Design and development of anti roll back:

Ratchet and pawl mechanism is used in many applications effectively where the one side
power transmission is required for example in

• Giant wheel- It is the large wheel used in the amusement parks to rotate along the
horizontal axis to rotate in one direction while carrying the number of passengers.

• Clocks- where the hands rotate in clockwise directions only.

• Baffle gates- in the entrances of many buildings which rotates about vertical axis in
one direction.

• Shaping Machines – in the crank and slotted arm.

In the hill station, the most common problem to the drivers isto park their cars in the slope
and to start up the car. While waiting in the traffic , the cars have to move on step by step
very slowly, this situation is a difficult one for the drivers to make their car not to roll back
in the slope. So the mechanism has to be developed to stop the vehicle from rolling back
and it should not stop the vehicle in accelerating forwards. This function can be achieved by
using the ratchet and pawl mechanism.

These mechanisms give a solution for the general issue of descending or rolling back of the
vehicle, while starting motion uphill in forward or reverse direction in various ways. The
issue is encountered by employing the devices like freewheel, roller clutch or ratchet-pawl
mechanism in different-different manners and locations within the gearbox. The issue is
discussed here considering uphill motion in forward direction. Uphill motion in the reverse
direction also has the similar issue. The land transport sector encompasses the commercial
use of many different vehicles including lorry, light vans, taxis, buses, cars construction and
agricultural machinery

The main types of transport accidents are Vehicle crashes People being struck or run over by
moving vehicles (e.g. during REVERSING or coupling). People falling from vehicles People struck
by objects falling from vehicles, or vehicles overturning. The analysis of European Statistics on
Accidents at Work (ESAW) data reveals that 29% of fatal accidents at work are due to loss of
control of means of transport or handling equipment. Thus, improper handling and loss of control
over vehicles may cause a severe threat to both the driver and the pedestrians. Unexpected reverse
motion of vehicles in gradients and mountain roads is one of that problem which may cause
disastrous accidents. Even though a modern vehicle has modern equipment’s like parking assistance
system, hand brake, etc., drivers aproscenia will cause serious damages.

The major objective of our project is to prevent these types of accidents with some simple and
economical means. It has Ratchet and pawl as its major component. A ratchet is nothing but a
mechanical device that allows continuous linear or rotary motion in only one direction while
preventing motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets are widely used in machinery and tools. With
this equipment we can prevent the unwanted reverse motion of a vehicle during all situations. A
ratchet wheel is to be welded with the wheel rim of the automobile and the pawl arrangement is
connected to the chassis.
The driver has no control over this arrangement that it automatically got engaged with the ratchet
while the vehicle is driving below certain speeds. When the reverse gear is actuated, the pawl gets
released from the ratchet thus allowing the reverse motion. This is our project description and due
to cost considerations a small prototyped scribing this principle was done for this purpose. To
prevent the unexpected reverse motion of an automobile under gradients and mountain roads.To
protect the heavy load vehicle drivers and fellow pedestrians from disastrous accidents occurring
due to loss of control and improper handling of equipment.

GENERAL ISSUE

when a person drives uphill in forward direction on an inclined path / hilly terrain, when he tries to
commence the motion, here comes the issue of managing three pedals / foot-levers using two feet.
Initially, the person keeps on pressing the brake pedal using right foot in order to prevent the
backward motion due to self-weight of vehicle on inclination and presses clutch pedal using left
foot to shift the gears, further, he fixes any of the forward gear, say the lower most – 1st gear, now
the clutch pedal is to be slowly released and the engine is to be accelerated by pressing the
accelerator pedal to start motion simultaneously. At this instant, the left foot of the person is busy
with guiding the clutch pedal. As the person tries to press the accelerator pedal, he removes right
foot from the brake pedal. The moment he releases the brake pedal, the vehicle descends backward
under the influence of self-weight due to inclination, which is undesired and may cause accidents.
To overcome this issue, generally, people use to take the help of the hand-brake and drives without
fully or partially releasing the hand-brake, which is not the exact remedy for the problem.

Need of project :

When a person drives uphill in forward direction on an inclined path / hilly terrain, when he
tries to commence the motion, here comes the issue of managing three pedals / foot-levers
using two feet. Initially, the person keeps on pressing the brake pedal using right foot in
order to prevent the backward motion due to self-weight of vehicle on inclination and
presses clutch pedal using left foot to shift the gears, further, he fixes any of the forward
gear, say the lower most – 1st gear, now the clutch pedal is to be slowly released and the
engine is to be accelerated by pressing the accelerator pedal to start motion simultaneously.
At this instant, the left foot of the person is busy with guiding the clutch pedal.

As the person tries to press the accelerator pedal, he removes right foot from the brake
pedal. The moment he releases the brake pedal, the vehicle descends backward under the
influence of self-weight due to inclination, which is undesired and may cause accidents. To
overcome this issue, generally, people use to take the help of the hand-brake and drives
without fully or partially releasing the hand-brake, which is not the exact remedy for the
problem

COMPONENTS
Selection of Mechanism

The mechanism selected is ‘pawl and ratchet’ mechanism. The reason behind selecting the
mechanism is that, in
clockwise direction it engages the actuator whereas in the anti-clockwise direction it compresses the
actuator. By this,we can restrict the motion of the vehicle in one direction and allow it in the
other direction.

