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ESSENTIAL OIL CROPS

Essential Oil Crops

E.A. Weiss
Agricultural Adviser
Eaglemont
Victoria
Australia

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First published 1997


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ISBN 0 85199 137 8

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Contents

Introduction vii
Acknowledgements xi

1. World Trade in Essential Oils 1

2. Annonaceae 10
Cananga 10

3. Geraniaceae 24
Pelargonium 24
Geranium 50

4. Gramineae 59
Citronella 67
Lemongrass 86
Palmarosa and Gingergrass 103
Vetiver 117

5. Lamiaceae 138
Patchouli 138

6. Lauraceae 155
Camphor 156
Cassia 168
Cinnamon 180
Sassafras 195
Ocotea 198
Laurel 200
Litsea cubeba 207

7. Myristicaceae 214
Nutmeg 215

V
Vi Contents

8. Myrtaceae 235
Clove 235
Euclayptus 259
Melaleuca 302
Leptospermum 319
Pimenta 322
Myrtle 333

9. Oleaceae 342
Jasmine 342
Osmanthus 359

10. Piperaceae 362


Pepper 363
Cubeb Pepper 384
Betel Pepper 386

11. Rosaceae 393


Rose 394

12. Rutaceae 417


Lime 435
Bitter Orange 444
Bergamot Orange 459
Lemon 464
Grapefruit 475
Mandarin 482
Sweet Orange 49 1
Boronia 501
West Indian Sandalwood 504

13. Santalaceae 516


Sandalwood 516

14. Zingiberaceae 539


Ginger 539

15. Distilling and Extracting Essential Oils 568

Glossary 579

Index 585
Introduction

Plants producing an aromatic oil, fruit, or seed were used in religious


ceremonies or for personal use and adornment long before recorded history,
and remain popular for similar reasons. Words derived from their use,
including perfume from the Latinperfumum and alembic from the Arabic al-
inbic, are in common use.
The Vedic literature written in India around 2000 BC lists hundreds of
aromatic substances including cinnamon, ginger and sandalwood, and the
Rig Veda describes their use for religious and medical purposes. Aromatics
were considered more than perfumes, as in languages of the region atar
means smoke, wind, odour and essence. Probably the most well documented
and certainly the best known ancient use of a wide range of aromatic materials
was in dynastic Egypt. The gums and oils employed in embalming are
detectable today, together with the remains of scented unguents contained in
ornate funerary jars and cosmetic pots found in the Pharoah’s tombs.
The Greeks profited from Egyptian knowledge and experience in the use
of aromatics, but the Romans exceeded the Greeks in their extravagant use
of these materials especially oils. Romans recognized three basic perfumery
types: solid unguents ladysmata, scented oils stymmata, and perfumed pow-
ders diapasmata. Herodotus, around 425 BC, was the first to record the
distillation of turpentine, and his books provide information about perfumes
and aromatics then used in the Middle East. A detailed study of the source
and use of some six hundred plants and aromatics used by the Greeks and
Romans in the 1st century AD was compiled by Pedanius Dioscorides in his
De materia medica. Hippocrates, born about 460 BC, prescribed perfumed
fumigations and fomentations; one of the most famous compounded from
myrrh, cinnamon and cassia was named megaleion for its original maker
Megallus, and like a similar Egyptian remedy, the kyphi, was used as
perfume, to alleviate skin inflammations, and pain of battle wounds.
There is also an ancient link between perfume and sensuality; in Persia,
Greece and Rome, youths and girls wearing only fragrant flowers and

vii
viii introduction

anointed with aromatic oils danced for the erotic pleasure of guests at ruler’s
feasts. Solomon, King of Israel, in his oft-quoted Song described the
exquisitely smelling ointments that stirred young maidens to love, and who
perfumed his bed with essences of myrrh, aloes and cinnamon; a common
contemporary practice by women wishing to attract a lover. It is recorded
that the great general Hannibal had good reason to regret the relationship;
after crossing the Alps and defeating the Romans he quartered his army in
Capua, capital of Campania. Defeated Romans corrupted his idle troops
and quickly made the town a trading centre for perfumes, aromatic oils and
associated sexual excess - practices which spread rapidly throughout the
Empire.
Today the association between perfumes and sexual attractiveness con-
tinues to be exploited in the electronic and print media and names of major
perfumes; while insects and some animals disperse a pheromone to attract a
mate.
The author has long been interested in aromatic plants, and wherever
possible introduced them into research programmes or integrated their
production into agricultural projects under his control. The crops selected
are those the author believes should be encouraged in countries where cash
crops are limited, or outside inputs to raise rural incomes difficult to obtain.
For this reason the important pine oils have not been included, since these
are frequently produced in more developed countries. It is emphasized that
this book is basically concerned with growing essential oil plants to obtain an
aromatic derivative, and not with essential oils per se.
Oil is contained in specialized structures in all or some plant parts: cavities
or ducts in the epidermis as in eucalyptus leaves or citrus fruit peel; glands or
hairs originating from epidermal cells as in the modified leaf hairs on
geranium. Why plants secrete oils or waxes has yet to be fully explained,
although certain activities can reasonably be attributed to their presence; to
deter browsing animals, as an insect repellent or to increase disease resist-
ance, while terpenes leached from eucalyptus leaves contribute to allelo-
pathic effects on the forest floor thus inhibiting germination and growth of
competitors. Highly scented oil contained in flowers is the exception, and
generally accepted as an aid to reproduction by attracting pollinators. Hence
the recommendation to integrate bee-keeping into commercial production
of essential oil crops whenever possible, as the author demonstrated most
profitably with certain oilseeds, and why honey production has been men-
tioned where applicable.
While the advantage to plants of their oil remains unclear, so also is the
mode of action of essential oils in phytotherapy. It would appear the
lipophilic character of compounds in oils could be responsible for the broad
spectrum of biological activities; however, to massage oils into the human
skin as in aromatherapy is of little therapeutic value, although it may induce
a feeling of sensual well-being!
lntroduction ix

The plant metabolic processes involved in oil secretion, the rate it occurs,
the biosynthetic pathways determining its composition and evolution of
various components, require further investigation. The detailed composi-
tion of many essential oils, however, has been published in the literature, and
reviews such as those of Dr Brian Lawrence are a valuable reference
source.
Oil composition, especially the terpene components, is now important in
plant classification as chemotaxonomy, since physical characters may be
virtually impossible to differentiate. The increasing precision of analytical
techniques, including enantioselective gas chromatography, allows very
accurate determination of oil composition. How this is linked to odour is
debatable, and assessing oil odour remains highly subjective. However,
determining a specific constituent or formulation is possible using an elec-
tronic nose, which is an array of chemical sensors linked to a neural network
(see Chapter 15).
Biotechnology can influence the breeding or development of essential oil
plants, and could theoretically produce plants containing oil of a required
composition or odour. It is also possible agronomically to modify a partic-
ular oil by varying the time of harvest, and thus regulating the abundance of
a specific constituent. Genetic manipulation can be commercially successful
as demonstrated on a fatty oil by scientists at CSIRO in Australia, who
successfully modified linseed to produce an edible oil, linola (Weiss, 1993).
French plant breeders have also used these techniques to alter the natural
scent of jasmine and rose flowers to produce novel odours aimed directly at
the fragrance industry.
Certain components of essential oils can be replaced by relatively cheap
synthetics, and although such compounds are useful in what are virtually
industrial products such as soft drinks, few are able fully to duplicate the
natural essence. Additionally, there is considerable worldwide pressure by
consumers on manufacturers to use what are perceived to be natural
compounds in edible and personal products. T o take advantage of this and
similar trends, growers in all countries must upgrade agricultural methods
and improve management techniques to either increase yield or raise profita-
bility. A range of suitable agricultural equipment is now available, including
a variety of small manually-operated machines, computer-controlled seed-
ers and transplanters, and integrated harvestingidistilling combinations.
Semi-automatic fruit pickers are available, and citrus-picking robots in-
dicate future trends.
Weed control should incorporate rotations and efficient use of herbicides,
which remain important and economical, while application machinery is
continually improving including weed-detecting sprayers. Integrated pest
management can reduce the amount of chemicals applied, since some
adversely affect oil characteristics or odour. Improvements in soil manage-
ment, especially irrigation techniques, could be more widely applied. Water
X Introduction

conservation will become of increasing importance as conflict between end


users for a share will intensify as human populations rise. In less developed
countries, provision of credit, greater use of cooperatives and more efficient
but not necessarily more expensive distilling methods should be intro-
duced.
It has been argued that growth in demand for naturally produced oils and
flavourings will slow, and there is little point in advocating their increased
production. This is not the view of many in the fragrance and flavour
industry (Grisanti, 1993) nor is it held by the author, since international
market studies predict consumption of flavours and fragrances will exceed
US$ 8 billion by the year 2000. It is important that developed countries
deliberately support essential oil production in those less developed if only in
self-interest, since this will reduce demand for aid and assist in limiting the
North-South confrontation. Governments in producer countries should
also support their growers by taking advantage of the world consumer
demand for natural products to expand their markets, and in so doing add
emphasis to the advantages of ‘Trade Not Aid!’.

Notes on the Text


The chapters were not written in numerical order since the book has had a
fairly long gestation. Thus the reader may be referred to operations or
techniques in a subsequent not preceding chapter. Essential oil has been
retained since it is generally understood by producers, traders and users,
rather than the sometimes more accurate volatile oil. Regrettably, there is a
lack of uniformity in the amount of information and data between the crops
discussed mainly due to absence of published material; hence the personal
comments and inclusion of somewhat dated but still-relevant material.
Certain important omissions, however, were due to refusal by authors or
publishers to release copyright material. The section heading Distillation has
been retained for conformity but includes other methods of obtaining oils,
concretes etc.; there is also a minor level of repetition for clarity. Cultivar is
used in its accepted definition, but for brevity to also include what are
described in the literature as selections, strains and local varieties; but
chemovar (chemical variety) or chemotype as necessary.
Two aspects of the essential oil industry are worth noting. Trade names
are frequently unrelated to either geographic or botanic origin and may be
deliberately misleading! Equally confusing are the various terms employed
to describe oil odour, quoted for reference, which remain a controversial and
subjective aspect of oil evaluation.
Acknowledgements

The author wishes to acknowledge, with thanks, permission to use the


following photographs and diagrams: Prof. J.E. Armstrong, Illinois State
University 7.2, 7.3, 7.4; Buderim Ginger Ltd, Queensland, Australia, 14.3;
Dr Manziri-i-Khuda, BCSIR, Bangladesh, 4.9; Mr B. Meyer-Warnod
Camilli, Albert and Lalone, France 9.2, 15.4, 15.5, 15.6, 15.7; Mr A.
Mohamed, Always, India 4.12; Dr F.S. Pallisco, Forest Research Institute,
Laguna, Philippines 2.2; Mr B. Perera, Colombo, Sri Lanka 6.3, 6.5; Prof.
M. Salvarjan, Madurai Agricultural College, India, 5.1; Mr. T. Sato, Japan
Flavour & Fragrance Manufacturers Association 4.13; Dr B.E.J. Small,
Department of Agriculture, NSW, Australia 8.1 1, 8.12; D r V. Topalov,
Plovdiv, Bulgaria 1 1.3; Department of Agriculture, NSW, Australia 8.9,
8.10; the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia 13.4.
The author also wishes to express his appreciation to all those people he
met or corresponded with, who gave valuable information or related their
experience growing essential oil crops, from smallholders to large producers.
Others have been mentioned as authors of published works, or whose private
communications are directly quoted. T o all these my most grateful thanks,
not only for the information but also for the opportunity to meet so many,
most interesting, people. Finally to my son John for his invaluable help in
locating references, and to my wife Winnie who typed the text and assisted in
the editing. Any errors are due to a virus!

xi
World Trade
in Essential Oils 1
Total production of essential oils and aromatic plant derivatives is almost
impossible to quantify, as considerable amounts may be used nationally
without being recorded in production statistics; India and the ASEAN
countries for example. National trade statistics can also be variously in-
terpreted as they may include several oils under one designation, may be
collected by different ministries, and are frequently very inaccurate. The
following tables and comments are a general indication of world trends, and
considered sufficient to support the text. The period to publication of a book
of this type outdates annual statistics, and retrospective data (UNCTAD,
1982, 1986; Lawrence, 1984), while comprehensive, is of historical interest
only in a rapidly changing industry, and marketing executives normally
commission their own confidential surveys. An example of a significant and
fast change in the market followed establishment of the North American
Free Trade Area in 1994. Mexican citrus oils, particularly lime, thus enjoy
preferential treatment and local production rapidly expanded at the expense
of former suppliers. China’s production of rose derivatives in particular has
greatly expanded, and now rivals traditional European producers.
Major producers of aromatic materials discussed herein are, in alpha-
betical order, the ASEAN countries, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia
and the USA, but their relative ranking in terms of volume or value varies
according to product. However, China is becoming increasingly important
as a primary source since it remains one of the few countries with a huge
reservoir of low-paid labour, a major advantage in the production of many
aromatics, especially where flowers are the raw material (Zhao, 1993).
Calculated world usage of flavour and fragrance materials of natural origin
in 1984 and 1994 is shown in Table 1.1.
The member states of the European Union (EU) and Switzerland are the
largest world market for aromatic materials; many are imported, reprocessed
and re-exported and there is a significant internal trade. There are historical
reasons why the EU is a large consumer of essential oils, France in particular
is a long-established centre of the European perfume industry, but recently

1
2 Chapter 1

Table 1.1. World usage of flavour and fragrance materials of natural origin in
1984 and 1994 (US$ millions).

Aromatic material 1984 1994


Fragrance compounds 2000 3000
Flavour compounds 2000 3000
Aroma chemicals 1000 1600
Essential oils and derivatives 1000 1400
Total 6000 9000

flavourings have become more important. Following formation of the origi-


nal European Community many international companies established large
manufacturing plants to take advantage of regional trade preferences, and
tend to source their raw materials directly from producing countries. Major
EU imports (in alphabetical not volume ranking) are citronella, citrus, clove,
eucalyptus, lemongrass, mint, patchouli, rose and vetiver oils and their
derivatives. Table 1.2 shows the average annual imports of selected essential
oils by some European countries and Japan.
The USA is the world's largest single-country importer of aromatic
materials, followed by Japan, and thus prices to the USA generally establish
a world level. Imports for the years 1985, 1990-1991 are shown in Table
1.3A and 1992-1994 in Table 1.3B., which cover major products; Table
1.4. indicates the changes in import volume of selected oils from 1950 to
1990. The USA is also the world's largest user of citrus oils, and the Pepsi
Cola Co. of New York estimated the average annual domestic and world use
in beverages in recent years to be as shown in Table 1.5.

Table 1.2. Average annual imports of selected essential oils 1980-1990 (in tonnes).

Oil France Germany Netherlands UK Japan


Citronella 407(-1) 129(-1) 125 215 228( t 3 )
Eucalyptus 672(tl) 285(t1) 56(tl) 275jt1) 36
Geranium 47 "g ng 28(+1) 15
Lemon 328(t 1) 177 80(+1) 520(tl) 165(t1)
Mint" ng ng ng 617(t 2) 578
Orange 1374(t 2) 1730 470 101O( t 2) 30654t I )
Patchouli ng ng ng ng 27(tl)
Peppermint 823(t 1) ng ng ng ng
Spearmint ng ng ng ng 80
Vetiver 103(+ 1) 7 5 14(-1) 10
aother than specified; ng, not given.
Note trend in parentheses: t denotes up with number indicating degree (3 maximum): - denotes
down with number indicating degree (3 maximum); no sign = relatively static.
Source: International Trade Centre UnctadiGAll Geneva.
World Trade in Essential Oils 3

For c o m p a r i s o n , t h e S c h i m m e l R e p o r t of 1936 l i s t s total world p r o d u c -


t i o n of m a j o r c i t r u s o i l s in 1935, in t o n s with l e a d i n g oil p r o d u c e r s in
b r a c k e t s , as: l e m o n 750 (Italy), s w e e t o r a n g e 400 (Italy, Brazil, Jamaica,
USA), b i t t e r o r a n g e 5 (Italy, Spain), b e r g a m o t 170 (Italy, USA), l i m e t t e 35

Table 1.3A. United States imports of specified essential oils, 1985, 1990-1991,

1985 1990 1991


Oil Kilograms $ 1 0 0 0 ~ Kilograms $ 1 0 0 0 ~ Kilograms $1000~
Anise 18,976 177 20,391 247 64,702 768
Bergamot 31.423 657 40,605 3584 38,939 3858
Caraway 6008 197 8622 21 1 6672 21 6
Cassia 251,380 11,780 333,189 10,577 493,360 11,826
Cedarwood 169,626 415 460,953 1904 288,451 1776
Citronella 621,317 2402 504,120 1870 355,711 1412
Citrus 159,279 2561 178,288 2789
Clove 588,912 2211 366,047 1191 474,979 1814
Cornmint 134,199 1546 191,005 1837 359,677 2775
Eucalyptus 226,163 1023 377,932 2332 326,358 1709
Geranium 48,928 2589 61,922 2234 49,523 2045
Grapefruit 85,919 230 259,814 1539 295,065 1537
Jasmine - - 2329 1798 10,721 1898
Lavender 61,594 909 334,857 4847 403,101 5799
Lemon 998,117 12,471 1,368,054 18,698 1490,998 22,295
Lemongrass 61,471 396 56,175 578 37,193 330
Lime 622,973 13,486 852,748 12,768 970,635 13,038
Linaloe 66,255 641 27,960 822 28,193 91 1
Mint - - 36,135 445 94,814 720
Nutmeg 108,541 1995 105,751 1630 152,649 1289
Onion and garlic 6065 745 45,114 2938 54,205 3867
Orange 4,465,738 6330 6,546,542 9895 3,719,572 5726
Orris 21 60 636 1068 1458 2848 1841
Patchouli 247,148 4460 266,960 4253 246,096 3421
Peppermint 2652 95 15,524 293 25,293 527
Petitgrain 79,080 1297 69,607 2199 100,553 2916
Pine 72,547 69 1,553,161 1107 86,845 140
Rose 2648 681 1 3973 6358 4499 6027
Rosemary 33,600 308 48,792 616 54,882 782
Sandalwood 25,272 2754 29,377 4361 18,965 2471
Sassafras 458,610 1718 326,270 1060 192,837 1046
Spearmint 12,167 163 148,704 2704 186,171 3540
Vetiver 70,662 2865 85,348 3373 41,106 1512
Ylang-ylang 42,216 1448 37,913 3178 46,310 3333
Other oils 1,366,726 25,470 1,853,505 35,241 1,633,610 38,581
Total 10,989,093 108,294 16,599,746 150,707 12,533,821 154,535
Source: US Department of Commerce.
4 Chapter 1

(Spain, Dominican Republic), mandarin 25 (USA), petitgrain 85 (Para-


guay) and neroli 140 (France).

Table 1,3B. United States imports of specified essential oils, 1992-1994

1992 1993 1994


Total Dollars Total Dollars Total Dollars
Oil kgs /kg kgs ikg kgs ikg
Anise 53,557 9.94 49,455 8.10 70,399 7.99
Bergamot 42,362 89.29 37,821 62.48 37,970 42.34
Caraway 6557 32.15 10,878 37.86 5546 37.25
Cassia 445,091 33.96 385,158 42.78 473,738 37.09
Cedarwood 365,855 3.49 338,179 5.01 557,895 5.34
Citronella 567,597 3.99 885,843 4.46 626,l 07 7.61
Citrus 231,612 10.49 358,230 8.00 205,115 13.96
Clove 336,278 4.57 462,770 3.21 463,017 4.14
Cornmint 292,935 6.07 248,841 4.65 258,096 6.26
Eucalyptus 347,241 4.56 454,152 4.09 465,252 2.99
Geranium 53,074 37.1 1 64,251 45.52 82,707 56.95
Grapefruit 205,981 5.64 178,501 7.46 272,261 9.55
Jasmine 351 5 500.08 10,716 183.63 10,329 202.10
Lavender 484,628 14.27 417,518 14.98 339,621 14,67
Lemon 1,721,645 16.20 1,406,479 16.37 1,368,513 16.73
Lemongrass 86,608 6.69 67,796 7.07 79,963 8.29
Lime 1,037,955 13.88 756,724 17.53 864,563 17.55
Linaloe 40,974 23.91 30,088 23.29 31,265 23.68
Mint 116,015 7.05 79,498 10.81 76,858 10.86
Nutmeg 191,952 10.41 109,520 8.54 181,242 9.75
Onion and garlic 44,629 80.49 73,563 70.95 117,799 28.51
Orange 9,989,360 1.23 11,908,627 1.36 14,880,881 1.58
Orris 3354 654.47 3387 812.73 8867 263.89
Patchouli 246,352 16.50 390,100 18.97 454,918 19.78
Peppermint 40,704 16.08 146,739 17.43 305,417 18.41
Petitgrain 96,694 27.42 76,507 26.27 94,528 29.71
Pine 505,370 0.73 2117 5.80 40,326 3.69
Rose 3140 2394.62 2504 2662.14 5443 1233.44
Rosemary 57,740 12.35 63,894 11.23 58,576 16.43
Sandalwood 28,716 109.79 31,052 105.66 26,398 139.02
Sassafras 335,837 7.96 250,880 4.09 242,350 3.76
Spearmint 240,265 13.20 31 8,487 9.48 426,144 12.17
Vetiver 29,777 39.36 48,434 57.71 51,997 48.21
Ylang-ylang 48,954 67.28 45,105 63.53 30,556 79.04
Other oils 1,363,058 36.82 2,214,041 21.08 2,221,913 20.53
Total 19,624,448,974 4,312.05 21,927,855 4,404.27 25,436,570 3,905.60
Source: Horticultural and Tropical Products Division, FASIUSDA.
World Trade in Essential Oils 5

Table 1.4. Imports of selected essential oils - USAa,

1950 1960 1970 1990


Citronella 1, I 84,100 952,000 1,224,200 504,100
Clove 130,000 202,200 451,200 366,000
Geranium ng 64,000 58,000 62,000
Lemongrass 263,300 668,500 163,400 56,200
Patchouli ng 55,600 141,000 267,000
Sandalwood 4300 24,300 52,500 29,400
Vetiver 18,300 24,800 78,000 85,400
aAll amounts in kilograms (rounded to nearest 100); ng, not given
Source: US Deoartment of Commerce.

Japan is the second largest national market accounting for about 10% of
world demand. There is little domestic production and major oil imports are
cedar, clove, lemon, orange and peppermint. Imports for the period 1984 to
1994 nearly quadrupled in volume from 6000 to 22,000 tonnes but, due to
a steady increase in the international value of the Yen, total value increased
by only one half from Yen 12 to Yen 18 billion. A major reason for the
increase in imports was a greatly expanded use in flavourings.
Caution is necessary in interpreting world trade statistics as it may appear
from published data there is a surplus of some oils or demand for others is
low, but a new entrant to essential oil production should not be discouraged.
An excellent example is that of the Tasmanian Natural Plant Extracts
Cooperative Society founded in 1990, which achieved export sales of nearly
AU$ 7 million in 1995. Agronomic techniques, plant breeding, product
promotion and marketing can be directly controlled by producers or their
organizations, to supply manufacturers who are continually seeking cheaper
ingredients, new products, new perfumes, new taste sensations, new what-
ever to drive the market!
Introduction of a novel oil, or expansion of an existing oil or derivative
available only in small amounts (i.e. osmanthus and boronia) offer profitable
niche markets, while a Zimbabwe grower has successfully concentrated on
producing organically-grown oils. A completely new associated market can

Table 1.5. The estimated average annual use of citrus oils in beverages (in tonnes).

Oil USA International


Lemonilime 850 1350
Orange 400 1900
Other 250 750
Cola 1040 900
Total 2540 4960
6 Chapter 1

also promote essential oil production. The export offresh jasmine flowers by
air from India to the Gulf States and Arabia, for example, resulted in
research into prolonging flower life and increasing oil odour and persistence,
all of considerable importance to concrete producers. Oil derivatives can
frequently be processed locally into higher value-added products, of partic-
ular relevance to developing countries. Many components, some in very low
amounts, have an important role in determining the sensory character of an
oil, while others in greater abundance can be extracted to improve quality or
reduce transport costs, and are themselves saleable.
Governments in developing countries should thus support independent
rural cooperatives as the most suitable system for increasing essential oil
production. Such societies provide a focus for introducing new methods,
obtaining credit, owning small processing plants, transport and marketing
facilities. It is vital to the success of such initiatives that the maximum of
locally available inputs be used, even if this reduces potential output to some
degree. It may, for example, result in greater use of manpower rather than
mechanical equipment, since the opportunity cost of labour in many devel-
oping countries is virtually nil.
It may also be profitable to concentrate on low-input techniques to obtain
a small quantity of high quality oil, or a larger amount of crude oil for local
processing. Traditional methods of crop production in underdeveloped
regions, although frequently outdated, often have a sound basis for their
continued use. Replacement by more modern techniques may well require
so great a social restructuring of the local community as to make the change
very difficult, sometimes virtually impossible, as the author well knows.
Where the introduction of farm or ancillary equipment is possible, the
emphasis should be on reliability, with oil quality the target rather than
quantity. Solar energy converters for instance are becoming more efficient,
and the equipment is not only relatively cheap with a low maintenance
requirement, but also can be easily transported and erected in remote areas.
Heating water for stills and reducing the need for wood or similar fuels is
only one use. Hot water for personal hygiene also generally improves
community health and thus the potential for increased manual labour.
As human populations increase so will pressure on available land to grow
food, fuel, or provide housing, and an important feature of essential oil
plants is that some local cultivars or landraces have drought resistance,
tolerance of saline soils or water, and thus are able to utilize environments
unsuitable for other crops. Large commercial plantations of many tropical
essential oil crops were unusual, mainly because of the labour intensive
methods previously necessary. Machinery and equipment now available,
together with the technology involved in its use, have radically altered the
potential for large-scale essential oil or spice production. Examples mentioned
in the text are eucalyptus, ginger, tea-tree, and some citrus species whose
r------r--1
manufacturer

Production of manufacturer
essential oils
as by-products .+

FLAVOUR AND
FRAGRANCE HOUSE

Subsidiary
Flavour and

manufacturers

t c c c c
I f , I
Wholesaling networks

Consumers

Fig. 1 -1, Structure of the international flavour and fragance industry, (Hunter, 1996.) NFDA, National
Food and Drug Administration; IFEAT, International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Traders;
FEMA, Flavour and Extract Manufacturers Association; IFRA, International Fragance Association; RIFM,
Research Institute for Fragrance Materials; IOFI, International Organization of Flavour Industries.
8 Chapter 1

production is now fully mechanized and plants selected or grown to be


incorporated in an integrated system, hedge-planting of lime for example.
There are often marked differences in oil obtained from the same plant
due to geographical origin, local environment, maturity at harvest, etc.
Singly or in combination all can affect plant oil content and composition, as
can field operations such as harvesting or distilling. Oil yield, composition
and character also change rapidly during growth, often from day-to-day, and
knowledge of and the ability to exploit these factors can greatly expand the
potential use of a particular plant by producing a range of different oils or
concretes.
An understanding of the structure of the international flavour and fra-
grance industry is of great assistance (Fig 1. l), and described in a recent
review (Hunter, 1996). It must be emphasized that buyer requirements are
paramount in determining the commodity to be produced, and end-user
contacts a major factor in establishing their needs; thus it is vital that a
realistic production programme is based on reliable market research. It is
essential that producers, new or existing, should be able to service any
demand efficiently, economically and, above all, reliably. The author con-
siders there are basically no technical or management problems precluding
production of high-quality essential oils in suitable regions, and gloomy
forecasts should be regarded with scepticism. The Arabs used the trials and
tribulations of Sinbad the Sailor to deter European entry to the ancient spice
trade: today well publicized ‘difficulties’ may be used to discourage potential
producers (competitors?) from growing essential oil crops!

Bibliography

The following list includes references quoted in the introduction and this
chapter, important or interesting publications, or those covering aspects of
essential oils not discussed in this book. The proceedings of the various
international congresses on essential oils, fragrances and flavours also pro-
vide valuable information and references. Important periodicals directly
concerned with essential oils, associated products and their uses, are the
Journal of Essential Oil Research U.Ess. Oil R.), Perjhmer and Flavoriit
(Pe$um. Flav.) and Flavour & Fragrance Journal (Flav. Frag. J.). Access to
a computer also enables a wide range of databases to be consulted. Im-
portant industry organizations are the Research Institute for Fragrance
Materials (RIFAM), the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers Association
(FEMA), the International Fragrance Association (IFRA), the International
Organization of Flavour Industries (IOFI), and the International Federation
of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades (IFEAT).
World Trade in Essential Oils 9

Atal, A.K. and Kapur, B.M. (1982) Cultivation and Utilization of Aromatic Plants.
CSIR, Jammu Tawi, India.
Arctander, S. (1960) Perfume and Flavour Materials of Natural Origin. ,Mrs M.G.
Arctander, 6665 Valley View Blvd, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.
Baerheim, S.A. and Scheffer, J.J.C. (1989) Essential Oils andAromatic Plants. Dr W.
Junk Publications, The Hague, The Netherlands.
Burkill, I.H. (1966) A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula, 2
vols. Government of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Grisanti, E.P. (1993) The challenges of a United Europe for the flavour and
fragrance industry. Perfum. Flav. 18(1), 3-7.
Guenther, E. (1 949-52) The Essential Oils (6 vols). D. van Nostrand Co., New York,
USA.
Hay, R.K.M. and Waterman, P.G. (1993) Volatile Oil Crops: their Biolosy, Bzo-
chemistry and Production. Longman, Harlow, Essex, UK.
Heath, H.B. (198 1) Source Book ofFlavours. The AV1 Pub. Co., Westport, Connecti-
cut, USA.
Husain, A. et al. (1988) Major Essential Oil-bearing Plants of India. Central. Inst.
Medic. & Aromatic Plts, Lucknow, India.
Hunter, M.V. (1996) The flavour and fragrance industry; structure and future
trends. Cosnzetzcs Aero. Toilet. 9(6), 20-31.
Lawless, J. (1992) The Encyclopaedia of Essential Oils. Element Books Ltd, Shaftes-
bury, Dorset, UK.
Lawrence, B.M. Reviews of Essential Oils. Published regularly in Perfumer and
Flavorist. Allured Pub. Corp., Wheaton, Illinois, USA.
Lawrence, B.M. (1984) A review of the world production of essential oils. Perfum.
Flav. 10(3), 21-33.
Miller, J.I. (1969) The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire. Oxford Press, Oxford,
UK.
Parry, J.W. (1953) The Story of Spices. Chemical Pub. Co., New York, USA.
Poucher, W.A. (1993) Poucher’s Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps. 9th edn, 3 vols.
Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
Purseglove, J.W. (ed.) (1981) Spices (2 vols). Longman Group, Harlow, Essex,
UK.
Rosengarten, F., Jr (1969) The Book of Spices. Livingstone Pub. Co., Wynnewood,
USA.
Stobart, R. (1977) Herbs, Spices and Flavourings. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth,
Middlesex, UK.
Suleiman the Merchant - 85 1 AD (1922) Memoirs. Gabriel Ferrand, Paris, France.
Tisserand, R. (1987) The Art ofAromatherapy (Rev. edn). C.W. Daniel Co., Saffron
Walden, Essex, UK.
UNCTAD/GATT (1974 and 1986) Essential Oils and Oleoresins. Geneva, Switzer-
land.
UNCTADiGATT (1982) Spices: a Survey of World Markets, 2 vols. Geneva, Swit-
zerland.
Watt, G. (1908) The Commercial Products of India. John Murray, London, UK.
Weiss, E.A. (1993) Linola - A new edible oil. Oils G. Fats 9(3), 23-24.
Zhao, Q. (1993) China’s perfumery industry picks-up. Pe$uuMz. Flav. 18(1), 47-48;
also 16(5), 51-52.
Annonaceae
2-
The Annonaceae, of the order Magnoliales, is a very large and rather ill-
defined family with 120 genera of mainly tropical species, half in Asia,
Australia and Polynesia, one-third in tropical America, the remainder in
Africa. The genus Cananga (DC) Hook. f. & Thoms. contains two species:
Cananga odorata, source of cananga and ylang-ylang oil, and C. latifolia Gin.
& Gagnep., producing an oil of no commercial importance. A liana Arta-
botrys odoratissimus (Lam.) Men-., known as the climbing ylang-ylang be-
cause its flowers resemble those of cananga, is not utilized for oil produc-
tion.

Cananga

Cananga, also known as ylang-ylang ( but hereafter cananga), was originally


named Arbor sogm'san by Ray (Histom'a plantormm London 1704), but the first
accurate description was by Blume (FloraJavae Brussels 1829). The original
home of cananga is probably South East Asia, although it is now native or
naturalized in Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and other
Pacific islands, and the Philippines where it is a familiar village tree.
Cananga has been introduced into tropical countries in Africa, Asia, the
Caribbean, the Americas, and the then French colonies of the Indian Ocean,
specifically as an essential oil producer. Commercial cultivation and oil
production is now concentrated in Indonesia and Madagascar, with small
amounts of oil from Reunion, Comoro, and the Philippines. The area under
cananga in Indonesia has steadily increased according to official statistics,
from 86,000 ha in 1985 to 160,000 ha in 1995 when oil production reached
120 t, most of which is exported. In many other countries, fresh flowers are
sold in local markets for personal adornment, to scent clothes and houses,
and as temple offerings.

10
Annonaceae 11

The first distillation of cananga oil is credited to Albertus Schwenger, who


reached the Philippines in the middle of the nineteenth century. He re-
portedly operated a small mobile still moving from district to district to
coincide with flowering of local trees. A German, F. Steck, and his nephew
Paul Sartorius, were the first to construct a commercial distillery to produce
high quality oil. Marketed as Ylang Ylang Oil Sartorius, it established an
international reputation for quality. The demand for ylang-ylang oil became
so great that extensive plantations containing an estimated 100,000 trees
were established around Manila servicing distilleries using equipment im-
ported from Europe (Bacon, 1908). The First World War almost destroyed
the local industry and despite efforts to revive it, only one plantation existed
in 1939 (Guenther, 1952), and this finally ceased production during the
Second World War. Ylang-ylang oil is now produced almost wholly from
smallholder stills for local use, and only a very small amount of good quality
oil is exported.
Production of cananga oil from indigenous trees on Java was encouraged
by the Dutch, but the very poor quality finally led to the import of Philippine
cananga trees. These produced ylang-ylang oil, and it was this difference
that resulted in the classification of two types of C. odorata by Koolhaas
(Landbouw, Java, 1939). Chemotypes may however exist, since a minor but
well-defined regional difference is recognized in local oils, lost when bulked
for export. Cananga and ylang-ylang oils are produced mainly on Java
(Wiyono and Silitonga, 1988), where flowers are strewn on the bridal bed of
newlyweds. Local oil mixed with coconut oil is used to alleviate skin
conditions, and as a base in cosmetics and hair care products.
Cananga was introduced to Bengal from Sumatra in 1797, and is now
widely distributed in India (Burkhill, 1966; Anon., 1989). Although the
fresh flowers are commonly used for adornment and in temples, somewhat
surprisingly no commercial plantations have been established nor oil pro-
duced. Cananga was also introduced to southern China and is now commer-
cially cultivated in Guangdong Province, and official reports indicate a
steady increase in the number of trees planted and oil production.
The introduction of cananga to Reunion is credited to a French expedi-
tion under a Captain d’Etchevery in 1770, although oil was not produced for
another 100 years. By the end of the nineteenth century commercial planta-
tions were well established, containing about 200,000 trees, and substantial
amounts of ylang-ylang oil were exported prior to outbreak of the First
World War. In 19 12, a solvent extraction plant built by a Charles Garnier
produced ylang-ylang concentrate which continued in production until the
mid-1 930s. Substantial amounts of high-quality ylang-ylang oil were pro-
duced from modern plants between 1918 and 1928, but the world depres-
sion of the 1930s and competition from Madagascar caused a major decline.
By 1939 only 12,000 productive trees remained, supplying the last two
distilleries, but the industry is now virtually moribund.
12 Chapter 2

Cananga trees were introduced to Madagascar, but only on the small


island of Nossi-Be off its northern coast has the industry become estab-
lished. Development of the Nossi-Be ylang-ylang oil industry is attributed to
the enthusiasm of Rev. F. Raimbault, and by 1939 production had'reached
20-30 t annually. In 1950, eight large and a score of smaller distilleries were
operating, but there has been a steady decline in both quality and quantity.
This was partially due to wartime neglect, but there has since been little new
planting and older plantations have received scant attention (Demarne,
1989). Yield of flowers is low and their collection made difficult by the
increasing height of trees.
Cananga was introduced to the Comoros at the beginning of this century
where conditions are most suitable for plantations although periodically
disrupted by the devastating local cyclones. In the early 1980s there were
reportedly nearly a million trees, with oil production a t 30-50 t annually,
half from Mayotte, which rivalled Nossi-Be in ylang-ylang oil production if
not always in quality (Megis & Zissis, 1991; Valade, 1994). This oil
continues to be produced although the rapid growth of the tourist industry
has reduced its importance and attractiveness to local workers. Contributing
to the decline was the forced repatriation of some 17,000 Comorians from
Madagascar in 1974, whose re-settlement resulted in the destruction of
almost 60% of existing cananga trees to provide land for food crops.

Botany
Canunga odoruta (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thoms. (syn. C. odorutum Baill.;
Canatzgiuwz odoratum Lam.). Commonly cananga or ylang-ylang in English;
India (Tamil) karumugai; Sri Lanka wanasapu; Philippines ilong-ilang;
Burma kodapnyan; Malaysia kenanga, which is believed to be the origin of
the genus and English name.
Th e basic chromosome number of the genus is x = 8, Cananga odoruta 2n
= 16, and although there are no accepted varieties two types are now
recognized which have minor botanical differences but produce two differ-
ent oils. C. odorata forma macrophylla produces cananga oil, and C. odoruta
forma genuinu ylang-ylang oil. In general, cananga oil is obtained from
flowers on uncultivated trees, while ylang-ylang oil is obtained from planta-
tions. The following description applies to both, but comments on cultiva-
tion, etc. refer to the production of ylang-ylang oil from planted trees.
The difference between cananga and ylang-ylang whole oils is believed to
be due to selection by growers, thus cultivated trees produce flowers with
required oil characteristics. Reprocessing of cananga whole oil, however, can
produce various grades of ylang-ylang oil as will be discussed later. It is also
possible that isolation on various Pacific Islands has resulted in local cananga
trees producing slightly different oils while remaining botanically almost
identical; C. odoruta trees growing in Java, Fiji and Samoa produce oils
which have quite different characteristics (Table 2.1).
Annonaceae 13

Table 2.1. Main characteristics of some cananga and ylang-ylang oils

Cananga Ylang-ylang
Reunion Comoro Philippines Madagascar
Java Fiji extra extra extra extra
Specific 0.896 0.932 0.911 0.965
gravity (20") 0.942 0.421(28') 0,969(15') 0.975 0.958 0.970
Optical -27" - 7O -30" -19" -30" -25O
rotation (20') -87O -35O - 45" -45" -35s
Refractive 1.4788 1.491 1.465 1.4948 1.4747 1.500
index (20") 1.5082 1,494(25') 1.475(15") 1.4900 1 ,05(20°)
Solubility (viv 1:l-2 - 110.5 110.5 1 :0.5 1:0.5
95% alcohol)
Ester value 42-94 75-84 96-134 200 90-1 50 125-1 60
Figures in columns are ranges.
Source: Duve et al. (1975).

Cananga is a fast growing, medium to tall evergreen tree to 35 m, but


usually pruned to about 3 m under cultivation, with a deeply penetrating
taproot. There is normally a single trunk to 15 cm diameter at breast height
(DBH). The sapwood is whitish, heartwood darker, soft and easily worked
but not durable, and of little commercial value. The bark is smooth, light
brown, becoming darker, rough and fissured with age; the inner bark is
lighter brown, fibrous, slightly bitter, and used in local herbal remedies. The
trunk is much branched, the brittle branches tending to droop. Young twigs
are light green with a slightly spicy taste, becoming brown with age.
Leaves are numerous, thin, alternate, oblong, with a sharply pointed apex,
base rounded, margins entire, 15-20 X 4-7 cm, on light green petioles (Fig.
2.1). Laminae are dark shiny green above, dull light green and slightly hairy
below. Leaf anatomy and morphology has been described by Fisher (1990).
An essential oil is obtained by distilling fresh leaves of forma genuina but has
no commercial value. A Java leaf oil was bright yellow with the following
characteristics: specific gravity (15°C) 0.908-0.925; optical rotation - 15"
to -40"; refractive index (20°C) 1.495-1.506; soluble in 1:3 vol 95%
alcohol; acid value 0.5-2.0; ester value 15-35.
The flowers are numerous, large, yellow-green, strongly scented, and
borne on slender light green stalks in axillary clusters. Individual flowers
bear a narrow pendulous structure composed of three ovate, hairy sepals and
six almost lanceolate petals with slightly recurved tips, 4-8 cm in length,
arranged in two rows (Fig. 2.1). The flower centre is composed of separate
carpels arranged in two series, each carpel containing a single ovule develop-
ing into a separate fruit. Flower colour is greenish yellow on first opening,
becoming more yellow after 20-25 days. Flowering is often year-round and
a large tree or a plantation in full flower is a sensory delight. Main flower
I4 Chapter 2

harvests are in the early dry season, usually April-June on Nossi-Be,


October-June in Reunion and the Comoros, February-May and mid-June
to October in the Philippines, with seasonal variation based on duration of
the rains.

Fig. 2.1. Cananga odorata: Flowering shoot and fruit. (Department of Agriculture, Manila, Philippines.)
Annonaceae 15

An essential oil is obtained by steam distilling fresh flowers with a yield of


(per cent): 0.3-0.5 from the Philippines (Manila), 1.O-2.0 from Comoros,
1.5-2.25 from Madagascar (Nossi-Be), with 0.5-1 .O from wild cananga
trees on Java, 0.2-0.5 from Fiji and Samoa. The forma providing the flowers
basically determines oil characteristics and composition, i.e. cananga or
ylang-ylang. The main characteristics of the two oils from various origins are
shown in Table 2.1 ., but there is very wide variation indeed, due mainly to
production techniques (Ding et al., 1988; Zhang & Jin, 1991).
Cananga whole oil has a high sesquiterpene content but is low in alcohols
and esters; conversely ylang-ylang contains a high proportion of alcohols and
esters. The approximate composition of ylang-ylang oil is (per cent): alco-
hols and esters 52-64, sesquiterpenes 33-38, phenols and their esters 3,
terpenes 0.3-0.6, aldehydes and ketones 0.1-0.2. Similarly to oil character-
istics there is wide variation in published analyses of the oil. The British
Standard Specification for cananga oil is (all at 20°C): specific gravity
0.903-0.920; refractive index 1.495-1.503; optical rotation - 15" to -30";
ester value 13-35. Specifications for ylang-ylang oil are shown in Table
2.2.
The fruit is a fleshy green ovoid resembling an olive, 2.5-4.0 cm, on a
short stalk. Twelve, sometimes more, fruits can develop from a single flower
appearing as green clusters along branches (see Fig. 2.1). The fruit is readily
eaten by birds who void undigested seed, and are thus a significant factor in
tree distribution and establishment of a naturalized population. Seeds are
disc-shaped, 6-8 mm in diameter, brown to reddish brown when ripe, and
there are approximately 13,000 per kg, but seed size and weight are very
variable. Viability is also very erratic, and why this is so has still to be
determined.

Table 2.2. Standards for ylang-ylang oils

Characteristic
(at 20'Cci A G R A G R A G R A G R

Specific 0.950 0.946 0.950 0.933 0.928 0.932 0.923 0.918 0.922 0.906 0.906 0.910
gravity 0.965 0.982 0.986 0.945 0.949 0.953 0.929 0.933 0.937 0.921 0.923 0.920
Optical -45" -40' -40" -44 -60° -60° -55" -68' -68$ - 63" -67" -67O
rotation -36" -25" -25" -28" - 4 4 -33" -40" -40" -40' -49" -3v -35"
Refractive 1.501 1.498 1.498 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.505 1.506 1.507 1.506 1.507 1.507
index 1.509 1.509 1.509 1.510 1.509 1.509 1,511 1.512 1.517 1.513 1.515 1.515
Acid value c3 c 2.8 (2.8 c3 c 2 . 8 c 2.8 c3 c2.8 c 2.8 <3 c2.8 c2.8
Ester value 125 130 132 90 89 89 65 56 56 38 34 34
160 182 162 120 130 130 80 89 89 58 54 60
Figures in columns are ranges.
Source: A, Afnor (1986);G, Grasse Essential Oil Association; R, Reunion.
16 Chapter 2

Ecology
Cananga is native to monsoon areas with a rainfall of at least 3000 mm
annually. It also grows well under more dry conditions, but trees which
suffer a moisture stress flower less profusely and flowers have a lower oil
content but not necessarily of lower quality. Under suitable conditions,
cananga quickly becomes established and self-sown naturalized trees now
occur on various Caribbean islands, Central America, in monsoon India and
on Zanzibar. Cananga is basically a forest tree and requires shade when
young, but heavy shade when mature retards growth and plantation trees
must be spaced so all receive direct sunlight. Shelter belts are advisable in
areas where there are strong winds. Cananga plantations are usually estab-
lished at low elevations, but there are no data on the effect of increasing
altitude on tree growth, flowering, or oil content of flowers. In China, where
cananga is grown in areas with low winter temperature, trees are protected
with straw or plastic sheets to minimize frost damage (Liao, 1984); however,
cananga should not be grown commercially in regions where frosts occur, as
the cost of protection is normally unprofitable.

