Introduction

Everything around you are made up of tiny objects called atoms. Most of the mass of each atom is
concentrated in the center (which is called the nucleus), and the rest of the mass is in the cloud of
electrons surrounding the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are subatomic particles that comprise the
nucleus.

Under certain circumstances, the nucleus of a very large atom can split in two. In this process, a
certain amount of the large atom’s mass is converted to pure energy following Einstein’s famous
formula E = MC2, where M is the small amount of mass and C is the speed of light (a very large
number). In the 1930s and ’40s, humans discovered this energy and recognized its potential as a
weapon.

Technology developed in the Manhattan Project successfully used this energy in a chain reaction to
create nuclear bombs. Soon after World War II ended, the newfound energy source found a home in
the propulsion of the nuclear navy, providing submarines with engines that could run for over a year
without refueling. This technology was quickly transferred to the public sector, where commercial
power plants were developed and deployed to produce electricity.

History of nuclear energy

In 1932 physicist Ernest Rutherford discovered that when lithium atoms were "split" by protons from
a proton accelerator, immense amounts of energy were released in accordance with the principle
of mass–energy equivalence. However, he and other nuclear physics pioneers Niels Bohr and Albert
Einstein believed harnessing the power of the atom for practical purposes anytime in the near future
was unlikely, with Rutherford labeling such expectations "moonshine."

The same year, his doctoral student James Chadwick discovered the neutron, which was
immediately recognized as a potential tool for nuclear experimentation because of its lack of an
electric charge. Experimentation with bombardment of materials with neutrons led Frédéric
and Irène Joliot-Curie to discover induced radioactivity in 1934, which allowed the creation of
radium-like elements at much less the price of natural radium. Further work by Enrico Fermi in the
1930s focused on using slow neutrons to increase the effectiveness of induced radioactivity.
Experiments bombarding uranium with neutrons led Fermi to believe he had created a new,
transuranic element, which was dubbed Hesperia.
First nuclear reactor
In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both
emigrated, the discovery of the nuclear chain reaction
led to the creation of the first man-made reactor,
known as Chicago Pile-1, which achieved criticality on
December 2, 1942. This work became part of
the Manhattan Project, a massive secret U.S.
government military project to make uranium and by
building large production reactors to
produce plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons.
The United States would test an atom bomb in July
1945 with the Trinity test, and eventually two such
weapons were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The United Kingdom, Canada and the USSR proceeded to research and develop nuclear industries
over the course of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Electricity was generated for the first time by a
nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which
initially produced about 100 kW. Work was also strongly researched in the United States on nuclear
marine propulsion, with a test reactor being developed by 1953 (eventually, the USS Nautilus, the
first nuclear-powered submarine, would launch in 1955). In 1953, American President Dwight
Eisenhower gave his "Atoms for Peace" speech at the United Nations, emphasizing the need to
develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the 1954 Amendments to
the Atomic Energy Act which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and
encouraged development by the private sector.

Future of industry
As of 2018, there are over 150 nuclear reactors
planned to include 50 under construction. However,
while investment on upgrades of existing plant and
life-time extensions continues, investment in new
nuclear is declining, reaching a 5-year-low in 2017.

In 2015, the International Energy Agency reported

that the Fukushima accident had a strongly negative
effect on nuclear power, yet nuclear power prospects
are positive in the medium to long term mainly
thanks to new construction in Asia. In 2016, the U.S.
Energy Information Administration projected for its “base case” that world nuclear power
generation would increase from 2,344 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2012 to 4,501 TWh in 2040. Most of
the predicted increase was expected to be in Asia.

