHPD EHULNXW WHQWDQJ KXEXQJDQDQWDUD NHWHUGLIH


UHQVLDODQIXQJVLGLVDWXWLWLNGHQJDQNHNRQWLQXDQQ\DGLWLWLNLWX
7HRUHPD  0LVDONDQIXQJVLI WHUGHILQLVLSDGDVHODQJWHUEXND, \DQJPHPXDWF-LND
IXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLFPDNDIXQJVL I NRQWLQXGLF

 I [  I F [  F  I F 
%XNWL .DUHQD

OLP I [
[oF
OLP
[oF  [F  I c F   I F I F 

PDNDIXQJVLI NRQWLQXGLF„
&DWDWDQ x 6DODKVDWXSHQJJXQDDQWHRUHPDLQLMLNDVXDWXIXQJVLWLGDNNRQWLQXGLVDWX
WLWLNPDNDIXQJVLQ\DWLGDNPXQJNLQWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLWLWLNLWX
x .HEDOLNDQWHRUHPDLQLWLGDNEHQDULQLEHUDUWLWHUGDSDWVXDWXFRQWRKIXQJVL
\DQJ NRQWLQX GL VDWX WLWLN WHWDSL WLGDN WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ GL WLWLN LWX
$PELOODKIXQJVLI [  _[_)XQJVLLQLNRQWLQXGLEHUGDVDUNDQ7HRUHPD
 GL KDODPDQ  WHWDSL WLGDN WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ GL  EHUGDVDUNDQ
&RQWRK
6DODKVDWXSHQJJXQDDQ7HRUHPDDGDODKWHQWDQJEHQWXNDWXUDQVXDWXIXQJVLDJDU
IXQJVLWHUVHEXWWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVDWXWLWLNVHSHUWLGLSHUOLKDWNDQFRQWRKEHULNXW

%K
&RQWRK 7HQWXNDQNRQVWDQWDD GDQE DJDUIXQJVL

&K
D

'
  [ d
I [ [
[  E[  [ !
WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[ 
-DZDE$JDUIXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[ V\DUDWQ\DDGDODKIXQJVLI NRQWLQXGL
GDQ Ic  Ic  I c  6\DUDWIXQJVLI NRQWLQXGL[ PHPEHULNDQ
D D
OLP I [ OLP I [ I   DWDX OLP OLP [  E[ 
[ o  [ o  [ o  [ [ o  
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

D D
NDUHQDI   'DULVLQLGLSHUROHK   EVHKLQJJDD   E
 

6\DUDW Ic  Ic  I c  PHPEHULNDQ


I [  I  I [  I 
OLP OLP
[ o  [  [ o  [
D D
 [  E[    E
OLP [  OLP
[ o  [   [ o  [
D  D[ [   [ E  
OLP OLP
[ o   [ [   [ o  [ 
D [  
OLP OLP [ E  
[o   [ [   [ o 

D
OLP OLP [ E   
[o  [ [ o 

D
'DULVLQLGLSHUROHK  EVHKLQJJDD E  'DULKDVLOVHEHOXPQ\DD

  E *DQWLNDQ KDVLO LQL GLSHUROHK   E E   \DQJ PHQJKDVLONDQ E
VHKLQJJDE GDQD  E   

7XUXQDQ)XQJVLSDGDVXDWX6HODQJ
7XUXQDQIXQJVLSDGDVXDWXVHODQJGLNHQDOMXJDVHEDJDLIXQJVLWXUXQDQSHUWDPDDWDX
GLVLQJNDWWXUXQDQSHUWDPDGHILQLVLQ\DVHEDJDLEHULNXW
'HILQLVL 0LVDONDQIXQJVL\ I [ WHUGHILQLVLSDGDVHODQJ,7XUXQDQ IXQJVLISDGD
VHODQJ,GLWXOLVIcDGDODKVXDWXIXQJVL\DQJDWXUDQQ\DGLVHWLDS[  , GLWHQWXNDQROHK
I W  I [ I [  K  I [
I c [ OLP  DWDX I c [ OLP 
Wo[ W[ Ko K
ELODOLPLWLQLDGD
G\ G
&DWDWDQ x /DPEDQJODLQXQWXNWXUXQDQDGDODK \c  I [  '[ \  '[ I [ 
G[ G[
G\
/DPEDQJ GLNHQDOVHEDJDLQRWDVL/HLEQL]
G[
x %LOD , DGDODK VHODQJ WHUWXWXS >DE@ PDND I c D EHUDUWL Ic D  VHGDQJNDQ I c
E EHUDUWL Ic E 