Pawl

A pawl is a pivoted bar or lever whose free end engages with the teeth of a ratchet so that the ratchet
can only rotate in one direction. In this research, we have used actuator at the place of a pawl which
also aims similar to the pawl but here actuator is not pivoted, it is connected with a shifter which
moves up and down with the help of solenoid shifter.

Ratchet

A ratchet is a mechanical device consisting of a wheel with a set of angled teeth in which a pawl,
cog, or tooth engages, allowing motion in one direction only.

Positioning of components

The individual part of the side, front, and top view are interconnected to form the body. This body is
thus placed over
chassis with the help of L-joint, thus the body remains hinged to chassis. The rear and the front axle
are supported with
wheels on both the ends. The U-bolts are mounted on ends of axle thus joining the chassis giving
support to chassis
with the help of bolting. The mechanism consisting gears and casing are mounted on axle centre.
The actuator is
connected to pneumatic cylinder and hinged to chassis from opposite end. The switch is mounted on
the roof of vehicle prototype.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages

 Less manual work.

 Fewer problems in traffic.
 Comfortable and panic free ride.
 Less risk of accidents.

Disadvantages

 Wear between Ratchet and Pawl.

 Complicated to implement due to space limitation.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

Conclusion-

It will make the new driver feel comfortable during driving on gradient surfaces. Also
undesirable reverse motion of the vehicle will be prevented which will result inless chances of
road accidents. This will propose a perfect mechanism to Indian market at low cost. Due to
this most of the manufacturers will be in a race to provide such mechanism which will be the
first reference of the customer while buying a vehicle.

Future Scope-

1. The engagement and disengagement of the Ratchet and Pawl can be made by using PLC
control instead of using linear actuator which will result in fewer backlashes from the ratchet
to the pawl.
2. Instead of using two ratchets and two pawls we can use four ratchets and four pawls which
will take more heavy loads.
3. The engagement and disengagement of the Ratchet and Pawl will be done by using high
grade sensors which will automatically disengaged the ratchet and pawl when driver is
willing to take vehicle in reverse direction.
4. This design can be modified with axel carrying differential so that it can easily implement
on actual vehicle.
5. Excel file can be modified for the creation of improved design and for weight of vehicles.

WORKING

In this work, Ratchet and Pawl mechanism is identified to arrest the backward motion to the
car. The ratchet is placed in the rear drive shaft and the Pawl is fitted with the frame. When
the vehicle is moved in the hill road, the lever has to make the pawl to touch the ratchet. If
the vehicle tends to move backward direction, the pawl would stop the ratchet to move
Counter Clock-wise direction with respect to rear wheel.

As the vehicle is in neutral position, the pawl engaged the ratchet and the vehicle did not
move in backward direction. So the hand brakes need not to be applied. When the vehicle is
in moving condition, the engagement between the ratchet and pawl is detached.
Mechanism consists of Ratchet and Pawl arrangement which will be mounted on the rear
axle of the vehicles or any other location which will have the drive along with the motion of
the wheel. One push button will be mounted on steering wheel or dashboard which will be
operated by the driver on choice. On pushing the button the pawl will came in engage
position with the ratchet and will constraint the reverse motion of the vehicle. The ratchet is
mounted on the rim whereas the pawl is fabricated on the chassis of the vehicle.

The pawl is pivoted in such a way that when the first gear of the vehicle is implied it
engages with the ratchet. Thus a driver can leave the brake pedal free while resting at a
gradient or at a mountain road. So the driver could just place the foot on the clutch and
accelerator pedals and could move the vehicle with ease. Thus accidental uncontrolled
reversal of vehicle is also avoided. This is the overall working principle of our project.

MATERIAL SELECTED FOR FABRICATION

The Materials selected in project for Base Frame, sleeve and shaft is Mild steel

Reasons:

• Mild steel is readily available in market.

• It is economical to use.
• It is available in standard sizes.
• It has moderate factor of safety, because factor of safety results in unnecessary
wastage of material and heavy selection. Low factor of safety results in unnecessary
risk of failure
• It has high tensile strength

MATERIAL SELECTED

The proper selection of material for the different part of a machine is the main objective in
the fabrication of machine. For a design engineer it is must that he be familiar with the
effect, which the manufacturing process and heat treatment have on the properties of
materials. The Choice of material for engineering purposes depends upon the following
factors:

• Availability of the materials.

• Suitability of materials for the working condition in service.
• The cost of materials.
Selection of shaft

Selection of the appropriate material is an important consideration in engineering design; that is, for
some application, choosing a material having a desirable or optimum property or combination of
properties. Selection of the proper material can reduce costs and improve performance. Elements of
this materials selection process involve deciding on the constraints of the problem and, from these,
establishing criteria that can be used in materials selection to maximize performance. The
component or structural element we have chosen to discuss is a solid cylindrical shaft that is
subjected to a torsional stress. Strength of the shaft will be considered in detail, and criteria will be
developed for maximizing strength with respect to both minimum material mass and minimum cost.
Other parameters and properties that may be important in this selection process are also discussed
briefly.