The future of nuclear power varies greatly between countries, depending on government policies.
Some countries, many of them in Europe, such as Germany, Belgium, and Lithuania, have adopted
policies of nuclear power phase-out. At the same time, some Asian countries, such as China and
India, have committed to rapid expansion of nuclear power. Many other countries, such as the
United Kingdom and the United States, have policies in between. Japan generated about 30% of its
electricity from nuclear power before the Fukushima accident. In 2015 the Japanese government
committed to the aim of restarting its fleet of 40 reactors by 2030 after safety upgrades, and to
finish the construction of the Generation III Ōma Nuclear Power Plant. This would mean that
approximately 20% of electricity would come from nuclear power by 2030. As of 2018, some
reactors have restarted commercial operation following inspections and upgrades with new
regulations. While South Korea has a large nuclear power industry, the new government in 2017,
partly influenced by a large anti-nuclear movement, committed to halting nuclear development and
to gradually phase out nuclear power as reactors that are now operating or under construction close
after 40 years of operations.

Basics of nuclear power

Nuclear Fission is the key to how nuclear power reactors extract energy from Uranium-235 and uses
it to heat water which turns to steam and powers a turbine electric generator.

Natural Uranium found in the Earth consists of 99.3% Uranium-238 and 0.7% Uranium-235. This is
usually enriched so that the concentration of Uranium-235 rises to about 3.5% before being put into
the reactor. The fuel is replaced when the amount of Uranium-235 falls to around 1.2%.

When Uranium absorbs neutrons, it splits into two other elements and releases a further two or
three neutrons which in turn cause other nuclei to fission turning the process into a chain reaction.

This chain reaction is extremely powerful and vigorous, so it needs to be controlled to prevent an
explosion and meltdown. Into the reactor control rods are placed. These rods are made of materials
which act as very good neutron absorbers and control the reaction.

Nuclear reactors go by a reproduction constant K, which is defined as: The average number of
neutrons from each fission event that cause another fission event.

The idea is to basically keep K at around 1. If it is going below 1 the reaction dies out, if it goes above
one then a runaway reaction occurs, and the control rods can’t absorb the neutrons quickly enough
in order to control the reaction and this inevitably leads to the reactor melting down.

In the reactor a moderator is used to absorb the energy released from the fission reactions and
transfer it to water which when heated will boil, and then turn to steam, which will in turn drive the
generator. Pressurized water (to prevent it from boiling) is normally used as the moderator.

Fission and fusion

There are two fundamental nuclear processes considered for energy production: fission and fusion.

 Fission is the energetic splitting of large atoms such as Uranium or Plutonium into two
smaller atoms, called fission products. To split an atom, you have to hit it with a neutron.
Several neutrons are also released which can go on to split other nearby atoms, producing a
nuclear chain reaction of sustained energy release. This nuclear reaction was the first of the
two to be discovered. All commercial nuclear power plants in operation use this reaction to
generate heat which they turn into electricity.

 Fusion is the combining of two small atoms such as Hydrogen or Helium to produce heavier
atoms and energy. These reactions can release more energy than fission without producing
as many radioactive byproducts. Fusion reactions occur in the sun, generally using Hydrogen
as fuel and producing Helium as waste (fun fact: Helium was discovered in the sun and
 named after the Greek Sun God, Helios). This reaction has not been commercially developed
yet and is a serious research interest worldwide, due to its promise of nearly limitless, low-
pollution, and non-proliferative energy.

Energy density of various fuel sources

The amount of energy released in nuclear reactions is astounding. Table 1 shows how long a 100-
Watt light bulb could run from using 1 kg of various fuels. The natural uranium undergoes nuclear
fission and thus attains very high energy density (energy stored in a unit of mass).

Energy 100W light Energy 100W light

Material Density bulb time Material Density bulb time Material
(MJ/kg) (1kg) (MJ/kg) (1kg)

Wood 10 1.2 days Wood 10 1.2 days Wood

Ethanol 26.8 3.1 days Ethanol 26.8 3.1 days Ethanol

Coal 32.5 3.8 days Coal 32.5 3.8 days Coal

Crude oil 41.9 4.8 days Crude oil 41.9 4.8 days Crude oil

Diesel 45.8 5.3 days Diesel 45.8 5.3 days Diesel

Natural Natural Natural

Uranium 5.7x105 182 years Uranium 5.7x105 182 years Uranium
(LWR) (LWR) (LWR)