7XUXQDQ IXQJVL SDGD VXDWX VHODQJ GDSDW GLWHQWXNDQ ODQJVXQJ GHQJDQ 'HILQLVL 
3DGDEHUEDJDLIXQJVLHOHPHQWHUSHUKLWXQJDQOLPLWQ\DVHULQJNDOLVXNDUGLNHUMDNDQ8QWXN
NHSHUOXDQPHQHQWXNDQWXUXQDQQDQWLQ\DNLWDDNDQPHUDQFDQJEHUEDJDLDWXUDQVHKLQJJD
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

GHQJDQDWXUDQLWXSURVHVSHUKLWXQJDQOLPLW\DQJUXPLWGDODPPHQHQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDSDW
GLKLQGDUL

$WXUDQ GDUL WXUXQDQ SHUWDPD IXQJVL I WHUGHILQLVL SDGD GDHUDK DVDO IXQJVL I NHFXDOL
PXQJNLQGLVHMXPODKEHUKLQJJDWLWLN'LVXDWXWLWLNSDGDGDHUDKDVDOIXQJVLQ\DGLPDQD
DWXUDQ WXUXQDQ WLGDN GDSDW PHQMDQJNDX WLWLN LWX WXUXQDQQ\D GLKLWXQJ VHFDUD ODQJVXQJ
GHQJDQ GHILQLVL WXUXQDQ GL VDWX WLWLN WHUPDVXN WXUXQDQ NLUL DWDX NDQDQ  3DGD FRQWRK
EHULNXWNLWDDNDQPHQHQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDULIXQJVLDNDUNXDGUDWVHFDUDODQJVXQJGHQJDQ
PHQJJXQDNDQ GHILQLVLQ\D 0HVNLSXQ IXQJVLQ\D WHUGHILQLVL GL WLWLN  WHWDSL WXUXQDQQ\D
WLGDNWHUGHILQLVLGLWLWLNLWX
&RQWRK 7HQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDULIXQJVLI [  [
-DZDE 'DHUDKDVDOIXQJVLI DGDODK>f %HUGDVDUNDQGHILQLVLWXUXQDQ

2 72 7
I W  I [ W [  
I c [ OLP OLP OLP  [ ! 
Wo[ W[ Wo[
W [ W [ Wo[ W [  [

.DUHQD
I [  I  [  
I c  Ic  OLP OLP OLP f
[ o  [  [ o  [ [ o  [
PDNDIXQJVLI WLGDNWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL-DGLWXUXQDQIXQJVLI DGDODK

I c [
[ ! 
 [
'HQJDQQRWDVL/HLEQL]KDVLOLQLGDSDWGLWXOLVGHQJDQODPEDQJ

G
G[
2 [7  [

 [ ! 

I [ K  I [ [ K  [
&DUDODLQ I c [ OLP OLP
Ko [ Ko K
[ K  [ [ K  [
OLP 
Ko K [ K  [

2 7
[ K  [ 
OLP OLP
Ko
K [ K  [ Ko [ K  [

 [ ! 
 [
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

7XUXQDQ)XQJVL6LQXVGDQ.RVLQXV
7XUXQDQIXQJVLVLQXVGDQNRVLQXVGLSHUROHKODQJVXQJGHQJDQPHQJJXQDNDQGHILQLVL
WXUXQDQ3HPEXNWLDQQ\DPHPHUOXNDQEHEHUDSDUXPXVWULJRQRPHWUL608