STRENGTH CONSIDERATIONS

For this portion of the design problem, we will establish a criterion for selection of light and strong
materials for the shaft. We will assume that the twisting moment and length of the shaft are
specified, whereas the radius (or cross-sectional area) may be varied. We develop an expression for
the mass of material required in terms of twisting moment, shaft length, and density and strength of
the material. Using this expression, it will be possible to evaluate the performance—that is,
maximize the strength of the torsionally stressed shaft with respect to mass and, in addition, relative
to material cost.

Introduction to Shaft Selection

The term shaft usually refers to a component of circular cross-section that rotates and
transmits power from a driving device, such as a motor or engine, through a machine. Shafts
can carry gears, pulleys, and sprockets to transmit rotary motion and power via mating
gears, belts, and chains. Alternatively, a shaft may simply connect to another shaft via a
coupling. A shaft can be stationary and support a rotating member, such as the short shafts
that support the nondriven wheels of automobiles often referred to as spindles.

Shaft design considerations include:

1. Size and spacing of components (as on a general assembly drawing), tolerances,

2. Material selection, material treatments,

3. Deflection and rigidity,

a. Bending deflection,
b. Torsional deflection,
c. Slope at bearings,
d. Shear deflection,

Shafts can be subjected to a variety of combinations of axial, bending, and torsional loads which
may fluctuate or vary with time. Typically, a rotating shaft transmitting power is subjected to a
constant torque together with a completely reversed bending load, producing a mean torsional stress
and an alternating bending stress respectively
Materials available

Cast Iron shafts

The cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a furnace known as
cupola. It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon contents in cast iron varies from 1.7
per cent to 4.5 per cent. It also contains small amounts of silicon, manganese, phosphorous and
sulphur. The carbon in a cast iron is present in either of the following two forms: 1. Free carbon or
graphite, and 2. Combined carbon or cementite. Since the cast iron is a brittle material, therefore, it
cannot be used in those parts of machines which are subjected to shocks.

The properties of cast iron which make it a valuable material for engineering purposes are its low
cost, good casting characteristics, high compressive strength, wear resistance and excellent
machinability. The compressive strength of cast iron is much greater than the tensile strength.
Following are the values of ultimate strength of cast iron :

Tensile strength = 100 to 200 Mpa

Compressive strength = 400 to 1000 MPa
Shear strength = 120 MPa

2 Steel shafts

It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a maximum of 1.5%. The carbon occurs
in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of the steel.
Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present to greater or lesser
amount to impart certain desired properties to it. Most of the steel produced now-a-days is plain
carbon steel or simply carbon steel.

A carbon steel is defined as a steel which has its properties mainly due to its carbon content and
does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and 1.5% of manganese.

The plain carbon steels varying from 0.06% carbon to 1.5% carbon are divided into the following
types depending upon the carbon content.
1. Dead mild steel — up to 0.15% carbon
2. Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon

According to Indian standard *[IS : 1762 (Part-I)–1974], a new system of designating the steel is
recommended. According to this standard, steels are designated on the following two basis :

(a) On the basis of mechanical properties, and

(b) On the basis of chemical composition.

Stainless steel was mainly used because of its high strength. But this stainless steel shaft
has less specific strength and less specific modulus. Stainless steel has less damping capacity.
Because of its higher density of molecules of stainless steel, its weight is very high. Because of
increase in weight fuel consumption will in increase, the effect of inertia will be more and
increase in weight. The steel propeller shaft is replacing with the composite materials, which are
very less weight when compared to that of stainless steel. The cost of composite materials is less
when compared to that of
stainless steel. The E-Glass/Epoxy and Carbon/Epoxy materials are selected for composite drive
shaft. Since, composites are highly orthotropic and their fractures were not fully studied.

S.no Physical Property

Property Notation Value
1. Ultimate Torque T 1250 N-mm

2. Maximum Speed N 2500 rpm

of the Shaft
3. Maximum D ᴓ100 mm
diameter of the
Shaft
4. Length of the L 1650 mm
Drive
5. Rotational V 260 rad/sec
Velocity
6. Maximum Range F 2500 hz
of Frequency

TABLE III
Mechanical Materials of cardan shaft and
property their Mechanical properties
Steel Glass/ Carbon
Epoxy /Epoxy
Young’s Modulus 210 Gpa 39 Gpa 177 Gpa
Poisson’s Ratio XY 0.3 0.3 0.3
YZ 0.3 0.263
ZX 0.3 0.3
Density (kg/m3) 7850 2000 1600
kg/m3
Shear Modulus 80 Gpa 3.8 Gpa 7.8 Gpa
Tensile Ultimate 4.6E+08 4.0E+08 4.4E+08
strength pa pa pa

1.1 Preamble

Technological advances are allowing designers to use new manufacturing and analysis approaches
for devices at ever smaller dimensions. Smaller mechanisms are also needed in roles where the cost
of failure can be catastrophic, including mechanical security devices. A mechanical security device
prevents unauthorized or unintentional access to a critical or proprietary system. The pawl positions
are typically biased with actuator, but actuators are a source of reliability concern, particularly as
device size decreases. The trend for mechanical security devices is to decrease size and increase
functionality. As safety devices have become smaller, they have reached a point where physical
constraints limit the device design. These constraints include the availability of precision
mechanical components such as springs, bearings, spacers, and fasteners. Other constraints include
those imposed by friction, limitations of micro fabrication processes, including assembly and
packaging.