Reactor Reactor Reactor

Grade Grade Grade
3.7x106 1,171 years 3.7x106 1,171 years
Uranium Uranium Uranium
(LWR) (LWR) (LWR)

Natural Natural Natural

Uranium 8.1x107 25,700 years Uranium 8.1x107 25,700 years Uranium
(breeder) (breeder) (breeder)

Table 1 Energy densities of various energy sources in MJ/kg and in length of time that 1 kg of each
material could run a 100W load. Natural uranium has undergone no enrichment (0.7% U-235),
reactor-grade uranium has 5% U-235. By the way, 1 kg of weapons grade uranium (95% U-235) could
power the entire USA for 177 seconds. All numbers assume 100% thermal-to-electrical conversion.
Economics

The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging
views on this topic, and multibillion-dollar investments depend on the choice of an energy source.
Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low fuel costs.
Comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about
construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants as well as the future costs of fossil
fuels and renewables as well as for energy storage solutions for intermittent power sources. Cost
estimates also need to take into account plant decommissioning and nuclear waste storage costs.
On the other hand, measures to mitigate global warming, such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions
trading, may favor the economics of nuclear power.

Internationally the price of nuclear plants rose 15% annually in 1970–1990. Yet, nuclear power has
total costs in 2012 of about $96 per megawatt hour (MWh), most of which involves capital
construction costs, compared with solar power at $130 per MWh, and natural gas at the low end at
$64 per MWh. Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, costs are expected to increase
for then-operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent
fuel management and elevated design basis threats.
 Capabilities of Nuclear Power
Sustainable
Today’s commercial nuclear
reactors burn less than 1% of
the fuel that is mined for them
and the rest of it or so is
thrown away (as depleted
uranium and nuclear waste).
The US recycling program shut
down in the ’70s due
to proliferation and economic
concerns. Today, France and
Japan are recycling fuel with
great success. New technology
exists that can greatly reduce
proliferation concerns.
Without recycling, the 2005
Uranium Reserves “Red Book”
published by the U.N. IAEA
suggests that there are over
200 years of Uranium reserves
at current demand. There is
also a very large supply of
uranium dissolved in seawater
at very low concentration. No
one has found a cheap-enough
way to extract it yet, though
people have come close.
Nuclear reactors can also run
on Thorium fuel.
Ecological
In operation, nuclear power
plants emit nothing into the
environment except hot water.
The classic cooling tower icon
of nuclear reactors is just that,
a cooling tower. Clean water
vapor is all that comes out.
Very little CO2 or other
climate-changing gases come
out of nuclear power
generation (certainly some
CO2 is produced during mining,
construction, etc., but the
amount is about 50 times less
than coal and 25 times less
than natural gas plants. Details
coming soon). The spent
nuclear fuel (nuclear waste)
can be handled properly and
disposed of geologically
without affecting the
environment in any way.
They’re safe too. In March,
2013 the former NASA
scientist James Hansen (of the
350 ppm limit fame) published
a paper showing that nuclear
energy has saved a total of 1.8
million lives in its history
worldwide just by displacing
air pollution that is a known
killer2. That includes any
deaths nuclear energy has
been responsible for from its
accidents.
Independent
With nuclear power, many
countries can approach energy
independence. Being
"addicted to oil" is a major
national and global security
concern for various reasons.
Using electric or plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles
(PHEVs)powered by nuclear
reactors, we could reduce our
oil demands by orders of
magnitude. Additionally, many
nuclear reactor designs can
provide high-quality process
heat in addition to electricity,
which can in turn be used to
desalinate water, prepare
hydrogen for fuel cells, or to
heat neighborhoods, among
many other industrial
processes.
 Problems with Nuclear Power
Nuclear Waste
When atoms split to release
energy, the smaller atoms that
are left behind are often left in
excited states, emitting
energetic particles that can
cause biological damage. Some
of the longest-lived atoms
don’t decay to stability for
hundreds of thousands of
years. This nuclear waste must
be controlled and kept out of
the environment for at least
that long.
Dramatic accidents
Three major accidents have
occurred in commercial power
plants: Chernobyl, Three Mile
Island, and
Fukushima. Chernobyl was an
uncontrolled steam explosion which
released a large amount of radiation
into the environment, killing over
50 people, requiring a mass
evacuation of hundreds of
thousands of people, and causing
up to 4000 cancer cases. Three Mile
Island was a partial-core meltdown,
where coolant levels dropped below
the fuel and allowed some of it to
melt. No one was hurt, and very
little radiation was released, but the
plant had to close, causing the
operating company and its investors
to lose a lot of
money. Fukushima was a station
black-out caused by a huge
Tsunami. Four neighboring plants
lost cooling and the decay
heat melted the cores. Radiation
was released, and the public was
evacuated. These three accidents
are very scary and keep many
people from being comfortable with
nuclear power.
Cost
Nuclear power plants are
larger and more
complicated than other
power plants. Many
redundant safety systems
are built to keep the
plant operating safely.
This complexity causes
the up-front cost of a
nuclear power plant to be
much higher than for a
comparable coal plant.
Once the plant is built,
the fuel costs are much
less than fossil fuel costs.
In general, the older a
nuclear plant gets, the
more money its
operators make. The
large capital cost keeps
many investors from
agreeing to finance
nuclear power plants.
Nuclear Power in the World Today