Soils and fertilizers


Cananga grows naturally in forest soils, but under cultivation is planted on a
range of soils. Shallow soils or soils with hard or impacted subsoil are not
suitable, as trees produce a long and penetrating taproot and, if this root is
unable fully to develop, the tree is invariably stunted. Cananga may tolerate
waterlogging for extended periods, but permanently marshy areas should be
avoided, as should saline and alkaline soils. A neutral to somewhat acid soil,
p H 6.0-7.5, is most suitable. Trees grow well in soils of varying fertility, but
to produce well-branched individuals with abundant flowers trees must be
well nourished. Since only forma genuina is cultivated, selection of soil type
is thus important.
Where fertility is low, plant nutrients must be supplied, but plantations
usually receive only bulk material as fertilizers, i.e.plant and animal residue,
spent flowers and the like, or benefit from nutrients which become available
from the decay of mulch materials. Thus the effect of individual nutrients on
growth, flowering, oil content and composition remains to be determined.

Cultivation
T o establish a plantation, the area must be cleared and all debris removed or
burnt and the ash spread as fertilizer. Where high winds are common, it is
advisable to leave existing trees on borders or between planted sections as
wind-breaks. Plants may be grown from seed sown in nursery beds, but the
long easily damaged taproot, which is quickly produced following germina-
tion, renders transplanting difficult, and seed should preferably be sown in
Annonaceae 17

prepared pits where trees are to grow. Alternatively, pots should be large
enough to allow unrestricted root growth and made of biodegradable
material to allow planting directly into holes. Several seeds should be sown
per pot or pit, thinned to the most vigorous. Seed viability is frequently low
but as seed is normally available in large quantities, this presents few
problems. Fresh seed reportedly germinates less readily than seed 6-12
months old, and there may thus be a dormancy period. Soaking seed in hot
water for several hours is considered to hasten and assist germination on
Nossi-Be. Propagation by cuttings is also possible but seldom used.
Pits should be prepared well in advance of sowing, be at least 50 cm deep
to allow unrestricted taproot growth, and filled with topsoil or a mixture of
soil and well-rooted organic material. Seed should be placed about 5 cm
deep and seedlings kept moist and shaded. Initial spacing should be at least
6 X 6 m, with alternate trees removed to leave a triangular spacing should
this be necessary as trees mature; on sloping land or hillsides, trees should be
planted in rows following the contour. A circular area around seedlings
should initially be kept weed-free and inter-rows slashed or mown. Herbi-
cides are seldom used. Cananga can be intercropped in the first 2-3 years
with low-growing food crops such as pulses, but underplanting cananga in
plantations of other trees is seldom successful.
Trees are usually topped at about 3 m and pruned to maintain this height
(see Fig. 2.2) and may also be grafted in China (Liao, 1984). Topping
encourages growth of the naturally drooping lower branches, which are also
pulled down by ropes attached to small posts to keep flowers within reach of
pickers, since branches are brittle and climbing to pick flowers can cause
extensive damage.

Harvesting
Trees flower from the second year, when a small harvest may be taken, and
flower profusely from the fourth or fifth year. Flowers have little fragrance
initially, and green petals covered with fine white hair which disappears with
maturity. After 14-21 days the petals become pale green, then yellow and
their scent progressively stronger. When two small reddish spots appear on
base of the petals the flowers are ready for picking. This should be as early in
the morning as possible when oil content is highest, and normally ceases by
10 a.m., as in strong sunlight the oil content rapidly diminishes. Composi-
tion and characteristics of the oil changes as flowers develop, with the light
oxygenated compounds highest at maturity; thus inclusion of immature
flowers is detrimental to oil quality (Stashenko et al., 1995).
Rain has apparently little effect on oil content, but distilling wet flowers
reduces still efficiency and may also adversely affect oil quality. Maximum
flowering normally follows cessation of the rainy season, when 50-60% of
flower yield is obtained. Oil content is usually highest early in the dry season
and also of higher quality.
18 Chapter 2

Fig. 2.2. Pruned canaga tree, Philippines

Flowers are picked manually and this limits commercial production to


areas where labour is readily available or cheap. Flowers within reach are
plucked by hand, those higher up the tree by long-handled cutters. Pickers
often climb wild trees to reach the higher flowers, a dangerous practice since
branches are very brittle. Experienced pickers harvest 20 kg of flowers per
shift, but as most are paid on weight of flowers delivered, there is a natural
tendency to be unselective. Thus an adequate inspection procedure is
necessary or inferior oil will be produced. Mechanical picking has been
investigated but there is currently no economic pressure to do so in tradi-
tional producing areas. A 7-year-old tree in a well-managed plantation can
produce 30-100 kg of flowers annually, a fully mature healthy tree to 300 kg,
but average yield from poorly managed trees (the majority) seldom exceeds
20 kg. The inclusion of buds, immature and over-mature flowers reduces
yield of oil per unit of material and also substantially alters its scent and
characteristics. Rough treatment of flowers after picking also alters the
character of the oil, as bruised or partially fermented flowers produce off-
odours. The productive life of a cananga plantation can be 50 years and
depends basically on the standard of management.

Distillation
Flowers should be distilled immediately after picking to obtain highest yield
of best quality oil, but some delay is usual and flowers should be thinly
spread on some suitable surface out of the sun, as it is essential to avoid
fermentation. Wilting or delayed distillation normally reduces oil yield but
the effect on oil composition is less obvious; there is apparently little change
Annonaceae 19

in oil characteristics. The main effects of air-drying Philippine flowers from


1 to 7 days before distilling was to change specific gravity (20°C) from
0.93-0.96 to 0.913-0.914, and ester number from 120-190 to 145-150
(Anzaldo, 1980).
Distillation is frequently in small, direct-fired water stills, and heating
water to near-boiling prior to adding flowers results in higher-quality oil.
Still bodies should preferably be undercharged with flowers, since this
reduces spot fermentation or overheating, either being detrimental to oil
quality. Distillation by any method must be carefully controlled since the oil
fractions in the distillate have different characteristics and market value.
Modern Madagascan distilleries produce four, sometimes five grades of
ylang-ylang oil: Premier (mainly to order), Extra, First, Second and Third
with quality and price decreasing in the same order (Buccellato, 1982). In
general specific gravity, total esters and saponification number decrease,
while optical rotation significantly increases (Gaydou et al., 1988). Lower
grades are also virtually insoluble in 90% alcohol.
The weight of flowers to produce 1 kg crude oil varies from 350-700 kg
depending mainly on time of year and flower maturity. In a modern steam
distillery a total oil yield of 2.0-2.5% is usual, about 25-30% being the first
two grades. The time of year flowers are picked can directly affect the
proportion of esters in fractions; in the wet season a high moisture content
frequently reduces the proportion of extra grade, while the reverse occurs
when the rains cease. Since the two lower grades also have a substantially
lower market price, distillation may be stopped once the higher fractions in
the oil have been obtained. Smaller operators producing cananga whole oil
frequently prolong distillation and may also remove spent flowers and
recharge the still, merely topping up the water. This reduces oil quality by
retaining unwanted artefacts in the water which react with the desired esters.
Ylang-ylang and cananga oil are light sensitive, and must be stored in full,
dark, sealed containers.
Flowers can be solvent extracted with petroleum ether or benzene to give
a yield to 1.2%, and the resultant concentrate has an odour virtually
identical to the natural flower. Main characteristics of the concentrate are
usually: specific gravity (20°C) 1.020-1.035; optical rotation -5.5" to
-6.5'; refractive index 1.50-1.52 (20°C); ester number 200-250; but
quoted data varies widely for no apparent reason.

Pests and diseases


The pests of cananga have been poorly investigated, mainly because a
considerable proportion of the oils is obtained from wild or naturalized trees
which receive minimum attention. Additionally, a number of reports origi-
nate from botanic gardens or aboreta, and thus are not generally applicable.
The most important insect pests are various stem-borers, twig wilters and
flower-eating beetles, since these are a direct cause of flower loss. A similar
20 Chapter 2

situation exists in respect of diseases of cananga, and there is little published


information which accurately identifies the pathogen concerned or the
degree of damage.

Products and specijkations


Two types of oil are produced from the flowers of C. odorata: cananga oil
from forma macrophylla and ylang-ylang oil from forma genuina. Cananga oil
is the total amount of oil recovered by water distilling whole flowers; ylang-
ylang oil is obtained by selective steam distilling flowers or reprocessing
cananga oil, sold by grade.
Cananga oil is a yellow to orange-yellow, or yellow to greenish yellow
rather viscous liquid, whose colour rapidly darkens on exposure to air or
light; odour heavier, more harsh than ylang-ylang, but sweet, fresh-floral,
with a characteristic woody-leathery note. The usual designation is Javanese
Cananga Oil which indicates the main source not the actual origin, does not
imply a standard quality, and is a trade name. The main use of cananga oil
is in soaps where its tenacity is valuable, toiletries, especially those for men,
and less expensive perfumes and similar products. It was previously the main
ingredient of Macassar hair dressing, popular in Victorian England. Can-
anga oil is often adulterated or blended with other synthetic materials mainly
to modify its odour, but this is easily detected. Lower boiling-point fractions
from production of ylang-ylang oil are also sold as cananga oil.
Ylang-ylang oil is normally available in four grades: extra, first, second
and third. The first and second grades have little appeal and are not well
defined; extra and third will probably become the main grades traded.
Ylang-ylang extra oil has a high level of p-cresyl methyl ether, methyl
benzoate, linalool, benzyl acetate and geranyl acetate in comparison to the
other grades, and the probable relationships between these compounds and
characteristic odour of the oil has been described (Buccellato, 1982). Extra
oil is a clear, pale yellow to yellow-orange mobile liquid; odour sweet, floral,
very powerful and distinctive but not as true to the natural flower scent as the
absolute. Extra grade is extensively used in high-quality perfumes where its
powerful odour enables inclusion in very small amounts. However, there can
be hypersensitivity to cosmetics containing the oil, attributed to eugenol and
related compounds (Watanabe et al., 1985). While there is considerable
production of the extra grade, it is frequently adulterated with a range of
other essential oils, oil fractions and many synthetics.
Ylang-ylang third oil is a clear (occasionally slightly turbid) yellow,
somewhat oily liquid; odour tenacious, sweet-floral not resembling extra
quality with which it is neither interchangeable nor a substitute. Third grade
oil is extensively used in less expensive soaps, toiletries and fragrances. It is
frequently adulterated, but also deliberately modified by exporters to pro-
duce an exclusive oil. Third-grade oil is often confused with cananga oil for
which it is neither a substitute nor alternative, since cananga oil is a complete
Annonaceae 21

(whole) oil. Approximately 60 compounds have been identified in ylang-


ylang oil (Timmer et al., 1975; Gaydou et al., 1986, 1988; Ding et al., 1988;
Anon 1989; Morin et al., 1989; Stashenko et al., 1993). The relative
composition of four grades of Madagascar ylang-ylang and cananga oils are
shown in Table 2.3.
Ylang-ylang concentrate is obtained by solvent extracting flowers, but the
commercial product usually consists of flower extract and distillate from
water or steam distilling extracted flowers. Petroleum ether extracted con-
centrate has a superior odour but benzene gives a higher yield. The concen-
trate is a brownish yellow to dark amber liquid, usually with a deposit or
particles in suspension which disappear on slight warming. Odour is con-
sidered almost equal to the true flower, but the concentrate is seldom used
except to produce absolute.

Table 2.3.Approximate percentage of various oil components

Ylang-ylang
Extra 1 2 3 Cananga
Alpha-pinene 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1
p-Cresyl methyl ether 8.4 3.1 1 .o 0.4
Benzyl alcohol 0.5 0.2 ng ng
p-Cresol 0.1 0.1 ng ng
Methyl benzoate 4.0 1 .o 0.3 0.1
Linalool 10.3 5.5 3.2 2.0
Benzyl acetate 12.6 4.2 1.2 0.5
Alpha-terpineol 0.1 ng ng ng
Methyl salicylate 0.1 0.1 ng ng
Geraniol 0.2 0.2 0.2 ng
Linalyl acetate 0.2 0.2 0.2 ng
Safrole 0.3 0.1 0.1 ng
Methyl anthranilate 0.1 ng ng ng
Eugenol 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3
Geranyl acetate 4.0 3.0 2.2 2.0
lsoeugenol 0.2 0.4 ng ng
Beta-caryophyllene 6.8 11.5 12.8 16.3
Alpha-caryophyllene 3.1 4.2 4.1 8.8
Farnesene 18.0 16.8 17.0 21 .o
Delta-cadinene 8.9 15.1 20.4 16.3
Gamma-cadinene 2.0 5.3 7.0 7.5
Nerolidol 0.5 0.8 0.5 1.8
(Z).(E)-Farnesol 0.9 1.7 1.7 1.4
Benzyl benzoate 4.3 8.5 9.7 5.3
Benzvl salicvlate 1.9 1.2 2.7 1.7
ng, not given.
Source: F. Buccellato (personal communication).
22 Chapter 2

Ylang-ylang absolute is produced by aicohol washing concentrate with a


yield of 75-85%, and is a pale yellow oily liquid with an intensely sweet-
floral, extremely powerful odour, characteristic of the natural flower. It is
extensively used in high-quality perfumes and toiletries of all kinds and,
because of its power, can be used in very small concentrations. The taste is
bitter but can be modified for use in sweets, drinks, ice-cream and similar
products. Both concentrate and absolute have a higher content of linalool,
geraniol, geranyl acetate, benzyl benzoate and benzyl salicylate than ylang-
ylang extra oil.
Various ylang-ylang oils or flower extracts are available commercially
described as a complete oil or absolute oil, and also special grades of cananga
oil; most are of suspect composition. A range of synthetic or semi-synthetic
products simulate, with varying degrees of success, the odour of ylang-ylang
oil, but none reproduce the true flower scent and are easily identified by the
experienced perfumer.

References
AFNOR (1986) Recueil de Nomzes Fraqaises des Huiles Essentielles. 2nd edn. Assoc.
FranCaise de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris, France.
Anon. (1989) Bibliography of Cananga odorata. Med. Arom. Plt. Absts. 11(1), 91-93.
CSIR, New Delhi, India.
Anzaldo, F.E. (1980) Essential oil production in the Philippines. N S D B Tech. J.
5(2), 67-71.
Bacon, R.F. (1908) Philippine terpenes and essential oils. Philipp. J. Science (Sect. A)
3(1), 65-86; also (4) 127; ( 5 ) 265.
Buccellato, F. (1982) Ylang survey. Perfum. Flav. 7 ( 5 ) , 9-12.
Burkhill, L.H. (1966) The Dictionary of Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula, 2
vols. Government Printer, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Demarne, P-E. (1989) Production d'Ylang-Ylang et de Poivre Vert a la Societe Agricole
de Bevoay, Nossi-Be (Madagascar). CIRAD-IRAT, Saint-Denis, Reunion.
Ding, J.K. et al. (1988) Studies on constituents of the essential oils of different
varieties of C. odorata in different flowering periods. Acta Bot. Yunnananica
10(3), 331-334.
Duve, R.N., Vithalbhai, C.L. and Smith, R.M. (1975) Chemical composition of the
essential oil from flowers of endemic Cananga odorata from Fiji. Flavours
December: 341, 346.
Fisher, D.G. (1990) Leaf structure of C. odorata; morphology and anatomy. Can. J.
Bot. 68, 534-563.
Gaydou, E M et al. (1986) Composition of the essential oil of ylang-ylang from
iMadagascar. J. Agric. Food Chem. 34, 481-487.
Gaydou, E.M. et al. (1988) Multidimensional data analysis of essential oils: ylang-
ylang. J. Agric. Food Chem. 36, 574-579.
Guenther, E. (1952) Oil of cananga and ylang-ylang. In: The Essential Oils, vol. 5.
Van hlostrand, New York, USA, pp. 267-316.
Annonaceae 23

Liao, Y.Q. (1984) A preliminary report on the introduction of Cananga odorata.


Forest. Sci. & Tech. 3, 586.
Megis, C. and Zissis, J.P. (1991) Etude de Recherche et Development des Huiles
Essentiells d’YZang-Hang, C. odorata. Dept. Econ., Mayotte, Comoros.
Morin, P. et al. (1989) Supercritical fluid chromatography of sesquiterpene hydro-
carbons. J.Chromatog. 464(1), 125-137.
Stashenko, E.E. et al. (1993) HRGC and CG-MS analysis of essential oil from
Colombian ylang-ylang (C. odorata forma genuina). ?.High Resol. Chromatog. 16,
441-444.
Stashenko, E.E. et al. (1995) A study in the compositional variation of the essential
oil of ylang-ylang (C. odorata forma genuina) during flower development. J. High
Resol. Chromatog. 18(2), 101-1 04.
Timmer, R. et al. (1 975) Analyses of the acid fraction of ylang-ylang oil. Int. Flav.
FoodAdd. 6(3), 139-140.
Valade, I. (1 994) Etude pour la Rationalisation de la Production d’Huile Essentielle
d’Ylang-Hang a Mayotte. O T H International, Dept. Environ. Bastille, Paris,
France.
Watanabe, S. et al. (1985) Contact hypersensitivity to ylang-ylang components.
Takasago J . 9(2), 92-100. Takasago Co., Japan.
Wiyono, B. and Silitonga, T. (1988) Notes on the distribution and utilization of
C.odoratum in Java. J. Penel. Pang. Kehutanan. 4(2), 30-33.
Zhang, S. and Jin, S. (1991) Studies on constituents of essential oil of flowers of
ylang-ylang. Acta Sci. Natur. Univ. Pekin. 27(6), 645-652.
Geraniaceae
3=
The Geraniales comprise several families including the Geraniaceae and
closely related Oxalidaceae. The Geraniaceae is divided into five genera,
Erodium (heron’s bill), Geranium (crane’s bill), Monsonia, Pelargonium
(stork’s bill) and Sarcocaulon. Pelargoniums and geraniums are widely
known as geraniums, a confusion due to similarity of the common names.
Both were originally classified in the same genus, but separated for the first
time in 1789 (Hortus Kewensis). The genus Geranium L. currently contains
about 400 species widely distributed in temperate zones but only G. macor-
rhizum L. is harvested to obtain an essential oil.
Since the term geranium is widely used to describe pelargoniums and their
derivatives and well understood in the perfumery trade, the author has used
geranium in all general remarks but pelargonium where botanical accuracy
is required, and zdravetz to describe Geranium spp. and derivatives.

Pelargonium
The first pelargonium, P. cucullatum (L.) L’Herit. was collected from Table
Mountain in 1672 by Paul Herman, and South Africa is the centre of origin
of the genus. Van der Walt considers the reason so many species, about 70,
are found in the southwestern Cape region is the availability of a variety of
microhabitats favouring speciation. When Paul Herman published Horti
academici Lugduno-batavi catalogus in 1687 listing plants growing in the
Leyden Botanic Gardens, the Netherlands, ten Pelargonium species were
included. William A.van der Stel is believed to have imported P. peltatum L.
and P. zonale (L.) L’Herit. into the Netherlands in 1700, introduced to
England in 1701 and 17 10 respectively, and P. gruveolens L‘Herit. in 1794.
British control of the Cape of Good Hope greatly increased interest in
pelargoniums, with numerous papers in the Botanical Magazine, and pub-
lication of beautifully illustrated books including the five-volume Ger-
aniaceae by Sweet (1 820-26), Flore de Serres et des Jardins de 1’Europe (1 847)
and Les Geraniums (1 897).

24
Geraniaceae 25

Pelargoniums became so popular and easy to grow they were re-exported


to almost every country to which Europe sent colonists or administrators.
Plants arrived in Australia in the cabin of Arthur Bowes Smyth, surgeon on
the Lady Penrhyn, part of the First Fleet. Some years later, a Captain Kent
wrote ‘Geranium flourish in such abundance in Sydney they are made into
hedges, and became so thick as to be impenetrable’. Plants went with
pioneer women to the outback growing in kerosene tins outside the back
door of every slab hut, surviving droughts by having the teapot emptied over
them, according to the Australian Geranium and Pelargonium Society.
Commercial cultivation for oil began in the early nineteenth century
around Grasse, France, and the region long remained the premier produc-
tion area. Cultivation was concentrated in the Siagne Valley as an annual
crop owing to severe winter frosts, which greatly increased the cost of
production. The Second World War, ever-increasing wages and finally
growth of the tourist industry virtually eliminated geranium as a commercial
crop. Production is now limited to a small amount of very high-quality oil,
although the town of Grasse remains active in the essential oil industry.
Plants were sent from Grasse to Algeria in 1847 and to Reunion in the 1880s
to establish local geranium oil plantations. Geranium cultivation in Spain
and Italy, although successful initially, became unprofitable and was aban-
doned. Commercial cultivation in the USSR began in the mid 1930s, mainly
in the Abkhaz region near the Black Sea from Sachi to Batumi and in
Tadjikistan, with oil production of about 50 t in 1940. The industry was
completely disrupted by the Second World War, and although subsequently
re-established in Georgia, Armenia and southern republics of the CIS, oil
production has remained below the 1940 level (Zukov, 1964; Stepanyan and
Ivanov, 1977).
Pelargonium graveolens cultivars were sent to Algeria from Grasse and the
most extensive commercial plantings were on the Mitidja Plain around
Blinda and Boufarik. Oil production is now on a very small scale and not
likely to expand again. The Moroccan oil industry was also established from
Grasse material, but not until the mid-1930s did plantings in Chaouia near
Casablanca prove the crop profitable, and this region continued to produce
oil until 1940. Geranium was subsequently re-established in the Khemisset-
Tiflet areas east of Rabat and a modern distillery built to handle geranium
and other oil-producing plants. These plantations were probably the most
efficient then existing and advanced Moroccan geranium oil production to
the world’s second largest after Reunion. By 1960 production reached 50 t
annually but steadily decreased to around 15 t, centred on Chaoui, Zem-
mour and Gharb.
Geranium was introduced into Palestine (Israel) in the late 19th century
by Baron Edmund de Rothschild to support establishment of an essential oil
industry, and research proved the region can produce high-quality oil. Egypt
produces a substantial amount of geranium oil mainly from small growers,
26 Chapter 3

but when the essential oil type was first introduced is unknown; recent
introductions are by private companies seeking superior strains. Two basic
oils are produced commercially named for the main producing regions of
Faiyum and the Delta (Benveniste and Azzo, 1992).
Following introduction to Reunion in 1870, geranium steadily became an
important local cash crop, and the planted area reached a record 15,000 ha
in 1952, but production has since fluctuated with the international oil price
(Sens, 1994). The first oil produced on Reunion was from a species of
unknown origin occurring on the island. It was quickly replaced by imported
Grasse material which became the distinct local cultivar Rose, later deter-
mined to be a P. capitatum X P. radens cross (Demarne and Van der Walt,
1989; Demarne, 1992). Chemotypes may also exist, as plants from Reunion
cultivated elsewhere produced an oil with a different composition to the
majority of those grown on the island (Mallavarapu et al., 1993). The main
plantations are in the west and south west on steep slopes virtually useless for
other crops, a major reason why oil production on Reunion continues. The
majority of geranium plantings are small individual plots whose owners
either combine to operate collective stills, hire a portable still or sell their
herbage to one of the larger operators with modern stills producing high-
quality oil (Demarne, 1992). Reunion lies in the Indian Ocean cyclone belt
and these terrible storms periodically play havoc with the industry.
Geranium oil has been produced in a number of East and Central African
countries, principally Kenya, but oil production has virtually ceased except
for a small quantity for domestic consumption in South Africa. It is believed
geranium was first introduced into Kenya either from South Africa by Cape
Dutch settlers, or from India by engineers engaged to build the Uganda
railway (Matheson and Bovill, 1950). These species are quite different to the
indigenous Pelargonium spp. which occur wild in East Africa, the most
common being the yellow-flowered P. fischeri. The first commercial planting
was at Njoro in 1925 using introduced species, which produced an oil
known as Mawah oil, the Ki-Swahili word for flowers generally. By 1937
there were 800 ha under geranium, but production virtually ceased during
the Second World War and, although subsequently resumed, it never
reached the original level. The author established in Western Kenya in 1964
a commercial plantation of 100 ha using plants selected from Algerian and
Reunion cultivars imported by the Department of Agriculture (see Fig. 3.1).
This operated profitably for several years, producing oil midway between
Mawah and Reunion types, but production ceased when the company was
taken over. This was the last attempt at large-scale geranium oil production
in eastern and central Africa. Geranium oil was also produced in northern
Tanganyika (Tanzania) from the late 1940s, but never expanded despite
official support. Subsequent trial plantings in several regions indicated a
substantial area was suitable for geranium as an oil crop (Weiss,
Geraniaceae 27

1955-1960). Trials in Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) also showed great promise


yielding excellent quality oil (Sholto-Douglas, 1969).
Cuttings of ‘Bourbon-type’ geranium from Reunion planted in Tamil
Nadu State, India, in 1903 by the Frenchman Ernest Sens and later by
another Frenchman, Jacques Prioris, began domestic geranium oil produc-
tion. This was followed by plantings of Algerian material in the Nilgiri Hills
(Rajeswara Rao and Bhattacharya, 1992). Geranium received strong gov-
ernment support with the official aim of domestic self-sufficiency and, as this
will require 750-1000 ha of crop, India could thus become one of the
world’s major producers. The general expansion of Chinese essential oil
crops includes geranium, mainly in sub-tropical Yunnan but including
Binchuan, Shiping and Yuxi Provinces. The main cultivar (stated as P.
roseum) produces a Moroccan style oil, but the area under geranium is
decreasing rapidly in favour of other essential oil crops (Zhao, 1993: Yan et
al., 1994).
Other Pelargonium spp. grown in gardens for their fragrant leaves include
P. citriodorum Willd. (citron-scented), P. fragrans Willd. (nutmeg-scented)

Fig. 3.1. Author in geranium plantation, Kenya.


28 Chapter 3

and P.tomentosum Jacq. (peppermint-scented), which is considered a poten-


tial oil producer in South Africa (Demarne and Van der Walt, 1990). P.
crispum L‘Herit. the lemon-scented geranium, could become a more im-
portant oil producer via genetic transformation techniques, also applicable
to other species (Pellegrineschi et al., 1994). An interesting interspecific
hybrid is the patented Pelargonium X citrosum, the mosquito plant, which
emits a strong scent of citronella from its leaves in warm rooms and is
commercially promoted as an insect repellent. However, its efficacy has
been questioned (Cilek and Schreiber, 1994). Interspecific hybridization,
however, is considered to provide a relatively simple path to higher or novel,
oil yielding cultivars (Koutchouloria, 1964; Charlwood et al., 1988).

Botany
The genus Pelargonium L’Herit. contains about 250 species divided into 15
sections, with some 200 species occurring in South Africa, 18 in the rest of
Africa, eight in Australasia, two in Madagascar, two in the Middle East, and
one each on the islands of St. Helena and Tristan da Cunha (Van der Walt
and Ward-Hilhorst, 1977; Webb, 1984; Van der Walt, 1985). The genus
name is derived from the Greek pelargos, a stork, and the first legitimate
publication of the name pelargonium is considered to be in Aiton’s Hortus
Kewensis, 1789, which contained much material from L’Heritier’s un-
published work Compendium Generlogium. Within the genus fifteen sub-
genera are recognized, including Ciconium, Dibrachya and Pelargonium con-
sidered as having great influence on modern pelargoniums. The subgenus
(section) Pelargonium contains about 25 species (Van der Walt, 1985),
mainly shrubs or sub-shrubs with woody, branched or very branched stems,
many with variegated or fragrant leaves, and often drought-resistant. The
basic chromosome number of Pelargonium is x = 11, with the somatic num-
ber of 2n = 88 for P. graveolens and its close relative P. radens, while P.
capitatum is 2n = 66 (Albers and Van der Walt, 1984), but the important
Reunion cultivar Rose is a heptaploid, 2n = 77 and male sterile.
The four species basically concerned in the development of essential oil
cultivars but which have not been cultivated commercially to produce an oil
are Pelargonium graveolens, P. odoratissimum,P. capitatum and P. radens, while
P. roseum is considered a P.graveolens hybrid. A most important commercial
essential oil producer is the cultivar Rose, a hybrid of P. capitatum X P.
radens but often referred to as P. graveolens in the literature without qualifica-
tion, and to a lesser extent cultivars of P.capitatum X P.graveolens. Many
other Pelargonium spp. contain an essential oil described in the literature, but
none are commercially cultivated.
Pelargoniums cultivated for their essential oil were often identified in the
literature as P.graveolens cultivars regardless of botanical accuracy. Most
were selections originating in Europe which became locally acclimatized
Geraniaceae 29

when planted elsewhere, but some are deliberate hybrids. Most hybrids are
crosses between two of the four species described below.
Pelargonium graveolens L‘Heritier ex Aiton (syn. Geranium radula Roth.; P.
intermedium Knuth), commonly geranium in English and French is a small,
much-branched, perennial shrub to 1.3 m but generally less, naturally
forming a dense spreading bush. The leaves are fragrant, mint-scented, on
stems and branches, opposite, 6.5-13.5 cm by 6-12 cm, villous, highly
divided, with five to seven palmate lobes; the margins are toothed and
somewhat revolute; the petioles are long, sturdy, and subtended by stipules
(Fig. 3.2). Species colour is a dull green although grey-green, yellow-green,
dark or light green leaves occur on cultivars. An essential oil can be obtained
from leaves and fresh green shoots, but is of no commercial importance.
Herbage also contains tannins whose recovery in India is considered desir-
able (Balakrishnan et al., 1982). The inflorescence is axillary with small
umbels of 3-7 pink, rosy or pale purple flowers. The hairy calyx tube divides
in mid-length into five lobes and five entire petals, the upper two slightly
larger and longer, and pelargoniums are thus the only members of the
Geraniaceae with zygomorphic flowers. The ovary is superior, five-lobed,
each lobe containing a single pendulous ovule; the style is short and hairy.
The fruit is long and pointed, and although pelargoniums do not normally
produce seed, some cultivars seed readily. The seed is small, oblong-ovoid
and brownish, the testa is hard with attached long hairs. Viability is usually
very poor and germination erratic.
Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’Herit. (syn. Geranium odoratissimum L.)
is a perennial, prostrate spreading shrub with caudex stems, normally short
but up to 30 cm, usually with many slender, weak, soft-pubescent, fre-
quently trailing branches. The leaves are fragrant, apple-scented, light
green, soft, round-cordate, very obtuse, blade 2.5-3.0 cm, similar in
breadth, obscurely three or more lobed, and the margins dentate-crenate.
The petioles are up to 10 cm long, stipule is triquetrous or broadly ovate,
usually connate; the peduncles are long and opposite leaves. The inflores-
cence bears 3-10 tiny flowers, which are white (occasionally pink), with
small red spots; the calyx is more or less pubescent, the spur 8 mm or less;
the sepals or lobes lanceolate, acute, with transparent margins; the petals, to
16 mm long, are linear-spatulate, with a rounded apex.
Pelargonium radens H.E. Moore (syn. P. radula (Cav.) L’Herit.) is an erect,
perennial densely branched shrub with a stout stem to 1.5 m. The leaves are
fragrant, mint-scented, deeply palmately-parted; the lobes are narrow linear,
pinnatified; rough-hispid above but soft-pubescent below, with the margins
prominently revolute. The peduncles are short and hispid, bearing 3-8 pale
purple flowers with darker purple streaks and margins. The flowers are
pedicillate, the calyx tube is short, and the lobes on the sepals are setose and
glandular.
30 Chapter 3

Pelargonium capitatum (L.) L’Herit. (syn. Geranium capitatum L.) is a


decumbent perennial shrub but very variable, with stems to 1 m with long
white hairs, strongly scented when bruised. The leaves are fragrant, rose-
scented, pilose, on long petioles, cordate, with three to five rounded and
toothed lobes and flat margins; the stipules are broad-cordate and pointed.
The peduncles are longer than the leaves, with dense heads of tiny, sessile
flowers (7-20), which are rose-purple with darker stripes; the calyx tube is
much shorter than the hairy calyx lobes and mucronate. Oil yield is generally
low, around 0.01%, and the great variability of oil composition in South
Africa indicated the existence of regional chemotypes (Demarne et al.,
1993).
A most important essential oil cultivar which originated on Reunion is a
hybrid between P.capitatum X P,radens, the cv. Rose (Demarne, 1989;
Demarne and Van der Walt, 1989). This cultivar was introduced into other
countries often as ‘Bourbon type’, but as other cultivars were also grown on
Reunion a t various times and may have been included in the introductions,

Shoot Inflorescence

Flower Petals

Leaves

Fig. 3.2.Typical pelargonium flower, leaves and shoot.


Geraniaceae 31

this could partially account for the reported differences in general growth, oil
composition and characteristics from such local ‘Bourbon’ plants.
Cultivar Rose is an erect, perennial shrub to 1.3 m, forming compact
clumps to 1 m diameter, with an extensive, spreading root system seldom
penetrating below 30 cm. The multiple stems are soft, green to grey-green,
becoming darker and woody with age, and are more or less hairy. Junctions
of main or large secondary stems with the root at ground level often become
highly lignified and brittle with age. The number and length of stems and
degree of branching varies; an unnamed Algerian cultivar stated to have
originated on Reunion and grown by the author in East Africa, tended to be
more upright than the well-branched type directly imported from Reunion.
Stem height and branching may be modified or stimulated by growth
regulators (Bhattacharjee and Thimmappa, 199l), while selection for a
more upright plant would assist mechanical harvesting.
The leaves on stems and branches are opposite, fragrant, rose-scented,
soft, hirsute, with 5-7 palmate lobes, highly divided; the base is cordate, the
apex obtuse, with somewhat revolute margins. Size is variable but averages
50 X 70 mm, petiole 30 mm; the stipules are asymmetrical, triangular, 6 X
4 mm (Fig. 3.3). An essential oil is obtained from leaves by distillation or
solvent extraction, whose main constituents are citronellol, geraniol, iso-
menthone, citronellyl formate and geranyl formate (Table 3.1). The main
characteristics of Reunion and other oils are shown in Table 3.2.
The inflorescence is terminal and the peduncle 15-60 mm long with small
compact pseudo-umbels of 3-1 0 small, rose-violet coloured flowers. The
flowers generally are as P. cupitutum, with the important exception that male
flowers are sterile. Main flowering in Reunion is in spring and again in
August-September. Oil content of flowers has been reported at 0.6%
(Fleisher and Fleisher, 1985), and although this may be higher than leaf oil
content, flowers contribute little to total oil yield. Flower oil is also very
similar to leaf oil, and nothing is gained by separate distillation, encouraging
flowering or increasing the number of flowers per plant. Where the last two
are desired, spraying with gibberellin (GA) may produce the required effect,
and usually prolongs flowering. There is usually one main flowering period,
but plants should not normally be allowed to reach full bloom before cutting,
since oil content and composition are adversely affected.
The oil is contained in small glands distributed over green parts of the
plant, and their number and size govern the amount of oil a plant can
produce. Since oil glands are most numerous in the leaves, leaf size and
number are important factors affecting profitable oil production. Personal
observation and discussions with growers confirmed there are differences
between individual plants in any large population and, as noted previously,
this may be due to the original introductions. Considerable variation was
also noted in the rate of regrowth and development of leaves after cutting in
plants from cultivars grown by the author in western Kenya. Growth
32 Chapter 3

regulators can increase leaf size, but in Egypt GA affected the ratio between
oil components (Eid and Rofeel, 1980).
The biosynthesis and metabolism of oil in leaves has still to be fully
determined, although some pathways have been described (Chubinidze et
al., 1993). The rate of oil accumulation and its composition however, vary
with leaf age, and oil content and geraniol content of oil are highest in
youngest and lowest in oldest leaves. Oil and geraniol content of young and
old leaves in India was, in per cent, 1.56 and 34.6,0.05 and 13.9 respectively
(Rajeswara Rao et al., 1993). Oil content is usually stated as a proportion of
herbage harvested by weight (kg oil per tonne), and thus varies with the age
of plants at cutting, time of year and efficiency of still operation. The
following figures are from supervised commercial plantations with modern
stills designated C, or controlled field experiments E: India 0.04-0.13% E
(Balakrishnan et al., 1982; Kumar et al., 1985) and 0.10-0.15% C (Dor-
aswamy and Sundaram, 1982); Kenya 0.07-0.1 1% C (Weiss, 1966), and
Mawah type 0.10-0.20% C (Beckley, 1931); Reunion 1.5-3.0% C (De-
marne, 1992); Tanzania 0.05-0. l l % E (Weiss, 1955-60); Algerian 0.17%

Fig. 3.3. Flowering shoot of cuitivar Rose, Reunion,


Geraniaceae 33

C, Zaire 0.10-0.15% C and the USA 0.03-0.10% C (all average figures


from official annual reports).
The main characteristics of oil from selected countries are shown in Table
3.2. The major constituents are citronellol, geraniol, linalool and iso-
menthone, and their relative proportions basically determine the odour of
the oil and thus its value to perfumers. There is very wide variation in the
amount of individual compounds and the ratio between them in oil from a
local cultivar or region (Lawrence, 1994). Time of harvesting can also affect
ratio of the main alcohols.

Table 3.1, Main oil constituents from cultivar Rose from Reunion.

ov 101 PEG 2-20M


(non-polar) (polar)
Constituents 1 2 3
Alpha-pinene 1.oo 1.oo ng
Myrcene 0.30 0.30 ng
cis-Beta-ocimene 0.30 0.30 ng
Linalool 4.60 4.80 10.64
cis-Rose oxide 0.20 0.30 0.94
trans-Rose oxide ng ng 0.33
Menthone 0.40 0.40 ng
lsomenthone 7.80 8.40 9.64
Alpha-terpineol 0.30 0.80 ng
Citronellol 19.00 18.00 21.73
Geraniol 21.50 21 .80 16.28
Geranial ng ng 1.33
trans-citral 1.10 0.30 ng
Citronellyl formate 8.50 8.50 9.1 2
Geranyl formate 9.50 12.00* 7.17
Geranyl acetate 0.50 0.60 ng
Beta-bourbonene 0.70 0.80 ng
Beta-caryophyllene 0.80 0.70 ng
Citronellyl propionate 0.20 1.30 "g
Guaiadiene 6,9 7.20 6.10 5.34
Geranyl propionate 1.60 1.30 1.40
Germacrene D 2.30 ng ng
Citronellyl butyrate 1.oo 0.30 0.34
Geranyl butyrate 1.20 1.oo 1.55
Nerol ng ng 1.29
Phenylethyl tiglate 0.70 0.60 0.52
Citronellyl tiglate 0.10 0.10 ng
Geranyl tiglate 1.30 1.20 1.06
Furopol argone B ng ng 0.55
* Germacrene D plus geranyl formate; ng, not given.
Source: 1 and 2, adapted from Demarne (1989); 3, adapted from Guerere et al. (1985).
34 Chapter 3

Table 3.2.Main characteristics of geranium oil from selected origins

India Reunion Algeria Egypt Reuniona


Specific 0.844(30) 0.879(30) 0.894(20) 0.885(15) 0.888(15)
gravity ("C) 0.896 0.891 0.903 0.905 0.897
Optical rotation -7" to -1 1' -1l'tO -13' -go to -13" -6" to - 1 4 O -7'tO -13"
Refractive 1.4644(30) 1.458(20) 1.468(20) 1.463(20) 1.4617(20)
index ("C) 1.4739 1.464 1.472 1.473 1.4660
Acid value < 10 <5 <6 <7 <7
Ester value 50-76 65-75 55-75 45-65 50-78
Solubility viv 1 :3 1 :2 1 :2 1 :2 1 :1.7-2.0
(70% alcohol)
Source: Abstracted from published sources; Reunion. a Official specification

Ecology
Basically a warm-temperate plant, geranium will produce a profitable oil
yield in sub-tropical regions under suitable management, within the con-
straints of a frost-free growing period, sufficient rain and a mainly cold dry
season. The effect of location on oil yield and characteristics is well docu-
mented, but little data are available on how individual climatic factors other
than rainfall influence the oil or its major components. Thus it is almost
impossible to predict the type of oil which will be produced when plants are
introduced to a new area. While the oil will be basically that of the original
cultivar, its individual fingerprint will only be established by analysing oil
produce from plants in their new environment.
French oil from Grasse is considered to have the finest and most rose-like
odour. Reunion oil, rich in citronellol, may have a minty odour but is now
considered to be the standard by which other oils are judged. Moroccan oil
approaches that of France, while Russian oil is often less strongly scented.
East African oils were of good quality but in a category of their own. Spanish
oils generally contained around 45% geraniol and 25% citronellol; from
Japan not more than 22% geraniol; Israeli oils contain little geraniol but 45%
citronellol. Oil produced from P. radens in Zimbabwe was dark with a
pronounced minty note (Sholto-Douglas, 1969).
Geranium is grown commercially between 300-1200 m in the south of
France, Algeria, and Reunion where a limit of 1400 m is observed; in the
Kenya highlands between 2000-2500 m; between 1500-2000 m in the hill
country of India; from 0-500 m in the Black and Caspian Sea regions of
Russia; and at low altitudes in Australia and the USA. Plants grown at higher
elevations in sub-tropical climates frequently produce a lighter oil than oil
from the same cultivar grown at lower altitudes. In Tanzania, a Reunion
cultivar grown at 1200 m produced oil with a much softer more rosy note
than oil from plants growing at 250 m (Weiss, 195551960), while in
Zimbabwe oil from plants grown at 330 m resembled true Reunion type,
Geraniaceae 35

while oil from plants at a higher altitude resembled a lighter Algerian oil
(Sholto-Douglas, 1969). Plants of the same cultivar grown at three altitudes
in India, 542 m, 900 m and 2200 m gave highest yield at 542 m and lowest
at 2200 m, but oil from the latter plants had more menthone, citronellol and
nerol; geraniol rose progressively from 22.4% at 542 m to 30.2% at 2200 m
(Rajeswara Rao et al., 1990a).
Geranium produces maximum leaf growth with high oil content under
warm sunny conditions, and cloudy days or low temperatures adversely
affect both. A daytime temperature of 20-25°C is the optimum, but 5°C
above and below is acceptable; below 6°C normally inhibits growth, below
3°C is frequently fatal if prolonged, and frost at any stage of growth usually
kills. In the Caspian region of Russia where it is grown as an annual,
200-220 frost-free days are required and the necessity to replant each year is
very costly. It is very doubtful if geranium to produce oil can be grown on a
large scale as an annual and be commercially viable.
Annual rainfall of 1000-1500 mm evenly distributed over the main
growing period is required but regions with sharply defined wet and dry
seasons can produce good crops provided there are no extended periods of
waterlogging. Very heavy rains following onset of the monsoon, or cyclones,
can be most damaging; on Reunion for example a majority of plants may be
killed when soils remain saturated. Prolonged mist or high humidity reduces
leaf growth by encouraging fungal disease. Although geranium is drought
tolerant, long dry spells severely retard growth, reduce oil content, and
change oil characteristics. The effect in Kenya on oil and herbage yield of a
mainly dry 3 month period, compared to a mainly wet 3 month period is
shown in Table 3.3.
Thus the climatic factors producing a higher yield of herbage have the
opposite effect on oil, and vice versa; this is important to growers insofar as
a reduction in one was compensated by a rise in the other, the yield of oil per
hectare being similar. Oil produced after 3 wet months however, had a
slightly milder note than oil produced after 3 dry months (Weiss, 1967).
Plants cut in India in the spring (semi-dry period) also had a greater oil
content than those cut after monsoon rains (Mani et al., 1982; Prakasa Rao
et al., 1995), while oil from plants grown in semi-arid conditions showed
similar variation (Bhattacharya et al., 1993). Where there are no pronounced

Table 3.3. The effect of dry and wet periods on oil and herbage yield of
geranium in Kenya.

Oil
Herbage
tiha kgit kgiha
After 3 wet months 28.2 0.73 20.6
After 3 dry months 21.8 1.07 23.3
36 Chapter 3

seasons, maximum herbage yield frequently corresponds with main flower-


ing (spring in the Northern Hemisphere). In Israel it was May although
highest oil content was in August (Putievsky et al., 1984; Fleisher and
Fleisher, 1985). Wind generally has little effect on established plants, but
newly planted cuttings can be broken or uprooted. Hail is very damaging to
young plants and severe storms can strip leaves at all ages.