1.2 Background of the Invention

 .
Figure 1-1 Actual diagram of traffic in Ghats

The present invention in its various embodiments, aims to address the above drawbacks and
requirements, and provide effective systems and methods to prevent a vehicle from reverse
movement in a slope.
The present invention in a preferred embodiment provides systems and methods for preventing a
vehicle from reverse movement on a slope. The system comprising of
a) A heavy commercial vehicle.
b) A ratchet and pawl device connected to at least one wheel of the vehicle.
c) A connecting or fastening component which connects the ratchet and pawl device such that the
wheel shall rotate only if the ratchet and pawl device rotates.
d) And electronic mechanism i.e. Actuator which will control the movement of the pawl while
engaging or disengaging the mechanism when the system may be engaged using an engaging
mechanism when reverse motion is undesirable or to be restricted, and may be disengaged when the
reverse motion is desirable.

1.3 Purpose and Scope of the Study

A vehicle while on an upward slope, experiences a gravitational force towards the reverse side.
While the vehicle is stationary and when not subject to an active break mechanism or forward
acceleration, it experiences an almost instant pull in the reverse direction and may undergo a
downward fall by releasing potential energy. This is thus a common phenomenon which is
undesirable while the vehicle is required to stay stationary or move upward on slope.
 Figure 1-2: Actual diagram of Truck
This is a common problem faced by all vehicle users and causes considerable inconvenience to
them while ensuring the safe mobility of the vehicles. On certain occasions the undesirable reverse
movement may even cause accidents and damage to life or property. It further leads to fuel wastage
as more fuel combustion will be required to counter the gravitational force action on the vehicle
against the direction of the desired motion.
To eliminate this problem, this project consists of anti-reverse mechanisms which will be
implemented in vehicle, more particularly in heavy motor vehicles. However, the existing
mechanisms are expensive involves excessive number of components which we will try to
overcome.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
[3]
J.A.Kennedy has investigated, whenever the vehicle is having forward drive at that time the
sprocket wheel installed on the engine gear box output shaft drives the rear axle through chain drive
but when vehicle is idle on the forward slope it tends to come back during gear change or break
release condition. Hence additional ratchet wheel is installed with plunger arrangement, which will
resist the back motion or reversing of the automobile at slope.
L.L.Howell[3]has discussed a ratchet and pawl mechanism that has advantages for mechanical safety
mechanisms, particularly when the design envelop is too small to allow for traditional mechanical
components. The mechanism constraints are outlined and the mechanism and its modeling are
defined. A series of three scaled prototypes and their testing are described. The mechanism is a
combination of several segments. It has two fixed-pinned compliant segments that are labeled
“Hold Pawl” and “Drive Pawl”. The analytical model for these compliant segments is fairly
straightforward. The mechanism also has a long circular segment called a functionally-binary
pinned-pinned (FBPP) compliant segment.

Kazuhiko Satou[5] mentions ratchet and pawl is quite essential. Suppose the device were made of
perfectly elastic parts. After the pawl is lifted off the end of the tooth and is pushed back by the
spring, it will bounce against the wheel and continue to bounce. Then, when another fluctuation
came, the wheel could turn the other way, because the tooth could get underneath during the
moment when the pawl was up. Therefore an essential part of the irreversibility of our wheel is a
damping or deadening mechanism which stops the bouncing. When the damping happens, of
course, the energy that was in the pawl goes into the wheel and shows up as heat. So, as it turns, the
wheel will get hotter and hotter. To make the thing simpler, we can put a gas around the wheel to
take up some of
the heat. Anyway, let us say the gas keeps rising in temperature, along with thewheel.

Chester.O.Hunter[1] his invention relates to an automobile locking mechanism for preventing a

vehicle such as an automobile, from moving backward at such times when reverse movements is
not desired. It is among the objects of his invention to provide a reverse lock of the character
described which permits free forward movement of the vehicle, but locks the vehicle against reverse
movement upon any tendency of the vehicle to roll backward when stopped on a hill. Another
object is to provide means for rendering the lock inactive upon shifting the vehicle into reverse gear.
Still another object is to provide a ratchet and pawl locking mechanism having means for insuring
full and positive engagement of a locking pawl with the ratchet wheel. A further object is to provide
a locking mechanism of the character described having a pilot pawl for actuating the locking pawl.

Prof. A.S.Todkar, [4] says in a rear axle assembly, engine power enters the drive pinion gear from the
drive shaft assembly and differential pinion yoke/flange. The drive pinion gear, which is in mesh
with the ring gear, causes the ring gear to turn. The interaction of the ring and drive pinion gears
turns the power flow at a 90° angle. The difference in the number of teeth on the ring and pinion
gears causes a reduction gear ratio. This reduces turning speed, while increasing torque. Power from
the ring gear flows through the differential case, spider gears, and side gears to the drive axles. The
drive axles transfer power from the differential assembly to the rear wheels.