Civil nuclear power can now boast more than 17,000 reactor years of experience, and nuclear power
plants are operational in 30 countries worldwide. In fact, through regional transmission grids, many
more countries depend in part on nuclear-generated power; Italy and Denmark, for example, get
almost 10% of their electricity from imported nuclear power.

Around 11% of the world's electricity is generated by about 450 nuclear power reactors. About 60
more reactors are under construction, equivalent to 16% of existing capacity, while an additional
150-160 are planned, equivalent to nearly half of existing capacity.

In 2016 nuclear plants supplied 2477 TWh of electricity, up from 2441 TWh in 2015. This is the fourth
consecutive year that global nuclear generation has risen, with output 130 TWh higher than in 2012.

Nuclear Electricity Production

World Electricity Production by Source 2015

Sixteen countries depend on nuclear power for at least one-quarter of their electricity. France gets
around three-quarters of its electricity from nuclear energy; Hungary, Slovakia and Ukraine get more
than half from nuclear, whilst Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, Sweden, Switzerland and Slovenia
get one-third or more. South Korea and Bulgaria normally get more than 30% of their electricity
from nuclear, while in the USA, UK, Spain, Romania and Russia about one-fifth of electricity is from
nuclear. Japan is used to relying on nuclear power for more than one-quarter of its electricity and is
expected to return to somewhere near that level.

Need for new generating capacity

There is a clear need for new generating capacity around the world, both to replace old fossil fuel
units, especially coal-fired ones, which emit a lot of carbon dioxide, and to meet increased demand
for electricity in many countries. In 2015, 66.0% of electricity was generated from the burning of
fossil fuels. Despite the strong support for and growth in intermittent renewable electricity sources
in recent years, the fossil fuel contribution to power generation has remained virtually unchanged in
the last 10 years (66.5% in 2005).

The OECD International Energy Agency publishes annual scenarios related to energy. In its World
Energy Outlook 2017 there is an ambitious ‘Sustainable Development Scenario’ which is consistent
with the provision of clean and reliable energy and a reduction of air pollution, among other aims. In
this decarbonization scenario, electricity generation from nuclear more than doubles by 2040,
increasing to 5345 TWh, and capacity grows to 720 GWe. The World Nuclear Association has put
forward a more ambitious scenario than this the Harmony programmed proposes the addition of
1000 GWe of new nuclear capacity by 2050, to provide 25% of electricity then (10,000 TWh) from
1250 GWe of capacity (after allowing for 150 GWe retirements). This would require adding 25 GWe
per year from 2021, escalating to 33 GWe per year, which is not much different from the 31 GWe
added in 1984, or the overall record of 201 GWe in the 1980s. Providing one-quarter of the world's
electricity through nuclear would substantially reduce carbon dioxide emissions and have a very
positive effect on air quality.