Soil and fertilizers


Geranium produces the greatest amount of herbage on fertile, well drained,
slightly sandy soil, p H 5.5-7.0. Heavy clay, poorly drained, alkaline or very
acid soils below p H 5.0 are generally unsuitable, but some local cultivars are
tolerant of low to moderate levels of sodium chloride. In Australia, bore
water with a salt content too high for many crops can be used to supplement
rainfall, while in the Armenian region of Russia ameliorated saline sodic soils
produced high herbage yield under good management and fertilization.
Geranium is very adaptable and, in general, any local soil utilized for
vegetable production is suitable for commercial geranium crops. Geranium
produces a thick leafy canopy and is a suitable crop for hillsides, with ridge
or contour planting to reduce the danger of soil erosion. Soilless cultivation
is also possible; in Russia, a pilot hydroponic project produced plants
claimed to be virtually pest and disease free, gave five times the local herbage
yield, with an oil content of 3.0% (Mairapetyan and Alexsanyan, 1985).
Geranium can produce 25-40 tiha herbage annually and, as most is
removed from the plantation, the drain on plant nutrients is substantial and
must be replaced to maintain a higli yield. In India, the highest nitrogen
content of 0.98% was found in leaves and highest phosphate and potassium
content in petioles, 1.13% and 0.80% respectively (Dhakshinamoorthy et
al., 1979). Nutrient uptake per hectare was 18.2 kg N, 4 kg P, 6.6 kg K, 7.5
kg Ca, 4.8 kg Mg and, based on a herbage yield of 1135 kg, it was calculated
that a crop removed per hectare, 21 kg N, 4 kg P, 6.4 kg K, 7.7 kg Ca and 5
kg Mg. Oil production of 75 kgiha on Reunion required uptake per hectare
of 100 kg N, 14 kg P, 134 kg K, 179 kg Ca, 17 kg Mg, 15 kg Na and 10 kg
S, with a herbage yield of 7 tiha (Fritz, 1976), and this level of annual
removal without replacement was considered to cause dieback.
Nitrogen directly affects total herbage yield provided phosphate, potash
and soil moisture are available, but has little or no effect on oil content or oil
characteristics. Applying nitrogen to the seed-bed either alone or in a
compound fertilizer usually results in faster growth of cuttings, but the effect
seldom lasts beyond the first cut; thus its usefulness is limited and the
profitability of seed-bed application must be established locally. A nitrogen
top-dressing is usually applied after each cut and the most suitable type and
level of application must be accurately determined. In Kenya, there was no
significant increase from a total of 170 kgiha ammonium sulphate (36 kg N)
(Weiss, 1967) but in India urea or ammonium sulphate to 100 kgiha
Geraniaceae 37

generally increased herbage yield (Rajeswara Rao et al., 1990b, c). Very high
levels of ammonium sulphate were applied to an irrigated crop in Israel; 500
kgiha was soil incorporated prior to planting, 300 kgiha as a top dressing
before the first cut, and a similar amount after each cut. This produced the
extremely high yield of 70 tiha from three cuts in a year, and a calculated
total oil yield of 185 kgiha (Fleisher and Fleisher, 1985). There is usually
little or no difference in green material yield between the various nitrogenous
fertilizers, and the cheapest is normally applied. While high levels of nitrogen
generally promotes plant growth, related effects may modify a yield increase;
rust caused by Puccinia pelargonii-zonalis is often more severe.
Phosphate is usually necessary to ensure rapid rooting of cuttings and
subsequent herbage production, but has little effect on the oil content of
leaves or oil characteristics. Increasing seedbed superphosphate (17-18% P)
from 0 to 135 kgiha doubled herbage yield in the first and second year after
planting in Kenya, but yield rapidly declined in the third and subsequent
years, and a further application would probably have been profitable (Weiss,
1967,1969). In India, 25-40 kgiha superphosphate is common and a similar
amount is often applied in alternate years over the life of a plantation (Gulati
etal., 1982; Kumaretal., 1985). Acompoundfertilizerof50:130:lOONPK
at 600-800 kgiha increased yield on Reunion by 30% with phosphate the
most important (Gailleton, 1967), but the standard sugarcane fertilizer of
15:7:24 or 18:7:30 NPK is now more commonly applied at levels related to
the average oil yield per hectare; at 200 kg oil it is 200 kgiha, at 30-40 kg oil
it is 400-600 kgiha, and above 50 kg oil it is 700 kg of 9.5:14:30 NPK plus
600 kg ammonium nitrate or 300 kg ureaiha (Chablier, 1992).
Potassium levels, especially the ratio to nitrogen and phosphate, must be
accurately determined, since response to this nutrient is usually erratic. It is
frequently part of a compound NPK fertilizer, but may not be required or
required at a much lower level than available in the compound. Experi-
mental results in India showed potassium is frequently lacking in many
geranium-growing regions; potassium chloride is commonly recommended
at an annual rate of 35-70 kgiha (18-36 kg K).
Calcium in the seed-bed frequently increases herbage yield in the pres-
ence of adequate amounts of the major nutrients, and is often applied in
conjunction with magnesium; as dolomite limestone or ground magnesium
limestone when locally available. The amount applied is usually small, since
geranium prefers a slightly acid soil. From the small amount of data available
it appears no field planting of geranium has been adversely affected by a
minor or trace element deficiency. In pot trials magnesium frequently
increased herbage yield, and also in field trials when applied in the seed-bed.
No significant effect on herb oil content or oil composition has been
reported. Inclusion of molybdenum and copper increased herbage and oil
yield of well-fertilized plants in India.
38 Chapter 3

Table 3.4. Symptoms of nutrient deficiency in geranium.

Nutrient deficiency Symptoms


Nitrogen Older leaves mainly affected and show most symptoms; leaves are
lighter green initially, becoming more yellowish and finally turn light
brown and wither.
Phosphate Older leaves mainly affected: foliage is generally a darker green than
normal, with leaves developing red-purple areas. Lower leaves can
become yellowish, desiccate to a blue-green and fall.
Potassium Older leaves mainly affected; leaves become mottled, greyish-green,
with necrotic spots. In severe cases, leaf margins are scorched and
wither.
Magnesium Older leaves most affected; leaves become mottled, often with distinctive
inter-veinal yellowing while veins remain green. There is usually little or
no defoliation.
Iron Only younger leaves affected; symptoms are very similar to those of
magnesium deficiency but the age of affected leaves is a good
distinguishing feature.

The description of nutrient deficiency symptoms in Table 3.4 is intended


as a guide, and nutrient deficiencies and their amelioration can only be
accurately determined by soil and foliar analysis.
Spent leaves from distillation can be composted to provide a valuable
mulch, but it is doubtful if this operation would be profitable on large
commercial plantations. It is a low cost source of plant nutrients for
smallholders as it contains appreciable amounts of N, P, K, Ca and Mg, and
only labour is involved in its preparation.

Cultivation
It is essential that lands should be well ploughed and all roots and other plant
debris burnt, as geranium plants are very susceptible to root infections. This
major cultivation should take place as far in advance as possible of planting-
out cuttings, since it will provide an invaluable opportunity to produce a
level seedbed and destroy all persistent weeds and grasses. The latter are
extremely difficult to remove once geranium plants are well established
without causing damage to the relatively shallow roots or extensive bran-
ches. Where geranium is grown as a smallholder crop the minimum of
cultivation is normal; on Reunion for example, trash from a preceding cane
crop is piled and burnt, and the land hoed prior to planting cuttings. On
sloping lands where terracing is not possible, permanent lines of soil-binding
plants such as Pennisetum spp. or Vetiveria spp. should be established at
regular vertical intervals, to reduce the danger of soil erosion. Geranium is
normally planted in pure stands for commercial oil production, but when
grown by smallholders may be interplanted. In general, the total return from
Geraniaceae- 39

Table 3.5. Yield of intercropped geranium in India

Biomass yield of geranium (tiha)


Legumes (tiha)
Harvest number
Biomass Seed
Treatment 1 2 3 4 Total yield yield
Solid row (geranium) 6.0 10.2 10.7 13.0 39.9 ng ng
Paired row (geranium) 7.6 11.2 10.0 13.9 42.7 ng ng
Cow pea ng ng ng ng ng 29.4 2.93
Blackgram "g ng "g ng ng 4.3 0.93
Solid row (geranium/ 2.0 11.0 13.7 14.7 41.4 49.5 5.20
cow pea)
Paired row (geranium/ 3.4 11.7 13.4 14.8 43.3 43.4 4.47
cow pea)
Solid row (geranium/ 5.8 10.8 11.2 14.3 42.1 5.0 0.93
blackgram)
Paired row (geranium/ 4.3 8.6 12.7 15.1 40.7 6.8 1.00
blackgram)
~~~ ~

ng, not given.


Source: Prakasa Rao et al. (1984)

interplanted geranium is frequently less than can be obtained from increased


input to the crops it displaces (Table 3.5).
Geranium is usually propagated by stem cuttings, but root cuttings,
suckers or splits are equally effective although requiring more time to
produce. Micropropagation is possible and is an excellent method of pro-
ducing large numbers of plants from selected parents, although little used as
it is currently more expensive than existing methods of propagation (Brown
and Charlwood, 1986: Yue et al., 1993; Satyakala et al., 1995). Plants to
produce cuttings must either be available from an existing plantation, or a
large nursery established. A well-grown mature plant should provide 20-25
cuttings, and 30,000 to 50,000 cuttingsiha will normally be required.
Suitable cuttings are 15-20 cm with 4-6 nodes, a terminal bud and leaves,
should be from current season's growth, and taken only from healthy,
vigorous, bushy plants. Dipping cuttings in a rooting compound is effective
but usually unnecessary if cuttings have been properly prepared as the strike-
rate is high. When plants are required for experimental purposes, where age
and growth must be as uniform as possible, rooted cuttings are preferred.
Plastic tubing cut to length and stapled at the base is cheap and easy to use
(see Fig. 3.4). Large numbers of rooted cuttings can easily be obtained, thus
bulking-up of strains or experimental lines is simple and relatively inex-
pensive. When geranium is grown as an annual and seasonal conditions limit
the period available to mature a crop, rooted cuttings are essential and must
be produced as easily and cheaply as possible, and this requires a high level
40 Chapter 3

of mechanization. One system developed in Russia used specially designed


greenhouses, handling equipment and transplanters (Ivanovov, 1984).
For direct field planting, leaves should be clipped from the bottom two-
thirds of the cutting, the base cut at an angle, dipped in fungicide, then
planted as soon as possible. Cuttings must be planted into moist soil as it is
generally not feasible to water-in large-scale plantings. Cuttings can be
mechanically planted, but manual planting is common, and a three-person
team can quickly plant one hectare. Rows can be easily marked using a
tractor and any suitable tined implement set at the required width. Alterna-
tively, a wooden T-bar set with 3-5 teeth at the correct spacing is effective.
Infilling should commence as soon as dead or diseased cuttings are noticed,
and this operation should continue over the life of the plantation to maintain
a full stand. In areas when heavy rainstorms occur it may be advisable to
ridge fields to encourage drainage; conversely, in drier regions tied-ridges
will retain maximum rainfall. In both instances cuttings should be planted
into the ridges. When machinery is used to construct ridges, fertilizer can be
placed at the same time and ridges tied automatically.
It is essential to control weed growth until plants become well established
and after each cut, and weeding must be as shallow as possible to avoid
damage to plant roots. Manual weeding is common but herbicides have
been used successfully in geranium and these should always be applied as

Fig. 3.4. Bulking up selected geranium strains. Kenya.


Geraniaceae 41

directed sprays with drift-shields. An excellent method of applying herbi-


cides for small farmers, or where labour is available, is spot-spraying or wick-
application to kill persistent weeds. The following have been used in gera-
nium with no major damage to plants when correctly applied: atrazine,
dalapon, glyphosate, linuron, and simazine. Field trials should always pre-
cede general use as there are indications herbicides may affect leaf oil
content and composition.
Adequate soil moisture is essential for high herbage yield and 55565% soil
moisture capacity should be maintained in the root zone over the main
growing periods. Thus irrigation during a dry period or to induce new
growth is desirable, but is usually only possible where an irrigation system
and water are already available for other crops. It is most unlikely that
growing geranium on a commercial scale for oil production wholly under
irrigation would be profitable. Irrigation substantially increases herbage and
thus total oil yield per hectare but, in general, leaf oil content tends to be
reduced, especially with overhead systems. Thus harvesting, transport and
distilling cost per kilogram of oil obtained will increase, plus the cost of the
water and its application.

Harvesting
The first cut should not be taken until plants are well established and bushy,
normally 6-8 months after planting out. Cutting too early after establish-
ment often kills many plants, or regrowth is very slow. When to cut may be
determined by weather or other farming operations, but to obtain maximum
oil yield plants should be routinely sampled to determine oil content;
however, cutting is usually related to plant height or flowering. Oil content
normally increases from onset of flowering, is highest at full bloom, and very
rapidly decreases thereafter (Table 3.6). In southern India, oil content was
highest in July and lowest in February, while specific gravity was highest in
January and lowest in September (Mani and Sampath, 1982). Oil composi-
tion also changes over time, which tracer studies have shown to be sub-
stantial (Banthorpe et al., 1983). These changes also correspond to the main
growth periods, and thus cutting at the optimum time for oil content also
generally produces the highest quality oil.
Cutting can be manual or mechanical at 12-20 cm above the ground, with
field trials to establish the most profitable height in relation to distillation
time and oil yield per tonne of material. The importance of cutting height
was demonstrated in India and Israel; leaf blades, petioles and flowers
contain practically all the oil, the stem little, and from 15 cm below the tip
virtually none (Vadivel and Sampath, 1982; Kumar et al., 1985; Fleisher and
Fleisher, 1985). The whole stem contains so little oil it is a waste of effort to
distil, but there is currently no practical method of harvesting leaves alone.
Smallholder plots are invariably cut by hand, with only green leafy shoots
selected to reduce volume throughput of stills, and a major pruning is
42 Chapter 3

Table 3.6. Changes in essential oil content during blooming -Israel.

Oil %wet Dry material


Date of harvest Plant stage Part analysed material (%) Oil % dry wi
25 March Beginning of Whole plant 0.17 14.3 1.21
blooming
1 April First half of Whole plant 0.13 15.4 1.23
blooming
8 April Full bloom Flowers 0.60 18.4 3.27
Leaves 0.31 17.3 1.78
Stems Trace 13.5 Trace
Whole plant 0.21 16.0 1.32
15 April Advanced Whole plant 0.22 18.3 1.19
blooming
30 April End of blooming Whole plant 0.1 1 17.8 0.56
Source: Fleisher and Fleisher (1985).

recommended in India after 5 years of such selective cutting, with prunings


removed and burnt (Kumar and Sampath, 1982).
Cut herbage should be loaded directly into a cart or trailer and not placed
on the ground, as adhering soil can affect oil quality, especially in areas
where there is a high content of iron or aluminium, common in many
tropical red earths. Mechanical harvesting is essential on large commercial
plantations and described later in the distillation section. Although it is
desirable to continue cutting once harvesting has begun, some flexibility is
essential to maintain a high oil yield. Slightly overcast but dry conditions are
most suitable, although it may be necessary to cut only in the early morning
on very hot, sunny days. A heavy rainstorm or several misty days can halve
oil content, and cutting should be suspended until oil content recovers.
Since volume of herbage is substantial, the rate of cutting must be closely
integrated with still capacity, as cut material stored in heaps quickly ferments
with consequent deterioration in oil quality.
Herbage yield varies widely: in Kenya up to 30-40, average 15-25 tiha;
India up to 20, average 6-10 tiha; Reunion 15-30, average 18 tiha. Selection
or breeding can rapidly increase herbage or oil yield as in Russia, where the
Georgian cultivar ‘Yubileinaya’ gave twice the oil yield at 46 kg/ha of the best
commercial cultivar from 12% less herbage (Oboladze and Kuchuloriya,
1986), while in Tajikstan a selected cultivar gave treble the average oil yield
per hectare of those currently cultivated (Nurnazarov and Bordyeva,
1986).
Quoted oil yield varies from 5-20 kg/ha annually depending directly on
the cultivar and number of cuts possible. The potential for increased yield
has been demonstrated at many local experimental stations where selected
strains gave 0.30-0.45% oil content combined with substantially increased
Geraniaceae 43

herbage yield. Thus oil yield dramatically increased in India to 45 kg/ha


compared with an average of 8-15 kgiha (Balakrishnan et al., 1982), while
70-80 kg oiliha was obtained by crossing selected high-yielding strains at the
Sukhumi Experimental Station, Georgia (CIS). The annual average oil yield
should be not less than 0.20-0.25% of total herbage by volume from large
commercial plantations if the operation is to be viable (in 1995). Thus
agronomic and management methods must aim at obtaining this oil yield as
economically as possible. Research should aim at breeding or selection and
bulking-up of high oil-yielding plants preferably using micropropagation
techniques.
The useful life of a geranium plantation depends mainly on the standard
of management and can be 10 years, but should not be less than 6-8 years for
a commercia! plantation as the cost of re-establishment is considerable.
Once the life cycle has been determined, it should be possible to regulate
operations to ensure part of the area is replanted annually for continuity. A
minimum area of 200-250 ha under crop will allow the necessary mecha-
nization, sustain a modern distillery, and profitably produce oil. Alterna-
tively, the nucleus plantation system could be used in many regions to obtain
the necessary minimum area. Methods of allowing permanent cultivation of
geranium by efficient cultural techniques and adequate pest and disease
control should also be given priority in any research programme. Geranium
can also be an annual crop in a rotation, although this is currently possible
only under smallholder cultivation (Husain et al., 1988). Where a rotation is
essential to reduce the incidence of pests or diseases a number of crops have
proved suitable; on Reunion, 7 years under sugar then 5-7 years geranium,
or Acacia decurrens (Wendl) Willd. up to 10 years then 5-7 years geranium;
in India, 1-3 years pulses and small grains between geranium crops; in
Kenya, a grazed grass fallow of not less than 2 years is recommended since
there are few alternative cash crops.

Distillation
Once cutting has commenced on a commercial geranium plantation, stills
should be operated continuously to keep pace with the volume of material,
since it is generally unprofitable to have sufficient stills working only part of
the day to meet demand over the relatively short period of optimum herbage
oil content. Wherever possible, commercial plantations should install a
combination trailer-still system as described in the section on harvesting
eucalyptus. Harvesting can be extended provided it is accepted that oil
characteristics will probably differ during the period, and it will be necessary
separately to store the oil obtained until it can be reprocessed or blended to
the required type. The author obtained two quite different oils in the dry and
wet seasons in Kenya as noted, and cutting when plants were in full bloom
44 Chapter 3

tended to produce an oil with lower geraniol and citronellol content than
cutting prior to blooming. Figure 3.5 shows a still which was built under the
author's supervision in Kenya.
Allowing herbage to wilt before distilling depends on the facilities avail-
able; where it can be thinly spread on a clean shaded surface wilting can be
an advantage, but the duration must be accurately established (Chan-
dravadana and Kumar, 1989; Rajeswara Rao et al., 1992)). Field wilting has
a number of disadvantages; most importantly oil content falls rapidly in
strong sunlight, with the added risk of soil contamination.
Geranium herbage can be hydro- or steam-distilled, the oil obtained being
basically the same under a similar level of management. A substantial
amount of geranium oil is produced by small owner-operated unsophisti-
cated stills, whose efficiency in terms of cost per kilogram of oil is low. Such
producers should co-operate to establish a modern distillery to produce high
quality oil, while governments in some countries actively support the devel-
opment and introduction of more modern stills, Reunion for example (Vera
et al., 1995). Solar heating can substantially reduce the cost of pre-heating
water to produce steam and replace all or part of the huge amounts of wood
required; 200-400 kg wood per tonne of herbage processed is common. T h e
material used to construct still bodies may have an important effect on oil
composition, and must be considered when new distilleries are planned
(Guerere et al., 1985).

Fig. 3.5.Still built under author's supervision, Kenya


Geraniaceae 45

Herbage can be directly loaded or chopped and blown into the still body,
but whatever method is used, it is essential the charge should not be too
densely packed, as this will cause channelling or hot spots. Modern stills use
cohobation, since some oil remains in the distillation water. This oil, the
secondary oil, may reach 25% of potential oil yield and can be solvent
extracted. In Israel, secondary oil was higher in free alcohols but had a lower
ester content. Analysis of the two oils gave the following (secondary oil in
brackets): specific gravity (20"C), 0.899 (0.899), refractive index 1.468
(1.468), optical rotation -10.9" (-5.9"), acidvalue 2.6 ( 4 . 9 , estervalue 75
(36), ester value after acetylation 232 (250) (Fleisher and Fleisher, 1985).
When herbage is hydro-distilled the liquid remaining in the still body is
not equivalent to this secondary oil. It may have been overheated or
remained in the still for several distillations and contain compounds which
adversely effect oil quality. It should be discarded. Spent herbage should
preferably be composted for return to the plantation as mulch, or used on
other crops. On large plantations the volume is substantial and an efficient
method of removing it from the distillery for treatment or dumping is
essential.
Crude oil should be dried, filtered and stored in opaque airtight contain-
ers. Storage temperature should be below 10°C for extended periods and
not higher than 15°C for shorter periods. In general, acid number and
specific gravity increase and optical rotation and ester number decrease in
oils stored in ambient conditions. Opaque containers of glass, aluminium or
steel are preferred, as many plastic containers are unsuitable. An indication
of the physical and chemical changes which can occur in an Egyptian oil has
been published (Oda, 1982). Leaves may be solvent extracted with hexane,
but the concentrate must be again extracted with ethanol to remove the
wax.

Pests and diseases


The most important pests of geranium are those attacking leaves and shoots,
soil-living larvae of various beetles, nematodes and termites. Many reports
in the literature refer to ornamental pelargoniums, and although these pests
may also be found on crops grown for essential oil, their economic im-
portance is usually small. For example the large variegated-leaf ornamental
types with little oil content growing in the author's garden in Kenya were
sometimes almost defoliated by caterpillars not found on nearby essential oil
cwltivars. Geranium plants are generally free from major infestations and
spot spraying to contain an outbreak is normally sufficient. A major reason
for the author's reluctance to use overall insecticide sprays was (and re-
mains) a lack of data on the effect of residues on oil quality. Some chemicals
have an extremely offensive and persistent odour, which does not always
disappear during distillation, and could be a reason why oils sometimes have
off-notes.
46 Chapter 3

Caterpillars of various moths cause some degree of damage. Specifically;


Lobesia vanillana damaged plants in Reunion, and L. botrana from West Asia
to the southern CIS republics (although usually a major pest of grapevine);
Cyrtophlebia leucotreta in the Middle East and Africa; Oebia ( = Hellula)
undalis the cabbage webworm, a widespread pest of cruciferous crops, also
damages geranium. The polyphagous Heliothis armigera, Heliothis peltigera,
Achaea spp. and several other Noctuidae including Plusia ( = Chrysodeixis)
chalcites have been recorded from a number of countries as causing regular
but minor damage. Mirids, especially Helopeltis spp., and whiteflies, partic-
ularly Trialeurodes spp., often T. vaporariorum the greenhouse whitefly, can
frequently be found on geranium, sometimes in large numbers, but seldom
cause significant damage. Galls caused by Dasineura spp. and Jaapiella spp.,
midges, have recently been recorded from Kazakhstan (Fedotova, 1993).
Aphids are normally present, especially Acyrtosiphon malvae the pelagonium
aphid, or the ubiquitous Myzus persicae, but again seldom cause major
damage. Mites can cause severe damage on individual plants or a small area
in a crop, Tetranychus spp. being most frequently mentioned. Scale insects
may occur on geranium from Japan to Europe, but the degree of damage is
usually not extensive; Pseudaulacaspispentagona, the white peach scale, may
be seasonally severe as on Reunion and, since this scale generally has a wide
local host range, cross-infestation is common and difficult to control; the
widespread Aspidiotus destructor, transparent or coconut scale, has been
noted but is usually a pest of tree crops. Earwigs, Foq5cula spp. may become
very numerous in dry periods, attacking terminal and flower buds and
causing distorted growth. Weevils may be a more serious pest than is
currently accepted, and have been recorded from several important gera-
nium growing regions; on Reunion Cratopus spp., which has numerous
alternative hosts, requires control when numbers build up; Pantomorus
godmani, Fuller’s rose beetle, has been recorded in Egypt and other west
Asian countries as a minor pest but could become more important on large
plantations. Coreid bugs are frequently present and cause wilting of shoots
and foliage; most often reported is Liorhyssus hyalinus which has a wide
geographical and host range. Roots are damaged by larvae of the vine weevil
Otiorhynchus sulcatus and the common local cutworm, often Agrotis ipsilon
and Scotia segetum. A scarab, Hoplochelus marginalis, is considered a serious
pest on Reunion, Madagascar and neighbouring islands, while larvae of
Schizonchya spp. may cause some root damage in a number ofnorth and east
African countries. The importance of nematodes has not been determined,
although Meloidogyne spp. are frequently recorded. In contrast, geranium oil
apparently has nematicidal activity (Leela et al., 1992).
Diseases are generally more important than insects in the degree of
damage caused. The major leaf diseases are anthracnose, primarily due to
Glomerella spp., especially G. vanillae and G. cingulata, Gloeosporium spp.
Geraniaceae 47

and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides; leaf spots caused by Alternaria spp., Fusa-


rium spp. (especially F. oxysporum), Cercospora spp.(often C. brunkiz) and
Pseudomonas spp. often P. solanacearum; rust due to Puccinia pelargonii-
zonalis. All can be controlled by fungicides. Symptoms and major causal
organisms vary regionally and positive identification is necessary to ensure
the correct remedial treatment. Pelargonium vitifolium has a high degree of
resistance to anthracnose and has been used to introduce this important
factor into other cultivars, especially on Reunion. Serious bacterial leaf and
stem rots are caused by types of Xanthomonas pelargonii or Pseudomonas
solanacearum. A damaging leaf and stem wilt due to Verticillium spp. spreads
rapidly in a crop. The most efficient control method when the disease has
been positively identified is to uproot and burn infected plants, and treat soil
in the area with a formalin solution.
Root rots cause many fatalities in new plantings and nurseries, controlled
by dipping cuttings in a fungicidal solution prior to planting. Mature plants
can also be infected, especially when soil moisture is high or following a
period of high humidity. Most frequently recorded are X . pelargonii, black
stem rot; foot rots due to Pythium spp. especially P. splendens and Glomerella
spp.; stem or root decay caused by Sclerotinia spp., Rhizoctonia spp. and
Thielaviopsis spp. T o contain an outbreak, or where these diseases are
common, a fungicide spray along plant rows after each cut will materially
reduce damage. Resistance to some of these diseases is reported in Indian
selections and ornamental cultivars, and worth further investigation.
Several viruses have been isolated from geranium, and there is no cure for
infected plants; thus only virus-free plants should be used to provide
cuttings. The most obvious symptoms are yellowing of leaves which later
curl or crumble, or small green instead of normal flowers. Crinkle or leaf curl
virus is transmitted by the aphid Macrosiphum pelargonii, and the thrips
Frankliniella occidentalis is considered a vector of flower break virus. Oedema
is caused by a combination of high humidity, cool air and warm soil;
symptoms are tiny pimple-like blisters on undersides of leaves, petioles and
tender stems. The condition is physiological; cells become saturated with
water, swell and burst. Should atmospheric conditions persist, blisters
increase, become brown and corky and affected leaves turn yellow and
fall.

Products and specifications


Geranium oil is obtained by steam or hydro-distilling fresh herbage, and an
absolute by solvent extracting the distillate or herbage. A number of gera-
nium oils are available commercially, usually distinguished by a country-of-
origin prefix: Reunion, Egyptian, Moroccan, etc. (Table 3 . 7 ) . Over 100
compounds have been detected in geranium oil (Nofal, 198 1; Nigam et al.,
1987; Ma and Li, 1991; Ntezurubanza et al., 1992; Demarne, 1992;
48 Chapter 3

Lawrence, 1994; Southwell and Stiff, 1995). Many Pelargonium spp. pro-
duce an essential oil and composition of the most important have been
reviewed (Lawrence, 1992). Oil from all origins is frequently adulterated,
the finer the original quality the more common the occurrence. Some
countries, including Reunion and Egypt, have a high standard of purity and
oils purchased directly from reliable suppliers are usually unadulterated.

Table 3.7.Comparison of geranium oils from selected origina,

Algeria China Egypt Morocco Reunion


Alpha-pinene 0.62 0.28 0.38 0.46 0.86
Beta-pinene 0.08 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.16
Alpha-terpinene 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03
Myrcene 0.14 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.19
Alpha-phellandrene 0.07 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02
Beta-phellandrenetlimonene 0.17 0.1 2 0.13 0.13 0.21
cis-Ocimene 0.16 0.08 0.05 0.07 0.16
trans-Ocimene 0.20 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.14
pGymene 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.1 1
Terpinolene 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03
cis-Rose oxide 1.08 145 1.01 0.97 0.64
trans-Rose oxide 0.37 0.64 0.34 0.38 0.21
cis-Linalool oxide 0.14 0.12 0.28 0.16 0.39
Menthone 0.88 1.41 1.31 0.78 1.50
trans-Linalool oxide 0.47 0.34 0.51 0.49 0.24
lsomenthone 5.38 5.70 5.39 5.20 7.20
Linalool 5.26 3.96 9.47 6.80 12.90
Caryophyllene 0.93 1.04 1.05 0.77 0.74
Guaiadiene 6,9 0.18 4.40 0.27 0.15 3.90
Citronellyl formate 7.57 11.35 6.74 6.02 8.37
Citronellyl acetate 0.28 0.80 0.25 1.23 0.17
Alpha-terpineol 1.14 0.76 0.93 0.94 0.70
Geranyl formate 5.90 1.92 4.75 6.55 7.55
Geranyl acetate 1.08 0.10 0.61 1.06 0.39
Citronellol 22.90 40.23 27.40 19.28 21.28
Nerol 0.80 0.67 0.88 1.19 1.24
Citronellyl butyrate 1.14 0.52 0.75 1.07 1.26
Geraniol 17.07 6.45 18.00 18.40 17.45
Phenylethyl butyrate 0.30 0.37 1.06 0.55 0.16
Geranyl butyrate 2.55 0.98 1.48 2.24 1.34
Furopel argone 0.23 0.59 trace 0.24 0.37
10-Epi-gamma-eudesmol 4.20 - 4.00 5.10 -
Geranyl tiglate 1.65 1.32 1.06 2.44 1.04
Phenylethyl tiglate 0.76 0.60 0.65 1.04 0.43
aFigures in table are percentages.
Source : Fraisse et a/. (1983); Vernin et al. (1983).
Geraniaceae 49

Individual shippers in producing areas have also established their own


specifications, which are quoted and maintained. Geranium oil is normally
used in toiletries and cosmetics, but it also has insecticidal, nematicidal and
antifungal properties, and these minor uses are described in the literature.
The most highly regarded oil is from Reunion, sometimes known as
Bourbon geranium oil from the original name, Ile de Bourbon. Fresh
Reunion oil is olive-green often with a brownish tinge, becoming yellowish-
green with age, with a high gaidiene content; odour is powerful, tenacious,
rosy, sweet and fruity; taste bitter and unpleasant. Main use is in perfumery
and cosmetics. Moroccan oil is usually a dark to medium yellow; odour
sweet, rosy, herbaceous, somewhat similar to Reunion oil. Although oil
quality is normally high, it is not a direct substitute for Reunion oil, but has
replaced Algerian oil. Egyptian oil is regularly available in commercial
quantities, and assuming increasing importance. The oil is yellow to
yellowish-green; odour rich, rosy-herbaceous; taste bitter. It is not a sub-
stitute for Reunion oil but is similar to Algerian or Moroccan oils. Chinese
oil is a dark olive green, often with a brownish or brownish-yellow tinge;
odour very variable probably due to the different distilling methods used,
and the various cultivars grown. Odour harsher than Reunion oil, tenacious,
often more lemony and rosy, with a sweetish-herbaceous note. It is not a
substitute for any other geranium oil. Demand would rapidly increase
supply, as it is much cheaper than other oils. Russian oil is not generally
available, but is closer to the best Algerian or Moroccan oil rather than
Reunion. Regions of the CIS produce a distinct type of oil for use in different
end products.
Indian geranium oil is not commercially available for export. Local oils
vary considerably in composition and odour especially lowland and highland
oils; the latter are considered of higher quality. Colour is a dark to brownish-
green becoming more yellow with age; odour somewhat harsher than
Reunion oil with less rosy and more lemony-minty notes, and much of this
variation is due to the strain of geranium grown and method of distillation.
An Indian standard has been published and is now generally followed. A
comparison of two Indian oils is shown in Table 3.8. The original Kenya
geranium oil, known as Mawah oil, was quite different to other geranium oils
(Matheson and Bovill, 1950; Guenther, 1957; Arctander, 1960; Kustova,
1978). However, oil produced from an imported Bourbon strain was of
superior quality, nearer to Moroccan oil than Mawah oil (Weiss, 1967).
Terpeneless geranium oil is prepared by vacuum distilling geranium oil,
and its composition will vary to suit processor’s requirements. Another
product of this process is rhodinol ex geranium (Arctander, 1960). Both oils
are colourless to very pale yellow. The odour of terpeneless geranium oil
varies as the constituents vary. Rhodinol has a sweet, fresh, rosy very
tenacious odour. Both products are extensively used in very high-quality
perfumery and cosmetic products.
50 Chapter 3

Table 3.8. Comparison of Indian geranium oilsa

Maldwani oil' Nilgiri oilc


Alpha-pinene 0.66 0.32
Camphene 0.49 0.67
Beta-pinene 1.49 0.25
Bornyl acetate 0.10 4.04
Citronellal 0.29 2.87
Beta-selinene 0.41 0.89
Linalool 8.74 II.a4
lsomenthone 2.94 2.87
Neoisomenthol 7.80 12.02
Citronellyl acetate 1.14 0.96
Alpha-terpineol 3.64 9.49
Citronellol 36.01 31.70
Geranyl acetate 0.49 1.35
Phenylethyl alcohol 1.04 2.17
10-Epi-gamma-eudesmol 14.49 4.57
Juniper camphor 2.48 ng
Junenol 1.86 ng
aFigures in table are percentages; low altitude; high altitude; ng, not given.
Source: Gulati et al. (1982).

Geranium concentrate is prepared by solvent extracting green herbage,


and is a dark green or brownish-green waxy mass, although some solvents
produce a dark green liquid not truly a concentrate. The solvent used affects
the concentrate, and petroleum ether produces a light coloured concentrate.
Odour is described as intense, of great tenacity, sharp-rosy, foliar-earthy and
herbaceous. Geranium absolute is prepared by solvent extracting distillation
water, commonly with petroleum ether. The absolute is usually a green to
dark green mobile liquid, contains a high proportion of rhodinol, but is low
in terpenes, esters, and ketones. Odour soft but very powerful, rich rosy and
minty, tending to leafy-earthy, with a less sharp note than the oil but much
more tenacious. Yield of absolute is slightly higher than oil yield from the
same weight of herbage. Both concentrate and absolute are used extensively
in perfumery and cosmetics including soaps.

Geranium

The first reference to geranium is in Dioscorides' Materia Medica, as


geranion from the Greek geranos, a crane, because of the shape of the long-
beaked fruit. The plant and its fragrant leaves were also well known to the
Geraniaceae 51

Romans. In Europe G. robertianum L. and in North America G. maculatum


L. are well established components of herbal medicine for treatment of
stomach disorders. A score of species known to Linnaeus were grouped into
Geranium in his Species Plantarum. Two of the earliest recorded were G.
macrorrhizum L. in 1576 and G. stm'atum L. in 1629, both from southern
Europe. There is reference in the 1633 Johnson edition of Gerrards Herbal
(p. 948) to Mr John Tradescant having a plant named Geranium indicum var.
odoratum in his garden, believed to be Pelargonium triite (L.) L'Herit., the so-
called sad geranium. The genus is closely related to the Erodium L'Herit.
with which some geranium species are often confused. The genus Geranium
L. is widely distributed but only G. macrorrhizum is harvested to produce an
essential oil; G. sanguineum L. has been tested as a dye producer in Uzbeki-
stan (CIS), and together with three other Geranium spp. was investigated as
a suitable dry region crop (Kim and Oprasidi, 1989). The first recorded use
of G. macrorrhizum was in Europe where foliage was steeped in hot water to
produce a tonic, and it was also erroneously believed to be an aphrodisiac.
The oil was first distilled in Bulgaria in 1926, and has since continued to be
produced there in varying amounts (Ognyanov and Ivanov, 1958). Only
brief details of the plant and its oil are given, as it is not cultivated and
indications are the oil is unlikely to be produced in any greater amounts (Fig.
3.6).
Geranium macrorrhizum L. (syn. Robertium macrorrhizum Pic.) is com-
monly known as zdravetz in the literature and will be hereafter referred to as
zdravetz, which is derived from the Bulgarian name for the plant, also called
big-root geranium. Cytology of the geraniums is somewhat confused, with
the basic chromosome number recorded as x = 23,25, with G. macrorrhizum
stated as 2n = 46. There are a number of cultivated varieties with white, pink
or purple flowers and variegated foliage. Zdravetz is a herbaceous perennial
with large brown rhizomes from which arise stout stems to 25 cm in the wild,
to 35 cm under cultivation. Leaves are mid-green and may become tinged
with red in autumn; deeply divided into five or seven-toothed, pinnately-cut
lobes. Peduncle densely-hairy, glandular, bearing magenta-pink to carmine-
red flowers with large petals in dense clusters. Fruit is long, sharply pointed
and contains many hard, brown, ellipsoid seeds which are usually viable;
plants can be raised from seed or root division. The foliage is highly aromatic
and an essential oil is obtained by steam distilling herbage or rhizomes. In
Yugoslavia, herbage and rhizomes had an oil content of 0.27-1.44'70 and
0.23-0.34% respectively. The fresh and dried herbage and rhizomes, leaf
extracts and root oil are used in traditional medicine virtually everywhere the
plant occurs (Ivanovska et al., 1993).
All oil currently available comes from wild plants and there is apparently
no intention in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia or Russia to cultivate zdravetz, since
52 Chapter 3

pilot projects have been unsuccessful. Wild plants in Bulgaria are re-
cumbent, with short stout stems arising from underground rhizomes. Leaves
tend to bunched towards the stem apex. Zdravetz is found in quantity
between 800-1700 m on rather infertile soils in Bulgaria; in Yugoslavia, soils
rich in calcium were reported to induce azulene concentration, while plants
growing in soils with a high selenium content had no azulene in the oil
(Mihajlov and Tucakov, 1975). Few pests or diseases have been accurately
recorded from wild zdravetz; recently Gnomopnia geranii-macrowhizi is de-
scribed as damaging roots in Bulgaria (Fakirova, 1995).
Harvesting normally begins in September and continues until snow falls
or the first frost. Herbage can be distilled fresh or wilted, with a yield of

Fig. 3.6. Geranium macrorrhizum


Geraniaceae 53

Table 3.9. Main characteristics of zdravetz oil - Bulgaria.

Commercial State
sample' specification Guenther'
Density (40°C) 0.930-0.952 0.938-0.968 0.9515 (25°C)
Refractive index 1.5024-1.5135 1.500-1.519 1.5076 (25°C)
Optical rotation (40°C) - 4 8 to -8.6" - I 0 to -9" -4'35' (25%)
Acid number 1.2-1.87 Max 3.0 1.9
Ester number 4.97-7.91 3.5-8.0 6.5
(after acetylation) (20.75-49.78) ng (35.5)
Acetyl number ng 20.7-50.0 ng
Melting-point ("C) ng 34-50 ng
Free alcohols (%)a 5.80-1 1.88 4-1 2 ng
Total alcoholsa 7.70-14.50 5-1 6 ng
(combined alcohols) ng 1-4 ng
Gerrnacrone (%) 47.75-50.13 42-53 ng
~~~ ~~ ~

aas geraniol; ng, not given.


Source: ' Ognyanov and lvanov (1958); Guenther (1957) vol. 4, p. 734

0.08-0.125%, and plants exposed to direct sunlight had a higher herbage oil
content than those growing mainly in shade. Plants growing in various
districts also had different herbage oil levels, indicating the potential for
increasing oil content by selection. Herbage is loaded into stills without
undue compaction, distilled for approximately 4 hours, and about 1 kg of oil
is obtained from 800-1 200 kg herbage. Hydro-distillation with cohobation
is normal, as this extracts almost all the oil and produces an oil closest to the
plant's natural scent.
Crude oil at ambient temperature is a bluish-green semi-viscous liquid
containing large colourless, odourless prismatic crystals. On exposure to air
the oil becomes gradually less green, finally a brownish green, the acid
number increases and the characteristic odour becomes modified by a
pronounced resinous note. This note is also very strong in cohobation water.
Since the crystals in crude oil are odourless, only the liquid (eleoptene) is of
interest to perfumers and contains 2% monoterpenes and 25% sesqui-
terpenens.
Zdravetz oil is a pale olive-green or pale yellowish-green somewhat
viscous liquid, which at room temperature is normally 30% liquid, 70%
crystals by volume; crystals begin to dissolve at 32°C and completely
dissolve between 45OC and 52OC. The main characteristics of zdravetz oil
are shown in Table 3.9, with alcohols calculated as geraniol although this is
absent from the oil; similarly germacrone has been traditionally quoted as
stearoptene. The main components of zdravetz oil are sesquiterpenes (to
90%), of which about half is germacrone (Ognyanov, 1985). Oil odour is
warm-fresh, sweetly herbaceous, rosy-woody, tenacious and used almost
54 Chapter 3

exclusively in perfumery and cosmetics. Zdravetz concentrate is not com-


mercially produced, but the solidified oil is sometimes misnamed concen-
trate. Concentrate is obtained by solvent extracting distilled oil.

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Essen. Oils. Plovdiv, Bulgaria, pp. 127-132.
Gramineae
4,
The Gramineae (syn. Poaceae), order Graminales, is the fourth largest
family of flowering plants with some 700 genera containing approximately
8000 species. Many are highly specialized but all produce a characteristic
fruit, an achene with a transparent pericarp, the caryopsis. A number are
cultivated on a huge scale including wheat, rice and maize, others produce a
commercially important essential oil. The Gramineae are divided into two
major sub-families, Pooideae and Panicoideae; the latter consisting of three
tribes, Paniceae, Maydeae and Andropogoneae, the last containing the
genera Cymbopogon and Vetiveria (Bor, 1960; Jagadischandra, 1975; Lazar-
ides, 1980). Classification of genera in the Panicoideae remains undefined
and also the number of species included in any specific genus, especially
Cymbopogon, as species intercross readily and may also exist in a number of
forms.
The inflorescence of Cymbopogon differs from other members of the tribe,
as the paired spikelets are carried on short racemes occurring in groups of
two, each group subtended by a moderately large semi-sheathing spathe.
The spathes with their paired racemes are borne in large branched panicles,
in some species somewhat open and spreading, in others more compact
(Fig. 4.1). The basic chromosome number is x = 10, and the somatic
number for most is 2n = 20 or 40.
The genus Cymbopogon Spreng. includes 50-60 species of tropical, per-
ennial, coarse-growing tufted grasses, many having highly aromatic foliage.
The five species described are C. nardus (Ceylon citronella) and C. winter-
ianus (Java citronella); C. citratus (West Indian lemongrass) and C. Pexuosus
(East Indian lemongrass); and C. martinii (palmarosa and gingergrass). The
genus Vetiveria Bory. currently contains ten species, including V. zizanioides
(vetiver) whose rhizome and roots are highly aromatic. Many other Cymbo-
pogon species contain a volatile oil (Singh, et al., 1982; Rizk et al., 1983;
Manzur-I-Khuda et al., 1984; Nigam, 1987; Mathela and Pant, 1988;
Mathela, 1990; Boelens, 1994).

59
60 Chapter 4

Sessile spikelet with awn


arising from lemma

Fig. 4.1. Cymbopogon spp. paired racemes of spikelets. (Cobley, 1965.)