G G
7HRUHPD   VLQ [ FRV [  FRV [  VLQ[
[  5
G[ G[

G VLQ W  VLQ [  FRV  W  [ VLQ  W  [


 

%XNWL VLQ [ OLP OLP

 OLPFRV   OLP VLQ W  [ 


G[ Wo[ W[ Wo[   W  [


 W  [ 


W  [ FRV [ 
 
 
Wo[ Wo[


G FRV W  FRV [   VLQ  W  [ VLQ  W  [


 

FRV [ OLP OLP

  OLPVLQ
 VLQ W  [ 
W  [   OLP
G[ W[   W  [


  W  [ 
Wo[ Wo[




 VLQ [ 
 
 
Wo[ Wo[


$WXUDQXQWXN0HQHQWXNDQ7XUXQDQ
.LWD GDSDWPHQHQWXNDQ WXUXQDQ WDQSD SURVHV OLPLW 8QWXN NHSHUOXDQ LQL GLUDQFDQJ
WHRUHPD WHQWDQJ WXUXQDQ GDUL RSHUDVL DOMDEDU SDGD GXD IXQJVL DWXUDQ UDQWDL XQWXN
WXUXQDQ IXQJVL NRPSRVLVL GDQ WXUXQDQ IXQJVL LQYHUV 'HQJDQ PHQJJXQDNDQ NRQVHS
WXUXQDQ KXEXQJDQ WXUXQDQ GHQJDQ NHNRQWLQXDQQ\D GDQ EHUEDJDL VLIDW \DQJ WHODK
GLSHODMDULVHEHOXPQ\DNLWDGDSDWPHPEXNWLNDQWHRUHPDEHULNXW
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

7HRUHPD$WXUDQXQWXN0HQHQWXNDQ7XUXQDQ
$ 7XUXQDQMXPODKVHOLVLKKDVLONDOLGDQKDVLOEDJLGXDIXQJVL
0LVDONDQIXQJVLI GDQJ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGDVHODQJ,PDNDIXQJVLI  JI  JIJ
I  J J [ z SDGD, WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD, GHQJDQDWXUDQVHEDJDLEHULNXW
x

 
 I  J c [  I c [  J c [  I J c [  I [ J c [  J c [ I [

 
c
I J [ I c [  I [ Jc [
 I  J c [  I c [  J c [  [
J J [ 

$WXUDQLQLGDSDWGLWDPSLONDQGDODPEHQWXNSRSXOHUDWDXGHQJDQQRWDVL/HLEQL]
G GX GY
 X  Y c Xc  Yc  X Y 
G[ G[ G[
G GX GY
 X  Y c Xc  Yc  X  Y 
G[ G[ G[
 X Y c XY c  YX c
G GY GX
 X Y X Y
G[ G[ G[

 X c  
GX GY

 Y 
Y Xc  X Yc G X Y X
  G[ G[
Y G[ Y Y

% 7XUXQDQIXQJVLWULJRQRPHWUL
G G
 VLQ [ FRV [  FRW [ FVF [
G[ G[
G G
 FRV [ VLQ [  VHF [ VHF [ WDQ [
G[ G[
G G
 WDQ [ VHF [  FVF [ FVF [ FRW [
G[ G[
& $WXUDQ5DQWDL 0LVDONDQIXQJVLI GDQJ PHPHQXKL5J Ž 'I GHQJDQ'J VXDWXVHODQJ
-LNDIXQJVLJ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD'J 'J R I GDQIXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDNDQSDGD
5JPDNDIXQJVLI R J WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD'JRI GHQJDQDWXUDQ
I R J c [  I c J [ J c [ 
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

.LWDDNDQPHQJJXQDNDQQRWDVL/HLEQL]XQWXNDWXUDQUDQWDL7XOLVODKIXQJVLQ\DVHED
JDL\ I R J [  I J [ PDNDWXUXQDQQ\DDGDODK\ c I R J [  I c J [ J c [ 
.LWDPLVDONDQX J [ PDNDWXUXQDQQ\DDGDODK
GX
J c [  
G[
'DUL\ I R J [  I J [
I X GLSHUROHK
G\ G\
I R J c [  GDQI c J [ I c X  
G[ GX
-DGLDWXUDQUDQWDLGDODPEHQWXNQRWDVL/HLEQL]DGDODK
G\ G\ GX
\ \ X X X [ \ cX c DGDŸ 
G[ GX G[
$WXUDQLQLGDSDWGLWXOLVNDQVHEDJDLGLDJUDPEHULNXW
G\ GX
DGD DGD
GX G[