Tretsiak, Dzmitry,Kliauzovich, Siarhei [5] told the current tendencies in automotive industry need
intensive investigation in problems of interaction of active safety systems with brake system
equipments. At the same time, the opportunity to decrease the power take-off of single components,
for example such as brake system, is investigated. Authors propose a modification of disk brake
structure with self-boosting characteristic for commercial vehicles. This brake gear due to original
construction will allow decrease force required for its drive under the condition that brake gear will
generate such brake torque as conventional disk brake. The compilation and investigation on
proposed brake gear model in AMES in software is supposed. The obtained results can find
application during designing of new types of brake systems especially for heavy vehicles and buses.

2.1 Different types of locking systems in Automobiles

2.1.1 Brakes
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object or
preventing its motion. Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to
convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy
conversion may be employed. Brakes are one of the most important safety features on your
vehicle. There are different types of brakes, both between vehicles and within a vehicle. The
brakes used to stop a vehicle while driving are known as the service brakes, which are either a disc
and drum brake. Vehicles also come equipped with other braking systems, including anti-lock and
emergency brakes.
The different types of brakes are:-
1. Disc Brake.
2. Drum Brake.
3. Emergency Brake.
4. Anti-Lock Brake.

2.1.1(A) Disc Brakes

Figure 2-3: Disc Brake

2.1.1(B) Drum Brakes

Drum brakes consist of a brake drum attached to the wheel, a wheel cylinder, brake shoes, and
brake return springs. Hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder causes the wheel cylinder to press
the brake shoes against the brake drum. This creates friction between the shoes and drum to slow or
stop your car.

Figure 2-4: Drum Brake

2.1.1(C) Emergency Brakes
Vehicles also come equipped with a secondary braking system, known as emergency or parking
brakes. Emergency brakes are independent of the service brakes, and are not powered by
hydraulics. Parking brakes use cables to mechanically apply the brakes (usually the rear brake).
There are a few different types of emergency brakes, which include: a stick lever located between
the driver and passenger seats; a pedal located to the left of the floor pedals; or a push button
or handle located somewhere near the steering column. Emergency brakes are most often used as a
parking brake to help keep a vehicle stationary while parked. And, yes, they are also used in
emergency situations, in case the other brake system fails.

2.1.1(D) Anti-Lock Brakes

Computer controlled anti-lock braking systems (ABS) is an important safety feature which is
equipped on most new vehicles. When brakes are applied suddenly, ABS prevents the wheels from
locking up and the tires from skidding. The system monitors the speed of each wheel and
automatically pulses the brake pressure on and off rapidly on any wheels where skidding is
detected. This is beneficial for driving on wet and slippery roads. ABS works with the service
brakes to decrease stopping distance and increase control and stability of the vehicle during hard
braking.

2.2 Actuator

An actuator is a type of motor which is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or

system. Linear actuator is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the circular
motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in machine tools and industrial
machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and in
many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders inherently
produce linear motion. Many other mechanisms are used to generate linear motion from a rotating
motor. It is operated by a source of energy, typically electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or
pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is the mechanism by which a
control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be simple (a fixed mechanical or
electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control system), a human, or any
other input.
 Types of Actuators

1. Hydraulic

2. Pneumatic

3. Piezoelectric actuators

4. Electro Mechanical

5. Mechanical

2.2.1 Hydraulic Actuator

 Figure 2-5: Hydraulic Actuator

A cylinder or fluid motor that converts hydraulic power into useful mechanical work. The
mechanical motion produced may be linear, rotary, or oscillatory. Operation exhibits high force
capability, high power per unit weight and volume, good mechanical stiffness, and high dynamic
response. These features lead to wide use in precision control systems and in heavy-duty machine
tool, mobile, marine, and aerospace applications.

Cylinder actuators provide a fixed length of straight-line motion. They usually consist of a tight-
fitting piston moving in a closed cylinder. The piston is attached to a rod that extends from one end
of the cylinder to provide the mechanical output. The double-acting cylinder has a port at each end
of the cylinder to admit or return hydraulic fluid. A four-way directional valve functions to connect
one cylinder port to the hydraulic supply and the other to the return, depending on the desired
direction of the power stroke.

2.2.2 Pneumatic Actuator

 Figure 2-6: Pneumatic Actuator

A pneumatic actuator is used for remote operation of a control element, such as a valve, damper, or
stopcock, in automatic control systems. Pneumatic actuators may act on the control element through
translator or rotary motion. Actuators with translator motion are more common in industrial
pneumatic automatic control. They may be of the two-position or multi position type. A two-
position pneumatic actuator is used to shift a control element from one extreme position to the
other, usually according to a signal from a relay element. A multi position actuator places the
control element in various positions according to the level of the control signal. Actuators may be of
the piston or diaphragm type.

In cases where a faster response is required, vibrating relay actuators are used. The relay
characteristic of such actuators is linearized by applying the high-frequency vibrations to the control
device, which may be a slide valve, jet tube, or nozzle and baffle. The shorter the linear portion of
the characteristic for such a pneumatic actuator, the faster its response.