The very wide range of oil types identified also indicates the range of
material available to plant breeders, not only in respect of novel oils, but also
within existing commercially exploited Cymbopogon species. In particular,
there exists considerable potential for selection and breeding strains high in
a specific oil component. A strain of C. pendulus produces oil with a 90%
citral content; of c. wintem'anus a citronellal content of 70%; of c.jwuruncusa
piperitone to 83% (Singh and Pathak, 1994), while a strain of C.martiniivar.
sofia produces oil with 40% carvone (Sobti, 1982).
Most operations necessary to grow these grasses and obtain oil, and the
pests and diseases, are common to all and are discussed in this section.
Vetiver is discussed separately since oil is contained in rhizome and roots,
not in herbage. Smallholders contribute a substantial proportion of oils
entering international trade, but output per grower is small. Since most oil
production will probably remain in this sector, there has been considerable
official research into improving management and agronomic techniques,
especially in Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Primary cultivation initially included clearing forest or bush, but this is
now discouraged by most governments. The greatest effort currently re-
quired is clearing land of exhausted crops and preparation for replanting.
Grass clumps are dug, piled, burnt and ash scattered. Some clumps are left
on field margins to provide splits for replanting. Experienced growers note
clumps which have outgrown or outyielded the majority, and use these for
planting material, but in general little attention is paid to selection of a
superior type. Following burning, the land is weeded and may be left fallow
until onset of the rains, then again weeded. When soil moisture is adequate,
Gramineae 61

the remaining clumps are divided and planted by opening a hole with a hoe,
the division dropped in and earth firmed with the foot. A man opening the
holes, his wife planting and children bringing further supplies of splits is
extremely effective, fast, and the proportion of rooted cuttings high if
subsequent rainfall is adequate. Little attention is paid to regular planting
intervals and, as grass clumps tend to expand to fill space available, there is
no appreciable loss of oil.
New plantings are weeded when time is available and, once established,
the grasses are well able to compete with all but the most pernicious local
weeds. The area is usually weeded after each cut and any fertilizer, ashes or
spent grass spread between clumps. Herbage is harvested by sickle and
transported to the still, or left to wilt for 1-3 days depending on local custom.
Time of cutting is important in relation to oil content of leaves but, as most
smallholders are always short of money, cutting is determined more often by
a cash need. Plants are harvested a t any convenient time, and this affects
both rate of regrowth and total yield of oil, usually to grower’s loss.
Few smallholders own stills and either sell their grass by weight to still
operators or cooperate in owning and operating a still. The latter system is
now common and actively encouraged by governments, who make low-cost
loans available to groups formed for the purpose. In India, wild plants are the
source of most palmarosa and gingergrass oil, and are cut by contract gangs
who harvest and distil1 the grass in situ in the area of their grant.
With the possible exception of vetiver, the grasses can be interplanted or
underplanted in suitable crops, which must be chosen with care, since too
much shade adversely affects leaf production and thus oil yield. Neither
method is recommended for commercial plantations unless the project is of
sufficient size to ensure the required level of management is applied to all
crops: tea and citronella for example (q.v). In smallholder plantings, the
degree of intercropping will depend almost entirely on the relative profitabil-
ity of the crops involved, and thus the respective proportion of land or time
allocated to each.
Mechanized production is basically similar to that required for small-
holder crops but land clearing will not be described. For a detailed descrip-
tion of some land-clearing methods used by the author and their cost see
Weiss (197 1). Ploughing is necessary at establishment or replanting, and the
main requirement is to leave the area clear of all major vegetation. A second
ploughing or heavy disc-harrowing at right-angles may be desirable to level
lands. Phosphatic or potassic fertilizers can be broadcast prior to this
operation, which ensures wide distribution in the root zone, particularly
important with vetiver since oil is contained in the rhizome and roots.
Leaf oil content can be affected by soil fertility, since soils which produce
luxuriant or very rapid leaf growth generally do so at the expense of oil
content. Thus, in terms of material processed by stills per kilogram of oil
obtained, soils of moderate to low fertility in which the level of plant
62 Chapter 4

nutrients can be controlled to assist regulation of herbage production and


leaf oil content, are more suitable for commercial estates. The same reason-
ing may also apply to small producers operating their own stills, where the
amount of leaf which can be transported is a limiting factor. Higher yield of
oil from less herbage can be more profitable in terms of required inputs, i.e.
time and food available for those engaged in grass collection.
Fertilizer applications generally affect oil yield by increasing the total
amount of herbage and have little effect on leaf-oil content or oil character-
istics at the levels normally applied; climatic factors are far more important.
A cultivarifertilizer interaction can occur, with selected strains varying
greatly in their response to increasing amounts. For all practical purposes
that cultivar producing the greatest yield of oil at lowest unit cost using the
fertilizer available should be selected; or fertilizer applications modified to
suit the cultivar chosen. This may appear obvious, but is frequently ignored
or perhaps not appreciated. An interaction between cultivar and amount of
nitrogen applied has been noted, and this is very important when selecting
local cultivars to be grown under more intensive management. Available
data (much unpublished) indicated the greatest herbage increases were
frequently from strains with a relatively low leaf-oil content.
It is also essential to ascertain soil nutrient availability to determine minor
nutrient status, as the small amounts normally required should be included
in a compound mixture applied to the seedbed or drilled alongside plant
rows after a cut. If a deficiency is suspected during the life of a plantation,
soil and plant tissue analyses will usually indicate the nutrient required.
Lime should be applied with care as it has caused minor element imbalances
affecting oil composition (Choudhury and Bordoloi, 1992).
Oil is restricted almost wholly to leaves, and although as noted a mass of
leaves may be impressive it can produce a low total oil yield, since there is a
correlation between excessive growth and low oil content; plants growing in
very fertile soils or oversupplied with nutrients tend to yield less oil per tonne
cut than more sparsely leaved plants in less fertile soils. Very fast leaf growth
is frequently at the expense of oil content; however fast regrowth if asso-
ciated with an acceptable oil content is an advantage, and there appear to be
significant differences in the rate of growth of individual plants and their
reaction to applied fertilizers. This can be well appreciated by walking
through a plantation a month after cutting, when the variation in rate and
amount of regrowth is obvious. It is thus essential to determine the optimum
application rate of fertilizers, water, and frequency of cutting, as there is little
profit in processing a large volume of low-oil-content herbage. Most estab-
lished plantings of both Cymbopogon nardus and C. winterianus contain an
assortment of plants with very different leaf oil content, and even a relatively
small proportion of low-yielding plants can reduce average oil yield. Every
effort should be made to select as parents plants with higher oil content,
faster re-growth, or resistance to disease, whichever is locally most desirable.
Gramineae 63

T o increase average plant oil content by as little as 0.1%, as has been


achieved in India by simple selection methods, will greatly improve profita-
bility as oil content is little affected by management. In contrast, it is
relatively easy to increase herbage yield. Thus a high average herbage yield
plus high leaf oil content must be the objective on a commercial plantation.
Selection within local cultivars at many experimental stations indicates a
much higher average oil content with double the average yield of herbage is
possible, and these selections should be bulked up in nurseries on existing
plantations to be used when areas are replanted. Selection of persistent
strains also extends plantation life and significantly reduces long-term
costs.
Plant population affects yield of the required product, and the optimum
number of plants per hectare (pph) should be accurately determined in
formal trials. There may be specific limits on a particular factor; row width
may be controlled by equipment available and this should be a constant in
trials. A row width of 90 cm has been widely adopted and unless there is a
specific reason for choosing another, this is generally the most acceptable
since it suits the working width of many agricultural tractors and animal
drawn implements. Row widths between 60-90 cm appear to have little
effect on total oil yield, which is more directly related to pph. Where wide
spacing is necessary, planting several splits per hill or double rows can
increase total oil yield.
Planting is generally manual, but many modern vegetable planters can be
easily adapted to plant splits, consisting of 15-20 cm of lower stem, leaves
and a section of root, and also combined with fertilizer placement. The
author successfully used a two-man cabbage-planter for lemongrass splits.
For fully automatic planters splits must be trimmed and cut to a uniform size
required by the machine selected. It is imperative the operation is carried out
as quickly as possible once soil conditions are suitable. Whatever system is
used, rows should always follow the contour on sloping lands or hillsides to
reduce soil erosion.
Many types of mechanical weeders are available and that chosen should
be selected for its ability economically to control the majority of local weeds.
Selective hand-weeding or shielded spot-spraying with a herbicide is usually
necessary to remove persistent perennial weeds, including Imperata cylin-
drica, Pennisetum purpureum and Cynodon spp. Provided the land is clean at
planting, two weedings are usually sufficient to the first cut, then one after
each subsequent cut and the operation combined with a fertilizer applica-
tion. In areas where there are definite wet and dry seasons, it may be
necessary to weed more frequently during the former since weed growth can
be very rapid. When plantings are mechanically weeded, the merits of wide
rows and close in-row spacing must be evaluated against on-the-square
planting. The first will allow efficient weeding between rows but not
between plants; the second will allow cultivation in two directions after
64 Chapter 4

cutting, and is a simple operation when using animal-drawn implements.


The author visited very clean plantations of Ceylon citronella which used the
latter method. Weeding also most importantly reduces or eliminates oil
contamination caused by including herbage of other local oil-bearing spe-
cies; common and widely occurring are Tagetes spp. and Bidens spp. whose
volatile oil has a tenacious and penetrating odour. Use of spent grass as a
mulch between rows can substantially suppress growth of all but the most
persistent weeds and supply nutrients as it decomposes (Singh et al. , 1991).
Herbicides are little used and those recommended will be noted. It is
essential to carry out trials to determine the effect of herbicides on the grass
itself, and also to establish any adverse effect on plant-oil content, oil
composition, oil characteristics, or residues which may affect the oil’s use in
foods or beverages.
Little data is available on the water requirement of these grasses and that
available is mainly from unpublished material or laboratory trials (Sangawan
et al., 1993b). Crops are mainly raingrown and it is doubtful if any of the
grasses discussed could profitably be grown solely under irrigation. When
water is freely available, it can significantly increase oil yield where there is a
pronounced dry season, particularly vetiver whose roots should always be
moist or oil content will be adversely affected. The large estates in Central
and South America which practised a regular irrigation schedule were an
exception, but the wartime situation which made this management system
profitable will hopefully not be repeated. Supplementary irrigation of small-
holder crops is possible especially in areas where other crops do not compete
for what is becoming an increasingly scarce resource. Of greater value are
methods of conserving rainfall; planting on ridges which follow the contour,
tie-ridging, water-spreading, and similar well-known techniques can fre-
quently allow profitable crop production in areas with marginal or erratic
rainfall.
Harvesting is commonly manual, but rising wages or a shortage of labour
has forced producers to mechanize, including forage harvesters which are
fast, efficient, can be set to cut at variable heights and partially chop the cut
material. Harvesting thus presents few problems in terms of machinery
available; what must be accurately determined is its efficiency and profitabil-
ity when incorporated in a specific production system. Cutting can continue
throughout the day where conditions are suitable, since there is generally
little change in leaf-oil content. It is more important to synchronize cutting
and distilling operations than to vary cutting to benefit from a small increase
in oil yield per hectare. Similarly there can be changes in oil composition
over any 24-hour period, but again these are of little practical importance.
Data on these changes in C. winterianus have been published (Singh et al.,
1979).
Mechanical cutting is fast and easy, but cut grass should be treated with
care, and suffer as little bruising as possible since leaves are thin and their oil-
Gramineae 65

containing cells easily ruptured; elevators and discharge chutes should allow
ease of movement without clogging. Forward and knife speeds on mower-
type harvesters must be so adjusted that grass is cut cleanly, without pulling
or snatching. When using forage harvesters, forward speed must be regu-
lated for similar reasons and, as the action of these harvesters varies between
models and makes, a trial run in a plantation is essential before any decision
to purchase. Harvesting on large-scale plantations should aim at cutting,
chopping and transporting grass in one continuous operation with the
minimum delay in delivery to stills. Machinery now available allows con-
siderable choice and a system suitable to local conditions easily selected (cf.
eucalyptus harvesting). At the Kimberley Experimental Station, Western
Australia, the system is based on a forage harvester which cuts, chops and
blows the grass into a trailer with high mesh sides U. Bonnardeaux, Cunnu-
nurra, personal communication).
Small farmers normally wilt herbage before distilling, and the method is
important. If herbage is left in the field, soil contamination can occur which
may taint oil or alter its composition. When left in heaps on field margins for
only a few hours, herbage ferments giving the oil a grassy note. When spread
in shade on a clean dry surface, most grasses can lose up to 50% moisture
with little loss of oil, whose value is recouped in the shorter distilling time
(Singh et al., 1994).
Hydro- and steam-distillation are most common; herbage is supported on
a grid above water which is heated to produce steam; or steam produced in
a boiler is introduced into the bottom of the still and normally produces
higher yields. Water remaining in the still following distillation should
preferably be discarded as the small amount of contained oil is seldom worth
recovering. Sri Lankan stills are traditionally made of galvanized iron,
135 cm in diameter and about 250 cm in height, tapering to a cone at the
top, with a capacity of 500 kg, and insulated to prevent heat loss by being
embedded in a stone hearth or surrounded by a layer of clay or finely
chopped grass. Openings a t the top and side facilitate charging and discharg-
ing. Such stills are called goddakans in Indonesia, and tilting types in-
troduced to facilitate discharging. Improved stills holding 500-2000 kg are
operating in most oil-producing countries.
Sri Lankan stills are located where there is sufficient water; two stills being
connected to the same condenser and operated alternately. In villages the
unit of measurement of citronella grass is the wadia, about 500 kg, approx-
imately the charge of a standard still. Older stills in India are made from mild
steel; two stills 1.8 m high X 0.9 m in diameter and one boiler which
produces about 100 kg steam per hour are recommended for 8 ha of grass
plantations (see Fig. 4.2). The key factor in operating these stills is manage-
ment; the better it is the more efficient the still and the higher the quality of
oil produced. More modern stills made of stainless steel are now operating in
most countries, and there is little difficulty in producing high-quality oil. T o
66 Chapter 4

reduce the fuel required, especially wood which is becoming increasingly


scarce and more expensive, solar energy is now a practical alternative and is
particularly useful in pre-heating water.
Most insect and other pests of these grasses are polyphagous, or attack
many of the Gramineae, and it is usually simple to establish which are, or are
likely to become, important in a particular region. Since the grasses dis-
cussed are also mainly smallholder crops, the level and extent of pest control
is usually minimal. This may well be a perfectly acceptable situation, as the
author found insect pests in general are seldom a limiting factor and their
adverse effects most easily offset by higher standards of crop management.
Exceptions are those insects which occur in plague proportions, locusts or

Fig. 4.2. Wood fired water-still, India.


Gramineae 67

armyworms, when the efforts of an individual are ineffective. Nematodes are


usually present in most plantations, especially root-knot nematodes, but
seldom cause major damage; the most practical control is a rotation with
non-susceptible crops.
It is of little value listing all the insect and other pests likely to occur on
these grasses, as this information is easily obtainable from the local Depart-
ment of Agriculture. However, a grass may become attractive to an insect
not previously recorded as a pest and periodic inspection of unhealthy plants
often proves valuable. In India, for example, larvae of the scarab Lachnos-
tema serrata, normally a pest of sugarcane, was found damaging vetiver
roots.
Diseases, unlike pests, can be a limiting factor in commercial plantations,
but fortunately some of the most damaging can be controlled by simple
procedures, i.e. fungicide treatment of seedbeds and splits before transplant-
ing. Many fungicides are relatively inexpensive when purchased in bulk, and
are thus within the resources of groups of smallholders or cooperatives.
Treatment is also simple involving mainly time of individuals, or can be
easily and cheaply mechanized. The most damaging pathogens are those
attacking seedlings or splits after transplanting, as this operation takes place
at the beginning of the rains or after irrigation, when conditions for soil-
borne fungal attack are most favourable. Many pathogens are polyphagous
or attack Gramineae generally; thus diseases likely to be locally important
can usually be identified, together with the appropriate treatment. Reports
from experimental stations indicate resistance exists to a locally important
disease in wild populations of these grasses or near relatives. Selection and
inclusion of such strains in breeding programmes must be encouraged, since
it is often easier to reduce the damage caused by a pathogen when there is
inherent resistance.

Citronella
The citronella oil of international trade is obtained almost exclusively from
Cymbopogon nardus (L.) and Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt. Commercial
cultivation of C. nardus is limited to Sri Lanka, but C. winterianus is
commercially cultivated in Indonesia, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti, China,
and more recently, India and Vietnam.
Commerce generally defines the oils as Ceylon and Java types respectively
as there are characteristic differences, the most important being geraniol
content. Ceylon citronella oil generally contains 55560% geraniol and
7-15% aldehydes, Java citronella oil a minimum 35% of both geraniol and
aldehydes. Other Cymbopogon species which produce oils described as
citronella are of no commercial importance. An interspecific hybrid C.
confertiJEorus X C. jwarancusa, jamrosa, yields an oil containing geraniol
68 Chapter 4

75-80% and geranyl acetate 20-25% with a quite different odour to its
parents, described as being more terpenic and grassy (Krishnamoorthy,
1989).
Citronella oil has long been known to peoples of southern India, Sri Lanka
and Java who distilled it from the local Cymbopogon species, but its early
history is unrecorded. Poultices of leaves were also widely used in India and
Sri Lanka to treat minor cuts, abrasions and swellings, while extracts of the
leaves were used to alleviate internal disorders and as a vermifuge. Oil was
first sent from Sri Lanka to the UK by Surgeon-Major Grimm in the late
1600s, who identified the grass from which it was distilled as Arundo
odorutus. It was almost a century later that small amounts of oil as Oleum sirce
were sent to Europe, but by the end of the nineteenth century demand
exceeded Sri Lanka’s capacity to supply, and Java became an increasingly
important producer.
The first European to see Java citronella oil being distilled is believed to be
a Myn. A.J. Kaffer, at Cirebon on the north coast. He later began commer-
cial oil production on his own estate and by 1900, together with other Dutch
growers, erected modern stills. Java oil was considered to be superior to Sri
Lankan by merchants in Europe and by 19 19 Java was producing more oil
than Sri Lanka. However this rapid expansion resulted in Sri Lankan
cuttings being imported for use on lands unsuitable for Java type, and the
inferior oil produced used to adulterate Java oil. Of greater consequence was
mixing of the two grasses in plantations, which then also produced an
inferior oil. These two developments, plus the many smaller producers who
paid little attention to quality of herbage or distilling procedures, quickly
downgraded Java citronella oil on world markets. Only by introducing strict
official controls on production and marketing between the two world wars
did Java oil regain its reputation for quality and dependability. Exports of
citronella oil from Indonesia in the years 1989-1 995 ranged from 560 to 650
tonnes, roughly half total production.
Citronella was introduced to Taiwan (then Formosa) from Java by a Mr
Kiyoshi Iwamoto in 1912, who successfully developed commercial oil
production. By 1940 some 360 t was produced, almost all exported to Japan.
Production in the immediate post-war years was erratic with many citronella
plantations being replaced by officially encouraged food crops. However,
growing demand rapidly increased production to a record 3000 t in 1965,
but it subsequently declined and by 1984 the industry had virtually ceased to
exist except for a small amount of oil used domestically. Although citronella
leaves were incorporated in traditional Chinese medicines and plants grown
for this purpose, domestic demand for citronella oil was satisfied by imports.
Commercial oil production began in the early 1950% and Hainan Island
became a major producer with oil production in 1957 of almost 1000 t.
Citronella was later partially replaced by more profitable essential oil crops,
especially patchouli, and oil production declined (Chiang, 1958; Zhao,
Gramineae 69

1993). Recent reports indicate the area under citronella is increasing,


together with other essential oil crops, supported by the Hainan Fragrances
and Essential Oils Joint Corporation.
Citronella reached Guatemala at the end of the last century and the first
plantings together with lemongrass are credited to Senor Julio Samayao. It
reached Honduras in the 1930s. In neither country did oil production
become profitable until the outbreak of the Second World War. The area
under citronella in Guatemala rapidly increased to 2000 ha in 1945 and by
1950 annual production had reached 350 t, and in Honduras 18 t. Both
suffered a setback when Java re-entered the market, and only Guatemala
maintained commercial oil production. Brazil has recently produced cit-
ronella oil on a small scale, but could quickly expand production should
demand increase. Numerous attempts have been made commercially to
grow citronella in Africa; Zaire’s production was erratic, varying between
0.5 and 4.0 t to the mid-l950s, with most sold to Belgium, but production
ceased at independence. The Portuguese governments of Angola and Mo-
zambique also had no success, although trials showed the grass grew well at
experimental stations. More recently, it was introduced to Ghana by a major
international company and commercial plantations were established.

Botany
Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle (syn. Andropogon nardus Ceylon, de Jong)
lenabatu or lenabatu pengiri in Sri Lanka, and C. winterianus Jowitt (syn.
Andropogon nardus Java, de Jong) rnaha pengiri in Java, serai generally in
Indonesia, miyah serai for the oil. C. winterianus is said to be named for Mr
Winter, a pioneer of the Sri Lankan essential oil industry, and known locally
as Winter’s grass. Cymbopogonnardus var. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf is now
considered a separate species, C. confertiflorus, and produces an inferior
oil.
Cymbopogon nardus and C. winterianus are tufted, perennial grasses (Fig.
4.3), with long narrow leaves, and numerous stems arising from short,
rhizomatous roots (Fig. 4.4). Although C. nardus is more vigorous than C.
winterianus, the latter produces larger clumps when cultivated, to 0.5 m in
diameter. Cyrnbopogon nardus exists in a variety of forms, some wild, others
known only under cultivation, together with local cultivars in countries to
which it was introduced. By contrast, C. winterianus has a much narrower
range of variation.
Cymbopogonnardus has a more extensive and penetrating root system than
C. winterianus, which enables it to withstand periods of drought seriously
affecting growth of the latter. This root system also allows the species to
grow well on a wider range of soil types than C. winterianus, and it can be
grown profitably on soils of lower fertility. The ability of C. nardus to persist
for 10-15 years under cultivation probably owes a great deal to these wide-
spreading roots; C.winterianus seldom exceeds 6 years. The multiple stems
70 Chapter 4

Fig. 4.3. Citronella grass, Sri Lanka

arise from underground rhizomes, to 2.5 m in C. nardus, generally less in C.


winterianus (Fig. 4.5). Stem colour in both is normally light to medium
green, generally darker on fertile or fertilized soils. Nitrogen significantly
increases the number of stems or tillers. Leaves of both species are long,
narrow, a uniform medium to dark often yellowish green; those of C.
winterianus are generally darker, shorter and broader. Mature leaf length
from uncut plants is 70-110 cm; leaf width of C. nardus 1-2 cm; C.
winterianus to 5 cm. The number of leaves per plant is related to age and
cutting regime, can also be influenced by IAA or similar growth regulators,
and increased by selection for this characteristic. Leaf shape, size and colour
are no reliable guide to identification. A more accurate method is by leaf-
sheath colour, which is conspicuously different to stem and leaf lamina, with
a pronounced red to purplish tinge. T h e degree of colour and its intensity
when measured photometrically could be related to oil content of leaves
(Iruthayathas et al. , 1977). Micro-hairs are present on leaves of both species,
and a relationship apparently exists between their occurrence, type, density
and leaf oil content, which could aid selection of higher oil content strains
(Iruthayathas and Herath, 1982). Cross-section of a C. winterianus leaf is
shown in Fig. 4.6; the leaf anatomy of C. nardus has been described in detail
(Metcalf, 1960).
T h e oil content of leaves is important as there is little oil in stems and
roots; in India average oil content was, in per cent: leaf blade 1.O, inflores-
cence 0.38, leafsheath 0.33, condensed stem 0.32 and root 0.02 (Bordoloi,
1982). The oil content of a number of Sri Lankan cultivars averaged, in per
cent: blades 1.26, leaf sheaths 0.28, leaf 0.8-1.8 (Irthayathas and Herath,
72 Chapter 4

Fig. 4.5, Rhizome and shoots of C. winterianus

Fig. 4.6. Cross-section of Java citronella leaf. A, Cross-section of leaf; B. upper epidermis; C, bundle
sheath; D, oil gland; E, cuticle; F, vascular bundle; G, lower epidermis. (Adapted from Bommegowda et
al., 1979.)
Gramineae 73

1975). The oil content of leaves differs significantly and young leaves
synthesize and accumulate most essential oil. During leaf expansion, cit-
ronellal, geraniol and citronellol content increase, but decrease with matu-
rity. Analyses of leaves from C. winterianus in India showed significant
changes in the ratio of some major oil components over leaf life (Luthra et
al., 1991).
The oil content of C. nardus in Sri Lanka averages 0.5%, of C. winterianus
grown in Indonesia and Central America 0.25-1.2%. Leaf-oil content varies
with age, time of cutting and soil fertility, but 1.33% from C. winten'unus in
Honduras is well above that obtained from commercial plantings elsewhere.
Higher figures have been reported from specially selected plants or experi-
mental plantings (Bordoloi, 1982), which indicates leaf oil content can
probably be raised fairly easily. This is also true for C. nardus, as there exists
in Sri Lanka a multiplicity of strains (some natural hybrids) with wide
variation in leaf oil content and characteristics (Iruthayathas et al., 1977,
1978).
Panicles also have a small volatile oil content, generally very similar in
geraniol and citronellal content. Comparative analyses of flower and leaf oil
in Sri Lanka showed, in per cent (with range in brackets): flower oil, geraniol
22 (12-36) and citronellal 4.75 (1-10); leaf oil, geraniol 24 (2-45) and
citronellal 4 (0.5-8.0) (Iruthayathas et al., 1977). Flower oil is of little
importance, is small in proportion to total oil yield, and would not com-
pensate for the loss of leaf oil content should citronella plants be allowed to
flower before cutting.
The major difference between citronella oil from the two species, as
noted, is in the citronellal and geraniol content; C. nardus (Ceylon type)
usually contains 55565% total geraniol and 7-1 5% citronellal; C. winter-
ianus (Java type) contains at least 35% total geraniol and a minimum of 35%
citronellal. Standard characteristics are shown in Table 4.1. Wide variation
is noticeable in published data of regional oils, and Java citronella has been
reviewed in detail (Virmani and Datta, 197 1). The main characteristics of
commercial samples from selected origins are shown in Table 4.2.

Ecology
Cymbopogon nardus and C. winterianus are tropical grasses and commercially
important between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, but they occupy
substantially different ecological zones when wild. Although the range of C.
nardus has been considerably extended under cultivation, C. winterianus has
a wider geographical distribution within a more restricted ecological zone.
Cymbopogon nardus can be grown successfully from sea-level in Sri Lanka to
1500 m in East Africa; C. winterianus is generally grown below 500 m and on
Taiwan oil yield fell by nearly 50% above 700 m.; high-altitude strains (to
1200 m) of C. winterianus have been selected in India. At all altitudes a well
distributed rainfall and high humidity is most important to ensure high
74 Chapter 4

Table 4.1, Standard characteristics of citronella oils.

Java type Ceylon type


IS0 BSS EOA BSS EOA
Relative 0.880 0.890
density at 20/20°C 0.895 - 0.898 -
Apparent 0.880 0.893
density at 20°C - 0.892 - - 0.91 0
Specific 0.883
gravity at 15115°C - - 0.900 - -
Refractive 1.4660 1.4660 1.4660 1.4790 1.4790
index at 20°C 1.4730 1.4730 1.4750 1.4850 1.4850
Optical -5" -5" -6" -18" -18O
rotation at 20°C 0" 0" -0'30' -gc -go
Solubility (viv) 1 :2 1 :2 1:l-2 1 :2 1:l-2
(80% ethanol at 20°C)
Total alcohols as geraniol 85% min. 85% min. 85-97% 59-65% 55-65%
Total aldehydes as citronellal 35% min. 35% min. 3045% 7-15% 7-1 5%
All figures in columns are range.
ISO, International Standards Organisation; BSS, British Standard Specification: EOA, Essential Oil
Association, USA.

herbage yield. Average yields from a series of trials are shown in Table
4.3.
Both species require a rainfall of 2000-2500 m m to produce high oil yield;
where there is a pronounced wet and dry season C. winterianus will require
irrigation if it is to persist; C. nardus is less susceptible to dry periods, but oil
production in both is reduced under water stress. Warm mists or high