\ \ X [ \ X [
\ \ X X X [

G\ G\ G\ GX
DGD GHQJDQ 
G[ G[ GX G[

' 7XUXQDQIXQJVLLQYHUV 0LVDONDQIXQJVLI NRQWLQXGDQVDWXVDWXSDGDVHODQJ, 'I


GHQJDQDWXUDQ\ I [ [  ,GDQLQYHUVQ\DDGDODK[ I  \ \  5I-LNDIXQJVLI
WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD, GHQJDQI c [ z SDGD,PDNDIXQJVLI  MXJDWHUGLIHUHQVLDO
NDQSDGD5IGDQDWXUDQWXUXQDQQ\DGLWHQWXNDQROHK

1I 
\ 6c 
I c [
 DWDX
G[
G\

G\

G[
G U
( 7XUXQDQIXQJVL\ [UUELODQJDQUDVLRQDO [ U[ U ELODQJDQUDVLRQDO
U 

G[
%XNWL x 8QWXNU ELODQJDQDVOL \ [UU ELODQJDQDVOL'LVLQL

\c OLP
Wo[
W U  [U
W U
1
OLP W U  W U [    [ U
Wo[
6 U[ U 
U VXNX

x 8QWXNU  \ [ [ z 'LVLQL\c  [ U [ z 


x 8QWXNU ELODQJDQEXODWQHJDWLI \ [U [VV UV ELODQJDQDVOL[ z

[ V    V[ V
'LVLQL \c V[V U [ U[ z 
[ V

G U
-DGLUXPXV [ U [ U  EHQDUXQWXNU ELODQJDQEXODW
G[

GX    


[T 


T T
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

x 8QWXNU ELODQJDQUDVLRQDONLWDPHPSXQ\DL
\ [U [ ST
[T SS ELODQJDQEXODWGDQT ELODQJDQDVOL
G[
0LVDONDQX [TPDND[ X TGHQJDQ TX T $WXUDQWXUXQDQIXQJ
GX
VLLQYHUVPHPEHULNDQ

'HQJDQ SHQJJDQWLDQ X [ T


LQL NLWD PHPSXQ\DL \ X S
GHQJDQ S
ELODQJDQ
EXODWVHKLQJJDEHUGDVDUNDQKDVLOVHEHOXPQ\DGLSHUROHK

%HUGDVDUNDQDWXUDQUDQWDL

G U
-DGLUXPXV [ U[ U  EHQDUXQWXNU ELODQJDQUDVLRQDO∝
G[
&DWDWDQ5XPXVLQLGDSDWGLSHUOXDVXQWXNU ELODQJDQUHDOGHQJDQV\DUDW[ ! 

,OXVWUDVL %HUGDVDUNDQUXPXVLQL
G
G[
[
G[
[2 7
G     

[ 1 6   

[

 [


'DULKDVLOLQLGDQDWXUDQUDQWDLGLSHUROHK
G
G[
VLQ [ 2 
 VLQ [
7
FRV [
FRV [
 VLQ [


 
 
G [  VLQ [
&RQWRK+LWXQJODK 
G[ [ 
-DZDE 'HQJDQ PHQJJXQDNDQ UXPXV WXUXQDQ KDVLO NDOL GXD IXQJVL WXUXQDQ VXNX

1 6
EDQ\DNGDQWXUXQDQVLQXVGLSHUROHK
G
[  VLQ [ [  FRV [   [ VLQ [ 
G[
.HPXGLDQJXQDNDQUXPXVWXUXQDQKDVLOEDJLGXDIXQJVLGDQKDVLOLQLPDNDGLSHUROHK