2.2.3 Piezoelectric Actuators

The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which application of a voltage to the
material causes it to expand. Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result,
piezoelectric actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution, but also have a very short
range of motion. In addition, piezoelectric materials exhibit hysteresis which makes it difficult to
control their expansion in a repeatable manner.

2.2.4 Electro Mechanical Actuator

Electro-mechanical actuators are similar to mechanical actuators except that the control knob or
handle is replaced with an electric motor. Rotary motion of the motor is converted to linear
displacement. There are many designs of modern linear actuators and every company that
manufactures them tends to have a proprietary method. The following is a generalized description
of a very simple electro-mechanical linear actuator.

Figure 2-7: Electro-Mechanical Actuator

Typically, an electric motor is mechanically connected to rotate a lead screw. A lead screw has a
continuous helical thread machined on its circumference running along the length (similar to the
thread on a bolt). Threaded onto the lead screw is a lead nut or ball nut with corresponding helical
threads. The nut is prevented from rotating with the lead screw (typically the nut interlocks with a
non-rotating part of the actuator body). Therefore, when the lead screw is rotated, the nut will be
driven along the threads. The direction of motion of the nut depends on the direction of rotation of
the lead screw. By connecting linkages to the nut, the motion can be converted to usable linear
displacement. Most current actuators are built for high speed, high force, or a compromise between
the two. When considering an actuator for a particular application, the most important specifications
are typically travel, speed, force, accuracy, and lifetime.

2.2.5 Mechanical Actuator

Mechanical, linear actuators typically operate by conversion of rotary motion into linear motion.
Conversion is commonly made via a few simple types of mechanism:

 Screw: lead screw, screw jack, ball screw and roller screw actuators all operate on the
principle of the simple machine known as the screw. By rotating the actuator's nut, the screw
shaft moves in a line.
 Wheel and axle: Hoist, winch, rack and pinion, chain drive, belt drive, rigid chain and rigid
belt actuators operate on the principle of the wheel and axle. A rotating wheel moves a cable,
rack, chain or belt to produce linear motion.[1]
 Cam: Cam actuators function on a principle similar to that of the wedge, but provide
relatively limited travel. As a wheel-like cam rotates, its eccentric shape provides thrust at the
base of a shaft.
Some mechanical linear actuators only pull, such as hoists, chain drive and belt drives. Others only
push (such as a cam actuator). Pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, or lead screws can be designed to
generate force in both directions.

Mechanical actuators typically convert rotary motion of a control knob or handle into linear
displacement via screws and/or gears to which the knob or handle is attached. A jackscrew or car
jack is a familiar mechanical actuator. Another family of actuators are based on thesegmented
spindle. Rotation of the jack handle is converted mechanically into the linear motion of the jack
head. Mechanical actuators are also frequently used in the field of lasers and optics to manipulate
the position of linear stages, rotary stages, mirror mounts, goniometry and other positioning
instruments. For accurate and repeatable positioning, index marks may be used on control knobs.
Some actuators include an encoder and digital position readout. These are similar to the adjustment
knobs used on micrometers except their purpose is position adjustment rather than position
measurement.
 3 ASSEMBLY
Setup consists of following components:-
1. Actuator
2. Battery
3. Wheels
4. Shaft
5. Ratchet and Pawl

3.1 Actuator

An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or

system.A linear actuator is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the
circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are used in machine tools and
industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and
dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Hydraulic or pneumatic
cylinders inherently produce linear motion. Many other mechanisms are used to generate linear
motion from a rotating motor.It is operated by a source of energy, typically electric current,
hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion. An actuator is
the mechanism by which a control system acts upon an environment. The control system can be
simple (a fixed mechanical or electronic system), software-based (e.g. a printer driver, robot control
system), a human, or any other input.

 Types of Actuators

1. Hydraulic

2. Pneumatic

3. Piezoelectric actuators

4. Electro Mechanical
 3.1.1 Electro Mechanical Actuator

Electro-mechanical actuators are similar to mechanical actuators except that the control knob or
handle is replaced with an electric motor. Rotary motion of the motor is converted to linear
displacement. There are many designs of modern linear actuators and every company that
manufactures them tends to have a proprietary method. The following is a generalized description
of a very simple electro-mechanical linear actuator.

Figure 6-8: Actuator

Typically, an electric motor is mechanically connected to rotate a lead screw. A lead screw has a
continuous helical thread machined on its circumference running along the length (similar to the
thread on a bolt). Threaded onto the lead screw is a lead nut or ball nut with corresponding helical
threads. The nut is prevented from rotating with the lead screw (typically the nut interlocks with a
non-rotating part of the actuator body). Therefore, when the lead screw is rotated, the nut will be
driven along the threads. The direction of motion of the nut depends on the direction of rotation of
the lead screw. By connecting linkages to the nut, the motion can be converted to usable linear
displacement. Most current actuators are built for high speed, high force, or a compromise between
the two. When considering an actuator for a particular application, the most important specifications
are typically travel, speed, force, accuracy, and lifetime.