Table 4.2. Characteristics of Java citronella oil from selected origins a

Indonesian Indian Formosan


Specific gravity (1 5%) 0.880 0.875 0.881
0.897 0.900 0.902 (20°C)
Refractive index (15°C) 1.469 1.460 1.465 (20°C)
1.472 1.480
Optical rotation -0.5" -1.OO O0
-4.0' -3.5" -4s
Solubility (v/v in 80% alcohol) 1:l L1.5 1 :I
Total alcohols (%) (as geraniol) 85-95 75-90 85-95
Total aldehydes (%) (as 35-55 30-45 35-45
citronellali
a Average commercial samples. Figures in columns are range.
Grarnineae 75
~~~~ ~~ ~ ~~

Table 4.3. Effect of altitude on herbage and oil contentain India

Major constituents (%)


Yield of herbiyear Average oil
Altitude (m) (tiha) content (%) Citronellal Geraniol
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

35 5-8 0.9-1,I 40-42 23-24


90 9-23 0.9-1.4 30-44 19-29
800 10-23 0.8-1.2 43-50 19-21
1000 8-10 1 .o-1.2 36-44 20-23
1150 4-5 0.8-1.O 34-45 16-21
1200 31-40 0.9-1.4 46-59 15-21
aJava citronella. Figures in columns are range
Source: Bordoloi (1982).

relative humidity can compensate to a considerable extent for insufficient


rain. Conversely, cool wet conditions usually retard growth, and may also
reduce leaf-oil content; when dew remained on plants in the cool season near
Bombay, oil content and total aldehydes in the oil were significantly reduced
(Malwatkar et al., 1984).
A sunny climate with no temperature extremes generally produces highest
oil yield. A daytime temperature of 22-30°C is most suitable, with higher
and lower temperatures affecting either leaf oil content or oil constituents.
Cymbopogon nardus selections grown for 90 days at 27121°C or 32127OC day/
night temperatures in Sri Lanka, showed lower temperatures gave higher
levels of citronellal while higher temperatures increased the undesirable
borneol component (Herath et al., 1979); a temperature of 15/1O"C severely
reduced photosynthetic rates, highest at 27/21 "C (Herath and Ormrod,
1979). Seasonal changes occur in total aldehydes and, in India, oil obtained
in drier months contained more aldehydes than oil from wet months
(Malwatkar et al., 1984).
The reaction of C. nardus to temperatures above 30°C and to high night-
time temperature is of considerable significance to growers, especially in Sri
Lanka. Oil produced at high temperature has increased levels of some very
undesirable components, the monoterpene hydrocarbons and camphene-
bornene compounds, which greatly reduce the oil's commercial value. Since
the majority of C. nardus is grown in the drier south where daytime
temperatures are 27-32"C, oil produced is considered of inferior quality.
Since it is impossible to move the industry elsewhere on the island, strains
whose oil is low in these constituents or are able to produce the type of oil
desired at higher temperatures should be introduced, and research indicates
both are possible. The relationship between temperature and three major oil
components of Indian C. winterianus is shown in Fig.4.7. Generally similar
results have been obtained in other countries, although there is no constant
76 Chapter 4

relationship between ratios of constituents. The oil content of leaves also


varies seasonally, but is not directly related to changes in oil constituents.
Frost causes severe damage and a heavy frost is usually fatal. Hail can
seriously damage newly established plants, and a heavy storm can shred
leaves on those more mature and greatly reduce oil content. High wind is of
little importance unless it persists, or is hot and dry and coincides with a

/- Essential
oil
4.0
E 3.9

, I ,
0

Citronellal

v)

12
Citronellol

0 I I I I I

40

'
- A Max. temp
Min. temp.
10
0' I I I I I
1 2 3 4 5
Harvest number

Fig. 4.7. Seasonal changes in oil content and main constituents of citronella in India. (Adapted from
Prakasa Rao eta/., 1985.)
Gramineae 77

period of water stress in plants. Severe wilting will then occur, with sub-
stantial loss of oil from desiccation.

Soils and fertilizers


The two Cymbopogon species flourish under different climatic conditions as
noted and are also adapted to somewhat different soils. Cymbopogon nardus
prefers a well-drained, light-textured soil, but will grow well on sandy or
stony hillsides provided there is adequate soil moisture. The extensive root
system allows the plant to explore a greater soil volume for both moisture
and nutrients. A neutral to slightly acid soil is preferred, although plants will
tolerate slightly alkaline soils, but not waterlogging except for very short
periods.
Cymbopogon winterianus is adapted to loamy soils of greater fertility, where
it flourishes and has a longer useful life where there is a plentiful supply of
nutrients and soil moisture. When planted on newly cleared forest land it
tends to excessive vegetative growth at the expense of oil content; soils with
a high clay content are also unsuitable. Soil reaction should preferably be
neutral to slightly acid. Plants will withstand short periods of waterlogging,
but soil must be basically free-draining. Where soil and suitable climatic
conditions exist it can be grown at higher altitudes than has previously been
accepted, and is a suitable crop for areas which will grow high quality tea,
Assam for example.
Citronella has been classified as an exhausting crop similar to lemongrass
(cf.), and the same general statements apply. The large amounts of green
material removed, 20-60 t/ha annually, make it essential that the nutrient
status of soils is maintained to ensure continued high production. Under
peasant farming conditions, and much of Kerala’s area of C. nardus is thus
grown, chemical fertilizers are seldom applied and the crop receives what-
ever plant or animal residues are available. Most agricultural departments
recommend the type and amount to be applied, but few smallholders
followed any regular programme. In practice, growers of C. nardus in
particular continued cutting until herbage or oil yield became unprofitable,
the plot abandoned and a new site selected; a shortage of undeveloped land
has stopped this very wasteful technique. In Mysore, well-decomposed
farmyard manure (FYM) at 15 t/ha ploughed in prior to planting is recom-
mended, plus additional amounts annually where available.
Cymbopogon winterianus has a shorter economic life than C. nardus, is
seldom fertilized after the third year and generally ploughed-in after the
fourth. Smallholders grow cash or food crops for two or more years before
replanting, but this rotation does little to replenish soil nutrients. The larger
oil producers on Java had a 4 X 2 X 4 year rotation, with the 2 years under
a green manure crop such as Tephrosia spp. or Mimosa spp. Spent grass was
not always available as a shortage of cheap fuel required the grass to be dried
for use in boilers. In Guatemala, spent grass is spread between plant rows
78 Chapter 4

and not only provides a fertilizer, but acts as a mulch and suppresses weed
growth.
When grown commercially, C. nardus and C. winterianus generally re-
spond similarly to chemical fertilizers a t rates normally applied. Variation in
a specific response is often due to local soils or climate rather than the
fertilizer, and large-scale growers should accurately determine the most
profitable type and rate of application. Since C. winterianus is the most
important, there is more data available than on C. nardus, and this is
reflected in the text.
Nitrogen is essential for high leaf yield, but there is often considerable
variation in the response to both amounts and types; in India C. winterianus
cultivars differed by 42% herbage and 6.6% oil yields per hectare at the same
N levels (Singh et al., 1980a), while different types of urea on the same
cultivar affected both herbage yield and N recovery (Singh and Singh,
1992). Nitrogen at planting, often in an NPK compound or as diammonium
phosphate, usually promotes increased and quicker growth and thus reduces
time to the first cut. The NPK fertilizer used at planting should have a low
ratio of nitrogen to phosphate and potassium, sufficient only for initial
growth. Where there is little choice and nitrogen content high, it is probably
cheaper to choose a phosphate-potassium mixture and apply the nitrogen as
top-dressing. The main effect of top-dressing nitrogen is to increase the
number of tillers and number and size of leaves, but the response in terms of
increased herbage or oil yield may fall in succeeding years, especially to high
levels of nitrogen (Rao and Munnu Singh, 199 1).
Data are lacking on comparisons between nitrogenous fertilizers and,
although urea is considered superior, sulphate of ammonia is commonly
applied because it is easily obtainable. Methods of top-dressing are unim-
portant, provided coverage is even and timing accurate. Nitrogen normally
has little effect on oil content of leaves of either species, occasionally slightly
decreasing leaf oil content but unimportant compared to the large increase
in total herbage. In India, yield of fresh herbage rose from 12 to 18.5 tiha as
nitrogen increased from 75 to 150 kg/ha. Herbage N content rose slightly
but was not significantly different (Bommegowda et al., 1981, 1983). In
general, 75-125 kg Niha applied annually in split applications after each cut
should be profitable. In fertilizer trials, N slightly increased geraniol and
citronellal content of leaf oil, but had no significant effect on oil character-
istics or constituents at levels normally used on commercial crops.
The larger root system of C. nardus enables it to obtain greater amounts of
available soil phosphate, a major reason why the plant can continue to
produce oil for many years with little or no fertilizer. Neither species can
continue to do so indefinitely, and to maintain production both nitrogen and
phosphate are necessary; one without the other is usually unprofitable.
Where rock phosphate is available it can be broadcast and ploughed-in prior
to planting splits. A small amount of superphosphate added to planting holes
Gramineae 79

or in bands alongside and below the lines of splits will assist establishment
and promote initial growth. In most areas of Sri Lanka and India the crop
will probably benefit from a further application every 3-4 years, placed as
deeply as possible between plant rows following a cut. Reports from several
countries on both species indicated that 15-30 kg Piha is normally sufficient
for 12-1 8 months, with a further application of 15 kg Piha in the second year
following the last cut.
Phosphate appears to have little effect on leaf oil content and no sig-
nificant effect on oil characteristics or constituents at levels normally ap-
plied. Comparisons between types of phosphatic fertilizers are few but, as
with many other crops grown in the tropics, single superphosphate with its
slightly higher sulphur content often gives higher herbage yield per unit of P
than other types. Although initial P availability in rock phosphates may be
low, residual availability can be similar to other phosphatic fertilizers. Since
this residual effect is very important in terms of subsequent applications and
total cost of P per cycle, any residual effect should be accurately determined.
Both types of citronella appear to have a relatively high potassium require-
ment and official recommendations are 40-60 kg Wha placed at planting.
Major increases in herbage yield have been obtained on soils lacking po-
tassium; in Sarawak herbage yield rose from 22 to 28 tiha and oil yield from
136 to 162 kglha when 75 kg Wha was applied to a yellow podzolic soil (Ng,
1972). T o obtain these increases adequate supplies of N and P must be
available, and an N-K interaction may occur on some mineral soils.
Potassium is best applied as part of a compound fertilizer at planting, and the
recommended range is usually sufficient. Potassium applied after 2 or 3
years to both species in those areas where a substantial initial application was
profitable would probably be economic. It may also be advantageous to
apply K in several equal amounts instead of a single seedbed application
(Singh et al., 1990). There are few data comparing different potassic
fertilizers, and it is normally most profitable to use the type easily available.
Potassium has little influence on leaf-oil content but, at high levels, can have
a depressing effect. Oil composition or characteristics are generally unaf-
fected, but some experimental data indicate potassium may depress geraniol
and citronellal content, especially where nitrogen and phosphate availability
is low.
The small amounts of minor elements normally required to alleviate a
local deficiency should be included in a compound mixture applied to the
seedbed or drilled alongside plant rows after a cut. Field reports of various
chlorotic conditions or foliar discolorations following application of com-
pound NPK fertilizers may have been due to induced minor element
imbalance. An apparent magnesium deficiency on irrigated soil near Bom-
bay which caused yellowing and crinkling of leaves was eliminated by a foliar
spray of urea plus magnesium sulphate (Malwatkar et al., 1984), and
80 Chapter 4

manganese was the most effective single micronutrient enhancing oil pro-
duction at Darjeeling (Nandi and Chatterjee, 1991). Iron chlorosis of C.
winterianus had little effect on leaf oil content, but did reduce herbage yield
in India (Chattopadhyay and Subrahmanyam, 1993).

Cultivation
Land preparation being completed as described in the introduction, the next
operation is planting. Plants can be raised from seed which is normally
viable, but this is lengthy and tedious. The availability of planting stocks of
known parentage eliminates the danger of using an admixture of C. nardus
and C. winterianus seed, collected where both occur in close proximity.
Propagation is usually by dividing clumps to produce splits, a year-old
clump will provide 50-60 splits, and 1 ha of clumps is normally sufficient for
7-8 ha. A spacing of 90 X 60 cm requires about 18,500 pph, and 60 X 60 cm
27,000 pph. Treating splits with a rooting preparation or a fungicide is
usually unnecessary since replacing those which die is simple and cheap.
Infilling normally begins 3 weeks after planting when the majority of splits
will have rooted and by 4 weeks plants should begin to tiller. It is essential to
maintain the optimum pph, as this directly affects herbage and oil yield; a t
Bangalore, India, increasing the population of C. winterianus from 20,000 to
50,000 pph raised oil yield by 167 kg/ha; for every additional 5000 plants
above 20,000, herbage yield increased by 1048 kg/ha and oil 6.7 kgiha, but
after 40,000 pph the increase was not significant. Such information will
select the local optimum pph relative to the cost of producing 1 kg of oil to
achieve most efficient production. High rather than low pph also tends to
suppress weed growth. On-the-square planting at the optimum population
would probably require less labour when citronella is grown by small
producers. A spacing of 60 X 60 cm is widely used in India, Sri Lanka, Java
and South America for C. winterianus, but C. nardus is more often spaced at
90 X 90 cm. In Guatemala, three or four splits up to 60 cm in length were
planted per hole, but this is most wasteful of planting material and labour,
and probably unnecessary.
Weed control in citronella is usually manual or mechanical, hand weeding
is generally the most effective, but any cultivation must be shallow, espe-
cially in young plants as they are easily uprooted. Herbicides have been used
in trials but none officially recommended for citronella; 2,4-D applied 2
weeks before planting, and atrazine, diuron, oxyfluorfen, glyphosate and
simazine as directed sprays between cuts.
Cymbopogon nardus is not usually intercropped since the plant grows to a
substantial size and suppresses adjacent crops, but can be underplanted in
rubber, coconut, arecanut and similar tall-tree plantations; C. winterianus is
less aggressive and has been successfully intercropped with young rubber
and cocoa, pepper or vanilla vines, and can also be underplanted in similar
situations as C. nardus. Both species may have reduced herbage yield when
Gramineae 81

underplanted depending mainly on degree of canopy shade. An interesting


method of integrating C. winterianus and tea growing is used in Assam; tea
planters grow citronella on land being rested from tea, on terraces to prevent
soil erosion, or land unsuitable for tea. Distilled grass is used extensively as
a mulch.
Little information is available on the water requirements of citronella,
water use during plant growth, or total consumption; thus most recom-
mendations are based on personal observations or opinions which, once
published, are often repeated without confirmation. Watering splits at
planting is necessary and again if no rain falls in the following week. In
practice those crops which can be irrigated are planted in the wet season,
irrigated after each cut in the dry season to promote regrowth, and at other
times only when water is available. An exception was on some large estates in
Guatemala where water was freely available and topography made surface
irrigation simple and inexpensive. An interesting reaction occurred in India
where C. winterianus developed interveinal chlorosis due to an iron defi-
ciency induced by bicarbonates in the irrigation water, alleviated by a ferrous
sulphate spray (Puttanna et al., 1993). In pot trials, yield of dry herbage and
oil content decreased as the level of residual sodium carbonate increased in
applied water (Singh et al., 1994)

Harvesting
The first harvest of citronella is usually 6-8 months after planting, ideally
just prior to flowering, then 3-4 times in each following 12-months depend-
ing on rate of regrowth. The profitable life of a commercial plantation is very
variable: for C. winterianus 5-8 years in India, somewhat longer in Sri Lanka,
5-1 0 years on Java and Taiwan, 4-6 years in Guatemala and Honduras; for
C. nardus 6-10 but up to 20 years. The most productive period in terms of oil
yield per hectare is the first 3-4 years of C. winterianus, 4-6 years for C.
nardus, but better management, adequate fertilization and efficient harvest-
ing could easily prolong the useful life of most plantations and raise the
average annual oil yield. Since replanting is expensive and in practice means
the loss of a year’s oil yield, every effort should be made to keep an existing
plantation in profitable production.
The number of cuts per year and the interval between is not constant; in
Indonesia, maximum oil yield from C. nardus was by cutting four times
annually although six cuts were sometimes possible. If a nitrogen top-
dressing was delayed beyond 45 days after cutting, leaf-oil content in the
next cut was lowered (Soenardi et al. , 1980). With C. winterianus the interval
was 3.5-6.5 months in northern India and directly related to commence-
ment and duration of monsoon rains. Crops planted in April-May in Assam
are cut after 3-4 months, then every 2 months until October, but normally
only twice in the period November-February (Datta, 1982). Most growers
prefer to use height of plants as a guide to cutting and, in Puerto &CO,
82 Chapter 4

highest oil yield per hectare was obtained from plants cut eleven times at 130
cm; in Guatemala, whenever plants reached 140 cm.
Herbage yield per hectare varies very widely indeed, depending directly on
size of plantation and standard of management; C. nardus from
10,00040,000 kgha annually and from C. winten'anus 10,000-30,000 kg/ha.
The oil yield per tonne of herbage varies with the season, normally highest in
the driest and lowest in the wettest period. Oil content of C. nardus in Sri
Lanka was 1.2-1.5 and 0.25-0.50% respectively; from C. wintem'anus in
India 0.5-0.6 and 0.3-0.35%; Java averages 1.2 and 0.5%, Honduras and
Guatemala 1.8 and 0.75% respectively. This seasonal variation is well
illustrated by the extensive data obtained in Taiwan (Ping-Hsien, 1956)
which is somewhat dated but little comparable has been published.

Distillation
Cut herbage is normally wilted before distilling; in Indonesia, 3-4 hours sun-
drying is usual, longer if grass is very wet following rain; in Sri Lanka and
India it may be 1-2 days. Periods up to one month have been successful in a
number of countries, although in the Philippines lowest moisture and
highest oil yield occurred after approximately 7 days (Coronel et al., 1984).
While withering to reduce water content is normally advantageous, changes
can occur in oil composition depending on method used and period.
Withering for short periods slightly increases total oxygenated monoter-
penes, but the effect disappears as the period lengthens. Rapid withering in
hot sun also slightly increased final monoterpene hydrocarbon content over
slow withering in shade (E. Iruthayathas, Colombo, personal communica-
tion).
Distilling citronella herbage presents few technical problems (Jansz et al.,
1981; Senanayake, 198 1). Steam pressure and duration influences the yield
of oil and quality; a pressure of 100-200 kPa is recommended in Sri Lanka,
although double this gives a higher oil yield lower in geraniol and citronellal.
An initial pressure of about 650 kPa is maintained in Honduras, reduced to
250 kPa when condensation begins and raised to about 1000 kPa when
condensate flows evenly.
The usual charge in Sri Lankan stills is 500-600 kg chopped grass, firmly
pressed into the still body. Normal distillation is 2 hours, double this with a
1000-1 500 kg charge. Oil recovery in the first hour is 55-65%, in the second
to fifth hours 25, 10-11, 6-8 and 4% respectively. Distillation is seldom
continued beyond 2.5 hours, and distilling to exhaustion produces an
inferior oil. First over are the low boiling-point terpenes, followed by
citronellol, citronellal, alcohols and esters, geraniol+sesquiterpenes, then
the sesquiterpene alcohols. The distillate is separated, and the oil treated to
remove water and impurities, filtered and packed. Prolonged bulk storage
increases the oil's viscosity, it becomes dark brown, specific gravity may
increase and solubility decrease, but the refractive index is less affected. A
Gramineae 83

Sri Lankan oil had a specific gravity (20°C) 0.913, refractive index (20°C)
1.4829, acid value 0.3, ester value 18.1, after acetylation 88.2, carbonyls
38.2%. Main constituents were, in per cent, 1-carvotanacetone (1 l), ger-
aniol (20), geranyl acetate (6), perillaldehyde (12) and phellandrial (8.5).
Analyses of spent dried citronella grass gave 84% organic matter contain-
ing 2.25% N, and the ash contained, in per cent, silicon dioxide (12.4),
oxides of iron and aluminium (l.O), P (0.12), K (0.01), others (1.4);
considerable variation occurs as other analyses show silicon dioxide to 4%
and K to 7 % . Cymbopogon winterianus spents may contain 95% organic and
volatile matter, the ash containing 2% N, 1.5% K and 0.05% P. Although
fresh grass is not readily eaten by cattle, dried spent grass is an acceptable
stockfeed; it can also be used for h a f t paper pulp.

Products and specifications


The two types of citronella oil, traded as Oil of Citronella Java and Oil of
Citronella Ceylon, differ in their composition, characteristics and odour,
and are neither substitutes nor alternatives to the other. A comparison of
major constituents is shown in Table 4.4. but there is wide variation in
published analyses and comparisons, due not only to geographical origin or
strain, but to analytical method (Bruns et al., 1981; Anon., 1984; Carlin et
al., 1988; Zhixi and Hua, 1988; Lemos et al., 1992; Ravid et al., 1992;
Boelens, 1994). While the following remarks are generally applicable to
most Ceylon oil available commercially, there is a very wide range of C.
nardus and C. winterianus cultivars and probably hybrids growing in Sri
Lanka. Selection has produced plants whose oils show an equally wide range
of characteristics and major constituents. It should thus be possible for Sri
Lanka to produce authentic oils of both citronella types, plus others poten-
tially desirable.
Citronella Oil Ceylon varies in colour from yellow to brownish yellow,
sometimes dark greenish yellow, and may be clear or slightly turbid due to
contained water. The odour is quite distinctive and described as floral, with
woody, grassy, leafy notes due to the camphene borneol-methyleugenol
complex. The main constituents are the monoterpene hydrocarbons, and
major components, in per cent, geraniol to 60, citronellal to 15, citronellol to
10, not necessarily in the same sample. The oil is considered an industrial oil
and used extensively in detergents, waxes, household soaps and cleansers,
for masking unpleasant odours of insecticides and similar preparations, and
to a minor extent in cheaper perfumes and toiletries.
The oil is frequently used as a domestic insect repellent, being placed in
jars with a wick which allows slow evaporation, or ignited and slowly burns.
Interestingly, orang-utans produce a citronella-smelling exudate which ap-
parently repels insects. The oil is raw material for geraniol, citronellol,
citronellal and menthol production. Ceylon oils were often adulterated, but
the imposition of official export standards has greatly reduced this problem
84 Chapter 4

at source; however, the practice continues elsewhere in the marketing chain.


Many adulterants used are easily identified by experienced perfumers, as the
natural odour is modified.
Citronella Oil Java is colourless to very pale yellow; the odour sweet, fresh,
and lemony. The main constituents are, in per cent, citronellal to 50,
citronellol to 20 and geraniol to 45, not necessarily in the same sample.
Commercial samples are often described in terms of total geraniol and
citronellal, i.e. will contain that proportion of geraniol and related alcohols
and at least the stated proportion of aldehydes calculated as citronellal, with
85135 the generally accepted standard; the remainder mainly terpenes of
little value. The main constituents of commercial samples are shown in
Table 4.5. The oil is used extensively in perfumes and toiletries, and
household or semi-industrial products. It is raw material for a range of
important isolates, including citronellal, menthol, geraniol and geraniol

Table 4.4. Major constituents of citronella oils (%).

Compound Java Ceylon


Tricyclene ng 1.6
Alpha-pinene ng 2.6
Camphene ng 8.0
Alpha-phellandrene ng 0.8
Limonene 1.3 9.7
cis-Ocimene ng 1.4
trans-Ocimene ng 1.8
Citronellal 32.7 5.2
Camphor ng 0.5
Bourbonene Trace 1.o
Linalool 1.5 1.2
Linalyl acetate 2.0 0.8
Beta-caryophyllene 2.1 3.2
4-Terpinenol Trace 0.7
Citronellyl acetate 3.0 1.9
I-Borneo1 Trace 6.6
Geranyl formate 2.5 4.2
Citronello! 15.9 8.4
Nerol 7.7 0.9
Geraniol 23.9 18.0
Geranyl butyrate Trace 1.5
Methyl eugenol Trace 1.7
Elemol 6.0 1.7
Methyl iso-eugenol 2.3 7.2
Farnesol 0.6 Trace
ng, not given.
Source: Wijesekera et al. (1973).
Table 4.5. Comparison of main constituents (%) of commercial samples of Java citronella oil

Argentina Brazil Burma Ceylon" China Guatemala India Indonesia Java Nepal Paraquav Taiwan Vietnam
Limonene 3.3 2.8 8.4 9.0 2.6 3.8 4.0 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.6 3.3 3.1
cis-Ocimene ng ng < 0.1 2.2 ng ng ng 0.5 1.3 ng ng 0.3 0.2
Citronellal 34.8 46.8 12.2 5.2 34.4 34.8 30.8 35.7 36.8 35.5 37.8 35.0 32.9
Linalool 0.9 0.6 1.5 0.8 1.o 0.5 1.o 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.7 1.o
lsopulegol (4 1.9 0.7 0.9 0.6 1.4 0.5 0.8 1.3 2.1 0.7 1.4 1.4 1.5
isomer)
Alpha- ng 0.7 2.3 1.3 < 0.1 0.5 ng 0.2 0.1 ng ng 0.5 < 0.1
bergamotene
Caryophyllene 0.1 < 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.1 < 0.1 < 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.1 < 0.1 0.1 0.3
Citronellyl-acetate 2.5 1.7 5.1 0.9 2.3 1.9 7.3 2.8 2.5 3.4 0.9 2.1 2.5
Citral b (neral) 0.5 < 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.o
Citral a (geranial) 0.7 0.5 1.9 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.8
Citronellol 14.9 13.4 20.1 6.4 13.6 17.8 23.9 15.8 15.7 14.9 14.5 14.9 15.3
Nerol 0.3 0.2 <0.1 1.o 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Geraniol 22.6 21.2 22.4 20.3 24.3 29.1 19.3 23.3 21.4 24.5 24.2 21.2 23.9
Elemol 3.9 1.4 3.9 1.6 5.0 1.2 2.0 1.8 2.1 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.3
Eugenol 0.7 0.9 0.5 < 0.1 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.5 1.o 0.8 0.7
aCymbopogonnardus; ng, not given.
Source: Abstracted from published sources.
86 Chapter 4

esters, citronellol and its esters. A major reason why citronella oil is still so
used is that many perfumers favour products of natural origin over syn-
thetics; especially hydroxycitronellal with its lily of the valley fragrance
strongly preferred in high-class perfumes. Geraniol and its derivative cit-
ronellol both have a rosy odour, are often called rose alcohols and are used
extensively in perfumery. Terpeneless citronella oil is produced to order, but
as the whole oil is normally used there is no point in removing terpenes
which are of little value. Wide regional variation occurs in Java oil character-
istics, and these have been summarized (Virmani and Datta, 1971); a
variation is also found in oils produced in different districts in a particular
country, and indicates the very wide range o f material available to plant
breeders. Characteristics from selected origins are shown in Table 4.1.
Variation is not restricted to composition, to perfumers there are substantial
differences in odour, thus Guatemalan oil is classed separately.

Lemongrass

Grasses under the general name lemongrass were described early, but the
first accurate genus classification was by Dr 0. Stapf (Kew Bull. 1906,
302-364), with subsequent research to establish species relationships. The
high citral content of the oil, which emits a strong lemon scent when leaves
are crushed, gives the species their common name. Lemongrass oil is
currently obtained mainly from Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf and C.
flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. which produce West Indian and East Indian lemon-
grass oil respectively, although other species produce oil with a high citral
content.
Cymbopogon citratus is known only under cultivation, and although occur-
ring in many tropical countries it is always an introduction, i.e. the wild
lemongrass of Zaire. Cymbopogon citratus is cultivated in Argentina, Brazil,
Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti and other Caribbean islands, Java, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Sri Lanka (where it is known as sereh), Madagascar, Comoros; to
a lesser extent in the Philippines, China, India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thai-
land (called takhraz) and Africa. Grown also on a small scale in many other
tropical countries, including north-western Australia which has a climate
similar to Guatemala, and southern Russia (Bagaturiya et al., 1990).
Cymbopogonflexuosus is cultivated in southern India, mainly Kerala State,
which Indian botanists claim as the plant’s original home. It is also known
locally as Cochin or Malabar grass, and the oil similarly. Two varieties of C.
flexuosus are recognized, the white-stemmed known as wella poolu now
designated C. flexuosus var. albescens, and the red-stemmed choomanna poolu.
The latter produces genuine East Indian oil and is the type commercially
cultivated (Husain et al., 1988; Fig. 4.8). Where C. flexuosus has been
Gramineae 87

introduced it was the red-stemmed type, with Indonesia and Madagascar


the largest non-Indian producers. Cymbopogon pendulus (Nees ex Steud.)
Wats. (Jammu lemongrass) is grown in northern India to produce a lemon-
grass oil and selected strains have a very high geraniol content (Hussain et
al., 1988; Vimilan et al., 1989; Pal et al., 1990). These oils are wholly
consumed locally.
The original use of lemongrass was probably as a food flavouring in Asia;
leaves are cooked with foods especially curries, and peeled stems are freely
available in local markets. Fresh leaves crushed in water are used as a hair-
wash and toilet water in India. Where or when oil was first distilled is
unknown, but there are references to primitive stills producing lemon-
scented water for Indian potentates several centuries ago. Systematic culti-
vation and distillation began in Kerala in the 1880s and remains a major
local industry. The greatest expansion of lemongrass oil production oc-
curred between the two world wars, with the establishment of C. citrutus
plantations in British, Dutch and French colonies in Central and South
America.

Fig. 4.8. Lemongrass, India.


88 Chapter 4

Lemongrass became commercially important in Madagascar, Comoros


and Reunion following its introduction by the French, but oil production
gradually declined after independence. Good descriptions of developments
up to 1941 are contained in Guenther (1 950). One aspect however is worth
noting, for it indicates how essential oil production can be successfully
integrated with other agricultural activities. Spent lemongrass fortified by
the addition of molasses from cane processing was used as a supplementary
feed for cattle on Reunion.
Probably the most successful introductions were to Guatemala, Hon-
duras, Brazil and Argentina. Similarly to citronella, these countries greatly
benefited from the shortage of essential oils in North America during the
Second World War, and the area under lemongrass substantially expanded.
Since then production has fallen, but all remain significant producers. Many
attempts to encourage commercial production among African farmers south
of the Sahara had little success although it has recently been grown on a
small scale in Rwanda (Ntezurubanza et al., 1992). Where oil was produced
it was by Europeans, who for many years grew the crop commercially in
Zaire and Tanzania. Oil was produced commercially in Thailand, Vietnam,
Taiwan and China, but the local industries fluctuated with the ebb and flow
of wars; Vietnam and China are currently expanding their production.

Botany
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. (syn. Andropogon nardus var. ceriferus
Hack.; A. citratus DC.) and Cymbopogon flexuosus (Steud.) Wats. (syn.
Andropogon nardus var. flexuosus Hack.; A.flexuosus Nees), are tufted per-
ennial grasses, with numerous stiff stems arising from a short, rhizomatous
rootstock.
Roots of C. citratus, although extensive, are not deeply penetrating and
cultivated plants seldom survive more than 4-5 years; C. flexuosus usually
survives for at least 6 years although it has a very similar root system. A C.
citratus root oil obtained in Sri Lanka had these characteristics (temperature
unspecified): specific gravity 0.94, optical rotation +3"40' to -1"40', alde-
hyde content to 82% (Nethsinga and Paskaranathan, 1976a). The stems are
stiff to 3 m but under cultivation are normally cut before maturity. Stem
colour in C. citratus is a light to medium green; C. flexuosus has two types,
one with an apple-green stem which may be almost white, the other a red
stem and both can be found growing wild in close proximity. The number of
stems (tillers) significantly affects the amount of leaves produced, and any
increase in total herbage produced by C. citratus is related to extent of
tillering.
Leaves in both species are long, narrow, 1 m X 3 cm, upright when young
but trailing at maturity. Colour is usually a light to medium green, is affected
by environment, and is an unreliable guide to identification. A detailed
description of leaf structure has been published (Metcalf, 1960). Leaves can
Gramineae 89

also be used as a source of cellulose and paper production (Ciaramello,


1973). Cultivated C. citratus seldom flowers and is propagated by root
division; C. jlexuosus seeds readily and is normally propagated from seed.
For this reason, commercial producers allow only selected plants to flower,
since profuse flowering prior to cutting substantially reduces oil yield. Main
flowering of C. jlexuosus in India is in the dry season, March-April.
Since oil is primarily in the leaves, factors which affect their growth,
number, oil content, etc. are important and comments in the section on
citronella are applicable. Only young and rapidly expanding leaves synthe-
size and accumulate essential oil, and the various biosynthetic pathways
have been partially determined (Singh et al., 1990; Sangwan et al., 1993a).
Leaf blades have a higher oil content than leaf sheaths, young leaves more
than older, and oil content increases from leaf base to tip. In China
harvesting 'upper grass' gave an oil yield of 0.60% but only 0.125% from
'lower grass'; in India, oil content of stems, immature flower spikes and
leaves of C. pendulus was 0.24%, solely from green leaves 0.35% (Singh etal.,
1982). Oil content of a normal cut, which includes stems and leaves, should
average 0.25-0.35%; however, up to 0.66% has been obtained on experi-
mental stations and from selected strains, indicating that higher commercial
yields are possible (Kulkarni and Ramesh, 1992). Simple selection proce-
dures produced a one-third increase in oil content of C. jlexuosus with little
effect on herbage, oil yield, or citral content of the oil (Kulkarni, 1994).
Growth stimulants, including IAA, IBA and GA, affect leaf growth
although results from various countries are conflicting, and may also slightly
affect leaf oil content and composition, as in Egypt (El-Saeid et al., 1994).
Nitrogen top-dressings also generally increase leaf number, leaf size and rate
of regrowth after cutting as will be noted later. The effect of harvesting
techniques on oil content and oil characteristics will be discussed in the
relevant section. The main characteristics of the two oils obtained in Sri
Lanka are (C. jlexuosus in brackets), specific gravity (15°C) 0.870-0.897
(0.888-0.903), optical rotation (2OOC) -3' to + l 0 (-3" to +1"), refractive
index (15°C) 1.483-1.489 (1.478-1.419), aldehyde content, 75% (75%);
C. citratus oil is normally less soluble than C. fiexuosus, but solubility of both
tends to decrease with storage. Main characteristics of oils from selected
origins are shown in Table 4.6. Oil from the white-stemmed species, which
is low in citral, is not produced commercially, and plants should not be
allowed to grow intermixed with the red-stemmed type, as distilling the two
together produces a lower-quality oil.

Ecology
Both species are tropical grasses and flourish in sunny, warm, humid
conditions, basically between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Many
local cultivars, however, are adapted to areas outside these limits and both
species are capable of widening their range under cultivation. Cymbopogon
90 Chapter 4

Table 4.6. Main characteristics of lemongrass oilsafrom selected countries.

Thailando Sarawakb Guatemala' Tanganyika' India'


Apparent density ("C) 0.886(20) 0.879(20)
0.892
Specific gravity r C ) - 0.877(15) 0.884(15) 0.888(30)
- - 0.889 0.888 0.898
Optical rotation -0.24O -0.09" -0.40° -0.32' -3"
-0.29O - - 1 .8OC -0.35O +I"
Refractive index ("C) 1.4824(26) 1.484(20) 1.483(20) 1,4860120) 1.4786(30)
1.4854 - 1.488 1.4866 1.4866
Carbonyl value 275-285 -

Citral (% wiw) 74-77 79 75-81 74-79 76


Solubility (% alcohol viv) Insol. 1 :2,2(70) lnsol Insol 1 :2-3(70)
aOils are from Cymbopogon citratus, except India which is C. flexuosus oil, (Cochin Special Grade);
Laboratory samples; Commercial samples (average values),
All figures in columns are range.

citratus is a wholly cultivated plant, and its range is that of countries to which
it has been introduced; on the Ord Irrigation Area in Western Australia for
example it has produced very high herbage and oil yields. Cymbopogon
jlexuosus requires a more sunny climate, with a well-distributed rainfall. In
South East Asia it grows naturally on roadsides, in mixed deciduous and
dipterocarp forests, often on the margin of secondary vegetation, on coastal
rocky areas and on grassy, often limestone, slopes and ridges. It occurs
naturally in India from sea-level to 1200 m, in Thailand and neighbouring
countries to 2200 m but commercial cultivation is most profitable between
500-1000 m; in Kerala, India, it grows well between 900-1250 m on hill
slopes. The effect of seasonal change on growth and herbage yield in north-
eastern India was relatively easy to correlate with specific elements of
climate, but it was not possible to do so with oil content or characteristics
(Handique et al., 1984). Cymbopogon citratus has similar climatic require-
ments to C. jlexuosus, but flourishes naturally below 500 m. In Guatemala
and Brazil, it is grown commercially between 120-600 m; in Indonesia, from
sea-level to 500 m; in Madagascar and Comoros, 200-750 m; in Haiti and
neighbouring islands, below 450 m; in Africa, generally below 500 m.
Interestingly, the citral content of oil from lemongrass grown in the Ethio-
pian highlands was a low 13% (Abegaz et al., 1983), compared to around
75% in oil from lemongrass grown at lower altitudes in East Africa (Ekun-
dayo, 1986).
It is not the effect of altitude on general plant growth, however, that can be
most important, although intensity of sunlight and rainfall at higher altitudes
adversely affect leaf-oil content. In both species oil content decreases during
Gramineae 91

long, dry, sunny periods, which occur more often at higher than lower levels
in many tropical countries. This depressing effect can be partially overcome
by selecting hillsides which receive less sun or a prevailing wet or misty wind,
and thus are suitable for lemongrass where other cash crops are scarce.
Conversely, drainage combined with judicious site selection can reduce the
effect of excessive rainfall.
The major effect of long periods of sunshine is to desiccate plants and
cause loss of leaf oil, but other factors are involved. In Sri Lanka, the
photosynthetic rate of leaves varies with light duration and intensity, and
there is a similar variation in carbon dioxide compensation values (Herath
and Ormrod, 1979). Data indicated this variation also applied to different
lemongrass strains and could be used for selecting those suited to a partic-
ular environment. Where lack of sunlight is the local limiting factor, rows of
plants should be orientated to obtain the maximum sunshine; generally
east-west.
Both species produce highest oil yield per tonne of herbage where the
rainfall averages 2500-3000 mm annually, preferably well distributed espe-
cially during the hot season; 5000 mm will be tolerated provided soils do not
become saturated. Cyrnbopogon citrutus is considered more drought tolerant,
but this refers to vegetative persistence; oil content suffers equally in both
species in long dry spells. C. flexuosus is considered more tolerant of short
periods of waterlogging, but this should not be a consideration when
selecting lands for planting. Areas which receive only heavy monsoon-type
rains or tropical storms of great intensity but short duration are generally
unsuitable for large-scale commercial plantings without special drainage.
Assessing available data (much of it unpublished) on both species it appears
the yield of oil per tonne of herbage from cuts during. a wet season (rainy or
monsoon), when growth is rapid and lush, is 45-65% of that obtained from
the same plants cut in the dry season or period (cf. geranium). A comparison
of yield and citral content of oil from uncultivated C. citrutus in the Phil-
ippines is shown in Table 4.7, which indicates the general effect of climate
on both, and it is interesting to note the effect of altitude in ‘hilly sections’.
It was also noted that, in the Cavite region, cultivated lemongrass gave a
herbage oil yield of 0.37 and 0.64% in the cool and hot seasons respectively,
much higher than that of uncultivated lemongrass.
A daytime temperature of 25530°C is considered the optimum for max-
imum oil production, with no extremely low night temperatures. Short
periods above 30°C have little general effect on plants, but severely reduce
oil content. Frost at any stage is normally fatal. Hail will shred leaves and if
a storm should coincide with a planned cut, oil yield will be low. Winds do
little damage unless they are hot and dry, or cyclonic; one evaporates the oil,
the other can destroy a plantation!
92 Chapter 4

Table 4.7. Yield of oil citral content from Cymbopogon citratus - Philippines

Cool season Dry hot season Rainy seasona


Regions % Oil % Citralb % Oil % Citralb % Oil
Albay 0.13 29.21 0.31 44.55 0.23
Batangas' 0.23 37.27 0.35 45.21 0.36
Bulacan 0.15 39.14 0.30 44.54 0.23
Carnarines S. 0.14 25.47 0.35 42.74 0.24
Cavitec 0.22 30.63 0.41 41.33 0.17
Mindoro 0.10 32.09 0.30 37.62 0.24
Dilirnanc 0.23 34.47 0.48 37.43 0.36
Quezon' 0.24 28.75 0.35 31.05 0.26
Rizal' 0.28 36.11 0.48 38.12 0.10
a Citral not determined; Citral = area of citral peakitotal peak areas x 100: From hilly districts; Cool

season, December to February: Hot season, March to June; Rainy season, July to November.
Source: Oliveros-Belardo and Aureus (1977).

Soils and fertilizers


Both species can be grown on a range of soils and it appears good drainage
is the most important factor. A moderate to high sand content is character-
istic of many areas where oil is produced commercially, and it is widely
reported that lemongrass plants growing on sandy soils have a higher leaf oil
content, or with increased citral. This may be so, but it is not the sandy soil
which is responsible, but the general lack of soil nutrients and soil moisture
which affects plant growth, and thus oil content and its characteristics.
These soils, however, may have been selected for reasons other than their
suitability, i.e availability and ease of manual cultivation. In India, C.
jlexuosus flourishes on well-drained sandy loams but is grown on almost any
land available, from very light sands to upland laterites, due primarily to
utilization of more fertile or more easily cultivated lands for other crops, and
this variety of soil types is reflected in the very wide range of oil yields per
hectare. Figure 4.9 shows lemongrass growing on canal banks in Bangla-
desh. Cymbopogon citratus is generally considered more adaptable, but this
probably reflects the much greater range of conditions under which it is
grown in the many countries to which was introduced. A moderate to high
sand content characterizes soils growing C. citratus in Guatemala, Brazil,
Argentina, Kenya and Tanzania, but more loamy soils proved acceptable on
Madagascar, the Comoros, Vietnam and China; trials were carried out on
peat soils in Sarawak, Malaysia (Ng, 1972).
How soil reaction affects growth, oil content and composition is un-
reported, although soils of p H 5 . 5 to 7.5 are utilized; C. citratus is more
commonly grown on soils with higher acidity than C. jlexuosus, but in
Australia good yields were obtained from C. citratus on a Kimberley clay p H
9.6. Some interesting results were obtained in India with a C. JClexuosus
Gramineae 93

cultivar; soil of p H 7.5 gave the highest herb and oil yields per hectare but
neither was significantly greater than p H 5 . 5 ; oil content of herbage, how-
ever, fell significantly between p H 5 . 5 and 7.5 although total citral content of
oilrosefrom83.5% a t p H 4 . 8 t o 8 7 . 1 % a t p H 7 . 5 (Singhetal., 1983). Saline
soils are usually considered unsuitable for lemongrass although this may be
due more to the cultural and agronomic problems associated with growing
crops on these soils, as laboratory and greenhouse trials indicate lemongrass
will grow and produce average herbage and oil yields on highly saline soils.
In pot trials, C. JEexuosusgrown in soils with an electrical conductivity (EC)
of 11.5, 10.0 and 5.5 mmhos/cm, showed no significant reduction in herb
and oil yield (Singh and Anwar, 1985); the citral content was unaffected by
increasing salinity to 15 mmhosicm.
Any crop from which 100 t of herbage per hectare is harvested annually
also removes quantities of plant nutrients, but there are few detailed reports
of the amounts removed either per hectare or per tonne of green material. In
Western Australia, the maximum amounts removed annually per hectare
were 186 kg N, 26 kg P and 384 kg K; with an average yield of 92 tlha

Fig. 4.9, Lernongrass planted (illegally) on canal banks, Bangladesh.


94 Chapter 4

herbage removed per tonne cut, 2.02 kg N, 0.28 kg P and 4.17 kg K. By


comparison, a soybean crop in the USA yielding 3.5 tiha seed removed 340
kg N, 30 kg P and 170 kg K per hectare; equal to 97 kg N, 8.6 kg P and 48.6
kg K per tonne of seed. When grown under smallholder or peasant farming
conditions the most commonly applied fertilizer is spent grass from distilla-
tion, used directly as a mulch or dried, burnt and the ash broadcast over the
crop. A combination of spent grass compost at 2.5-5.0 t plus 1.8 t wood ash
per hectare gave good yields in southern India, as did a mixture of cotton-
seed meal and potassium (Virmani et al., 1979).
Lemongrass is generally considered to have a modest nitrogen require-
ment, since data from trials in various countries indicate a relatively low
optimum level based on profitability. The rate of nitrogen recovery by plants
is an important indication of their ability to use added nutrients, and in
Australia the nitrogen recovery rate of C. citratus was low; a total of 1094 kg
Niha applied to experimental plots gave a minimum recovery of 137 and a
maximum 186 kg N/ha, equal to 12.5-17.0% (Beech, 1977). The major
effect of nitrogen is to increase above-ground plant growth, i.e. more tillers,
number of leaves or size and length of leaf. The greatest response often
occurs on more sandy soils in the presence of adequate soil moisture,
although there was a general increase in yield on most soil types. On a heavy-
textured mineral soil in Sarawak, herbage yield rose from 24.5 to 3 1.4 tiha at
90 and 135 kg Niha but a neighbouring peat soil gave no significant response
(Ng, 1972). On a gravelly loam in India, 300 kg/ha of ammonium sulphate
or urea applied to three local cultivars increased mean herbage yield by 40
and 57% respectively; with an average increase of 17% from urea over
ammonium sulphate at the same levels of N (Kokate and Varma, 1971).
Top-dressing is generally necessary after each cut and the method of
application is of little importance provided distribution is even. Nitrogen
usually has no significant effect on leaf oil content, oil characteristics or
composition at the levels normally applied but, in a number of trials, the
citral content of oil from a specific cultivar could be influenced (Samiullah et
al., 1988). Determining the citral content of oil from plants in fertilizer trials
is thus important, since citral is a valuable constituent. The most profitable
level of nitrogen must be determined locally, together with the frequency
and timing of applications. Such data is scarce; in India (using C. pendulus)
320 kg Niha gave maximum profit, but the lower level of 280 kg Niha gave
the greatest return per rupee invested, a very important distinction, partic-
ularly where money is severely limited.
On most commercial crops, phosphate at planting gives a higher stand
and more healthy plants, which are then able to make maximum use of
nitrogenous top-dressings. The amount necessary is apparently below that
of nitrogen or potassium and also less critical in terms of oil yield but,
because of the very wide range of levels applied, local trials are essential to
Gramineae 95

establish the optimum. In general, superphosphate gives the highest yield


per unit of phosphate in the presence of adequate nitrogen and potassium.
Trials indicate that lemongrass has a very high potassium requirement in
comparison to phosphate, in some areas exceeding the total nitrogen neces-
sary to produce optimum oil yield, and why this should be so has not been
accurately determined. Plants well supplied with potassium generally have
more tillers than those undersupplied. Recommendations vary from 50 to
120 kg Wha in India and Sri Lanka. Potassium is usually applied as part of
a compound fertilizer at planting, but there are no data comparing the
various potassic fertilizers. One application only is normal, but because of
the very high potassium removal recorded in many countries, a further
application in the second or third year could be profitable. For example 384
kg Wha was removed in 92 t of herbage in 1 year in Australia with no record
of potassium being applied. Few soils can stand this rate of nutrient
depletion without affecting crop growth.
There is little data on minor element deficiencies or responses to these
elements by lemongrass. On a peat soil of p H 4.6 in Sarawak, plants
exhibited chlorosis apparently induced by an iron deficiency, since it was
alleviated by a ferrous sulphate spray (Ng, 1972). Remarks under this
heading in the citronella section also apply.

Cultivation
The basic operations to establish a lemongrass plantation are described in
the introduction to this chapter. In India, Sri Lanka and countries where
there are a large number of smallholders, it may be necessary to protect
newly sown plantations against domestic stock. Although mature grass is
generally unpalatable, young growth is grazed especially when other forage is
not available.
Propagation differs between C. citratus and C. flexuosus; the former is
vegetatively propagated, the latter grown from seed. T o obtain the required
amount of seed of C. flexuosus some plants in a plantation are left uncut to
flower, or a special area for seed production established. After flowering,
November-December in southern India, plants are regularly inspected to
determine when seed is mature but not overripe, or shattering will occur.
The whole inflorescence is cut, left to dry in the shade for 1-3 days, then
threshed by any method which does not damage seeds. Seed can be sown
directly where plants are to grow and, provided soil is moist and rainfall
expected, is usually successful. Approximately 35 kgiha is required. The
great disadvantage of direct sowing is the difficulty of effectively controlling
weeds in young seedlings, since most tropical grasses are fast and expansive
growers. Chemical control of such weeds is almost impossible, and manual
weeding equally difficult.
96 Chapter 4

Seed production is prolific and viability high so there is usually little need
to conserve it; thus nursery beds should be over- rather than under-sown. A
mature plant supplies about 100-200 g seed and 10-1 2 kg of clean seed is
sufficient to produce seedlings for 1 ha. Beds should be sown in advance of
the rains, so planting-out can commence as early as possible to ensure fast
growth after establishment. Seedlings are ready to transplant in 60-80 days,
topped to 15-20 cm, and dipped in fungicide. Planting of cuttings is usually
manual, but the small mechanical planters available can be used. Mechan-
ical planting may be more expensive initially, but is offset by faster seedling
growth and lower weeding cost. Single ridges or rows are usually 30-50 but
up to 100 cm apart, or ridges can be large enough to accommodate up to
three rows of plants, becoming raised beds. In-row spacing of 12-20 cm is
common, and up to three cuttings planted together since this is cheaper than
infilling. Multiple planting usually has little effect on herbage yield but, in Sri
Lanka, two cuttings per hill at 15 X 10 cm spacing gave the highest average
yield of oil per hectare. In Kerala, 2-3 cuttings per hill at 13 X 15 cm is
favoured.
Cymbopogon citrutus is generally propagated by root division (splits), and
the usual method is to divide clumps from an existing or exhausted planta-
tion following cutting. One fully mature healthy plant will yield 50-200
splits. Size of splits is a local preference but larger splits root quicker and
grow faster. Splits should be cut to leave 10-15 cm of shoot, trimmed of
excess and old roots and preferably be dipped in fungicide. Where large
numbers are involved, this can be carried out mechanically with a rotating
drum (the author once hired a concrete mixer), and splits should be dried
before planting. Use of growth stimulants or rooting compounds is usually
unnecessary, and exposing slips to gamma radiation prior to planting had a