 
G 
1 6 1 G
6
 
G [ VLQ [ [  [ VLQ [  [  VLQ [ [ 
G[ G[


1 6
G[ [  [  
[  [  FRV [  [ VLQ [  [  VLQ [

[  
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

 [
&RQWRK 7XQMXNNDQEDKZDIXQJVL
\ PHPHQXKLSHUVDPDDQ\ c  \   
 [

-DZDE7XOLVODK
 [   
\   PDND \c   GDQ \   
[ [ [ [
'DULVLQLGLSHUROHK
 
\c \      
[ 
[
GDQWHUEXNWLODK\DQJGLLQJLQNDQ„

G
G[
1 6
&RQWRK +LWXQJODKGDQWXQMXNNDQIXQJVL\
[ _[_ PHPHQXKL\ \ c [
[ z 
-DZDE'HQJDQPHQJJXQDNDQ$WXUDQ5DQWDLGDQUXPXV
G
G[
X 
GLSHUROHK
 X
G
G[
1[6 G
G[
3[8 

 [


G[
1 6
G 
[
[
 [
[
[


.LWDWHODKPHPEXNWLNDQEDKZDWXUXQDQIXQJVL\ _[_ DGDODK\ c [  _[_%HUGDVDUNDQ


LQLGLSHUROHK
[
\ \c [  [ [ z  
[
GDQWHUEXNWLODK\DQJGLLQJLQNDQ„

&RQWRK
%XNWLNDQ EDKZD WXUXQDQ IXQJVL \ VLQ [ FRV [ GDSDW GLWXOLV VHEDJDL \ c
FRV [

FRV  [
-DZDE 'HQJDQPHQJJXQDNDQUXPXVWXUXQDQKDVLONDOLGXDIXQJVLWXUXQDQIXQJVLDNDU
NXDGUDWDWXUDQUDQWDLWXUXQDQVLQXVWXUXQDQNRVLQXVGDQUXPXVWULJRQRPHWULGLSHUROHK
  VLQ  [  VLQ [ VLQ  [
\c VLQ [  FRV  [ FRV [  FRV  [ FRV [
 FRV  [ FRV  [
 VLQ  [ VLQ [  FRV  [ FRV [ FRV  [  [ FRV [

FRV  [ FRV  [ FRV  [
'HQJDQGHPLNLDQWHUEXNWLODK\DQJGLLQJLQNDQ„
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

&RQWRK 7HQWXNDQWXUXQDQIXQJVLI [  [ VLQ[


-DZDE 'DHUDKDVDOIXQJVLI DGDODK5'HQJDQDWXUDQPHQHQWXNDQWXUXQDQGLSHUROHK

I c [ [   FRV [   [  VLQ [  [ z  




GDQ

I [  I  [   VLQ [   VLQ [
I c  OLP OLP OLP [   OLP 
 
[ o [  [o [ [o [o [

%&[
-DGLWXUXQDQIXQJVLI [  [ VLQ[ DGDODK

'
FRV [   [  VLQ [  [ z 
 

I c [ 
 [ 

3DGD&RQWRKNLWDPHOLKDWEDKZDDGDDWDXWLGDNQ\DI c  WLGDNGLWHQWXNDQGDUL
DWXUDQWXUXQDQI c [ 'LVLQLDWXUDQI c [ KDQ\DEHUODNXXQWXN[ z GDQWLGDNPHPEHUL
LQIRUPDVL DSDSXQ WHQWDQJ DGD DWDX WLGDNQ\DI c   8QWXN ODWLKDQ SHPEDFD SHUOLKDWNDQ
EDKZD IXQJVL I c SDGD &RQWRK  PDVLK NRQWLQX GL VHWLDS WLWLN SDGD 5 3DGD FRQWRK
EHULNXWNLWDDNDQPHOLKDWVHEXDKIXQJVL\DQJWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVDWXWLWLNWHWDSLWXUXQ

%K[ VLQ   [ z 
DQQ\DWLGDNNRQWLQXGLWLWLNLWX

I [ &
K'  [  [ 

&RQWRK 7XQMXNNDQEDKZDIXQJVLWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL

WHWDSLWXUXQDQIXQJVLQ\DI c WLGDNNRQWLQXGL

       [ VLQ 
-DZDE 'HQJDQPHQJJXQDNDQUXPXVWXUXQDQIXQJVLGLSHUROHK

  [ 
  
I c [ [  FRV  [ VLQ  FRV 
[ 
[ [ [
GDQ


I [  I  [  VLQ  
I c  OLP OLP [ OLP [ VLQ 
[o [ [o [ [o [


+DVLOWHUDNKLUGLSHUROHKGHQJDQSULQVLSDSLW.DUHQDGHQJDQOLPLW
 d [ VLQ d [
[

OLP [ VLQ 
SHQJDSLWQ\DQROPDNDVHKLQJJDEHUGDVDUNDQUXPXVOLPLWQLODLPXWODN

 
[
GLSHUROHK
[o

 

OLP [ VLQ 
[o [

OLP FRV
.DUHQDWLGDNDGD /LKDW&DWDWDQSDGD&RQWRK  PDND
OLP I c [ WLGDNDGD
[o [ [o
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

$NLEDWQ\DIXQJVLI c WLGDNNRQWLQXGL„

&RQWRK 'LNHWDKXLIXQJVLI [  WDQ[KLWXQJODKI c [   GDQ


G
I [   
G[
-DZDE 'DULI [  WDQ [ GLSHUROHK
I c [   WDQ [  G WDQ [ WDQ[ VHF[
G[
VHKLQJJD
I c [    WDQ [   VHF [   

*XQDNDQ DWXUDQ UDQWDL XQWXN PHQHQWXNDQ WXUXQDQ IXQJVL I [    NHPXGLDQ DWXUDQ

1 6
IXQJVLI c XQWXN[  GLSHUROHK
G G
I [   I c [    [    [ I c [  

1 6
G[ G[
 [  WDQ [   VHF  [  


 [ WDQ  [   VHF  [   
&DUDODLQ 'DULDWXUDQIXQJVLI GLSHUROHKI [    WDQ [   NHPXGLDQWHQWXNDQ
WXUXQDQUXDVNLULGDQUXDVNDQDQXQWXNPHPSHUROHKKDVLO\DQJGLLQJLQNDQ

&RQWRK0LVDONDQIXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGDVHODQJ f GHQJDQ I c [   


[  [ ! GDQIXQJVLJ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD5 GHQJDQJ [ !  [  5-LNDIXQJVLI
GDQJ PHPHQXKL I R J [  [  [  5EXNWLNDQEDKZDJ c [  J [  [  5
-DZDE 'DULKXEXQJDQ I R J [  [  [  5 GHQJDQIXQJVLI WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD
VHODQJ f GDQIXQJVLJ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQSDGD5 GLSHUROHK
G
G[
0
I D J [ 5 G
G[
[ 

,QLPHQJDNLEDWNDQ
I c J [  J c [  
.DUHQDJ [ !  [  5 GDQI c [    [  [ ! PDNDI c J [    J [ VHKLQJJD
GDULDWXUDQUDQWDLGLDWDVNLWDPHPSXQ\DL

 Jc [   [  5
J [
'DULVLQLGLSHUROHK
J c [  J [  [  5
GDQWHUEXNWLODK\DQJGLLQJLQNDQ∝

3DGDFRQWRKEHULNXWDNDQGLEDKDVFDUDPHQHQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDULIXQJVLLQYHUVWDQSD
PHQHQWXNDQWHUOHELKGDKXOXDWXUDQIXQJVLLQYHUVQ\D
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

&RQWRK 7DQSDPHQHQWXNDQDWXUDQLQYHUVIXQJVLQ\DWHUOHELKGDKXOXWHQWXNDQWX
UXQDQGDULLQYHUVIXQJVL\ I [  [  [[ t 
G\
-DZDE 'DUL\ I [  [  [[ t GLSHUROHK%HUGDVDUNDQUX
I c [    [ 
G[
PXVWXUXQDQIXQJVLLQYHUV