There are many types of motors that can be used in a linear actuator system. These include dc brush,
dc brushless, stepper, or in some cases, even induction motors. It all depends on the application
requirements and the loads the actuator is designed to move. For example, a linear actuator using an
integral horsepower AC induction motor driving a lead screw can be used to operate a large valve in
a refinery. In this case, accuracy and high movement resolution aren't needed, but high force and
speed are. For electromechanical linear actuators used in laboratory instrumentation robotics,
optical and laser equipment, or X-Y tables, fine resolution in the micron range and high accuracy
may require the use of a fractional horsepower stepper motor linear actuator with a fine pitch lead
screw. There are many variations in the electromechanical linear actuator system. It is critical to
understand the design requirements and application constraints to know which one would be best.

Table 6-1: Standard Data of Actuator

SR NO Parameter Specification
1 Motor Type Electric Motor
2 Maximum Velocity 16 mm/s
3 Standard Motor Voltage 12V
4 Direction Reversible
5 Mounting By screw
6 High Thrust 600N
7 Operating Frequency 10%
8 Stroke 100 mm

3.1.1.1 Principles
In the majority of linear actuator designs, the basic principle of operation is that of an inclined
plane. The threads of a lead screw act as a continuous ramp that allows a small rotational force to be
used over a long distance to accomplish movement of a large load over a short distance.

3.1.1.2 Variations
Many variations on the basic design have been created. Most focus on providing general
improvements such as a higher mechanical efficiency, speed, or load capacity. There is also a large
engineering movement towards actuator miniaturization.

Most electro-mechanical designs incorporate a lead screw and lead nut. Some use a ball screw and
ball nut. In either case the screw may be connected to a motor or manual control knob either
directly or through a series of gears. Gears are typically used to allow a smaller (and weaker) motor
spinning at a higher rpm to be geared down to provide the torque necessary to spin the screw under
a heavier load than the motor would otherwise be capable of driving directly. Effectively this
sacrifices actuator speed in favor of increased actuator thrust. In some applications the use of worm
gear is common as this allow a smaller built in dimension still allowing great travel length.

A traveling-nut linear actuator has a motor that stays attached to one end of the lead screw (perhaps
indirectly through a gear box), the motor spins the lead screw, and the lead nut is restrained from
spinning so it travels up and down the lead screw.

A traveling-screw linear actuator has a lead screw that passes entirely through the motor. In a
traveling-screw linear actuator, the motor "crawls" up and down a lead screw that is restrained from
spinning. The only spinning parts are inside the motor, and may not be visible from the outside.

Some lead screws have multiple "starts". This means they have multiple threads alternating on the
same shaft. One way of visualizing this is in comparison to the multiple color stripes on a candy
cane. This allows for more adjustment between thread pitch and nut/screw thread contact area,
which determines the extension speed and load carrying capacity (of the threads), respectively.

3.1.1.3 Static load capacity

Linear screw actuators can have a static loading capacity, meaning that when the motor stops the
actuator essentially locks in place and can support a load that is either pulling or pushing on the
actuator. This static load capacity increases mobility and speed.

The braking force of the actuator varies with the angular pitch of the screw threads and the specific
design of the threads. Acme threads have a very high static load capacity, while ball screws have an
extremely low load capacity and can be nearly free-floating.

Generally it is not possible to vary the static load capacity of screw actuators without additional
technology. The screw thread pitch and drive nut design defines a specific load capacity that cannot
be dynamically adjusted.

In some cases, high viscosity grease can be added to linear screw actuators to increase the static
load. Some manufacturers use this to alter the load for specific needs.

Static load capacity can be added to a linear screw actuator using an electromagnetic brake system,
which applies friction to the spinning drive nut. For example a spring may be used to apply brake
pads to the drive nut, holding it in position when power is turned off. When the actuator needs to be
moved, an electromagnet counteracts the spring and releases the braking force on the drive nut.

Similarly an electromagnetic ratchet mechanism can be used with a linear screw actuator so that the
drive system lifting a load will lock in position when power to the actuator is turned off. To lower
the actuator, an electromagnet is used to counteract the spring force and unlock the ratchet.

3.1.1.4 Dynamic load capacity

Dynamic load capacity is typically referred to as the amount of force the linear actuator is capable
of providing during operation. This force will vary with screw type (amount of friction restricting
movement) and the motor driving the movement. Dynamic load is the figure which most actuators
are classified by, and is a good indication of what applications it would suit best.
3.1.1.5 Speed Control
In most cases when using an electro-mechanical actuator, it is preferred to have some type of speed
control. Such controllers vary the voltage supplied to the motor, which in turn changes the speed at
which the lead screw turns.

3.1.1.6 Duty Cycle

The duty cycle of a motor refers to the amount of time the actuator can be run before it needs to
cool down. Staying within this guideline when operating an actuator is key to its longevity and
performance. If the duty cycle rating is exceeded, then overheating, loss of power, and eventual
burning of the motor is risked

3.1.1.7 Linear motors

A linear motor is functionally the same as a rotary electric motor with the rotor and stator circular
magnetic field components laid out in a straight line. Where a rotary motor would spin around and
re-use the same magnetic pole faces again, the magnetic field structures of a linear motor are
physically repeated across the length of the actuator.