generally adverse effect on plant growth and oil content (Banerji and Gupta,
1982).
Cymbopogon citratus is normally sown on the flat, about 10-15 cm deep,
but ridges can be raised after emergence to provide drainage or water
retention, whichever is locally most important. On clay loams or similar
rather heavy soils, too deep planting or raising a substantial ridge when
plants are still small is inadvisable, as C. citrutus is very susceptible to root
rots at this stage; depth of planting and ridge size are less important on more
sandy soils. A spacing of 50-75 cm rows and 50 cm between plants has
consistently produced the highest oil yield per hectare irrespective of coun-
try. Row width is usually determined by the mechanical equipment used and
between-plant spacing adjusted to provide the optimum population, which
it is essential to maintain by infilling since there is convincing evidence a high
population is far more profitable. The remarks on weed control in C.
flexuosus are applicable. In general, a weeding should follow cutting and
spot-spraying with a herbicide is then possible. Diseased or dead plants can
Gramineae 97

also be easily seen, removed and burnt. Smallholders irrigate when possible,
usually after each cut. Large estates in Central America were regularly
irrigated during the dry season to maintain growth as water was freely
available, while plantations in Azerbaijan, CIS, were irrigated 15 times
between April and October (Ragimov et al., 1985). The data available
indicates a water stress prior to cutting generally reduces herbage yield but
increases oil content, an effect similar to harvesting following a dry period,
and clearly demonstrated in Western Australia on the Ord Irrigation Area
(Fig. 4.10). Soil moisture status may also affect oil components, and
requires further investigation. Interestingly a 1917 report from Florida,
USA, stated: ‘a dry sandy soil yielded oil with a 75% citral content, a moist
sandy loam 68% and a wet loam 66%’.
Cymbopogon citrutus is seldom intercropped or underplanted when grown
to produce oil since it is basically unsuitable; C. jlexuosus may be inter-
planted, but is generally the major component when grown for oil. An
interesting method of integrating C. jlexuosus into plantations of other crops
was proposed for Bangladesh, but not widely implemented (Khan, 1979);
C. citratus has been underplanted in young rubber in Malaysia and elsewhere
to help defray cost of plantation establishment.

Harvesting
The first harvest of both species is usually 6-8 months after planting, then
cut three to six times annually over life of the plantation, although in Brazil
and other South American countries plants are cut at approximately 3-4
months, as this is locally believed to induce more extensive tillering and thus
bigger, more leafy plants. The cutting interval is governed by level of
management, climate and cultivar grown, thus the more skilled the local
grower, the greater the returns possible. Sampling to determine oil content
and composition is desirable, but seldom practised. Most small growers cut
a t a locally favoured height and, in general, this results in obtaining the local
average oil yield. Too frequent cutting of C. citrutus usually increases costs
with no great addition to total oil obtained over life of the plantation. By
contrast, frequent cutting of C. jlexuosus can profitably increase the total oil
yield. It is thus essential to determine the optimum height of cut and number
of cuts by field trials; however, adequate transport, distilling and storage
facilities must also be available to benefit from the results.
T o reduce the amount of green material distilled, smallholders tend to cut
high to include mainly leafy material. After several cuts it is then necessary to
prune the plants, which is time-consuming and unpleasant work so, in Sri
Lanka and southern India, plantations are often burnt at the end of the dry
season. This is effective in reducing unnecessary herbage and kills some
plants, but also substantially reduces carry-over of insect pests, especially
stemborers.
98 Chapter 4

Cutting can begin as soon as plants are dry after the night’s dew, as wet
grass left for later collection quickly ferments. Sunny days are preferable,
since cloudy and misty conditions tend to depress leaf-oil content.
Small farmers usually harvest manually, cutting plants 7.5-10 cm above
the ground and, in Sri Lanka, one worker can harvest about 2 t of fresh grass
daily. Mechanical cutting is usual on commercial plantations with a com-
bined cutter-chopper-loader. Cutting height varies with equipment used
and must be determined by field trials; in Western Australia 20 cm was the
optimum. Cutting at 20, 30, 40 and 50 cm gave annual herbage yields of
116,97,82 and 72 tiha, and the highest yield of 134 tiha was from 20 cm and
a cutting interval of 120 days (Beech, 1977). Manual cutting at different

+Fresh weight +Oil ‘Ontent


)
e--Dry matter (%) A- - Oil vield

12 - 60

-m h

9
f e
-
E
4-
10- 50
L

.-m
$ a-
n
c
v)

Lt:
6- 30

4 I I I I 20
(b)

60

50
-2
-
v

0
.-
x
40 .=
0

30

20

Days from last irrigation

Fig. 4.10. Effect of withholding irrigation water from lemongrass (Cymbopogoncitratus ex Taiwan) in
Australia. (Beech, 1977.)
Gramineae 99

heights from 5 cm to 40 cm in Assam showed cutting at 20 cm and at


4-monthly intervals gave the highest yields of dry herbage and oil, and there
was little to be gained by lowering cutting height to obtain more herbage, as
both oil content and citral content were low in the first 10 cm above ground
level (Choudry, 1994).
Annual herbage yield from C. flexuosus in the 2 years following establish-
ment should be 15,000-20,000 kgiha, but then declines steadily over the
4-8 year life of the plantation; the rate of decline and plantation life are
directly related to the standard of management. Oil yield from fresh herbage
is 0.2-0.5% and is less affected over time, The average annual herbage yield
in the 2 years following establishment of C. citratus should be 30,000-50,000
kg/ha (100,000 kg/ha has been achieved) and under good management
should continue around this level over the 4-6 years of plantation life. Oil
yield from fresh herbage is usually 0.25-0.50% but 0.4-0.6% with efficient
management.
Wilting herbage prior to distilling reduces moisture content and can
reduce oil content if dried in the sun, but normally has little effect on oil
composition. Up to 3 days drying prior to distilling is common in many
countries for both species. In Indonesia, 1-2 days was the optimum for field
wilting C. citratus, when moisture content decreased from 72 to 66.5% with
the least loss of oil and citral content (Rusli et al., 1979). There was,
however, an interaction between wilting period and distillation time, noted
later. A substantial difference in oil content was obtained by hydro-
distillation of fresh, controlled air-dried, or wilted C. citratus leaves in the
Philippines. Oil yield was 0.3-0.4, 1.2-1.9 and 0.2-0.8% respectively
(Brandares et al., 1987). Some estates in Brazil and Guatemala allow leaves
to age on plants to reduce moisture content, and cut when leaf tips wither.
This sometimes darkens oil colour but has no significant effect on citral
content. Oil distilled from fresh herbage is considered by many end-users to
have a finer odour than oil from wilted or dried herbage.

Distillation
In general, C. citratus is steam distilled and methods vary considerably,
reflected in the type and quality of oil produced, while an interaction
between duration of wilting and distillation time can occur. Wilting in
Indonesia for 2 days with 1.5 hours steam distillation gave highest oil yield of
0.43% (citral 80.3%); no wilting and 45 minutes yielded 0.3% oil (86.7%
citral) (Rusli et al., 1979). Increasing distilling time from 45 to 90 to 135
minutes increased oil yield from 0.311 to 0.351 to 0.406%, but citral
content fell steadily from 86.7 to 80.3%. In Puerto Rico, a 28% solution of
sodium chloride in still water increased C. citratus oil yield by almost one-
third; the use of sea or salt water in stills has been explored elsewhere but is
nowhere common (cf. Pimenta racemosa). Local stills processing C. flexuosus
in India generally use hydro-distillation and have changed little in the last
100 Chapter 4

100 years; a unit in Kerala, India, charged with 100 kg grass and 140 1 water
required 2-2.5 hours to distil including filling and emptying the still, and
used 40 kg wood to produce 0.35 kg oil. Since distillation is probably the
most important factor influencing oil quality, there has been considerable
official research on methods of improving local stills. The CISIR, Sri Lanka,
has developed the Manakoka Still, and provides plans and advice on its
construction. The Department of Technology, Bogor, Indonesia, has devel-
oped a superior still for use by small companies or cooperatives (Rusli,
1977).
Oils correctly stored (i.e. protected from air, heat and sunlight) remain
stable for long periods, with little or no loss of citral. T o reduce the adverse
effect of local storage on citral content of C. flexuosus oil in India, several
indigenous antioxidants were tested; an extract of betel leaves (Piper betle)
proved most successful, maintaining citral content at 83% compared to 72%
in oil not treated (Kurain et al., 1984). Temperature, light and length of
storage produced some interesting results in the Philippines; rate of evapora-
tion and changes in citral content of oils from fresh, air-dried or wilted leaves
stored at different temperatures showed oil extracted from fresh leaves to be
the most stable (Brandares et al., 1987).
Spent grass can be dried and used as fuel, composted or returned directly
to the plantation (or other crops) as mulch, and also fodder for domestic
stock, either dried or as silage. Analysis of fresh and spent grass and silage
made from C. citratus in Guatemala is shown in Tables 4.8 and 4.9. When
fed to sheep, the total digestible nutrients (dry material) were 44.6%
equivalent to 1963 kcalikg digestible energy, and it is a valuable stock feed in
areas lacking fresh forage. Analysed in India for use as paper pulp, the main
constituents of C. citratus dried spent grass were (per cent), ash 6.2,
pentosans 16.6, lignin 21.3, cellulose 47 (Guha et al., 1973); in Guatemala
dry material consisted of (per cent), cell walls 67, lignocellulose 42, hemi-
cellulose 25, lignin 7.5, cellulose 30, ash 4 (Ramirez et al., 1976).

Products and specijkations


Commercial samples of lemongrass oils are generally similar in appearance,
but differ in odour. The oil is usually a rather viscous liquid, yellow to dark
yellow or dark amber becoming more red with age, often turbid, sometimes
containing significant amounts of water. The two oils are differentiated in
the trade as West Indian lemongrass oil (C. citratus) and East Indian
lemongrass oil (C.flexuosus), although this is virtually meaningless since oils
from both species are produced in the main oil-exporting areas. The main
difference is West Indian oil tends to have less citral and more myrcene than
East Indian oil; however designation is no accurate guide to composition,
this can only be determined by analysis. A C. citratus oil obtained in the
Philippines, for example, was high in citral with a particularly strong lemony
odour (Torres et al., 1994).
Gramineae 101

Table 4.8. Amino acid composition of fresh lemongrass and lemongrass bagassea

Fresh lemongrass (giro0 g) Lemongrass bagasse (giro0 g)


Aspartic acid 0.505 0.523
Threonine 0.162 0.176
Serine 0.068 0.053
Glutamic acid 0.676 0.795
Glycine 0.359 0.349
Alanine 0.442 0.441
Cysti ne 0.068 0.092
Valine 0.379 0.397
Methionine 0.029 0.039
lsoleucine 0.328 0.354
Leucine 0.449 0.560
Tyrosine 0.149 0.161
Phenylalanine 0.278 0.352
Ammonia 0.093 0.078
Lysine 0.265 0.344
Histidine 0.129 0.118
Arginine 0.252 0.278
a Values expressed on a 100% dry matter basis.

Over 100 compounds have been detected in the oil (Boelens, 1994), and
average levels of some major constituents are, in per cent, (C. flexuosus
outside, C. citratus within brackets); citral to 85 (80), geraniol 5 ( 3 ) , methyl
heptenone 6 (0.3), myrcene 0.8 (20), dipentene 0 (4) nerol 0 ( 2 ) , not

Table 4.9. Chemical composition and organoleptic characteristics of experimental silages containing
lemongrass bagassea.

Bagasse Bagasse Bagasse Bagasse


inoculum inoculum t AIV inoculum inoculum
t AIV t molasses t water t molasses
PH 4.00 4.04 4.62 4.42
Odour Acid Acidisweet Acidisweet Acidisweet
Colour Dark green Dark green Dark green Dark green
Dry matter (%) 38.00 41 .OO 36.00 40.00
Crude protein (%) 5.10 5.00 5.00 6.00
Crude fibre (%) 34.00 34.60 34.00 33.30
Ether extract (??) 3.50 3.50 4.10 4.80
Ash (%) 15.00 15.00 10.60 11.40
Nitrogen-free extract (%) 42.40 41.90 46.30 44.50
a Chemical analyses expressed on a 100% dry matter basis; AIV, Acid additive (unspecified). Note:
lnoculum obtained from maize silage.
Source: Ramirez eta/, (1976).
102 Chapter 4

necessarily in the same sample. Major components are shown in Table 4.10
and official specifications in Table 4.1 1. Both oils have a pronounced fresh
lemony odour; that of West Indian is less strong because of its lower citral
content while East Indian is considered more fresh, lighter, and sweeter.
Whole oils are mainly used as a source of citral, with synthetics the major
competitors, and the price of a particular batch of oil is directly related to its
citral content, minimum 75%. Citral has numerous uses, and can be further
processed to isolate the ionone group which possess a violet-like fragrance
important in Ferfumery, and vitamins, especially vitamin A.
Demand for whole oils has expanded with their use as a masking fragrance
in deodorants, waxes, polishes, detergents and insecticides, where the oil’s
generally low cost is attractive. Small amounts are also used by stockfeed
manufacturers. Little is used to flavour human foods, since fresh grass or
stalks are preferred. T h e whole oil has fungicidal properties to plant and
human pathogens (Handique and Singh, 1990) and is potentially anti-
carcinogenic (Zheng et al., 1993). A diagram of lemongrass oil use and its
major competitors is shown in Fig.4.11. Terpeneless lemongrass oil is

Table 4.10. Major components of lemongrass oils

Cymbopogon cifratus Cymbopogon flexuosus


Constituent % Constituent YO

Alpha-thujene trace-0. 1 Alpha-pinene 0.24


Myrcene 8.2-19.2 Alpha-thujene 0.03
Limonene trace Myrcene 0.46
cis-Beta-ocimene 0.2 Limonene 2.42
frans-Beta-ocimene 0.1-0.2 cis-Beta-ocimene 0.06
1,8-Cineole 0.2 trans-Beta-ocimene 0.07
6-Methylhept-5-en-2-one 0.5-2.3 Terpinolene 0.05
Nonanal 0,2-0.7 Methyl heptenone 1.43
Alpha-thujone 0.1 2-Nonanone 0.07
Citronellal 0.1 Citronellal 0.37
Linalool 0.8-1 .I Linalool 1.34
Undecan-Pone 0,4-0,6 Caryophyllene 0.32
Alpha-terpineol 0.2-0 3
I Neral 30.06
Neral 25-28 Alpha-terpineol 0.38
Borneo1 0.1-0.4 Geranial 51.19
Geranial 45.2-55.9 Geranyl acetate 1.95
Geranyl acetate 1.o Citronellol 0.44
Citronellol 0.1 Nerol 0.39
Nerol 0.3-0.4 Geraniol 3.80
Geraniol 0.5-0.6
Figures in columns are range.
Source: Formacek and Kubeczka (1982); Sarer et al. (1983).
Gramineae 103

usually produced to order since it has little commercial use. A major


competitor of lemongrass oil is obtained from Litsea cubeba, Lauraceae, a
tree bearing small cubeb-shaped fruits which produce oil with a citral
content to 85% when steam-distilled (see Chapter 6).

Palmarosa and Gingergrass

Palmarosa oil, commonly East Indian geranium oil, and gingergrass oil are
obtained from two varieties of Cymbopogon martinii, known in India as rosha
or russa grass. Although morphologically almost identical, the two varieties
have different growth forms, favour differing environments and yield distinct
oils. In India, which produces most commercial supplies, palmarosa oil is
obtained from C. martinii var. martinii (motia) and the less valuable ginger-
grass oil from C. martiniivar. sojia (sojia). Since the names motia and sojia are
in common use and well understood, they will be used in the text.

Table 4.1 1, Official specifications for lemongrass oils

Cymbopogon citratus
IS EOA
Specific gravity 0.872-0.897 0.869-0.894
(20°C) (25°C)
Refractive index (at 20°C) 1.4830-1.4890 1.4830-1.4890
Optical rotation -3"tO t l o -3'tO tl"
Carbonyl compounds (as citral) Min 75% Min 75%
Residue 7% maximum
Solubility (70% alcohol) Fresh oil soluble Cloudy solutions
at 20°C. Insoluble in 70,80,90 and
in 90% 95% alcohols
at 25°C.
Cymbopogon flexuosus
IS EOA
~~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~

Specific gravity 0.888-0.898 0.894-0.904


(30°C) (25%)
Refractive index 1.4786-1.4846 1.4830-1.4890
(30°C) (25%)
Optical rotation -3'tO + I o -3"to tin
Citral content Min 75% Min 75%
Solubility (viv 70% alcohol) 1:3 2:3
with slight turbidity at 25'CC.
IS, Indian Standard Specification; EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA.
104 Chapter 4

Lemongrass oil

and perfumery

( p - ionone,
methyl-ionone,

Fig. 4.1 1. Pattern of use of lemongrass oil. (Tropical Products Institute, London.)

Indian palmarosa and gingergrass oils are obtained almost wholly from
wild plants growing in forested regions, palmarosa mainly in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Assam; gingergrass in
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. A number of regional strains
produce oils of varying characteristics but, as herbage is generally harvested
indiscriminately, the resultant bulk oil is a blend of all types in a particular
locality. Since palmarosa and gingergrass normally occupy different hab-
itats, many bulk oils are basically true to type; it is the quality which varies.
Commercial planting of palmarosa is now being officially encouraged in
India, but there are few large plantations. In the late 1930s palmarosa was
introduced by the Dutch to Java, large commercial plantations were estab-
lished, and Java oil with its generally higher ester content was considered
superior to Indian oil. Production of gingergrass oil is restricted to India, and
there are no commercial plantings. An oil almost identical to gingergrass oil
was obtained from an Angolan variety of C. densiJClorus Stapf. but was not
grown commercially (Naves, 1960).
It is not recorded when palmarosa or gingergrass oil was first distilled in
India, but bruised leaves were used to perfume bath water, and provide
poultices to relieve the pain of bruises, aching joints and swellings. The oils
were traded between India and the Persian Gulf when the Portuguese
entered the Indian Ocean in the late sixteenth century. This route remained
in use until early in the twentieth century, when oil was shipped from
Bombay to Red Sea ports then overland to Constantinople, and thus became
erroneously known to European traders as Turkish or Indian geranium oil.
It has remained popular in the Middle East as a base for cheap scents and
soaps, and is often a mixture of palmarosa and gingergrass oils or wholly the
latter. The separation of palmarosa and gingergrass into two separate
Gramineae 105

commodities was due mainly to pressure from manufacturers, who required


a superior oil. Thus Indian producers became more selective in their
harvesting, and more efficient at distillation and storage. An alternative to
palmarosa oil is ninde oil obtained from the shrub Aeolanthus gamwelliae
Tay. cultivated on a small scale in Malawi (Ames, 1968).

Botany
Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. var. martinii (syn C. maninii Stapf var.
motia), 2n = 40, produces palmarosa oil and C. martinii Stapf var. sofia(syn.
Andropogon martinii Roxb. var. sofia), 2n = 20, produces gingergrass oil.
However, terpenoid analyses of var. sofia strains from north India suggested
a closer relationship to C. densiJ7orus than to var. martinii (Mathela et al.,
1988). Although only two varieties of C. martinii are currently recognized,
the very wide natural occurrence of both on the Indian subcontinent has
given rise to a number of locally well-adapted strains, which became named
cultivars. The close relationship between the two varieties and their prox-
imity in the wild have almost certainly resulted in widespread hybridization.
Seed should be thus collected only from areas where there are pure stands or
from plants of known parentage. Little information is available on the life
span of the two varieties in the wild, but when cultivated in India motia is said
to last 10-15 years (Singh, 1977) although many plantations become
unprofitable after 6 years (Husain et al., 1988).
The root system of sofia is more extensive than motia; the latter normally
occurs in more dry, open locations at higher levels than sofia, and its smaller
but penetrating root system reflects this environment. Sofia generally occurs
in more fertile soils at lower elevations, where an extensive root system is
advantageous. Habitat zones are not strictly delineated, and both varieties
may grow side by side at the respective upper and lower limits of their range,
or interspaced where soil or climate favours one variety. In some state forests
of Madhya Pradesh and Mysore for example, the two varieties are so
intermingled that collection of one only is virtually impossible. Both varieties
occur naturally in rounded clumps or tussocks, but while motia clumps tend
to remain separated, sojia clumps grow much closer together and can
become almost pure stands covering several hectares. Both grasses are
vigorous growers and quickly colonize suitable land. Indian Forest Depart-
ment contracts specify that grass must be cut and physically moved from the
concession to assist in its control, since it rapidly expands from forests into
grasslands where it is an unwanted component which domestic stock nor-
mally refuse to eat.
Both sojia and motia are tufted perennial grasses with numerous stiff
stems, those of motia being generally more upright and fewer per plant than
sofia; motia is also taller with stems 2.5-3.0m, Sofia 1.O-1.25 m. Stem colour
in motia is generally yellow or greenish-yellow, in sofia usually purple to dark
greenish purple, but there are many gradations between the two basic stem
106 Chapter 4

colours, which is an unreliable indicator of the two types, Selection within


palmarosa in eastern India produced dwarf, spreading, late-flowering, and
tall, erect, early-flowering strains. Plant height averaged 148 and 195 cm and
number of tillers 15 and 48 respectively (Verma et al., 1981). Leaves are
long, narrow, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; motia normally light to me-
dium green, sofia generally dark green with purplish margins. Sofia leaves are
usually slightly broader than motia in any specific region, especially cauline
leaves. A practical method of identification is to pluck a floral leaf and move
it gently between the fingers from base to tip. Sofia feels rough and sticky,
motia smooth and clean; crushed leaves of gingergrass also emit a more harsh
scent than palmarosa. A detailed description of leaf anatomy has been
published (Metcalf, 1960). Total lipid content of an east Indian strain was
53% of fresh weight, including the phospholipid lysolecithin; phosphatidyls
choline, serine and inositol; phosphatic acid, monoglycerides, diglycerides,
triglycerides, cholesterol and cholesterol esters and hydrocarbons (Sabale,
1982).
The proportion of leaf to total plant parts at cutting is motia 20-25%, sofia
25-30% and is usually higher in India in April than in September-October,
the main flowering season. Unlike lemongrass, palmarosa and gingergrass
oil content is highest at flowering. Older leaves generally have a higher oil
content than younger, and the upper half of mature leaves more than the
lower. Cutting is thus normally limited to twice yearly. Herbage collected
from wild palmarosa and locally distilled yielded 0.15-0.40% oil and from
experimental plantings under more controlled distillation 1.O-1.75%, on a
fresh weight basis. Gingergrass obtained from forest concessions averages
0.10-0.35%. The oil content in plant parts varies considerably between
strains and often between plants as noted, but the relative proportions are
fairly constant; from motia, in per cent, stalks 0.10-0.15, leaves 0.1-0.5,
flowering heads 0.75-1.20, whole plants before flowering 0.15-0.50, after
flowering 0.15-0.40 (Singh, 1977; Sangwan et al., 1982; Akhila et al.,
1984).
Quoted oil yields are not always directly comparable since the time
between cutting and distillation can vary considerably, and moisture content
of herbage is not always reported. On a green herbage basis, oil yield of
0.15-0.20% is common for palmarosa and 0.15-0.25% for gingergrass.
Palmarosa strains with higher average leaf oil content have been selected in
India, to 1.5% on dry material basis (Pareek and Maheshwari, 1990), and
selections also produced a much greater weight of herbage per hectare than
locally popular cultivars or wild plants. There may be a positive correlation
between high herbage yield and high oil content, and high oil content with
high geraniol content of oil (Sobti et al., 1982; Sahoo and Dutta, 1982;
Gupta and Trivedi, 1984).
The major oil components are, in per cent; geraniol to 95, citronellol to 2
and linalool to 4, but in some regional oils citronellol may be present only in
Gramineae 107

very small quantities or absent. The main components ofpalmarosa oil from
selected origins are shown in Table 4.12. T h e major constituent of ginger-
grass oil is geraniol to 65% and other tertiary alcohols, particularly perillic, in
varying proportions. Gingergrass oil differs from the other cymbopogon oils
discussed as it consists mainly of p-menthane derivatives rather than ali-
phatic monoterpene derivatives. It is frequently difficult to obtain a pure
sample of gingergrass oil as it is often mixed with poor-quality palmarosa oil.
Variation can be induced artificially: for example exposing seeds to low-
dosage gamma irradiation caused changes in oil content and oil character-
istics; 7, 10 and 15 kilorads (krad) increased oil content over control, did not
affect the refractive index, but at 10 and 15 krad increased specific gravity.
These two levels also significantly increased total geraniol content and ester
value after acetylation, but decreased acid value. All radiation levels reduced
percentage germination in direct proportion to treatment; at 15 krad germi-
nation was reduced by 60% (Gupta et al., 1981).
Both varieties produce inflorescences on long stems with extended,
usually narrow, oblong panicles of small, spicate flowers; more widely
spaced and hairy on motia, compact and stellate on sojia. Since there is wide
variation within the two varieties and considerable natural crossing, size,
shape and appearance of individual inflorescences are no reliable guide to
identification. Flowers of both produce large amounts of pollen, cross easily,
and set quantities of viable seed. Main flowering in India is September-
November, the major harvesting period.

Ecology
Palmarosa and gingergrass, although morphologically similar, are adapted
to different environments as previously noted, and that of other Cymbopogon
spp. has been described in detail (Whyte, 1968; Lazarides, 1980). T h e range

Table 4.12. Main components of palmarosa oil from selected countries

Brazil Guatemala India Madagascar


Myrcene 0.13 ng 0.07 0.19
Limonene 0.10 ng 1.74 0.06
Gamma-terpinene 1.40 ng 0.94 1.74
Linalool 2.20 0.76 3.86 3.01
Geranyl acetate 12.41 17.31 9.05 7.96
Nerol ng 14.76 1.53 0.23
Geraniol 80.85 59.96 76.15 84.01
Elemol 0.41 ng 1.45 0.32
ng, not given.
Source: Srinivas (1986)
108 Chapter 4

of palmarosa has also been extended by a variety of uses other than for oil. In
India and Pakistan in particular, but also in other Asian countries, the grass
is widely recommended for soil conservation purposes on erodible hillsides,
to heal gullies, on contour banks and terraces, re-afforested areas and similar
situations.
Palmarosa has a natural range in India from 12-32"N, but is grown
commercially on Java and the Seychelles almost on the Equator, and on
Madagascar around 20"s. It is usually grown at 300-1200 m but as a local
cash crop from 150-800 m depending on rainfall and soils (Husain et al.,
1988). Palmarosa was considered day-neutral, but recent studies indicate
greatest rate of oil synthesis and highest geraniol content occurs with a
daylength approaching 16 hours (Ghosh and Chatterjee, 1990). Wild pal-
marosa is often found in drier hilly areas with a rainfall below 600 mm and,
although this indicates a degree of drought resistance, a rainfall of 1500 mm
is necessary in north India for high leaf yield (Singh, 1977). However, 750
mm produces a reasonable yield and palmarosa can probably be grown as a
cash crop in many low-rainfall regions of India. The intensively managed
Java plantations with four or five annual cuttings were in areas receiving at
least 1500 mm, with supplementary irrigation. If palmarosa is to be grown as
a commercially profitable crop, it must be well fertilized and this requires
adequate levels of soil moisture; a minimum of 1500 mm, well distributed,
plus supplementary irrigation during dry periods. Palmarosa prefers warm
sunny conditions with a daytime temperature of 20-25°C; extended periods
at 25-30°C can significantly reduce oil yield and suppress flowering. Frost
causes severe damage at any growth stage, and at higher elevations plants
die-back to ground level in the cold season. A slight frost during harvesting
can halve herbage oil content. The effects of hail and high winds are similar
to citronella.
The general effect of climate on oil content and composition is mainly via
the rate of growth and physiological changes which take place in plants.
Thus a dry season will retard growth and reduce oil yield, while adequate
rains promote vegetative growth and increase oil yield. However, oil compo-
sition, especially geraniol content, is usually inversely correlated with these
effects. Annual climatic variation normally has a greater effect on oil content
and composition than any other factor, and thus adverse conditions for plant
growth can seldom be profitably offset by management, i.e. more fertilizer or
applied water. Seasonal variation is also important and harvesting at the
most suitable period is essential to obtain a high yield of good-quality oil (see
section on harvesting).
Gingergrass, although occupying the same general range in India as
palmarosa, thrives below 500 m. A rainfall of 1000 mm with no extended dry
periods produces most herbage. Heavy sustained rains as in monsoon areas
of India which saturate the soil are well tolerated, as are less well-drained
Gramineae 109

soils, conditions inimical to palmarosa. Since gingergrass is not cultivated,


there are few records of the effects of other climatic components.

Soils and fertilizers


Palmarosa normally grows on hill soils in India and was previously believed
to prefer such conditions. This may be true of wild plants, but cultivated
palmarosa is grown on sandy and organic loams, stony and mineral soils, and
thrives on fertile soils in Java, the Seychelles, Madagascar and Malaysia.
Whatever the soil type, it should be free-draining as palmarosa withstands
high rainfall but has low tolerance of waterlogging. Neutral to slightly
alkaline soils p H 6.5-7.8 are most suitable, acid soils unsuitable. In India
and Pakistan, palmarosa tolerates salinity, a valuable asset for a cash crop in
countries where the area of saline soils is increasing. In pot trials, palmarosa
suffered no significant reduction in herb and oil yield up to 1 1.5 mmhosicm,
while geraniol content was not reduced at 15 mmhos/cm (Singh and Anwar,
1985). Gingergrass is normally found growing on more fertile soils in the
same regions as palmarosa, but is often replaced by other, usually food
crops, as the population increases.
Since gingergrass is not cultivated, the following remarks refer solely to
palmarosa. Information on nutrient requirements is scanty. Nutrient re-
moval in India from a crop averaging 1 1,000 kg dry grass with an oil content
of 1% gaveatotalremovalof(inkg):N31.6,P7.4,K20.6, Ca34.8,Mgand
S 20.6, Mn 0.9 and Zn 0.034 (Pareek et al., 1983). Thus a fertilizer
programme is essential, for in its absence herbage yield will steadily decline
and plantation life reduced to 3-5 years. In India, herbage decreased from
(kgiha) 11,500 in the first 2 years to 8400 in the fourth and fifth, to 6500 in
the sixth and 4100 in the seventh year. Oil content fell from 1.5 to 0.8% on
a moisture-free basis (Karira and Beri, 1966). Analysis of the various parts of
variety motia is shown in Table 4.13. Most commercial plantings in India are
on smallholdings and fertilizers used are those normally available; crop
residues, animal and human wastes, spent grass or its ash. Official recom-
mendations exist in detail for the main growing areas but, in general, the
only fertilizer applied is at establishment or replanting. Liming is recom-
mended for more acid soils but is seldom applied.
Nitrogen is necessary to support vegetative growth but, as oil content is
highest at flowering, application must not interfere with the reproductive
cycle. Nitrogen at planting is desirable, preferably in a compound and a
common local ratio in India is 40:40:20 NPK, either broadcast and
ploughed in or placed under ridges during construction. About 40 kg Niha
is a general recommendation and probably the minimum. The optimum
ratio between phosphate and potassium must be determined, as an inter-
action may occur between either and the amount of applied nitrogen. This is
more important with above-average nitrogen applications, as in Assam
(Hazarika et al., 1978). Nitrogen uptake and utilization by palmarosa can be
110 Chapter 4

Table 4.13. Analysis of palmarosa grass from India.

Plant part Moisture % N P Ka Ca Na CI Fe


First leaf 69.3 2.50 0.25 1.80 1.30 0.04 0.14 0.25
Second 65.8 2.80 0.22 1.30 0.40 0.03 0.14 0.22
Third and fourth 64.6 1.80 0.20 0.88 0.80 0.04 0.29 0.20
Fifth on 61.4 1.87 0.12 0.60 1.26 0.04 0.14 0.12
Stems 74.9 1.67 0.20 1.22 0.30 0.05 0.44 0.20
Roots 86.0 1.20 0.05 0.20 0.10 0.06 ng 0.05
aK as gi100g fresh weight; All others as gil0Og dry weight; From top of plant; ng, not given.
Source: Sabale (1982).

deduced from the information in Table 4.13. Since there are usually one or
two cuts annually on commercial plantings in India coinciding with flower-
ing in April and September-October, nitrogen is applied as a top-dressing in
February and August, usually ammonium sulphate or urea, since there are
no data comparing the various nitrogenous fertilizers. How the top-dressing
is applied is unimportant provided coverage is even, with foliar application
not significantly superior to the easier surface method (Singh et al., 1980b),
but foliar application increased net assimilation rate and thus rate of growth.
While the nitrogen level of 40 kg Niha is common, palmarosa also responds
to much higher rates; at Bangalore there was an almost linear rise in oil yield
by increasing urea top-dressing to 240 kg Niha; highest oil yield was also
correlated with the greatest plant population at all nitrogen levels (Prakasa
Rao et al., 1985a). A relationship may exist between high rates of nitrogen
and high geraniol content of oil, but also be correlated with a lower oil
content. This is of little practical importance compared to climatic effects
and time of harvest, which have a far greater influence on both oil yield and
geraniol content.
Data from many regions indicate a moderate phosphate requirement, and
once the minimum necessary to ensure optimum returns from nitrogen has
been determined, there is little additional benefit from larger amounts. A
general recommendation in India is 20 kg Piha at planting. The phosphate
content of maturing leaves falls less quickly than that of nitrogen or po-
tassium and a greater proportion is harvested in herbage. Since a plantation
can last for 15 years it is probable a further phosphate application every third
year or use of slow-release compounds would increase oil yield by maintain-
ing healthy plants.
There are no data on comparisons between various types of phosphatic
fertilizers, but remarks elsewhere in this chapter are relevant. Phosphate can
affect oil content of herbage and oil constituents; a deficiency reduces
response to other nutrients, suppresses volume of herbage and thus total oil
yield per hectare, but may increase geraniol content. As noted, the optimum
level of phosphate reacts positively with other nutrients to increase herbage
Gramineae 111

and oil yield per hectare, but can reduce geraniol content. For all practical
purposes the effect of phosphate on oil constituents can be ignored by
producers since the variation is generally less than that due to seasonal
influences.
Palmarosa appears to have a lower requirement of potassium than cit-
ronella or lemongrass but, as data in Table 4.13. shows, there are high levels
of potassium in leaves compared with phosphate, with a much higher level in
stems; thus substantial amounts of the nutrient are removed at harvest. The
response to potassium, however, is usually limited to alleviating a deficiency
which reduces the effect of other plant nutrients; higher levels have little or
no practical value. Potassium is normally applied pre-planting as part of a
compound fertilizer but, as with phosphate, it is possible that further
applications during the life of a plantation may be profitable. Potassium at
approximately half the phosphate level is usually recommended in regions
where there is no major deficiency. Potassium has no significant effect on
herbage oil content or oil constituents at levels normally applied.
There are few reports of minor element deficiencies, or response to their
application. Levels of calcium, chloride, iron and sodium in palmarosa are
shown in Table 4.13. and iron content is considerably higher than in many
tropical grasses. On a sandy soil of p H 8.2, a crop receiving 10 tiha FYM or
40 kg Nlha gave significant increases in herbage and oil yield when foliar
sprays of ferric sulphate and manganese sulphate were applied at tillering
and just before flowering (Pareek et al., 1984). In the presence of adequate
nitrogen and phosphate 2.5 kg/ha zinc sulphate increased herb and oil yield
in Uttar Pradesh State (Sharma et al., 1980).

Cultivation
The following remarks apply to cultivated palmarosa, which will become
more profitable as high-yielding strains are utilized. Palmarosa can be grown
from seed or splits, occasionally cuttings but, as viable seed is produced in
quantity, the first method is preferred. In Assam, seedlings outyielded splits
in both herbage and oil yield per hectare and, although there were no
significant differences in oil content of herbage, geraniol content was higher
in plants grown from seedlings, 73 compared to 66% (Kanjilal et al., 1981).
Seed must be obtained only from pure stands of palmarosa or plants
specially grown for the purpose, as seed collected from natural stands often
contains gingergrass seed, especially in India and Pakistan. A mixture of
palmarosa and gingergrass was a major factor in the decline of oil production
in the Seychelles. Seed should be sown in specially prepared seedbeds as
described for C. flexuosus, and about 2 . 5 kg fresh cleaned seed will provide
sufficient seedlings for 1 ha. Palmarosa seed is very small and usually mixed
with fine sand or a similar inert material to assist even distribution. Sound
seed germinates in 10-20 days and seedlings are ready for transplanting in
approximately 6-8 weeks when 15-20 cm high.
112 Chapter 4

Seedlings to be manually planted are lifted from beds and transplanted


directly into the field. For mechanical planting it may be necessary to trim
seedlings to suit the machine, and they should preferably be dipped in a
fungicide. Seedlings are planted on the flat or ridges; raised beds with several
rows per bed are probably the most suitable for irrigated crops. Planting into
moist soil following irrigation or after the first rain of May-June is common
in India, although after the main rains have ceased, October-November, is
also possible. The latter has the advantage of less competition with fast-
growing weeds, but plant growth is slower and time to first cut doubled.
Seedlings should be planted one per hill as palmarosa is a vigorous grower
and there is little advantage in multiple sowing. A spacing of 90 X 90 cm is
common for small farmers, on larger plantations 30-45 cm rows X 30 cm is
recommended, or twin rows with a wider spacing between pairs to suit
mechanical operations. A high plant population requires a high level of
applied nutrients and adequate soil moisture to produce optimum herbage
and oil yields. This relationship was well illustrated at Bangalore, where
70,000 to 110,000 pph required 240 kg N/ha annually to achieve an annual
oil yield of 125 kgiha (Prakasa Rao et al. , 1985). Seedlings planted when the
rains commence must be weeded at least twice to ensure they are not
smothered by rampant weed growth. Once established, palmarosa quickly
covers the inter-row and is able to suppress most annual weeds and
grasses.
Palmarosa has only a moderate water requirement, and a crop in India
transpired approximately 300 kg water per kg dry material produced. One
watering per month to supplement rainfall is usually adequate, but most
crops grow well on rainfall alone in the main producing regions. From the
data available it appears palmarosa is adversely affected by saline water even
at low salt levels.
Palmarosa is seldom intercropped or underplanted in cultivated crops,
but in India the Forest Department recommends the grass should be
established in its plantations and reserves to provide a valuable cash crop. It
is normally unpalatable to domestic stock and this discourages grazing in
plantations, a major source of damage to young trees.

Harvesting
Interesting accounts of the techniques used to harvest and distil palmarosa
in India are contained in Watt (1908) and Guenther (1950), and have
changed little in many areas of the country (Singh, 1977), reflected in the
very poor quality of much local oil (see Fig. 4.12). In plantations, harvesting
can be either manual or mechanical and equipment is now available that will
cut, chop and load herbage for direct transport to stills. This system
harvested 1 ha per hour in Madagascar; hand harvesting the same area
required 6 man-days (Salomon, 1979). The harvest period could be ex-
tended by planting early and late flowering strains, allowing more efficient
Gramineae 113

use of machinery and distilling units. Such strains have been selected from
east Indian types, with a tall selection flowering in September-October, and
a late-flowering dwarf in October-December (Verma et al., 198 1). Plants
should be cut when flowering, about 6 months after planting out, then twice
annually in subsequent years. Cutting is usually September-October in the
establishment year in India, then April-May and September-October sub-
sequently. In Africa the first cut was often in the middle of the rainy season,
December-March, with a second cut at its end.
A direct correlation exists between cutting in wet or dry seasons and
herbage yield and geraniol content of oil; in the former, herbage and total oil
yield per hectare is high but geraniol content low, the reverse occurring in
the dry season. Oil characteristics may also change, as oil from herbage
harvested in May and October in India differed markedly in specific gravity,
refractive index and optical rotation, but geraniol content was much less
affected (Gulati et al., 1966). This variation in characteristics has also been
noted in oils harvested in succeeding years when there were significant
differences in weather conditions during plant growth. Time of cutting is
important and when to cut is usually judged on the extent of flowering; in
India, oil content of herbage and geraniol content of oil are highest at full
bloom, and cutting slightly earlier than later recommended since oil and

Fig. 4.12. Cutting palmarosa, India.


114 Chapter 4

geraniol content fall quickly following completion of flowering and begin-


ning of seed formation. Oil content is highest at anthesis 0.60%, before
flowering is 0.52% and following full bloom 0.44% (Sangwan et al., 1982;
Maheshwari et al., 1992).
The annual herbage yield from well-managed plantations in India is
10,000-15,000 kgiha, and the higher figure should be the target. Palmarosa
selections with double the local average herbage yield combined with a
higher leaf-oil content have been developed at research stations, thus an
average annual oil yield of 150 kgiha should be achievable. In Madhya
Pradesh, the local cultivar yielded 13,300 kg fresh herbage and 64 kg oiliha,
but the highest-yielding selection produced 21,500 kg and 124 kg re-
spectively. Total geraniol content ofthe oils was 78.6 and 82.5% (Gupta and
Trivedi, 1984). The low average Madagascar yield of 9,000-10,000 kgiha
giving approximately 40 kg oil was due mainly to the high cost and scarcity
of fertilizer which precluded its regular use. Thus annual herbage yield
declined rapidly and steadily over a short plantation life.
The height of cut affects herbage volume and oil yield per hectare, and the
optimum height should be determined by costing the harvesting-distilling
operation as a whole. While low cutting at 5-10 cm increases both total
herbage and oil yield, the volume passing through stills can so increase the
unit cost per kilogram of oil that the advantage is lost. Cutting to reduce the
volume of herbage without significant loss of oil directly increases profitabil-
ity. As a guide to cutting height in India, oil content (per cent) of whole green
plants is 0.10-0.3, in stems 0.01-0.015, inleaves 0.16-0.25 andin flowering
tops 0.45-0.55 (see also Table 4.13). Cutting to leave a substantial stubble
reduces distilling cost but trimming of plants is necessary to induce re-
growth. This can either be mechanical and cut grass spread between rows as
a mulch, or plantations burnt-off in the dry season, which is cheap and
plants killed are easily replaced. The life of a commercial plantation in India
is 6-10 years, occasionally to 15 years; Madagascar 4-6 years; Java 5-10
years, but 3-5 years in Africa. In Angola in the 1950s it was considered more
profitable to replant after 3-4 years but such a short cycle would not be
commercially viable today; pilot plantings in Zaire were costed on a 5-year
replanting cycle.

Distillation
Wilting for a day in India reduced oil yield by half compared to distilling
fresh herbage, but careless handling or longer periods can reduce oil yield by
75%. Despite this, many contractors cutting wild stands often field wilt for
4-5 days then stack the dried grass for up to 2 1 days before distilling, partly
to reduce the volume to be manually transported. Oil yield is generally
12-24 kgiha. Palmarosa can be either hydro- or steam distilled, and remarks
in the lemongrass section are applicable. Provided stills are of the improved
designs and efficiently operated, good-quality oil should result. A major
Gramineae 115

reason why so much poor-quality oil is currently produced is that these basic
requirements are frequently ignored. Spent grass can be processed for
stockfeed and, in India, gave an average content of (per cent): dry matter 34,
crude protein 12, total carbohydrates 7 . An attempt to make spent grass
silage as food for cows and buffaloes in city dairies was unsuccessful; animals
rejected the material as unpalatable without additives, and transport costs
were too high compared with other feeds. Spent grass can be utilized in
papermaking.
Costing palmarosa oil production in India showed a plantation of less than
100 ha in 1988 was not viable, since the equipment, machinery and stills
necessary were similar for 50 to 250 ha. Calculations were based on an
annual average herbage yield of 25 t/ha, with an oil content (wet basis) of
0.1-0.15%, and a 10 year plantation life. In Uttar Pradesh, small farmer
cooperatives who obtained 25 kg/ha oil annually, had an annual expenditure
between Rs 1200 and 1500 in 1972, and received around Rs 5000 for oil
with a geraniol content of 85-90%. A lower price was obtained for oil with a
lower geraniol content. (In 1972 US$ 1.OO = Rs 15.00.) Since these figures
were published, average herbage and oil yield per hectare have nearly
doubled, but so also have costs; potential oil and herbage yield however have
increased three times. A private communication in 1994 from a leading
South Indian oil merchant stated the ratio of expenses to income was now
narrower, but an efficiently run plantation was still profitable, and profit
would rise substantially as new cultivars were utilized and the proportion of
oil exported increased.
Extending plantation life and maintaining a high annual oil yield through
efficient management are significant factors affecting long-term profitability.
If spent grass could be sold for stockfeed or papermaking, this would again
increase profitability, provided the cost of alternative fuel was less than the
price received for the grass. One large oil producer in Maharashtra State
successfully employs the nucleus plantation system, buying herbage from
small farmers to supplement output from its own plantation. Profitability of
palmarosa production in Madagascar was not only aided by the mechanical
harvesting system employed, but also by extending the use of distilling
plants. Palmarosa could be harvested in the interval between ylang-ylang
and basil, and the overall cost of operating a distillery significantly re-
duced.

Products and specijications


Palmarosa oil (also known as Rusa oil and East Indian geranium oil) is pale
yellow to olive with a sweet floral odour, but can vary considerably according
to origin, method of distillation or age of oil. Over 100 compounds have
been found in the oil (Surburg, 1988; Boelens, 1994); major components
are geraniol, the most important, in various forms to 95%, limonene,
linalool, beta-caryophyllene, neral and farnesol. Compounds detected in
116 Chapter 4

Madagascar oils are shown in Table 4.12. Another analysis of Madagascar


oil showed 4.75% hydrocarbons, consisting of 46% monoterpenes, 52%
sesquiterpenes, 1.6% alkanes and 0.4% unknowns (Gaydou and Ran-
driamiharisoa, 1987). A comparison of the main characteristics of palma-
rosa and gingergrass are shown in Table 4.14 and standard characteristics in
Table 4.15.
Palmarosa oil is used extensively in perfumery, especially in soaps where
its high tenacity is important. It is also a major source of natural geraniol,
widely preferred by formulators over synthetic substitutes and geraniol
obtained from citronella oil (q.v.). A minor use is to flavour tobacco and
certain pharmaceuticals. In India, oil is massaged into joints to alleviate
lumbago and rheumatism, and taken internally to relieve stomach disorders.
Sprinkled on rose petals prior to distillation produces a locally popular
combination, and the oil is also frequently added to rose oil (attar) as an
adulterant. Palmarosa oil is frequently adulterated, usually with gingergrass
oil or cheap synthetic geraniol.
Gingergrass oil is a yellow to amber-brown viscous liquid, with an odour
quite different to palmarosa, being more grassy or woody with less sweet
floral notes. The oil is currently consumed almost wholly in India (the major
producing country), mainly to scent soaps, household and industrial de-
tergents and similar products. The oil is sometimes offered as Inchigrass oil,
produced in southern India from local strains of variety sofiu. It is usually of
poorer quality than pure gingergrass or palmarosa oil, and is consumed
locally in cheap soaps and similar products.

Table 4.14. Characteristics of commercial oils from selected countries.

Palmarosa Gingergrass
Angola India Madagascar Java India
Specific gravity (20°C) 0.8875 0.887 0.884 0.885 0.925
0.900 0.889 0.900 0.935
Refractive index (20"Cl 1.4745 1.468 ng 1.472 1.485
1.476 ng 1.477 1.489
Optical rotation (20°C) -0" -I0 ng -3" -46"
to" t3" "g t3" t40"
Ester number 62(max) 15 ng ng 8
45 ng ng 40
Geraniol (%) (total) 93 85 85 80 40
95 91 90 49
Solubility (viv alcohol 1:1.5 1:1.5-3.0 ng 1 :2.0-3.5 1:3 often
70%) insoluble
ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.
Source: Burger, 1958 (Angola); Virmani, 1968 (India); Randriaminharisoa and Gaydou, 1987
(Madagascar); Customs Department, Java.
Grarnineae 117

Table 4.15. Standard characteristics of palmarosa and gingergrass oils

Palmarosa Gingergrass
A B C D D
Specific gravity a 0.882 0.882 0.855 0.878 0.900
0.896 0.894 0.897 0.890 0.929
Refractive index a 1.4715 1.472 1.473 1.471 1.476
1.4780 1.478 1.477 1.475 1.491
Optical rotation -3O -3s -2 O -2" -14"
t 3c t 3O t 3O t 3O t 54"
Ester number 10 10 ng ng ng
70 40
Geraniol (total %) 85 ng 85 88 36
94 ng 95 94 60
Solubility (viv 70% ng ng 1:2 1:1.5 Normally
alcohol) insoluble
'At 2O'Cc; ng, not given; A, Grasse Essential Oil Association; B, Afnor; C, EDN; D, Indian Standard,
Figures in columns are range.

Vetiver
Vetiver, Vetiveria zizanioides L.(Nash.), is native to India and occurs as a
flowering and non-flowering type. Both have been introduced into other
tropical countries, where they are well established or naturalized. In African
and Caribbean countries, vetiver is highly regarded as an aid in soil con-
servation, its dense root mass binding loose soil (Smyle and Magrath, 1993).
Oddly, it was in India that least use was made of the plant for this purpose,
although it is now officially recommended (Allison, 1990). Most Indian, Sri
Lankan and Malaysian oil is from wild plants although there is growing small
farmer production in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Vetiver is grown commercially for oil in Java, the Seychelles, Reunion,
Brazil, Haiti and Japan, but in the USA, Central America and some West
African countries for other purposes. The plant and rhizome have very
ancient usage in India for their aromatic properties and are mentioned in the
Hindu Atharvaveda. As khas-khas it was sufficiently important in the twelfth
century to be taxed, but there is no accurate date for first use of the oil; in
India and Sri Lanka it is known as 'the oil of tranquillity'. Vetiver plants,
including parts of the rhizome, are used in India and other Asian countries to
make aromatic fans, mats and screens (tatties) in houses, and leaves cut prior
to harvesting are used as thatch. Rhizomes are hung in houses to scent the air
or placed in sachets to perfume clothes; a current use is to place bags of wet
rhizomes in front of electric fans to cool and scent rooms. Rhizomes used for
these purposes are often repurchased by traders, who mix them with fresh
rhizomes for sale to distillers. A drink made from fresh rhizomes is taken as
118 Chapter 4

a stimulant and tonic, but the author found the taste unpleasant. Vetiver
could be the calamus of the Christian Bible (Duke, 1983), and vetiver
subsequently appeared in European Materia Medica but was not generally
popular.
Java was a major exporter of vetiver oil prior to the Second World War, the
plants grown mainly by smallholders but distilled by Dutch companies. This
vetiver was the south Indian non-flowering type, the date of its introduction
uncertain, but it was probably brought by merchants from India. Customs
Department statistics show exports of vetiver oil from Indonesia in the years
1989-1995 ranged from 58 to 65 tonnes, with an estimated 20,000 ha under
cultivation.
Vetiver has long been cultivated in China with similar uses to those in
India, but commercial production for oil began only in the mid-l950s,
reached 10 t in the 1960s and has since declined to a few tonnes as vetiver
was replaced by more profitable essential crops. Although widely planted in
the Philippines, it is not generally cultivated to produce oil (Tung and
Balina, 1993). Whole plants are used as in India, and a decoction of the
rhizome is believed to dissolve kidney stones.
Vetiver was introduced to the island of Reunion together with other
essential oil crops and good quality oil produced by French farmers until the