World overview
 North America
1. Canada has 19 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 13.5
GWe. In 2017, nuclear generated 15% of the country's electricity.
2. Mexico has two operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 1.6
GWe. In 2017, nuclear generated 6% of the country's electricity.
3. The USA has 99 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 99.6
GWe. In 2017, nuclear generated 20% of the country's electricity.
 South America
1. Argentina has three reactors, with a combined net capacity of 1.6 GWe. In 2017, the
country generated 5% of its electricity from nuclear.
2. Brazil has two reactors, with a combined net capacity of 1.9 GWe. In 2017, nuclear
generated 3% of the country's electricity.
 Asia
1. China has 38 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 34.6 GWe.
In 2017, nuclear generated 4% of the country's electricity.
2. India has 22 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 6.2 GWe. In
2017, nuclear generated 3% of the country's electricity.
3. Japan as 42 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 40 GWe. At
the start of 2018, only five reactors had been brought back online, with a further 21
 in the process of restart approval following the Fukushima accident in 2011. In the
past, 30% of the country's electricity has come from nuclear; in 2017, the figure was
just 4%.
4. South Korea has 24 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined net capacity of 22.5
GWe. In 2017, nuclear generated 27% of the country's electricity.
Advantages of using Nuclear Power
 Lower CO2 emissions than fossil-fuel power stations. (Less than a hundredth of the
emissions of Coal)
 Relatively low fuel consumption – 30 tonnes of fuel a year (Other fossil-fuel plants can
consume as much as 9000 tonnes of fuel per year)
 Uranium is currently in abundance and with advances in technology we’ll be able to re-use
the spent fuel also helping reduce the amount of radioactive waste.
 Low operating costs and is cost-efficient.
 Unlike fossil-fuel plants power plants don’t need to take into account geographical position
to be built and run cost efficiently.
 Nuclear power is extremely powerful, and the energy released during nuclear fission is much
more than any other chemical process
 Advances in design of reactors avoid catastrophic damage to the atmosphere and immediate
surroundings by containing the reactor in a very strong shell so the public is protected even
in a meltdown.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

 The risk of meltdown will always plague reactors and even though technology is advancing if
something does go completely wrong the public is in great danger.
 Nuclear waste is piling up in lead containers which over time do corrode again posing a
major health risk.
 Although running costs are low, reactors are expensive to build and to decommission
 Technology used to purify fuel needed for a nuclear reactor can very easily also be used for
creating nuclear weapons
 The general public is very skeptical and somewhat afraid of nuclear power so building them
could lead to protests and denial of acceptance.

Conclusion

Nuclear Power is a viable alternative power source to fossil-fuels since our demand for electricity is
ever increasing and nuclear reactors can easily support the major demand as well as sustaining cost-
efficiency of operation and maintenance of the plant. The fuel supplies are abundant, and it is a low
carbon energy source with low emissions.

Advances in technology are turning reactors from health and safety hazards into safe and efficient
sources of electricity. True there are issues with waste disposal but again with future developments
the waste can be re-used, and the idea is that the final waste will be put into corrosion-free
containers.

Ever since the sting of Chernobyl the public has always been extremely skeptical and doubtful about
having a nuclear power plant in their back garden, but there have been major breakthroughs in
design and even if a meltdown does occur and the reactor is destroyed a surrounding shell will
prevent any radioactive material from being launched into the atmosphere.
For the foreseeable future at least, I believe that nuclear power is a very good answer to our
immense needs especially since the price per KW it produces is also low compared to any other
power source.

References
1. http://www.npec-web.org/Essays/Essay050120%20Zalenski%20-
%20Future%20of%20Nuclear%20Power.pdf
2. OECD International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook 2017
3. Harvey, Fiona (3 May 2012).
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/may/03/nuclear-power-solution-climate-
change
4. London, UK: World Nuclear News. 4 January 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NP-World-starts-up-10-shuts-down-eight-nuclear-
reactors-in-2015-411601.html