1 I 6
\
 G[
G\

G\

I c [

[

 [  
 [ t
G[
6HNDUDQJ NLWD Q\DWDNDQ UXDV NDQDQ VHEDJDL IXQJVL GDUL \ $WXUDQ IXQJVL I GDSDW GLWXOLV
VHEDJDL\  [    VHKLQJJD [     \ .DUHQD[ t  PDND[  t 
LQLPHQJDNLEDWNDQ[     \ $NLEDWQ\DWXUXQDQGDULLQYHUVIXQJVL\ I [ 

1 6
[  [ [ t DGDODK


I 
\


  \

6RDO/DWLKDQ

%&VLQ [ [  
 'LNHWDKXLIXQJVL  6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVL

' [ [  [ t
I [  [_[_  [
I [
+LWXQJODK I c   NHPXGLDQ VHOLGLNL IXQJVL I 

DSDNDKWHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[  WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[ 

%&[   [  [ d  %&  [ D  [ d 
 6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVL  7HQWXNDQNRQVWDQWDD GDQE DJDUIXQJVL
x

'  [   [ !  '[ E[ [ ! 


 
I [ I [ 

WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[  WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[ 

%&
 7HQWXNDQNRQVWDQWDD GDQE DJDUIXQJVL  7HQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDULIXQJVL
x
x

'
D [    [ d  FRV [
I [ I [ 
E[   [  [ ! [ VLQ [
WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[  [
 7XQMXNNDQEDKZDIXQJVL I [

%&D [     [ d
 7HQWXNDQNRQVWDQWDD GDQE DJDUIXQJVL PHPHQXKLSHUVDPDDQ [  
x

'[  E[  [ !
[ [   \ c \
x

I [
 -LND I [  VLQ [ GDQ J [  FRV [   
x

GDQ MLND K I R J  WHQWXNDQ WXUXQDQ GDUL


WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGL[ 
IXQJVLK
 6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVL I [  [ _[_  
x

 -LND I [  [ WDQ [ GDQ J [  I [ 


WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVHWLDSELODQJDQUHDO [
WHQWXNDQJc [ GDQI c [ 
 6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVL I [  _[_ [  
WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVHWLDSELODQJDQUHDO [
 0LVDONDQ IXQJVL I WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ SDGD
 6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVL VHODQJWHUEXND, \DQJPHPXDW-LNDJ [ 
I [  [ _[  _  

[ I [   [  , GDQ I   I c   
WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVHWLDSELODQJDQUHDO [ KLWXQJODKJ c  

%K
x

&K
FRV [  [ d

'
I [  [    [ d 


 [   [ !
/LPLWGDQ.HNRQWLQXDQ)XQJVL 

 6HOLGLNLDSDNDKIXQJVL  0LVDONDQIXQJVLIJGDQK WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ


SDGD VHODQJ WHUEXND , -LND ) I J K
EXNWLNDQ EDKZD IXQJVL ) MXJD WHUGLIHUHQVL
DONDQSDGD, GHQJDQDWXUDQ
) c [ I cJ K [  I J cK [  I J K c [
WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQGLVHWLDSELODQJDQUHDO [  3DGD IXQJVL \DQJ WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ EXNWL
x

 7HQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDULIXQJVL NDQ EDKZD WXUXQDQ GDUL IXQJVL JHQDS DGD


x

I [  [  VLQ[ [  FRV[  ODK IXQJVL JDQMLO GDQ WXUXQDQ GDUL IXQJVL


JDQMLODGDODKIXQJVLJHQDS
 7HQWXNDQWXUXQDQGDULIXQJVL
 0LVDONDQ IXQJVL I GDQ J WHUGLIHUHQVLDONDQ
VLQ  [ VHKLQJJD IXQJVL I R J WHUGHILQLVL SDGD VXDWX
I [ 
 FRV  [ VHODQJ -LND J DGDODK IXQJVL JHQDS EXNWL
NDQEDKZD I RJ c   

You might also like