mid-l950s, but is now mainly grown by small farmers (Prugnieres, 1978).
On Mauritius, a paste made from pounded fresh roots is considered an
abortifacient. Development of vetiver oil production in Central America, the
Caribbean Islands and Brazil paralleled that of lemongrass. Little is now
produced on a commercial scale, but there is considerable potential as a
small farmer crop.

Botany
Vetiveria zizanioides L. (Nash) (syn. Andropogon muricatus Retz., Anatherum
zizanioides (L.) H&C., Phalaris zizanioides L.); khas-khas generally in India
and Sri Lanka (khus-khus in Europe), akar wan@ in Indonesia; Tamil
vetivern, origin of the name vetiver (Nair et al., 1979). T e n species are
included in the genus Vetiveria and two distinct types of V. zizanioides are
recognized. Vetiver is a diploid, 2n = 20. Methods of classifying vetiver
clones have been developed to aid in assessing their value in breeding
programmes (Kresovich et al., 1994). Vetiver is a densely tufted perennial
grass to 3 m, normally developing large clumps, with a rhizome and fibrous
root system containing an essential oil.
The main rootstock is a stout, branching rhizome developing an extensive
but not deeply penetrating fibrous mat of aromatic roots. The colour varies
from whitish yellow on young roots to reddish brown on roots 18-24 months
of age. Rhizomes and roots from Haiti, Reunion and Angola may appear
black, partly due to the dark colour of the volcanic soils in which they grow.
The majority of roots occur 15-30 cm below the crown, thus root growth
Gramineae 119

and extent are directly related to soil conditions (q.v.). Since rhizome and
roots contain the essential oil, their rate of growth and extent are important
and have been the basis of selection in India, where dry root weight varied
from 32 to 58 g per plant; the weight increase due to a rise in size and number
of roots and rootlets (Selvarajam et al., 1982).
For brevity, rhizome and roots will hereafter be designated roots, except
where identification is required. Data indicates there may a relationship
between tall, compact plants and low root yield; if so, removal of low-
yielding plants and rejection as planting material should be simplified. Total
root-mass can be greatly increased by manipulating soil moisture levels; in
India, single vetiver plants were grown in earthenware pipes 500 cm long
with water applied only a t increasing depths for 12 months, when roots were
350 cm long and weighed 210 g. Solvent extracting roots in sections from
the soil surface showed the first 75 cm produced most oil, but a significant
amount was obtained in the next 125 cm. Total extractives on a dry root
basis in succeeding root sections were, in per cent: 45 cm (3.19), 30 cm
(2.46), 30 cm (1.94), 45 cm (1,61), 45 cm (1.38), 45 cm (0.81), 111 cm
(0.67). A plant growing in the field alongside yielded 1.93% extractives
(Gowda and Ramaswamy, 1960). In addition to the essential oil, roots
contain fructose, sucrose, glucose and, interestingly, free glycerol, not
usually found in plants. Mature roots have a pleasant aroma and greatest oil
content, and yield high quality oil.
Since the essential oil is contained in the roots, a most important factor
determining profitability is root oil content, and there is considerable culti-
var variation in both the weight of roots and oil content. A south Indian type,
Nilamber, at the Odakkali Research Station, gave a 3-year mean annual
yield of 3856 kg roots and 14 kg oiliha, compared with the lowest which
yielded 639 kg and 2.2 kg respectively (Nair et al., 1979). Other selections
yielded 5900 kg roots and 40 kg oil/ha (Nair et al., 1982), and up to 62 kg oil/
ha (Gupta et al., 1983), while an autotetraploid cultivar had a very high oil
content (iavania, 1991). Thus the profitability of vetiver oil production
could be greatly increased by using selected material. Root oil content
however should not be the sole factor, since total yield of roots is often more
easily increased. The average oil content of Indian material seldom exceeds
2.0% and is well below that recorded in other countries of 2.2-4.6%.
The oil content of roots collected from wild plants in India is below 1.O%,
averaging 0.15% after distilling, and only the very low cost of collection and
distilling allows this system to continue. The vetiverol content of oil also
varies substantially between selections, 67-86%, and high vetiverol content
was related to high specific gravity, esters and free alcohols (Gupta et al.,
1983; Maheshwari et al., 1986). Oils collected from wild (mainly in the
north) and cultivated vetiver (mainly in the south) of India are differentiated
by calling the former khus oil, the latter vetiver oil. Indian Standards
120 Chapter 4

Table 4.16. Main characteristics of vetiver oil from selected countries.

India
lssa lSSb Reunion Indonesia Japan
~ ~ _ _ _~ _ ~

Specific gravity ("C) 0.990 0.992 0.986 0.993 0.998


.032(30) 1.015(30) 1.01l(20) 1.045(25)
Refractive index ("C) 1.521 1.516 1.520 1,519 1.5246
.523(30) 1.530(30) 1.530(20) 1.531(20)
Optical rotation -15O tlo" t14' t 25" t 22"
-13" t 25" t25O t32"
Acid value 40 35 4-30 8-40 15.8
Ester value 25-80 25-50 5-20 6-25 11.6
Vetiverol (%total alcohols) > 25 > 55 > 45 80-70 70
Solubility (viv % alcohol) ng 1:I-2(80) 1 :2(80) 1 :I (90) 1 :3(80)
Laevorotatory oil (khus oil); Dextrorotatory oils; ISS, Indian Standard Specification; Remainder
commercial oils.
Figures in columns are range.

Institution specifications state khus oil has a high laevorotation, while vetiver
oil is dextrorotatory (see Table 4.16).
Vetiver oil is extremely complex containing mainly sesquiterpenoids, and
their biosynthesis has yet to be fully determined. The main constituent is
vetiverol, and its relative abundance normally establishes oil quality. De-
tailed analyses from the main producing countries have been published
(Lemberg and Hale, 1978). The main characteristics of oil from selected
origins and official standards are shown in Table 4.16. The range in
characteristics can be wide even in local strains; 14 Indian cultivars gave the
following at 30°C (mean in brackets): specific gravity 0.9302-0.9997
(0.9691); refractive index 1.5168-1.5205 (1.5189); acid value 19.34-50.30
(33.88); ester value 17.62-68.47 (31.89); ester value after acetylation
154.41-190.16 (167.24); free vetiverol percentage 46-78 (61); total veti-
verol percentage 67-86 (73).
The stems are glabrous, stiff, erect, usually 2-3 m, and arise from a central
branched spongy rhizome. Stem number per plant is highly variable and
apparently not directly related to root extent or weight and thus unreliable as
a factor in selecting for oil yield. The leaves are erect, mid green, to 1.5 m,
narrow 7-1 0 cm, rigid, prominently veined, keeled and glabrous, with
scabrid margins; the lower sheaths are strongly compressed and flabellate-
imbricate. Detailed descriptions have been published of leaf anatomy (Met-
calf, 1960; Rajendrudu and Das, 1981) and photosynthetic activity (Maffei
et al., 1995). The leaves contain virtually no essential oil, and prior to
harvesting are burnt off, cut and fed to stock, or used as thatch. Analyses in
India gave the following on a dry matter basis (per cent); crude protein
(6.1-6.7), ether extract (1.1-2. l), crude fibre (34.7-42.2), nitrogen-free
Gramineae 121

extract (45.0-47.4), total ash (5.3-9.0), calcium (0.28-0.31), phosphorus


(0.05-0.06). Pulped grass is suitable for paper-making (Ciaramello et al.,
1973).
There are two types of vetiver in India as noted, the north Indian type
flowers freely and sets viable seed, while the south Indian type does not
usually flower (Husain et al., 1988). A narrow terminal panicle 14-40 cm
long is produced in flowering types, the ascending branches 2.5-5.0 cm,
whorled, with numerous slender racemes of grey-green or purplish spikelets.
The sessile spikelet is perfect and more or less spiny, the pedicled spikelet
contains two male flowers. Flowers pollinate readily and produce viable
seed, which is oblong to fusiform, oblique at apex.

Ecology
Vetiver is a grass of the wet tropics, usually occurring in India below 300 m,
but altitude is apparently of less importance than climate, since it is planted
to 700 m in other countries. Vetiver grows well at lower elevations than
geranium and thus does not compete with the latter where both are grown,
as on Reunion. With good management both can be distilled in the same
plant. A moist, sunny climate with no extended hot, dry period is preferred
and soil in the root zone should not dry out as this will substantially reduce
root growth and oil content. A day temperature of 25-35OC is most suitable,
but higher temperature has little effect provided there is adequate soil
moisture or humidity; below 2OoCfor extended periods reduces growth, and
below 15°C normally inhibits development. Vetiver grows naturally in open
forest or woodland where there is sufficient moisture and intermittent shade,
and would probably tolerate this environment when cultivated; on Java
heavy shade reduced root growth and oil yield. Vetiver may be intercropped
in coconut or arecanut which have a high, relatively open canopy; it grows
well, for example, on coastal sands in southern India where there are
extensive coconut plantations.
A minimum rainfall of 1500 mm is desirable for commercial oil produc-
tion, with apparently no upper limit provided the soil is free draining; vetiver
favours moist, humid conditions but cannot withstand prolonged water-
logging. As an escape it is often found on river banks or marshy areas. In
regions with a defined rainy season, this influences time of planting as soil
moisture must be sufficient to allow splits to root quickly, since a growth
check at this stage will extend the period to harvest. The effect of time of
planting on total root and oil yield is substantial; planting monthly from May
to October reduced root yield from 4555 to 2412 kg/ha, but oil yield rose
from 7.03 to 10.38 kg/ha (Nair et al., 1979). Smallholders in Java or Reunion
harvest in the wet season and replant immediately, since the wet soil makes
digging easy and adequate soil moisture ensures quick growth of splits. This
in effect means an annual harvest, since most smallholders are unable to wait
20-24 months to sell their crop.
122 Chapter 4

Frost at any time is usually fatal. Hail causes little damage to mature
plants with well-developed roots, but if leaves of newly established plants are
shredded, growth will be retarded. Wind has little effect on established
plants, but hot dry winds may retard growth of younger ones. Vetiver is so
robust it is considered virtually cyclone-proof in Reunion, and thus an
insurance against total crop loss should one of these terrible storms occur.

Soils and fertilizers


In its natural state, vetiver grows on a variety of soils from forest loams to
sandy river banks; when cultivated, it is planted on volcanic ash soils in Java
and Reunion, heavy loams on Haiti and other Caribbean islands, laterites in
India and West Africa, peat in Malaysia and sandy soils in India and South
America. While this wide range suggests the grass can be grown on any land
available, soil type and texture have a significant influence on root growth,
and thus total oil yield. It was long considered that sandy or volcanic soils
were the most productive and light soils selected for commercial plantings in
Java, Brazil and elsewhere. These soils certainly made cultivations easier
which is why they were selected by small farmers, but later experience
showed higher root yield, more and higher-quality oil can be obtained from
soils with a significant clay content. This was demonstrated in Kerala, where
oil content of roots on coastal sand was 0.18-0.22%, on sandy-laterite
0.76-0.94% and on clay-laterite 1.02 % (Murti and Moosad, 1949). Vetiver
is grown successfully on clay soils in Reunion whose texture is improved by
the application of spent roots. Annual harvesting of plants not only distrib-
utes this material throughout the root zone, it also ensures the soil remains
friable and easily penetrated by rootlets. Soils of p H 6.5-7.5 are preferred
and strongly acid or alkaline soils should be avoided; however large areas of
saline-alkali soils p H 7.0-8.0 occur in southern India, and selections from
local cultivars had salt tolerance (Sethi, 1982). Whatever the soil type, it
must allow free root growth as most oil is contained in the young fibrous
roots.
Soils which produce good yields of sugarcane are very suitable for vetiver,
but were seldom available since cane was generally much more profitable;
this however could change. Little is known of how chemical fertilizers affect
vetiver, the relationship between above-ground growthirate of growth and
total weight of roots, or the relative uptake of nutrients in various plant parts.
Thus commercial producers used the cheapest and most easily available
fertilizers at levels considered desirable. In Kerala State, root ash, guano,
sweepings from fish-curing yards, and groundnut cake are applied either
prior to, or up to 1 month after planting. The application of chemical
fertilizers to small farmers’ crops is currently unprofitable, and the most
common practice at replanting is to plough-in spent roots or their ash when
used as fuel. Use of chemical fertilizers on commercial plantings must be
established by field trials and this is now more important, since recent vetiver
Gramineae 123

selections with high root yield or root-oil content apparently give a greater
response to added nutrients.
Fertilizers should be applied to the seedbed prior to planting splits; on
Reunion a 1:2:2 NPK mixture at 80 kg/ha gave the optimum results
(Gailleton, 1977), but has since been replaced by a common cane fertilizer
of 15:12:24 NPK. Nitrogen applied alone in Georgia, CIS, had no effect on
yield of roots or oil content, but the highest yield of roots was obtained when
200 kg Nlha, 87 kg P/ha and 16 kg Wha was applied (Sichinava, 1974).
Nitrogen should not be applied unless trials establish it is either essential or
profitable, and then only at planting. The few trial results available show
phosphate promotes root growth and increases total root yield per hectare,
but there appears to be an optimum amount which must be determined
locally, as an excess may depress yield. Additionally, the often small increase
in oil yield could be worth less than the cost of fertilizer and its application.
In India, there was little increase in yield of roots and oil from two levels of
phosphate and potassium, and the 5% increase in oil between 0 and 33 kg
Plha was barely significant (Nair et al., 1979).
An increase in root and oil yield generally results from application of
potassium, but it was unclear from available data if this was due to a local soil
deficiency or a basic plant requirement. If the latter, then research into the
potassium requirement of vetiver and its use in plant metabolism would be
rewarding. There is an optimum level for potassium and higher rates
generally depress yield of roots and thus total oil yield. In India there were
significant increases in root weight and oil yield from application of 22 kg
Wha over 4 years, although there was annual variation in both when neither
was significant (Nair et al., 1979). However, as the mean oil increase was
nearly 2 kg/ha this would have been very profitable at that time. The only
record of a minor element deficiency is a severe iron-induced chlorosis on
vetiver growing in a peat soil in Malaysia (Ng, 1972).

Cultivation
The remarks on cultivation in the introduction to this chapter are applicable.
Roots are the most important plant part, thus ploughing to a depth of at least
30 cm should be the aim in more clayey soils. If vetiver is to follow vetiver, it
is especially important to remove old roots since these have a lower content
of poor-quality oil. A major objective should be maximum weed reduction,
particularly tropical grasses such as Imperata cylindrica, Sorghum halepense,
Digitaria spp., and it may be necessary manually to remove clumps or spot-
spray with a herbicide. On sloping lands, contour banks or broad-based
terraces reduce the danger of soil erosion, and vetiver is planted in many
countries to bind soil on these terraces, but not harvested.
Vetiver can be grown from seed or splits, but commercial plantations use
splits. Micropropagation has been successful in the laboratory (Mucciarelli
124 Chapter 4

et al., 1993). Methods noted in the lemongrass section are generally applica-
ble when seed is used, and production of suitable splits is similar to
citronella. Selection of parent material is important since it is very difficult to
counteract the adverse effects of planting low yielding or low oil-content
material. In India, oil yield increased from the local average of 67 to 88 kgiha
without a similar increase in volume of roots harvested when selected
material was planted, and oil cost per unit substantially reduced. At least
150,000 splits per hectare should be available, more if two or three splits are
planted per hill. Most small farmers plant manually but many horticultural
planters are suitable. A spacing of 30-45 cm rows X 20-30 cm is common
for ridge or bed planting; 40 X 40 cm for surface planting. Accurate in-row
spacing within reasonable limits is not essential, since roots in suitable soil
normally expand to fill the available space. Splits can be sown on ridges, beds
or the flat, and the system chosen depends mainly on the soil type and need
for irrigation or drainage. There is little difference in root and oil yield per
hectare between the various methods on those soils where one method is not
obligatory; over 3 years in India, planting on ridges, 60 and 70 cm wide beds,
or on the flat gave average yields in kgiha of roots (oil in brackets): 4087 (14),
41 95 (1 l), 3725 (1 1) and 3834 (1 l), with no significant differences between
them (Nair et al. , 1979). Narrow beds with two rows of splits is common in
southern India. Twin rows are preferable when mechanical diggers are used,
with row and bed spacing to suit the machinery. Planting should be into
moist soil following irrigation or after rain; in India in May but not later than
July. It may be necessary to fence newly sown vetiver plantations against
domestic stock, as young growth is palatable although not mature foliage.
Vetiver plants grow rapidly once established and only one weeding is
usually necessary, as leaves quickly produce a closed canopy. Weeding is
usually manual or mechanical as herbicides are seldom used except as
directed sprays after planting; the following have been so used: 2,4-D,
atrazine, glyphosate, linuron, MCPA, simazine and there is tolerance of
dicamba and picloram. Vetiver generally follows vetiver for several years,
unless a build-up of disease requires an interval between crops.

Harvesting
The most important field factor determining oil content is age of roots at
harvest, older roots containing more and higher quality oil. A period of
15-1 8 months is usually the minimum necessary to obtain a profitable yield
from cultivated plants, but wild plants are harvested at any age. After 30-36
months, oil content drops and roots are virtually worthless as oil producers.
However, roots harvested at the optimum time and stored in a clean dry
environment can be distilled several years after lifting, loss in oil content
being offset to a considerable extent by improved quality and higher price.
In southern India, oil content progressively increased from 0.10% at 10
months to 0.56% at 15 months, 0.79% at 17 months and 0.87% at
Gramineae 125

21 months, with the optimum 16-18 months (Sobti and Rao, 1977; Nair et
al., 1979). In some Indian selections high ester value was also correlated
with high vetiverol content (Gupta et al., 1983). Although 3 harvests at 11
month intervals may give a greater yield of oil at 40 kgiha than 30 kgiha from
two harvests at 18 months, the higher quality oil from more mature roots is
worth more than the increase in weight. It also costs less to produce in terms
of harvesting, distilling and replanting expenses. Despite this, most small
producers in India, Java, Reunion and elsewhere, desperate for money,
harvest roots annually to their long-term disadvantage.
Prior to lifting roots, leaves are either slashed, mowed, laid in rows and
burnt, or removed to provide the raw material for various products noted in
the beginning of this section (see Fig. 4.13). Burning is common on large
estates, and provided herbage is dry, a fast burn does not harm roots. The
ash remaining is a useful fertilizer and soil ameliorator. A worker in Reunion
is expected to cut leaves, dig roots, remove soil and pile for transport about
40 kg roots daily. The number of men required to keep a still running is thus
substantial but, when roots are dried for export, time is of lesser importance
and collected roots are baled when sufficient are available. A shaker-digger
has been developed that greatly reduces harvesting time, but cannot be used
on hillsides where much small farmer vetiver is grown (Ducreux, 1993). In
Zaire, 50 man days were required to harvest and replant 0.5 ha based on a
day of 5-6 hours. The high labour requirement for manual harvesting is a
factor limiting expansion of vetiver cultivation where mechanization is not
possible. Roots can be easily and cheaply lifted using a potato-type digger
which also recovers more roots than manual digging. Such diggers are now
available in sizes ranging from small manually guided, to large four- or six-
row power-driven machines. Cooperative ownership, as in Japan, provides a
useful method of reducing individual investment in this type of equipment.
Whether roots are lifted by hand or machine it is essential to remove soil,
stones and any other extraneous debris, and trim excess green material.
Root yield in India is 2000-5000 kg/ha, relatively low compared to those
obtained at local experimental stations where selections averaged
7000-9000 kg/ha. Since a higher root yield is apparently easier to attain than
increased oil content, a significant increase in oil yield per hectare is thus
possible following a relatively simple selection programme. Root yield on
Java was initially around 1000 kgiha, average oil content below 0.2%, but is
now 3000 kgiha at 0.5%. On Reunion the yield from small plots is
2000-2500 kgiha with oil yield of 0.6-1.5%, but up to 5000 kg/ha obtained
under improved management. Yield in Brazil of 700-1500 kg/ha is directly
related to soil fertility. An oil content of 1.0% in young and 1.5-2.0% in
older roots was very high for a commercial plantation, obtained on a British-
owned and very well-managed estate which operated until 1952. Haiti roots
contained 0.5-1.5% but no root yield, was noted; likewise 2.5-3.0% from
126 Chapter 4

Fig. 4.13. Harvesting vetiver, Japan.

Angola (Xabregas, 1968) and 0.5% in Malaysia; in Japan a root yield of


4000-5000 kg gave 50-60 kgiha oil.

Distillation
The extent to which roots are dried depends on whether they are to be
quickly distilled or transported and exported. Roots to be distilled on site or
within days are usually allowed to remain in the field, or stacked on field
margins. The interval prior to distillation must be established locally, since
there are conflicting reports on the degree of oil loss. Whether this is due to
climate, type of storage or is an inherent characteristic of local cultivars is
unknown. Roots to be transported to distant distilleries or exported are
usually washed, sun-dried and baled. Provided they have been correctly
stored, dried roots normally produce higher quality oil than fresh roots, and
good quality dry roots on Java yield up to 3% oil. Dry root exported to
Europe and distilled in modern plants produced oil of very high quality, but
at a substantially higher cost than locally distilled oil. Root age basically
governs oil yield but distillation and subsequent treatment of distillate
frequently determines oil quality. Roots less than 15 months old generally
have a low oil content, the oil has a harsher, grassy or earthy odour disliked
by manufacturers, and is often reprocessed and added to higher quality oil.
Roots over 24 months old have high oil content, a lower proportion of
fibrous material, yield high quality oil, but distilling time is prolonged. Most
Gramineae 127

suitable material is between 15 and 20 months, fibrous, clean and dry, has
the highest ratio of oil to weight of charge, and produces oil containing all the
desired components. Large modern distilleries are normally independently
owned and operated, buying raw material from producers. A major problem
is to ensure only suitable material is offered and thus an effective inspection
and buying procedure is essential. Inclusion of immature or aged roots,
partially distilled and redried material, or roots which, in India in particular,
have been recovered from tatties and the like must be quickly distinguished
and rejected. Unless an inspection system is rigourously applied, the au-
thor's experience is that the quality of offered material quickly deteriorates;
most small growers are always short of cash and will use any method to
increase their income!
Distillation is more complicated than for the other grasses discussed,
partly due to the material but also to the complex nature of the oil. A
substantial proportion of oil is obtained by direct-fired stills fuelled by wood
or dried foliage and operated by smallholders or cooperatives. Distilling is
thus time-consuming and labour intensive, made more so by the high
boiling-point of the oil's main constituents. One common technique in India
is to soak chopped roots in water for about 12 hours before distilling. A
charge of 40 kg is distilled for 12-24 hours; up to 125 kg for 72-96 hours in
larger plants. North Indian stills mainly use roots from wild plants, are
portable and taken from site to site between December and January. Opera-
tors buy roots from licensed collectors working in state forests, plus any
available cultivated material. Stills consist basically of a copper vessel and
bamboo condenser, probably little changed since their introduction cen-
turies before. Stills are normally heated by wood or cow-dung, and although
oil recovery and quality is poor, this is of little importance since most is sold
locally.
Direct-fired stills on Reunion are larger with a capacity of 400 kg of sun-
dried roots distilled for 36-48 hours. Charges are 150-500 kg on Java
distilling for up to 48 hours, and material must not be tightly packed as this
not only prolonged distilling time, but the resultant oil had lower acid and
ester numbers and vetiverol content. Maximum oil yield of 2% was achieved
at bulk density of 0.07 kgil compared with 1.43% at 0.1 kgil (Hardjono and
Deswert, 1973). Government sponsored stills in main producing countries
now use steam with cohobation, substantially reducing distilling time. Roots
are usually sun-dried to lower moisture content and mechanically chopped
into 2.5-5.0 cm lengths; a charge is 500-700 kg distilled over 36-48 hours.
The resinous material remaining in Indian stills, about 25% of total ex-
tractives, had the following characteristics: specific gravity (30°C) 1.182;
optical rotation +48.4"; acid value 46.9. Roots remaining after extraction
can be dried and used as fuel, burnt to provide ash or composted together
with leaves as fertilizer.
128 Chapter 4

Products and speciJications


Vetiver oil is a dark brown to dark amber viscous liquid; odour strong, sweet,
woody earthy, not grassy or greeny and very tenacious; over-distilled oils
have a poor, less persistent odour. The main component is vetiverol,
normally less than 75% and often around 50%, according to origin. The oil
has a very complex structure (Lemberg and Hale, 1978; Ashour, 1980;
Shibamoto and Nishimura, 1982; Marchetti-Smaja, 199 1). Because it is so
complex, the oil’s odour and other important characteristics have yet to be
duplicated synthetically. Three carbonyl compounds, alpha-vetivone, beta-
vetivone and khusimone, are considered the primary odour-influencing
components; beta-vetivone has the better vetiver odour and is considered
the most important, while the major isomer nordihydro beta-vetivone has a
strong, rich, woody-peppery note. Molecular distillation produces a residue-
free pale yellow or pale amber oil with a very high vetiverol content. Lack of
residue makes this oil more soluble in alcohol and improves miscibility when
blended with other perfume materials.
Two main types of vetiver oil exist, dextrorotatory and laevorotatory, but
this is normally of little interest to perfumers or those using the oil as a source
of vetiverol (Ganguly and Trivedi, 1990). Table 4.16 lists the main charac-
teristics of vetiver oil. Laevorotatory oils are often sold as khus-khus oil. The
main use for vetiver oil is in perfumery and cosmetics of all kinds, and in
certain food products to reinforce the natural flavour or odour, i.e. canned
peas or asparagus. The whole oil is normally used unprocessed, but is also
raw material for a number of isolates; most important is vetiverol, source of
vetiveryl acetate by acetylation. Vetiverol and acetates have softer odours
than whole oil, but are more expensive and used only in high-class products.
These derivatives are normally prepared in importing countries often by end
users.
The highest quality vetiver oil is considered to be from Reunion, Bourbon
vetiver oil; Indian oil is of good quality but seldom available owing to strong
domestic demand; Angolan oil was pale yellow with a dry-woody odour.
Some importers mix oil from various origins to produce their own standard
blend and guarantee the quality to buyers, generally with a specified level of
acidity and vetiverol content. Vetiver oil can be adulterated with lower
quality oil, other oils or their derivatives but, as many adulterants affect the
basic vetiver odour, they are easily detected; less obvious are chemicals
which extend the oil without loss of odour, and are detected on analysis.
Vetiver concrete is obtained by solvent extracting dried chopped roots,
usually with benzene, and subsequent vacuum removal of the solvent. It is
commercially available as vetiver resinoid, a dark brown or dark amber,
plastic semi-solid, with the distinct, persistent, somewhat attenuated odour
of high quality vetiver oil. An extract prepared on Reunion was virtually
insoluble (Gailleton, 1977). Concrete composition is similar to vetiver oil,
but because it is solvent extracted, contains few or no low boiling-point
Gramineae 129

compounds, but a high ratio of those with a high boiling-point, and con-
sidered more accurately to reflect the oil in vetiver roots. Combined with its
excellent fixative properties it is highly regarded by blenders. Isolates from
the carbonyl fraction are insect-repellent gain et al., 1982), the whole oil
proved toxic to mosquito larvae (Murty and Jamil, 1987), and also possessed
fungicidal properties (Dikshit and Husain, 1984).
Vetiver oleoresin is prepared by further extracting concrete, most recently
by liquid carbon dioxide, which gives a golden yellow, more mobile liquid
containing less non-volatile compounds. A very stable extract with a rich
odour is obtained by molecular distillation. Vetiver attah is produced in
India by condensing the distillate in an oil of choice, sandalwood, ground-
nut, sesame, etc. and sold wholly on its odour related to the product's end
use, as flavouring, unguent, or hair-dressing.

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134 Chapter 4

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Larniaceae
5-
The Lamiaceae (syn. Labiateae) to which the genus Pogostemon belongs, is
one of the ten largest families of flowering plants, comprising 9 subfamilies,
200 genera and about 3200 species. The family is readily identified, the
flowers having distinct and widely gaping lips, a four-part ovary, opposite
aromatic leaves and angular petioles; it is noteworthy for the number of
species producing an essential oil, a spice or both.

Patchouli
The genus Pogostemon contains 40 species mainly native to South East Asia,
with 20 occurring in India. The common European name patchouli is
probably derived from the Tamil paccilai and the species name from the
Philippine vernacular cablin. Pogostemon cablin is the prime source of patch-
ouli oil but several other species, P. comosum, P. hortensis, P. heyneanus and
P. plectranthoides are cultivated for their oil, also described as patchouli oil,
but of inferior and often variable quality. Essential oil from plants in other
genera, Microtaena cymosa Prain. (Chinese patchouli), Plectranthus patchouli
Clark., is also sold as patchouli oil, and in the seventeenth century Rum-
phius described a plant he named Melissa lotoria with a similar scent (Herb.
Amboin 5, p. 292). Since patchouli has been widely disseminated in Asiatic
and Far Eastern countries, its original home is still in doubt. Many of the so-
called indigenous species are probably long established and acclimatized
local cultivars of P. cablin. The South East Asia-China border region is
probably patchouli’s centre of origin, and the Philippines a modern centre of
domestication and dispersal. Regional names for patchouli are very similar:
nilam wangi (Indonesia), dilem wangi (Java), nilam (Atjeh) singalon (Batak),
dhalum wangi or tilam wangi (Malaysia).
Patchouli has a long history of use by man, and plants of the genus
Pogostemon producing oil very similar to the present patchouli oil were widely
used in Asia and the Far East for incense, body and garment perfumes,

138
Lamiaceae 139

insect repellents and sprinkled in temples (Morris, 1984). The plant was
known as huo-hsiang in ancient China, and an early Chinese reference to
propagation by suckers may indicate that true patchouli was cultivated there
some 2000 years ago (Laufer, 1919). Arabs used it to perfume carpets,
Indians textiles, and Chinese produced a perfumed ink for use on scrolls.
Patchouli was known as malabathron in classical Europe. The plant was first
described as patchouli by a Mr Wallich in 1835 who obtained it from Penang
(Burkhill, 1966), and later by a Frenchman Pelletier-Soutelet, who in 1845
named it P. patchouli. In 1896, Holmes identified the plant as P. cablin
(Benth), native to the Philippines (Pharmazie 561, 222). The scent of
patchouli had, however, been known in Europe for some time as the
splendid fabrics and garments from India were permeated with its exotic
odour. The first shipment of dried patchouli leaves arrived in London in
1844.
Growing patchouli for its essential oil began in the nineteenth century in
Malaysia using plants obtained from the Philippines; from Penang it was
introduced to Java in 1895. Patchouli cultivation quickly spread to other
Indonesian islands including Sumatra in 1910; by 1920 it was well estab-
lished in western Atjeh and northern Sidikalang highlands, but later became
more important on the island of Nias. The area under patchouli in Indonesia
has risen from 11,000 ha in 1983 to about 18,000 in 1995, with total oil
production officially estimated at nearly 1000 tonnes; exports during the
period 1985 to 1995 varied from 350 to 850 tonnes.
Patchouli was extensively grown in the wetter regions of southern China
in the eleventh century, by the sixteenth century had become centred on
Hainan Island, but when oil production commenced in China is uncertain.
In the last decade, annual oil production slowly decreased from about 10 t to
2 t in 1990, and recent reports indicate this level is unlikely to rise as the area
under cultivation has decreased in favour of other essential oil crops.
Patchouli has been successfully grown in Mauritius, some Caribbean
countries, West Africa and Vietnam, but only India, Brazil, Taiwan and
Seychelles established commercial oil production. In Russia, patchouli oil is
obtained from P. plectranthoides, but little information is available. Oil of this
species is used to provide medicinal products in India, where it is known as
P. benghalensis, and the species occurs naturally throughout the country. Use
of patchouli without qualification in the text refers to P. cablin and its
products.

Botany
The classification of P. cablin is complex; it is currently described as P. cablin
Benth. (syn. P. patchouli Pellet, P. patchouli var. sauves Hook, P. tomentosus
(Hassk.); or P. patchouli Bell. (syn. P. cablin (Blanco) Benth., P. heyneanus
Benth., P. sauves M. and Briq., and Mentha cablin Blanco). Pogostemon
140 Chapter 5

heyneanus is also known as P. fleurissant; P. comosus as P. tomentosus; P.


plectranthoides as P. benghalensis Kun. while the Java patchouli identified as
P. hortensis Backer is probably a local cultivar of P. cablin. Different methods
of cultivation and local climate cause substantial morphological changes in
patchouli plants, especially when transferred between countries, and this has
also contributed to the classification problem. Chemotaxonomy has assisted
in distinguishing three Philippine cultivars, and will probably solve other
local problems of identification (Hasagawa et al., 1992).
Patchouli is an aromatic, herbaceous, perennial shrub, with erect stems,
large green leaves and small white-pink flowers. Unlike many other mem-
bers of the Lamiaceae, there are no horticultural varieties, and patchouli is
seldom seen outside its natural habitat, other than in botanical and similar
collections. The roots are extensive, branching and, in mature plants which
are allowed to grow unchecked, penetrating to some depth. Roots contain a
small proportion of essential oil. T h e stems are erect, to 1.5 m sometimes
higher, quadrangular, much branched and more or less tomentose depend-
ing on cultivar; in colour they are green to greenish purple and generally
similar to leaves. Stems also contain oil of inferior quality.
The leaves are opposite, broadly ovate, apically acuminate, basally trun-
cate to cuneate, with coarsely serrate to dentate margins; slightly fleshy,
softly tomentose mainly on the underside, and drooping when mature. Leaf
size varies especially between cultivars, but mature leaves are usually 5-10 X
2.5-8 cm, light to medium green in colour, varying considerably with
location or cultivar. The essential oil is contained in glands located mainly
on the underside of leaves. Glandular hairs are small with a short single-
celled stalk and double-celled head. T h e leaf area varies significantly
between Indian patchouli cultivars, suggesting this could be an important
factor in selecting high oil yield clones (Kumar, 1985).
Dried patchouli leaves are a brownish yellow and, in addition to the
typical musky patchouli odour, have a sharp, spicy flavour; fresh leaves have
very little of the patchouli scent, which only develops after fermentation.
Leaves also contain calcium oxalate needles of varying types and amount.
Freshly cut leaves contain 0.25-0.75% oil, varying with local cultivar, age
and stem position. Oil yield from dried material in Indonesia was, in per
cent: buds 5.8, young leaves 5.0, mature 5.7, fallen but sound 4.1 (Soepadyo
and Tong, 1968). Leaves are normally dried before distilling and lose
80-85% moisture, while naturally dried leaves yield 1.8-2.5% oil when
distilled by small producers, but to 5.0% in modern plants. Solvent extrac-
tion normally doubles the yield of steam distillation. T h e considerable
increase in average oil yield to be expected from simple selection procedures
is indicated by Indonesian results, where laboratory trials produced yields of
6-8% oil from individual plants. These strains are later vegetatively propa-
gated by the Agricultural Department for distribution to growers. Dried
Lamiaceae I41

P. hortensis leaves were frequently mixed with patchouli leaves when ex-
ported and for this reason leaves of Malaysian origin were often rejected by
European buyers; dried leaves yield about 2% oil (Chan, 1969).
The main constituents of patchouli oil are the patchouli alcohols 23-55%
(averaging 33%) and minor alcohols 0.4-0.6% ( mainly norpatchoulenol).
There is little information on oil biosynthesis and the mechanisms involved
although certain aspects have been irivestigated (Croteau et al., 1987;
Weyerstahl et al., 1989). Thus vital data on which to base crop improvement
and plantation management programmes are lacking. For all practical
purposes oil is contained only in the leaves, and factors directly affecting this
plant part are of greatest interest to producers. Fertilizers affect growth,
number and also oil content of leaves.
The flowers are small, white, in dense interrupted whorls on short spikes,
terminally and in axils of the uppermost leaves. They are bisexual and
hypogynous, with more or less purple/mauve streaking. The stamens have
long, pale mauve filaments which give the genus its name. The calyx
segments are united into a tube 5-7 mm long, with four to five unequal teeth
closely appressed to the corolla tube, divided into two upper lips, each with
two lobes, the upper lip being longer. The androecium has four exerted
stamens, a long style and two stigmas arising from centre of the ovary, which
consists of two carpels deeply indented into four lobes, each lobe containing
a single ovule. The fruit contains four smooth, ovoid nutlets. Some regional
cultivars seldom or never flower, especially those in Malaysia and Indonesia,
since vegetative propagation has preserved a characteristic inherent in the
original introductions.
Pogostemon heyneanus (Benth.) is probably native to the Indo-Malaysian
area and known in India as pachaput; in Malaysia as nilam bukit, in Indonesia
as dilam kembang, and grows wild in all. Pogostemon heyneanus is also a highly
aromatic herb with stems to 1 m. The leaves are ovate, acuminate or obtuse,
crenate, usually double-toothed, thinner than patchouli, on long petioles.
The species is widely cultivated on a minor scale or in gardens for its fragrant
leaves, which are dried and stored with clothing to repel insects. The oil
content of dried leaves is 0.05-0.25% in India, but up to 0.75% has been
reported. Pogostemon heyneanus flowers and produces viable seed. The
flowers are white tinged with purple, in terminal and axillary spikes, the
whorls usually separate on panicles.
Oil distilled on Java was much inferior to patchouli oil and its production
abandoned; the oil is occasionally produced in India for local consumption,
and elsewhere is used as an adulterant or extender of patchouli oil. A sample
from Bangalore was a greenish brown somewhat viscous liquid, with the
following characteristics: specific gravity (1 5°C) 0.9365; refractive index
(20°C) 1.4986; optical rotation (20°C) -18"; acid value 4.35, acid value
after acetylation 92.80; ester value 6.27; soluble in 0.5-10 vol. 90% alco-
hol.
142 Chapter 5

Pogostemon hortensis (Back.) occurs naturally only on the island of Java,


and is probably not a true species but a long-established cultivar of P. cablin.
General growth is more vigorous than patchouli; the leaves are a dark green,
more oblong, thinner, apex acute, margins serrate, less fragrant with a lower
oil content than patchouli leaves. Dried leaves are frequently mixed with
patchouli leaves for distilling or export, and the oil is a common adulterant
of patchouli oil.
Pogostemon plectranthoides (Desf.) occurs naturally at higher elevations
than patchouli in the Indo-Malaysian region. A subshrub to 1 my with
opposite, ovate, medium green leaves to 7.5 cm in length, with double-
toothed margins. The white or purplish white flowers are borne freely in
clusters on spikes. The stamens are long, protruding, with long, pale lilac
hairs. It can be propagated by splits or stem cuttings. It is grown as an annual
in Russia as a substitute for patchouli, which it reportedly outyielded in
herbage and oil.

Ecology
Patchouli flourishes in areas with high average temperature and high relative
humidity, but can be successfully grown wherever similar conditions can be
achieved by mulching, partial shade, or ridge-planting in marshy areas.
These techniques may affect rate of growth or leaf-oil content, but a high
standard of management can normally compensate and produce a profitable
oil yield. An annual rainfall of 2000-3000 mm well distributed throughout
the year is the optimum, 1750-2000 mm acceptable, but it is unlikely that
patchouli will be commercially profitable below 1500 mm without irriga-
tion. Although patchouli has a high water requirement, seedlings and young
plants cannot tolerate waterlogging, and 3-4 days of standing water can be
fatal. Relative humidity should be high and a minimum monthly average of
75% is considered necessary for sustained growth in Indonesia (Soepadyo
and Tong, 1968).
Bright sunny days are necessary for maximum leaf-oil content, although
plants tolerate partial or intermittent shade. The effect of shade is sub-
stantial; unshaded plants in Indonesia had an oil content of 5 6 % compared
to 4.0-4.7% in shaded plants. A comparison of leaf and oil yield from
partially shaded and non-shaded plants in Malaysia showed that shaded
plants gave a slightly higher herbage yield, but lacked vigour, regenerated
more slowly after cutting and leaves, although longer, were thinner and had
lower oil content (Chin and Ahmad, 1970). When grown under no shade,
half shade and full shade in India, leaf yield fell linearly from 345 to 254 g per
plant and oil yield from 3.0 to 2.5% (Nanjan et al., 1982). The adverse effect
of shade on oil content resulted in patchouli being recommended as an
intercrop only in young rubber or oil-palm plantations in Indonesia and
Malaysia. Shade can however be beneficial where the environment is less
suitable for patchouli cultivation, and cultivars may also react differently
lamiaceae 143

when grown outside their normal habitat (Jimenez et al., 1990; Radhakrish-
nan et al., 1991).
For maximum growth an average daily temperature of 25530°C is desir-
able, but there are no published data comparing plant growth at different
temperatures. It is widely considered that patchouli grows better at higher
altitudes, but this could be due to better drainage on slopes, since lower soils
generally have impeded drainage. Wind can cause severe damage to mature
patchouli in open fields but, as most patchouli is grown by smallholders in
small areas interspersed with taller crops, wind damage is usually minimal.

Soils and fertilizers


Patchouli grows on a wide range of soils but, for commercial crops, deep
fertile loams are most productive, usually found under forest in the main
growing regions, and thus patchouli was often the first crop on newly cleared
lands. Since above-ground plant growth is directly related to rate of root
growth, a soil which allows rapid and easy root penetration and proliferation
is essential. Forest soils tend to be acid, and soil samples from patchouli-
growing areas ranged between p H 5.5-7.0. It is frequently stated in the
literature that patchouli is an exhausting crop and land which has been
planted to patchouli will not produce acceptable yields from succeeding
annual crops. This is akin to a similar much quoted statement about castor,
which the author has conclusively disproved (Weiss, 1971), and is equally
invalid for patchouli. Patchouli is normally the first crop grown by small
farmers on highly fertile soils cleared from jungle, for 2 to 3 years. During
this period up to 50 dha of herbage is harvested, containing large amounts of
plant nutrients. Since small farmers seldom applied fertilizer and moved to
a new site when yields fell, the land they left behind was a virtual desert!
Thus has arisen the belief that patchouli is an exhausting crop; under such
management almost any crop would exhaust the soil. This system has
virtually disappeared and patchouli must now be grown on the same site and
supplied with adequate plant nutrients.
Since small farmers do not normally follow a systematic fertilizer pro-
gramme, the following information has been obtained mainly from experi-
mental stations and pilot commercial plantings. Once the basic requirement
for phosphate and potassium as determined by soil analyses has been
satisfied, additional application has little value and may depress leaf yield.
The most important nutrient is nitrogen, but response depends upon
adequate levels of phosphate and potassium being available. Nitrogen,
phosphate and potassium in the ratio 60:30:30 gave the highest herbage
yield in India, but the most profitable was 40: 15:15 (Irulappan and Ponnus-
wami, 1982a). A compound NPK fertilizer of 20:12:5 plus Mg or 15:15:6
plus Mg, at 30-50 dseedling placed in holes prior to planting, is recom-
mended in Indonesia and Malaysia. When a compound fertilizer is not
available, diammonium phosphate (DAP) is suitable, and if potassium is
144 Chapter 5

necessary, sulphate or nitrate of potash are compatible with DAP. A similar


application after one year is considered desirable, and again at the beginning
of the third crop year if herbage yield remains at an acceptable level.
Top-dressing with 150 kg Niha is usually necessary, the first application
about 1 month after establishment, a second 3-4 months later depending on
growth. After 6 months, plants are usually too large to permit inter-row
operations. About 4 weeks after harvesting, a top-dressing of 50 kg Niha
should be applied, since two applications between harvests is not usually
possible. The level of nitrogen must be determined locally, since there are
indications that too high a level can suppress branching and thus total leaf
production; 300-500 kgiha ammonium sulphate per annum has been used
in Malaysia and Indonesia. Foliar sprays of urea increased both leaf size and
oil content in Indonesia, but had no effect on oil characteristics (Soepadyo
and Tong, 1968).
There are no records of minor element deficiencies occurring in patchouli,
but where application of a minor element has been found necessary on other
local crops, it will probably be required. In Indonesia and Malaysia, there is
a general recommendation to include magnesium in compound fertilizers,
but no data is available to confirm the requirement which is based on soil
analyses. Magnesium and calcium increased leaf and oil yield in pot trials in
Russia, but it was not mentioned if these results became field recom-
mendations.

Cultivation
Land selected for patchouli cultivation is often cleared to a greater extent
than for other crops, with most large trees felled, burnt and the ashes spread
as fertilizer. When grown as an intercrop in plantations, patchouli benefits
from the generally higher standard of management, and has been cultivated
successfully between young rubber and oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia,
young and mature citrus in Malagasy and Malaysia, coffee in Malagasy and
Brazil, pepper vines in several South East Asian countries and under
coconut palms in Seychelles and Mauritius.
Patchouli is normally propagated by cuttings, preferably from the central
section of semi-mature stems (Fig. 5.1). In Indonesia, cuttings from
9-month-old stems gave the highest strike rate, as did cuttings with a
carbon-nitrogen ratio of 50 (Soepadyo and Tong, 1968). Cuttings with a
high level of total and ortho-dihydroxy phenols rooted more quickly in India
Bhattacharjee and Thimmappa (1 991), and treating cuttings with IBA or
NAA also significantly increased rooting (Selvarajan and Rao, 1982). Cut-
tings 5-10 cm long are often planted in shaded nursery beds and are
normally ready for transplanting in 3-5 weeks. When propagating material is
limited or for multiplication of selected elite plants, 2.5-5.0 cm of stem
including a leaf node can be used provided the node is completely buried in
the rooting medium. Such cuttings require careful handling as the survival
Lamiaceae 145

rate is often low when repotted or transplanted. In vitro meristem culture


(0.5-1 .O mm terminal shoots) has been successful in India using various
culture media. Plantlets were transferred to pots after 6-8 weeks when
approximately 3 cm high, and later planted out in the field (Padmanabhan et
al., 1981; Saha et al., 1989).
Field planting of cuttings is normally manual, but the operation is easily
mechanized. Small farmers usually dig individual holes suitable for cuttings
30-40 cm long inserted at an angle of 60" with at least three nodes below
ground level; several can be placed per hole but one is sufficient if rooted
cuttings are used. One Malaysian estate ploughed a series of deep furrows
between lines of young rubber trees, cuttings or seedlings were placed in the
furrow at the required spacing, and workers then filled in soil around each.

Fig. 5.1. Patchouli single-node rooted cuttings.


146 Chapter 5

Table 5.1. Effect of spacing on patchouli herbage yield in India.

Spacing 60 cm row Plant height (cm) Branches per plant Herbage (kgiha)
~ _ _ _ _

30 cm 60 8 2178
45 cm 72 8 1650
60 cm 77 5 1230
75 cm 65 6 995
Source lrulappan and Ponnuswami (1982b)

The method was effective, quick and mortality low. Distance between
furrows can be varied to suit other estate machinery.
Spacing is often arbitrary, but 60-90 X 30-45 cm between plants or 60 X
60 cm on the square is most common, with 100 X 100 cm on very fertile
soils. A high plant population is generally to be preferred and where row
width is determined by existing machinery, in-row spacing must be adjusted
to compensate. Close spacing suppresses weed growth, tends to increase
branching, and as oil content is highest in upper leaves, this increases oil
yield per hectare. The effect of various in-row spacings with a standard row
width is shown in Table 5.1. As a guide, 4000 standard cuttings for planting
in a nursery weigh approximately 100 kg or a total of 1000 kg/ha at a spacing
of 30 X 60 cm. Cuttings or seedlings should be planted at the beginning of
the rainy season when there is usually cloud to minimize sun-scorch; in
Sumatra this is August-December and in Malaysia March-April. On land
susceptible to temporary flooding or waterlogging, cuttings can be sown on
large ridges; on sloping land or hillsides, rows or ridges should follow the
contour to minimize soil erosion.
Patchouli is normally grown in small plots and weed control is usually
manual, carried out as necessary until the canopy closes in about 6 months
and suppresses most weeds. Following the first and subsequent harvests,
two to three weedings are sufficient. Herbicides are seldom applied, but
diuron, linuron, and simazine have been successfully used pre-emergence in
established patchouli. When patchouli is grown as an intercrop in young
rubber or oil palms, herbicides may be essential for general weed control,
and glyphosate, oxadiazon, prometryn and terbacil have been used as
directed sprays.
Little information is available on the water requirements of patchouli, but
it is doubtful if patchouli would be profitable as a wholly irrigated crop, as
total water requirement is high and the cost of supplying water is constantly
increasing. In regions where monsoon rains may be interspersed with a dry
period, mulching can successfully keep soil moist and maintain plant
growth. Underplanting in plantations with high canopies such as coconut
palms which provide intermittent shade also assists in reducing moisture loss
(Seychelles Department of Agriculture, 1970).
Lamiaceae 147

Harvesting
Patchouli is ready for harvesting 4-7 months after establishment when
plants are usually about 1 m in height and the foliage becomes pale green to
light brown, and thereafter at 3-6 monthly intervals over its productive life.
Small farmers normally cut plants 10-20 cm above the soil, but where only
one annual harvest is possible, as in Russia, plants are cut as low as possible.
When using machinery, the optimum cutting height should be established,
since cutting too low can kill plants especially if followed by a dry period.
Harvesting should not take place following rain when leaves are saturated
nor early in the morning if wet with dew. During hot or dry periods,
however, cutting in the morning and evening is preferable.
Harvesting includes stems and leaves and may amount to 5-10 t exception-