Since the motor moves in a linear fashion, no lead screw is needed to convert rotary motion to
linear. While high capacity is possible, the material and/or motor limitations on most designs are
surpassed relatively quickly due to a reliance solely on magnetic attraction and repulsion forces.
Most linear motors have a low load capacity compared to other types of linear actuators.

Linear motors have an advantage in outdoor or dirty environments in that the two halves do not
need to contact each other, and so the electromagnetic drive coils can be waterproofed and sealed
against moisture and corrosion, allowing for a very long service life.

3.2 Battery

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal, or cathode, and a
negative terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move between the electrodes and terminals,
which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.

3.2.1 Battery cell types

Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and
designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells, wet cell, dry cell and
voltaic piles.

1. Wet cell
2. Dry Cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers all
internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet cells
were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. They
can be built with common laboratory supplies, such asbeakers, for demonstrations of how
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cellis important
in understanding corrosion.
Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable). Originally, all
practical primary batteries such as the Daniel cell were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other
primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell,
and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still
used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telecommunication
or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used
instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells

3.3 Wheels

A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axial bearing. The wheel is one of
the main components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six simple machines. Wheels, in
conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or
transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in machines. Wheels are also used for
other purposes, such as a ship’s wheel ship's wheel, steering wheel,potter’s wheel and flywheel.

Common examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly reduces friction by
facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a moment
needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity, or by the application of
another external force or torque.

3.4 Axle

A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan shaft is a mechanical
component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive
train that cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative
movement between them.

As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference
between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress,
whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.

To allow for variations in the alignment and distance between the driving and driven components,
drive shafts frequently incorporate one or more universal joints, jaw couplings, or rag joints, and
sometimes a splined joint or prismatic joint.

3.5 Ratchet and Pawl

A ratchet is a mechanical device that allows continuous linear or rotary motion in only one
direction while preventing motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets are widely used in machinery
and tools. Though something of a misnomer, "ratchet" is also often used to refer to ratcheting socket
wrenches, a common tool with a ratcheting handle.
The ratchet and pawl, a very simple device which allows a shaft to turn only one way. The
possibility of having something turn only one way requires some detailed and careful analysis, and
there are some very interesting consequences.

3.5.1 Theory of Operation

A ratchet consists of a round gear or linear rack with teeth, and a pivoting, spring loaded finger
called a pawl that engages the teeth. The teeth are uniform but asymmetrical with each tooth having
a moderate slope on one edge and a much steeper slope on the other edge.

When the teeth are moving in the unrestricted (i.e., forward) direction (see Figure 2), the pawl
easily slides up and over the gently sloped edges of the teeth, with a spring forcing it (often with an
audible 'click') into the depression between the teeth as it passes the tip of each tooth. When the
teeth move in the opposite (backward) direction, however, the pawl will catch against the steeply
sloped edge of the first tooth it encounters, thereby locking it against the tooth and preventing any
further motion in that direction.

3.5.2 Backlash

Because the ratchet can only stop backward motion at discrete points (i.e., at tooth boundaries), a
ratchet does allow a limited amount of backward motion. This backward motion which is

limited to a maximum distance equal to the spacing between the teeth is called backlash. In cases
where backlash must be minimized, a smooth, toothless ratchet with a high friction surface such as
rubber is sometimes used. The pawl bears against the surface at an angle so that any backward
motion will cause the pawl to jam against the surface and thus prevent any further backward
motion. Since the backward travel distance is primarily a function of the compressibility of the high
friction surface, this mechanism can result in significantly reduced backlash.
 4 WORKING

Figure 7-9: CAD Diagram for Experimental Setup

The working principal of the mechanism is very simple. It can be easily understood from the above
Cad diagram. Mechanism consists of Ratchet and Pawl arrangement which will engage with each
other as per the choice of the driver. As seen above the ratchet is simply a gear which has got one
side teeth due to which is can transfer the power in unidirectional only. Just above it pawls are
mounted which will engage with the ratchet to lock its rotation in any one direction. Ratchet and
Pawl will be collectively mounted on the rear axle in such a way that the ratchet will have the drive
along with the rear axle. Due to this the pawl will be able to engage with the ratchet when it will be
in motion along with the wheels.
One push button will be mounted on steering wheel or dashboard which will be operated by the
driver on choice. It will have 2 knobs say ON and OFF. The knob will be connected to the power
supply and actuators. It will control the operational function of the actuator in contrast with the
engaging and disengaging the mechanism. When its knob will be ON that time it will actuate the
actuator. The output shaft of the actuator will come outward as it is connected to the common link
of the two pawl. Due to this both the pawl will start to move upward i.e. it will not have contact
with the ratchet thereby disengaging the mechanism.
Now the vehicle will be able to move in both the direction i.e. forward as well as reverse. Now
exacted opposite to this when Off knob will be that time the output shaft will inward. Now the
mechanism will be activated i.e the pawls will get engaged with the ratchet as the movement of the
pawls will be downward. As the pawls got engaged with ratchet the vehicle will now not be able to
move in the reverse direction. It will only move in forward direction thereby justifying the working
of the mechanism.