ally 15-20 t/ha in the first year, falling to 1-5 t/ha in subsequent years with
leaves usually accounting for 50-60% of the total. Smallholder yields from new
plantings are generally 1-3 t h a of green leaves in the first year, falling to 1-2 ti
ha in subsequent years, mainly due to poor management and use of low
yielding plants. Under estate conditions in Johore, Malaysia, average yield of
air-dried leaves was 1500 kgiha from the first cut and 900 kgiha from
subsequent cuts. Using current techniques, 2000-3000 kgiha dried leaves is
acceptable, but local trials indicate twice this is possible and the full potential of
patchouli has yet to be determined. A major factor reducing average leaf yield
is the general use of unselected planting material, as there is substantial
variation in leaf yield between individual plants.
All plant parts contain oil, but as oil in leaves is the main source, ideally
only leaves should be harvested. It was initially recommended in Indonesia
that only the three to five uppermost pairs of leaves should be cut as soon as
these had fully developed. Such selective harvesting is still possible for
smallholders; stems with three to five pairs of mature leaves which have not
turned yellow or brown are cut, while those with young leaves are left to
mature. This system not only promotes rapid regrowth, it also ensures more
efficient working of the usually small local stills. Fresh herbage has a
moisture content of 80-85% and oil content 0.5-1.2%. Thus 1000 kg of
fresh material from smallholder crops in Indonesia yields 150 kg dried leaves
and 1-2 kg oil, in Malaysia the average is 200 kg of dried leaves and 2-3 kg
oil, and in India about 200 kg dried leaves yields 3-4 kg oil. Also in India
8000 kg of fresh leaves yielded 1600 kg shade dried leaves, then 40 kg oil
(Kumar et al., 1986)
Under smallholder management the normal life of a patchouli planting is
2-3 years as fertilizers are seldom used, growers relying on natural soil
fertility. Thus patchouli was seldom replanted on the same land, and the plot
abandoned in favour of a newly cleared area. With rapid destruction of
mature forest in patchouli-growing regions, particularly Indonesia, the
amount of new land available is continually being reduced. This has resulted
in a reduction in smallholder-grown patchouli, but if patchouli is properly
148 Chapter 5

managed, a more stable industry could develop. When grown as a plantation


crop, patchouli is usually replanted after 3 years, but up to 5 years, when rate
of regrowth makes retention unprofitable.

Distillation
Unlike other members of the Lamiaceae, fresh patchouli leaves should not
be distilled as they yield only a small proportion of their oil unless distilled
under pressure or with superheated steam. Both methods greatly increase
distilling cost, and may alter oil odour and characteristics. Normal distilla-
tion apparently does not rupture cells within the leaf, but drying or light
fermentation changes the cell structure which becomes more permeable and
allows oil to be liberated.
Stems with leaves are dried for 2-5 days and how this is accomplished is
extremely important since it basically determines oil yield when locally
distilled, or quality of dried leaves if these are to be distilled elsewhere. Fresh
herbage must not be piled in heaps as this quickly encourages mould growth,
or uncontrolled fermentation. Cut material is usually dried by spreading on
wooden racks, clean, hard-packed earth, or specially constructed concrete
floors adjacent to a distillery, and regularly turned to ensure uniform drying.
Herbage must also be protected from rain and heavy dew, and locally woven
large grass mats are often used. Although sun-drying is normal, shade-
drying with air circulating freely over cut herbage is preferable. Sun-dried
herbage may also become over-dry, with consequent loss of oil or leaves
through shattering, while a drying temperature above 40°C in Malaysia
resulted in 80% oil loss (Chin and Ahmad, 1970).
Following drying, leaves are stripped from stems and placed in woven
baskets containing about 15 kg to allow fermentation, which a skilled grower
controls by smelling the leaves. Over-fermentation produces a mouldy note
in the oil, while under-fermentation reduces oil yield but has no effect on
quality. In Malaysia, leaves are not deliberately fermented but packed in
sacks for transport to a distillery, and this delay allows some fermentation to
take place. Dried leaves can be stored for long periods provided they are kept
free of moisture and no additional fermentation occurs. Storage facilities at
rural stills are usually inadequate, and in these circumstances it is preferable
temporarily to cease harvesting. A yearly minimum of 40-60 t of dried leaves
is required to establish a small district distillery; in Malaysia 20-25 t dried
leaves are required monthly for an estate distillery to be viable.
There was previously an extensive trade in dried leaves from Indonesia to
Singapore and Europe, where high quality oil was obtained, but this trade
has virtually ceased due to the high transport cost. Leaves for export were
dried, compressed, and baled with little delay; bales store well provided they
are kept in clean, dry buildings. French buyers required leaves to be shade
dried for about 14 days, free of fermented and mouldy material, and with a
minimum 3% oil content. Patchouli leaves are frequently adulterated with
Lamiaceae 149

leaves of P. heyneanus, Ocimum basilicum, Urena lobata, Microtaena cymosa


and Plectranthus patchouli. Partially distilled patchouli leaves may also be
mixed with fresh leaves.
The bulk of patchouli oil is produced by smallholders and the crude oil
sold to larger operators for cleaning and refining. Many small producers use
direct-fired stills with leaves kept above the water-level by a grill, and a
second grill may be used to keep layers of leaves separate. The type of grill
may be important, for in Indonesia there was a significant increase in oil
yield per charge when a perforated steel-plate was substituted for a wire grid
(Rusli and Hasanah, 1977). A charge is normally 75-100 kg of dried leaves,
which may be moistened with water during filling. In these stills distillation
time is generally 6-8 hours, but up to 24 hours depending on skill of the
operator, since the most desirable oil fractions distil over last. Oil yield
averages 1.5-2.5%, and is directly influenced by the amount of non-leafy
material included in the charge, depth of charge, and amount of heat used to
boil water or steam temperature. Distillation temperature affected yield but
not oil characteristics in Indonesia; doubling the temperature increased oil
yield from 1.32% to 2.21% (Rusli and Hasanah, 1977).
Substantial changes may occur in the characteristics of crude, bulked and
unrefined oil directly related to type of container and storage conditions;
specific gravity, acid number and ester number rose with storage period in
Indonesia. When contained in aluminium (A), iron (I) or green glass (G)
containers, specific gravity increased most rapidly in A and least rapidly in
G; acid number rose fastest in G and slowest in I; ester number increased
faster in A and I and was slowest in G (Muchlis and Rusli, 1979). Similar
effects have been noted elsewhere and, in general, full, sealed glass or
stainless steel containers are the best. Similar changes can also occur in
refined oil, or oil produced in modern distilling plants, but are less pro-
nounced since storage is generally adequate.

Pests and diseases


There is little published information on patchouli pests and basic data on
distribution, population dynamics and economic importance is yet to be
determined. The most damaging insects are those attacking roots and
leaves, and patchouli interplanted with pepper vines generally suffers more
damage than when grown alone in the same locality. Nematodes, partic-
ularly Heterodera marioni in Indonesia and an unidentified species in Ma-
laysia, cause extensive damage to roots. In some parts of Indonesia, nema-
tode damage is so serious that to replant patchouli on the same plot is
considered unprofitable as a high proportion of plants are killed. Controlling
Helicotylenchus dihystera in India significantly increased leaf number and size
(Kumar and Nanjan, 1984), while Meloidogyne incognita reduced herbage
yield by 80% in heavily infested fields (Prasad and Reddy, 1984).
150 Chapter 5

Young plants and seedlings are frequently attacked by various mole and
other crickets, particularly Gryllidae, while grasshoppers are easily con-
trolled in smallholder crops by hand picking, equally effective against giant
snails, Achatinafulica, which can be a local pest. Larvae of various moths, the
leaf-rolling caterpillars, are more serious pests and difficult to control.
Pachyzanela spp. are most frequently recorded, particularly P. staltalis in
Indonesia. Unidentified stem borers attacked plants in India and Malaysia,
and a gall-producing weevil was reported from India which caused decay of
stems above the gall. Mites can damage individual plants but have not been
reported as a serious pest, although they are often present.
As with pests, there are only a few reports on patchouli diseases. That
some are of considerable economic importance, and may in fact limit
production in certain areas, can be assumed from remarks contained in
general reports on the crop. Most often mentioned are root diseases caused
by Sclerotium spp. in Indonesia and Fomes spp. in Malaysia, where F. lignosus
has been identified on patchouli, and becomes a problem when the crop is
interplanted in rubber plantations. Visual symptoms of F. lignosus infection
are change in leaf colour from green to reddish purple, followed by wilting
and finally defoliation. In East Africa, P. cablin was so severely attacked by
Pythium spp. leaf spots that the author was unable to maintain demonstra-
tion plots, whereas P. heyneanus was relatively unaffected and made good
growth. Cercospora spp. and Alternaria spp. cause extensive leaf damage, and
in India a severe attack ofA. alternata causes defoliation and death of plants,
while Cercospora leaf blight also causes severe damage unless controlled.
Symptoms attributed to a virus have been reported from several countries,
identified in India as patchouli mosaic virus (PMV) but in Brazil as tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV). Bemisia tabaci, a whitefly, is the insect vector in India,
and mass propagation of virus-free seedlings for distribution to growers the
only satisfactory method of control (Kukreja et al., 1990).

Products and specifications


Crude patchouli oil is a viscous, dark or orangy-brown liquid depending
mainly on the method of distillation and storage; refined oil or oil produced
in modern stills is a pale orange to light amber colour. The odour is
distinctive, very rich, sweet-herbaceous, spicy and aromatic; the odour of
crude or newly distilled oil is more harsh, less sweet and spicy, but softens
with age. The taste of the whole oil is spicy, sweet, never bitter, somewhat
hot on the tongue; refined oil is more bland. Patchouli oil is used mainly as
a whole oil, and not processed for individual components, although it may
be refined to remove impurities or slightly modify its odour. Since the odour
of the oil improves with age when correctly stored, users generally maintain
relatively large stocks.
The oil is mainly used in perfumes of all kinds, cosmetics, toiletries,
especially soaps, and was previously popular as a masking agent in breath-
Lamiaceae 151

freshening preparations. Flavour and odour are quite distinctive, and patch-
ouli flavoured sweets are especially popular in Asia and Arabia. The oil is
used to flavour foods, mainly processed products such as baked goods, some
meats and sausages, but very seldom as a culinary spice although frequently
present in speciality cooking oils. The reduction in tar content of cigarettes
and tobaccos has affected their perceived flavour, and patchouli oil is one of
the additives used to offset this effect; the Chinese cigarette industry is the
major user of locally produced oil. The whole oil has antimicrobial and
insecticidal activity, but is normally too expensive for these uses to be
commercially exploited. These properties are, however, well appreciated in
Asian countries where the whole oil is widely used in local medicines and as
an insect repellent. In Japan and Malaysia it is considered (erroneously) to
be an antidote to snakebite.
Patchouli oil is extremely complex, is in demand as a whole oil, and is a
very important perfumery raw material. Some 60 constituents have been
detected (Akhila and Nigam, 1984; Weyerstahl et al., 1989; Dung et al.,
1990), including sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and patchouli alcohols
(patchoulol and norpatchoulenol) (Munck and Croteau, 1990). Azulene
has also been reported from the oil. Some important odour compounds and
related synthetics have been described (Weyerstahl et al., 1989). Among
cyclohexenones found in the oil, isophorone, trimethyl cyclohexenedione
and tetramethyl cyclohexenone all have a camphoraceous odour; a carbonyl
compound, beta-patchounone, possesses a strong woody-patchouli odour,
whilst alpha-natchoulone has a strong ambergris odour.
Significant regional variation occurs, with Indonesian (East Indian) oil
considered the best quality, then Seychelles oil, and no other origins ac-
cepted as substitutes. Vietnamese and Chinese patchouli oil differs markedly
from other oils, with patchouli alcohols in Chinese oil usually below 25%
and the oil has a less sweet, slightly harsher odour. Oil is normally sold on a
sample basis, but Chinese oil may be sold in grades based on solubility i.e.
1:7-9, 1:11-12, 1:13-14, the second being most popular. Patchouli oil can
be adulterated with oils having a similar basic odour, but most other
adulterants are detected on analysis, or by the formulator’s nose. In In-
donesia, a common adulterant is a balsam resinoid, although this is officially
banned. The main characteristics of patchouli oil are shown in Table 5.2.;
values for other oils have been published (Sugimura et al., 1990).
Patchouli concrete or resinoid is obtained by solvent extracting dried
leaves, and is a very viscous liquid whose colour depends on the solvent
used; benzene produces a dark, orangy-brown, petroleum ether pale orange
to dark amber. The odour is finer than that of distilled oils, very sweet,
aromatic, rich and spicy, and improves with age. Benzene extraction in India
gives an average resinoid yield of 5% containing 70-80% of alcohol-soluble
absolute. Concrete is mainly used as a direct substitute for patchouli oil.
152 Chapter 5

Table 5.2. Main characteristics of patchouli oil from selected origins.

Sumatraa Indiab Malaysiab Seychellesb


Specific gravity (15°C) 0.950 0.955 0.970 0.940
0.990 0.986 (25'C) 0.990 0.969
Refractive index (20°C) ng 1.503 1.500 1.502
1.516 (25") l.515(15°) 1.510
Optical rotation -40" - 45" -48O -47Q
- 70" -68O -55O - 52"
Acid number 3.0 < 5.0 2.2 1.5
6.5 - 2.8 2.5
Ester number 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
10.0 14.0 4.8 3.5
Ester number after ng 10-28 ng ng
acetylation
Solubility (viv 90% 1:lO 1:lO 1 :7 1 :10-I2
alcohol)
ng, not given.
Source: a Soepadyo and Tong (1968); Department of Agriculture Annual Reports.

Extracts produced by molecular distillation are claimed to be superior in


strength and odour, more stable and easily incorporated into formulations.
Concentrated patchouli oil has been offered commercially, but appears to be
a variant of patchouli concrete in a more liquid form. Synthetic patchouli
oils are claimed to match the odour of genuine oils, but none are effective
substitutes (Weyerstahl et al., 1989).

References
A bibliography of patchouli is contained in Medicinal and Aromatic Plant
Abstracts 10(6), 595-599, published by MAPIS, Technical and Information
Services, Hillside Road, New Delhi, India.

Akhila, A. and Nigam, M.C. (1984) GC-MS analysis of the essential oil of patch-
ouly. Fitoterapiu. 55(6), 363-365.
Bhattacharjee, S.K. and Thimmappa, D.K. (199 1) Studies on the growth hormone,
length of cuttings and number of leaves on root formation of P. patchouli. Ind.
Perjbn. 35(2), 71-76.
Burkhill, I.H. (1 966) A Dictionay of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 2
vols. Government Printer, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Chan, S.K. (1969) Recent investigation on short-term cash crops in Serdang. In:
Progress in Oil Palms. pp. 265-286. Incorporated Society of Planters, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.
Chin, H.F. and Ahrnad, R. (1970) Crop Diversz'jication in Malaysia. Incorporated
Society of Planters, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 107-1 17.
lamiaceae 153

Croteau, R. et al. (1987) Biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes in leaf extracts of patchouli.


Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 256(1), 56-68.
Dung, N.X. et al., (1990) Chemical composition of patchouli oil of Vietnam. In:
Proc. 1lth Znt. Cong. Ess. Oils Flav. Frag. Vol. 4. Aspect Pubs, London, UK, pp.
99-1 02.
Hasagawa, Y . et al. (1992) An additional constituent in the oil from a patchouli
cultivar. FZav. FragJ. 7(6), 333-335. Also 5(5), 109-112.
Irulappan, I. and Ponnuswami, V. (1 982a) Effect of N, P and K on growth and yield
of patchouli (P. patchouli Pell). In: Proc. Nut. Semin. Medic. Aromatic Plts. Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore, India, pp. 141-144.
Irulappan, I. and Ponnuswami, V. (1982b) Effect of spacing on patchouli. In: Proc.
Nut. Semzn. Medic. Aromatic Plts. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimba-
tore, India, pp. 139-140.
Jimenez, M. et al. (1 990) Performance of patchouli in a plantation of Pinus caribea in
Vinales. Rev. Forest. Baracoa 20(1), 47-58.
Kukreja, A.K., Mathur, A.K. and Zain, M. (1990) Mass production of virus-free
patchouli plants. Trop. Agric. 67(2), 101-104.
Kumar, A., Gaunigal, A.K. and Virmani, O.P. (1986) Cultivation of P. patchouli for
its oil. Curr. Res. Med. Aronz. P1. 8(2), 79-86.
Kumar, S. and Nanjan, K. (1984) Control of spiral nematodes in patchouli. Amer.
Phytopath. SOC.1984, 39-93.
Kumar, T.V. (1985) Estimation of leaf area in patchouli. S. Znd. Hort. 33(1),
64-5.
Laufer, B. (1919) Sino-Zranica. Pub. Field Museum S a t . Hist., Chicago, USA.
Morris, E.T. (1984) Patchouli - the scent that intrigues. Dragoco Rept. 1, 16-21.
Muchlis, N.A. and Rusli, S. (1979) Storage of patchouli oil in several kinds of
packing. PLPT Zndustri (Bogor) 33(2), 1-8.
Munck, S.L. and Croteau, R. (1990) Purification and characterisation of the
sesquiterpene cyclase patchoulol synthase from P. cablin. Arch. Biochem. Bio-
phys. 282(1), 58-64.
Nanjan, K. et al. (1982) Performance of patchouli grown with and without shade
under rainfed conditions. In: Proc. Nut. Semin. Medic. Aromatic Plts. Tamil
hTaduAgricultural University, Coimbtore, India, pp. 134-1 35.
Padmanabhan, C., Sukumar, S. and Rangasamy, S.R. (1981) Patchouli plants
differentiated in vitro from stem tip and callus culture. Current Sci. 50(4),
195-197.
Prasad, P.R.K. and Reddy, D.D.R. (1984) Pathogenicity and analysis of crop losses
in patchouli due to M . incognita. Znd. J. Nemat. 14(1), 33-36.
Radhakrishnan, V.V. et al. (1 99 1) Shade tolerance studies on patchouli (P. pachoulz).
South Znd. Hort. 39, (6) 387-388.
Rusli, S. and Hasanah, M. (1977) Distillation methods affecting yield and quality of
patchouli oil. PLPT Zndustn'. (Bogor) 24(1), 1-9.
Saha, B.N. et al. (1989) Introduction of patchouli to Itanagar. Znd. P e ~ u m 33(1),
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14-19.
Selvarajan, M., Madhavarao, V.N. and Shanmugavelli, K.G. (1982) Studies on
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154 Chapter 5

Seychelles Department of Agriculture (1970) Annual Report. Mahe, Seychelles.


Soepadyo, R. and Tong, T.H. (1968) Patchouli - a profitable catch crop. World
Crops 20(1), 48-54.
Sugimura, Y . et al. (1990) Cultivarietal comparison of patchouli plants in relation to
essential oil production and quality. Fluv. Frug. 3. 5(2), 109-1 14.
Weiss, E.A. (1971) Castor, Sesame and Safflower. Leonard Hill, London, UK.
Weyerstahl, P. et al. (1989) Odor of monocyclic partial structures of patchouli
alcohol and related compounds. 3. Ess. Oil Res. 1, 1-8.
Lauraceae
6-
This great family of tropical and subtropical plants includes some 40 genera
and over 2000 species of trees and shrubs, many aromatic and some
commercially important. The genus Cinnamomum Schaeffer contains ap-
proximately 200 species of evergreen trees and shrubs occurring from Asia
eastward through Melanesia, the Pacific islands and Australia. The most
important essential oil producers are C. camphora, C. cassia and C. verum.
Other species, indeed many unrelated plants, also produce a bark or oil
labelled cinnamon or camphor as will be noted. Basic chromosome number
of the genus is x = 12, and C. verum and some other species are diploids
2n = 24 (Darlington and Wylie 1955). The closely related genus Aniba has
members with an aromatic bark or essential oil.
The genus Sassafras is small, containing only three species, the most
important oil producer being S. albidum. Other species in the related genus
Ocotea yield an oil of similar type and a closely related family, the Mon-
imiaceae, has an Australian member Doyphora sassafras,whose leaves also
yield an oil containing safrole. The genus Laurus is even smaller, just two
species, L. azorica (seub.) Franco. and the essential oil producer L. nobilis L.
Laurel, however, is widely and erroneously used to prefix tFie common name
of numerous unrelated plants. The genus Litsea contains about 200 species,
including L. cubeba (Lour.) Persoon. whose fruit contains oil rich in citral.
Other family members produce oils, buds or fruit similar in composition,
odour or use to those of unrelated species, and are mentioned where
appropriate. Most have very local use but others are more important:
Ravensara aromatica, the Madagascar clove-nutmeg; Dicypellium cayophyl-
Zatum, the Brazil clove; and Cyptocaya massoia, the source of massoia oil.
In this chapter cinnamon will refer to Cinnamomum verum and its prod-
ucts, cassia similarly for C. cassia, C. loureirii and C. burmannii. The author
considers the designation cassia is inappropriate and misleading, but it is so
well-entrenched in world trade it is unlikely to be changed. There is in the
Caesalpinioideae a genus Cassia, which includes C. siamea the well-known

155
756 Chapter 6

tropical fuel and shade tree, while cassia oil is derived from Acacia famesi-
ana.
The botanic origin of commercial cinnamon and cassia products is as
follows: True, Ceylon and Seychelles cinnamon from Cinnamomum verum;
Chinese, Canton, Kwantung, Kwangsi, Yunnan, Honan and China Junk
cassia from C. cassia; Saigon, Vietnam, Danang, Annan and Tonkin cassia
from C. loureirii; Indonesian (or cassia vera), Padang, Batavia, Korintji,
Koringtoji, Java and Macassar cassia from C. burmannii; Indian cassia may
be derived from C. obtusifolium, C.tamala or C. sintok. Many of these
designations are (deservedly) falling into disuse, and most of little commer-
cial importance. Chinese cassia bark from main producing areas in Kwangsi
and Kwantung provinces is now officially sold as Tung Sing and Si Chang.
Philippine cinnamon is obtained from C. iners, C. mindanaense and C.
mercadoi and consumed domestically. The last named is said to produce the
highest quality bark (Baja-Lapis, 1979).

Camphor
Camphor oil is usually obtained by steam distilling leaves, wood and roots of
Cinnamomum camphora (including putative subspecies), but there are other
camphor oils not obtained from C. camphora, including Ocimum kilimand-
scharicum, Labiatae, described later. Additionally various subspecies
(chemotypes) of C. camphora produce oils which differ substantially in their
major components. The Japanese C. camphora, known as Hon-sho, is con-
sidered to be the true camphor tree and native to Japan, with C. camphora
occurring in other countries designated a subspecies. The validity of this
nomenclature remains in dispute. Cinnamomum camphora and proposed
subspecies have been further divided into varieties on the basis of main oil
constituent, i.e. cineole, safrole, linalool or terpineol. A major argument
against division into subspecies is that seed from a particular tree may
produce seedlings whose leaves yield oil in which any of the four main
constituents predominates. The proposed subspecies are botanically similar
to C. camphora, and will not be described separately except in relation to
their essential oil. Differentiation on the basis of oil composition is probably
the most valid method of describing what are chemotypes of C. camphora
and not true subspecies. In this section, use of camphor without qualifica-
tion refers to C. camphora and its products.
Europeans became aware of camphor via Arab traders and one of the
earliest descriptions is in Adams (Paulus Aegineta, iii, 427-429), who stated
that Sarapion, a Greek governor of the Tebaid area of the Red Sea coast
about 150 BC, gave an account of refining camphor he obtained from an
Arab, Ibn Amram, while Symeon Seth was the only Greek author to write of
camphor itself (caphura). The Arab merchant Sinbad in the ninth century
lauraceae 157

described the method of obtaining camphor in the Riha Peninsula (probably


Malaysia) by making incisions in trees and collecting the solidified exudate;
also, in the ninth century, Suleiman the Merchant described in his Memoirs
this trade in camphor and other oils and spices (French trans. Paris, 1922).
Camphor was widely known in European medicine by the twelfth century,
and a German abbess, Hildegarde, recommended its use under the name
ganphora as a counter-irritant in the treatment of rheumatism and inflamed
joints. In the sixteenth century, Garcia de Orta noted Sumatran camphor
was so superior and costly that none found its way to Europe.
The use of naturally produced camphor in China must have been widely
known as it is mentioned as well established in the sixteenth century Chinese
herbal Pun-Tsao-kang-mu, together with extraction by boiling (Anon. ,
1976a). Camphor was introduced to Japan from China in the seventeenth
century, and Japan subsequently became the world’s largest producer of
camphor and camphor oil. It was originally believed that camphor could
only be obtained from the trunk or branches of mature trees but, in the
nineteenth century, leaves were distilled to produce camphor oil. The
production of camphor leaf oil in China has been revived with government
support and, since 1988, farmers in Sichuan Province in particular have
substantially increased their plantations. A new distillery at Yibin produced
1000 t of oil in 1994, about 70% of China’s total output.

Botany
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees & Eberm. (syn. C. oficinalis Nees; Laurus
camphora L.) is commonly known as camphor and its many similar names in
European languages are probably derived from the Javanese kapur. Many
Asian names are also very similar; in India the Sanskrit karpura and Hindi
kafur suggest a single original source of the oil when it became known
outside the Far East. In Japan and Taiwan, Hon-sho means true camphor
(oil) to distinguish it from other oil types, although Taiwanese know the C.
camphora tree as kusunoki.
Cinnamomum camphora is a medium to large evergreen tree to 30 m, with
a dense, wide spreading head, large lustrous green leaves and yellow flowers.
The leaves and twigs, when crushed, smell strongly of camphor. The roots
are usually extensive, but not generally penetrating, although the linalool
form is considered in Japan to be deep-rooted. When felled to provide
camphor, large lateral roots are also excavated for distillation. Roots gen-
erally contain the highest content of essential oil, to 10%, with a camphor
content to 27%. There is normally a single stem to 30-50 m in the wild,
often enlarged at the base, with a number of large branches, the lowest at
some height on the trunk. The bark is rough, often with small fissures from
which oil exudes and solidifies, and collecting this material probably pro-
vided the original source of camphor with deliberate slitting of bark to
increase the flow the first method of harvesting. The wood is yellowish
158 Chapter 6

brown, moderately hard, fine textured, takes a good polish, and has a
persistent odour of camphor. The timber is extensively used in cabinet work,
especially chests. In a camphor tree aged 30-40 years the trunk contains
about half the total tree weight, roots 20%, stump 14%, branches 13% and
leaves 5%. The largest camphor tree on Taiwan was 51 m tall, 5.3 m DBH,
with the first branch at 20 m. Total volume was calculated as 588 m3, to
produce 7200 kg oil and 2743 kg crude camphor. The tree was estimated to
be 1400 years old. The largest tree in Japan is said to be 1200 years old with
a trunk length of 31 m and 2.3 m DBH.
The leaves are on long petioles and are leathery, alternate, ovate-elliptic,
acuminate, with one main rib and usually two side ribs; 5.0-12.5 x 1.5-5 cm
but variable; the upper side is lustrous green, the lower lighter and glaucous.
Young leaves are pinkish to light red, the colour varying between the
different forms. Although considered an evergreen, a large proportion of
mature leaves are shed annually, usually coinciding with the flush of new
growth. Leaves contain an essential oil, 0.2-2.0%, camphor content 0-80%.
Young leaves generally have a higher camphor content than those more
mature, and shaded leaves of any age less camphor than those exposed to
direct light. In India, leaves from the Cochin region average the highest
camphor content, although air-dried leaves from Darjeeling had a camphor
content of almost 2%. There are four main forms of C. camphora as noted,
each yielding a leaf oil with a different major constituent; (linalool type) 80%
linalool and 10% monoterpenes; (cineole type) 76% cineole with alpha-
pinene and 1-alpha-terpineol 20%; (sesquiterpene type) 4 0 4 0 % nerolidol
and 20% each sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenes; (safrole type) 80%
safrole and 10% monoterpenoids (Shi et al., 1989; Hirota and Hiroi, 1967).
A quick method of establishing the oil type is to crush fresh leaves, which will
smell strongly of either camphor, turpentine or eucalyptus.
The inflorescence is a short, dense, axillary panicle on the ends of the
twigs, and seldom exceeds the leaves in length; the buds are scaly (Fig. 6.1).
The flowers are small and yellow or yellowish white; the perianth is mem-
branaceous. The main flowering period in India is May-June, and in Taiwan
and Japan, April-May. The fruit is an ovoid drupe to 9 mm diameter, dark
green becoming blackish when ripe, containing one globose seed. In India,
most fruit normally ripen in October, in Taiwan and Japan, in September.
Seed from the first crop of fruits in India is frequently infertile and, like
cinnamon, ripe seeds quickly lose their viability. Seeds contain nearly 50%
of a yellowish-white crystalline aromatic fat with a high lauric content, a
melting-point of 21-23"C, used for soap making in India. Fat characteristics
are (all at 25°C): specific gravity 0.925; refractive index 1.4442; acid value
0.6; saponified value 272.3; iodine value 4.0 and unsaponified matter 0.7%
(Shastri, 1978).
The essential oil is the most important product, thus how oil is produced
in the tree, its distribution and the physiological changes which can occur are
Lauraceae 159

important to growers. The oil is present very early in seedling development,


but may contain no camphor. The rate of oil development is generally
related to tree growth, i.e. the faster the growth the greater the oil content,

Fig. 6.1.Cinnamonum camphora. A, Flowering shoot; B, flower in longitudinal section and reproductive
organs; C, fruit. (Purseglove et al., 1981.)
160 Chapter 6

and with growth of seedling, oil characteristics also change. Camphor


formation in the oil is apparently dependent on location; it is gradual in roots
and wood, quicker in leaves.

Ecology
Cinnarnornurn carnphora is native to China, Japan and Taiwan, but has been
introduced into many other countries, and cultivated in some with little
commercial success. The various forms of C. carnphora previously noted can
occur in any region, but in some a particular type naturally predominates,
the Yu-sho in China, the Hon-sho in Taiwan and Japan; elsewhere the
dominant type depended on the introduced parent stock. Camphor is found
in many botanic gardens well outside its natural range, as an avenue tree and
in public gardens in many countries, the southern USA and India for
example. Analyses of wood and leaves of such trees usually show a low
essential oil content and camphor may be absent. Oil from leaves and twigs
from a specimen growing in the Entebbe (Uganda) botanic garden yielded
1.8% camphor, but on Mauritius camphor content was negligible.
Camphor flourishes in warm-temperate to semi-tropical regions, and
although mature trees can withstand frost, seedlings or young trees fre-
quently succumb. The degree of growth inhibitor activity in leaves is a factor
increasing frost resistance of Cinnarnornurn spp. in Russia (Bregvadze et al.,
1975); thus selection for a high degree of this activity to increase frost
resistance is possible. A minimum temperature of 15°C is considered
desirable, but no maximum recorded. Camphor is basically a forest or
woodland tree, but highest camphor content is found in wood and leaves
from trees growing in direct light. Shaded trees, or shaded leaves from a
specific tree, usually have a lower oil and camphor content.
A rainfall of 1000-3500 mm occurs in its natural habitat, but above 3500
mm the soil must be free-draining as camphor is relatively shallow rooted
and intolerant of waterlogging. In higher rainfall areas it should be planted
on hillsides. In areas with very high rainfall the camphor content of oil is
reduced, and in East Africa there was a reduction in both oil and camphor
content following prolonged rain. Camphor grows naturally from sea-level
to nearly 3000 m, but below 1000 m is considered the optimum, especially
in Japan where leaf oil is the most important product. In India, there was a
substantial difference in oil content in leaves and wood from trees growing at
sea-level near Calcutta, 1.24% with 56% camphor, and near Darjeeling at
2200 m with 2.9 and 80% camphor (Choudhury, 1958). The latter is a very
high yield and equalled 1.6% of the air-dried material, excluding that
remaining dissolved in the oil and recovered by fractionation.

Soils and fertilizers


Camphor naturally grows on a range of soil types, but thrives on well-
drained sandy loams. Soils with impeded drainage, or where seasonal water
Lauraceae 161

accumulates are not suitable. Soil type can affect both essential oil and its
camphor content and, in Taiwan and Japan, trees growing on sandy soils
had a higher content of both compared to trees in the same area on soil with
a high clay content. A neutral to slightly alkaline soils is preferred for
plantations, p H 6.5-8.0, although there are no data comparing essential oil
and camphor production from soils with differing p H values.
When camphor is grown in plantations, no fertilizers are normally applied
after seedlings are planted out. When grown to provide leaves for distilling
and coppiced to promote bushy growth, fertilizers are necessary to ensure
high foliage production; however, little fertilizer is normally applied to
plantations other than plant residues. When stills are located close to
plantations, spent leaves may be returned as mulch. Seedbeds are normally
well fertilized and this is discussed in the section on cultivation.

Cultivation
Prior to the First World War, a high proportion of camphor traded interna-
tionally was obtained by felling wild trees principally on Taiwan (then
Formosa), with smaller production in Japan. Chinese production was al-
most wholly consumed domestically. Wild trees were thus a forest resource
and harvested in a similar manner to normal logging, with no special
protection or management. It was not until the decline in number of wild
trees threatened the industry’s future that plantations of camphor trees were
established on Taiwan, and after the Second World War in Japan. The
establishment of plantations required a more intensive management system,
but no special requirements other than those required in normal forestry.
Seedlings are planted out, protected and weeds controlled until the young
trees are well established at between 4-7 years. In Japan, plantations are
individually owned, and labour input depends on the inclination or skill of
the owner. This was usually reflected in a faster rate of tree growth or lower
seedling mortality. With the introduction of synthetic camphor, establish-
ment of plantations mainly for camphor production became uneconomic,
and leaf oil from other forms of C. cumphoru became more important.
Production of linalool type oil is paramount in Japan, but in India and Sri
Lanka the camphor content remains most important.
Camphor is normally grown from seed, the ripe fruits collected and seed
cleaned of pulp and dried. Seed is normally sown within a few months of
collection, and viability after 6 months storage is usually low, but in regions
of China with a severe winter, seeds are kept in cool storage and sown in
spring. Decorticating and soaking seeds prior to sowing increased and
hastened germination (Wang and Shao, 1984). Seeds are sown in prepared
seedbeds, and the seedlings are normally 12-14 months old at planting out.
When ready for transplanting into prepared holes, seedlings are cut back to
5-10 cm; in India the roots are also pruned. Seed from a particular form of
C. cumphoru tree produces seedlings whose leaf oil may be any of the major
162 Chapter 6

types. Where a specific oil type is needed, linalool in Japan for example, only
seedlings which produce this oil are required, and to determine which are to
be retained the leaves are crushed and the odour indicates the strain. When
grown for camphor the form is less important than camphor content.
Total oil yield per hectare can also be substantially increased by vegetative
propagation of high-yielding parent stock. A population of 2000-2500 per
ha is common but up to 5000 in some districts at approximately 2 x 2 m or
2 x 3 m. Plantations are weeded as necessary, and herbicides seldom used.
Trees are usually harvested at 16-20 months and normally make rapid
regrowth, since camphor coppices readily and vigorously.

Harvesting
When harvested for camphor the whole tree was felled, dismembered,
reduced to chips and distilled to obtain the crude oil, later refined to separate
the camphor. A full description of the process as carried out in Taiwan,
China and prior to the Second World War in Japan is contained in Hirota
(1 956). Where camphor trees are still felled to obtain crude camphor oil, the
operations involved are essentially those used to obtain sandalwood oil
(Chapter 13). When camphor was the main product in Taiwan, age of tree
was a major factor in selection for felling, since camphor content of oil
increased with age. Yield of camphor in a tree 120 years old was three to four
times that ofa tree aged 20 years, but oil content was 25% less. The average
oil and camphor yield from a mature wild camphor tree on Taiwan was 2.4%
and 1.1% respectively, from a plantation tree of the same age 1.5% and
0.8%. The oil content of wood from young camphor trees in Japan averaged
1.4%, the main components being camphor, 1,8-cineole and safrole in that
order (Fujita et al., 1974). A relationship with age also exists for other tree
types; for example the more mature the leaves and twigs collected from the
linalool-type tree, the higher the safrole or camphor content and the lower
the linalool content in the oil (Kingstone, 1966).
Plantations to supply leaves in Japan are normally harvested annually
between October and March, although in some districts two harvests are
possible; in Sri Lanka and India, up to four harvests per year are common.
Harvesting is generally manual, but mechanical harvesting is being in-
troduced in Japan. Initially this involved the use of hand-held mechanical
cutters and strippers, but fully mechanical harvesting of leaves is considered
practical, and may involve modifying the shape of bushes to suit equipment
as has occurred on tea estates, or harvesting smaller bushes more frequently.
This is possible since leaf growth is fast, new leaves becoming mature in 2-3
months. In these circumstances, it will be profitable to select strains with
high camphor or linalool content in young leaves.
The time of cutting is not critical but prolonged rain or very cloudy
weather reduces leaf oil content and camphor content of oil. After cutting,
lauraceae 163

leaves are carefully shade-dried for 2-4 days then distilled. There is appar-
ently no difference in the camphor content of fresh, wilted or shade-dried
leaves although, in Japan, oil content may be reduced by artificial drying. Oil
yield from commercial plantations is 50-150 kg/ha, and is highest in Japan
where selection is steadily increasing average oil yield. In India, camphor
yield is 1% by weight of leaves; in Japan, crude oil yield is 1.1-1.5%, with a
linalool content of 91 %; in Sri Lanka the yield is 130-140 kg/ha of crude oil
(probably distillate). A very high yield of 300 kgiha camphor was reportedly
obtained from a trial planting in Algeria, compared with 140-1 60 kg/ha from
pilot trials in the USA. The life of a leaf-producing plantarion depends
mainly on type of camphor tree selected. In Japan, the linalool type has an
effective life of approximately 20 years, but up to 60 years in India and Sri
Lanka where high-camphor forms are planted.

Distillation
Essential oil is obtained by steam or hydro-distilling wood or leaves, and
camphor obtained by pressing or rectifying crude oil. No special technique is
required, and oil remaining after removal of camphor varies according to
type of camphor tree (see section on products and specifications).

Pests and diseases


The insects attacking C. verum (c.f.) can also be found on camphor,
although there may be regional differences in the species concerned or the
degree of damage. Among the insects attacking foliage the weevil Cratopus
punctum is a serious pest in Mauritius; Acrocercops ordinatella in Asia gen-
erally; Attacus atlas, Euproctis lunata, Suana concolor in Asia and South East
Asia; and Hylobius spp. in Japan and China. Also active in the region is
Dictyoploca japonica, the camphor silk moth. Adults and larvae of a large
cockchafer, Leucopholis pinguis, attack seedlings above and below ground,
and can cause substantial loss of plants in nurseries in several Asian coun-
tries. Insects causing most damage to branches, shoots or twigs include
Tragocephala nobilis in many African countries; Helopeltis antonii in Asia; the
widespread Pseudococcus comstocki (Comstock’s mealybug); Zeuzera coffeae
which has many hosts; Xyleborus mutilatus in China, Japan and probably
elsewhere in this region. Also in this area, a bark beetle Xyloterus pubipennis
can cause serious damage to individual trees, as can Pyrestes haematicus, the
camphor longicorn beetle. Scale insects, including Aspidiotus destructor,
Aulacaspis spp. and Chtysomphalus spp. are commonly recorded but seldom
cause major damage.
Many diseases which infect C. verum (c.0 also damage C. camphora and
although a large number of pathogenic fungi have been reported from
camphor, most are of minor importance. The following have been recorded
as causing noticeable damage. The very widespread Armillaria mellea causes
164 Chapter 6

armillaria root rot, has a wide host range, and is most often recorded from
Africa, but also occurs in Asia. Other Armillaria spp. have been recorded
from China, Taiwan and Japan. Another root rot caused by Clitocybe
tabescens occurs mainly in more tropical regions of Asia and South East Asia.
Pink disease due to Corticium salmonicolor is widely distributed in the tropics,
and takes its common name from the mass of pink mycelium which covers
affected bark. Heavily infested branches are usually killed. Another fungus
which attacks small branches, twigs and shoots is Glomerella cingulata,
especially on Mauritius but also elsewhere in Asia. A canker caused by
Pkysalospora rhodina has been reported from a number of countries, but the
degree of damage on Cinnamomum spp. is usually slight.

Products and speca9cations


Camphor was initially the most important constituent of essential oil ob-
tained by distilling wood of C. camphora but with the introduction of
synthetic camphor its importance diminished and the residual oil increased
in importance. This residual oil is of various types, each having a different
major constituent as previously noted, initially came from a specific region,
and was identified in international trade by the country prefix. Camphor
wood oil distilled from C. campkora is known as Hon-sho oil or true camphor
oil while Yu-sho oil is known as Apopin oil in world trade. The characteristics
and major constituents are shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 and all can vary but
are generally directly related to regional origin.
Wood oil is usually colourless or whitish (some Indian oils are yellow or
brown), and contains a solid partly crystalline mass of camphor which is

Table 6.1. Main characteristics of some unrectified camphor oils.

Taiwan China
Hon-Sho Ho-Sho India Hon-Sho Yu-Sho
Specific gravity (25°C) 0.9543 0.9231 0.9428 o.91Ola 0.9270
0.9306 0.9436 0.9337
Refractive index (25%) 1.4806 1.4692 1.4713 1.4751 1.4704
1.4702 1.4727 1.4735
Optical rotation t 32'24' t 1714' t 26" t31'23' t 748'
t 22" -29O - 18"48'
Acid number 1,l ng 2.48-3.1 25 0.6-0.9
Ester number 4.1 ng 4.0-5.0 1.4-2.2
Acetyl value 23.3 ng 21.6 36.4-47.9
Alcohol content (%)(as 6.5 36.8-30.0 ng ng
CioHid)
Camphor content (%) 50.5 39.6-44.0 51.4 27.0-34.2
a 20"C, 30°C; ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.

Source: Hirota (1956, 1967); Choudhury (1958).


Lauraceae 165

Table 6.2. Composition of some unrectified camphor oils (%)

Japan Taiwan China


Monoterpenes 14 7.2 15.9-18.5
Cineole 4.6 4.1 19.0-21.6
Camphor 45.6 39.6 36.8-33.3
Terpene alcohols 9.9 36.8 16.3-9.3
Safrole 18.1 7.8 2.9-0.8
Sesquiterpenes (plus alcohols) 6.2 2.0 6.3-3.O
Other 1.2 2.0 1.7-1.8
Resinous matter 0.4 0.5 1.I-1.7
Source: Hirota (1956,1967)

separated by filter-pressing, the residual oil being known as crude camphor


oil. This oil yields up to 50% camphor when rectified under vacuum, the
residual oil being camphor-free: under further fractionation the oil yields
light fractions known as white camphor oil, medium fractions as brown
camphor oil and heavy fractions as blue camphor oil. The main character-
istics of these oils are shown in Table 6.3.
Natural camphor is a transparent or whitish solid or crystal, usually in
easily broken masses with a characteristic odour. It is closely related to the
terpenes, being a ketone derivative of a dicyclic terpene, specific gravity
0.99, melting point 174-1 79"C, is dextrorotatory and slowly vaporizes at
room temperature; insoluble in water, but soluble in various alcohols.
Synthetic camphor is similar in appearance to natural camphor, but is
usually optically inactive. It is derived from pinene, converted to camphene,
and thence via treatment with acetic acid and nitrobenzene to camphor.
White camphor oil, also known as light camphor oil, amounts to some
20% of camphor-free oil or 6% of crude oil; the main constituents are

Table 6.3. Main characteristics of various fractionated camphor oils.

White Brown Blue Yellow


Specific gravity (15°C) 0.870 1.000 < 1.000 0.97
0.880 1.035 0.99
Refractive index 1.4663 1.5150 1.5050 1.5010
Optical rotation t15" On ng +IC
t 20" t 12Y 0' t 5O
Boiling range ("C] 160-185 210-250 220-300 215-225
Camphor content ("hi < 2.5 < 3.0 < 2.5 ng
Safrole content (%) ng 50-60 ng 20
Cineole content (%) 20-25 ng ng ng
ng, not given.
Source: Abstracted from published data.
166 Chapter 6

cineole and monoterpenes, and further fractionation yields minor compo-


nents used in formulating artificial perfumes. The pinene fraction is a base
material for synthesis of terpineol and borneol. The oil is used as a solvent in
the production of lacquer and paints, and for scenting household and
industrial detergents, insecticides etc. and as an adulterant of other camphor
oils. It is a major competitor to Australian eucalyptus oil (see Chapter 8).
Brown camphor oil is also known as red camphor oil; the main con-
stituents are safrole and terpineol. Safrole is the base material for the
important derivatives isosafrole, heliotropin and vanillin. Redistilled brown
camphor oil can be used directly in soap manufacture. Synthetic sassafras oil
is also derived from brown camphor oil, with a safrole content usually above
80%. Artificial sassafras oil from Taiwan was an important competitor of
true sassafras oil of the USA, until the introduction of Ocoteapretiosa oil from
Brazil.
Blue camphor oil (also known as green camphor oil) consists mainly of
sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene alcohols and azulenes. It is viscous, dark,
bluish green or bluish brown, and of little importance. Yellow camphor oil is
a by-product from manufacture of synthetic sassafras oil from brown cam-
phor oil. It normally contains about 20% safrole, plus terpineol, sesqui-
terpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols.
Leaf oils distilled from the leaves of C. camphora are generally colourless,
although Indian oils may be pale yellow and pale green. Japanese and
Taiwanese oils differ in the major constituent remaining after removal of
camphor as previously noted. The most important oil is obtained from the
form known as Rau-kasu in Taiwan, later planted extensively in Japan. This
oil is designated Formosan Ho oil, Ho oil Taiwan or Japanese Ho oil and its
major constituent is linalool 80-85%. Analyses of cineole-type trees in
Taiwan gave the main constituents as cineole 40-72%, average terpineols
2 1%. About half the oils contained linalool and camphor, averaging 1.9 and
1.4% respectively. Only 8% of cineole-type oil contained sesquiterpenes and
only 4% safrole (Lin et al., 1977). In India, a cineole-type oil contained the
following (percentages in brackets): pinene (3.7), camphor (0. l), beta-
pinene (1.32), limonene (0.4), 1,8-cineole (69.6), p-cymene (1.2), beta-
terpineol (1,7), alpha-terpineol (7.7) (Gulati, 1982). The Mauritius cam-
phor tree is the cineole type and camphor is absent from its oil.
Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gurke is a small herbaceous plant native to
East Africa where it has occasionally been cultivated. It is a perennial low-
growing shrub which, when cultivated, is cut two to three times a year. The
whole plant is distilled, although essential oil is almost wholly in the leaves.
Leaf oil contains about 60% camphor, but no safrole (Chowdhari, 1959;
Charles and Simon, 1992). During the Second World War, 0. kilimand-
scharz’cumwas cultivated in Kenya and the Sudan to supply all local require-
ments, and could continue to do so given sufficient incentive. In the Sudan,
where it is known as rihan, 20 feddans (c. 5 ha) of good crop produced one
lauraceae 167

litre oil and crystalline camphor (Tothill, 1952). Other species yielding an oil
containing camphor include Blumea balsamijera, Chysanthemum sinense var.
japonica and Menandra benghalensis.
Aniba rosaeodora Duckei (syn. A. duckei Kost), native to South America,
yields Bois de rose oil by steam distilling the wood. As oil is currently
obtained mainly from wild trees and few plantations are established, only
basic details are included. Aniba rosaeodora and what is claimed as the closely
related A. r. var. amazonica Duckei, are forest trees of the Amazon basin.
There are about 40 members of the genus, all native to tropical South and
Central America (Gottlieb & Kubitzki, 1981). Another member, A . cane-
lilla, has a cinnamon-scented bark which is locally used to make cinnamon
tea and to scent stored clothes and is probably the explorer Humboldt’s
‘Cinnamon of the Amazon’. Accepting the variety as botanically correct, the
following remarks apply to either.
Both are tall, to 30 m, straight, evergreen trees, trunk to 1 m DBH, with
large glossy green leaves. The timber was once extensively used for furniture.
Trees are felled, cut and transported to distilleries where the wood is
reduced to chips for distilling. The trees should have a minimum trunk
diameter of 35 cm DBH at about 10-15 years of age. Excessive exploitation
has greatly reduced easily accessible stands, and transport problems and
attendant costs have increased the expense of oil production. The Brazilian
government has introduced legislation requiring processing companies to
plant Aniba trees in proportion to the number felled, but it is generally
believed the number felled far exceeds those planted.
Oil obtained from comminuted wood averages 0.5-1.5% and there is
strong regional variation in wood-oil content. Yield from freshly cut logs is
higher than from trees felled and left for any period. Leaf and branch oil
content and composition have been shown to vary substantially between
seasons especially the monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxides of linalool and
linalool (Araujo et al., 1972).
Bois de rose Brazilian oil is colourless to pale yellow, with a sweet, slightly
woody odour; the main constituents are, in per cent: linalool 75-80, limo-
nene and eucalypt01 1-2, alpha-terpineol 4-6, 1-8-cineole + beta-
phelladrene 1-2, geraniol + geranial to 1 (Formacek and Kubeczka, 1982;
Buccellato, 1988). The major use is in soft drinks and confectionery. The
main oil characteristics are shown in Table 6.4.
Bois de rose Cayenne oil is usually colourless or faintly yellow, with a finer
scent than Brazilian oil, is normally available only in very small quantities
and its continued regular production is uncertain. The oil is slightly different
from Brazilian and main characteristics are included in Table 6.4. The
linalool content is usually higher, to 97% has been recorded, and is laevoro-
tatory due to the presence of I-linalool. The main oil use is in high quality
perfumes and toiletries. Linalool is also derived from Linaloe wood oil,
168 Chapter 6

Table 6.4. Main characteristics of bois de rose oil.

Brazil Guiana
A B A
Specific gravity (15°C) 0.875 0.868 0.872
0.895 O.89ga 0.878
Refractive index (20") 1.462 1.4620 1.460
1.485 1.4685 1.463
Optical rotation - 4O -4" -12"
t5" t5" -17"
Ester content (%) (as linalyl acetate) ng ng 0.5-1 5
Alcohol content (??) (as linalool) 75-85 84-90 85-95
Solubility (viv 70% alcohol) 1:2 1 :2 1:3-4.5 (60)
a 20'Cc; ng, not given: A = commercial samples: B = EOA specification. Figures in columns are range.

Note: The linalool content is easily adjusted, and very high levels in Brazilian oils are suspect.

Mexican obtained from Bursera delpechiana, and Ho leaf oil from C. cam-
phora in Taiwan and Japan. All have been virtually replaced by synthetic
linalool.

Cassia
Commercial cassia bark and oil are obtained from various Cinnamomum spp.
as noted in the introduction to this chapter but only three are important
internationally: C. cassia (Chinese cassia), C. burmannii (Indonesian cassia),
and C. loureirii (Vietnamese cassia). Indian cassia is obtained from C.
tamala, and is of local importance only (Brown, 1955/56). In the text, cassia
without qualification will be used in a non-specific sense. The name cassia
should not be confused with the genus Cassia, Caesalpinioideae, of which C.
angustijolia supplies the well-known senna pods. Cassia bark and, later, oil
was originally obtained wholly from wild trees but increasing demand
encouraged cultivation, with China the major producer. Total production in
1995 was 300 tonnes, with Guangxi Province contributing 170 tonnes from
five large factories, and Guandong Province around 1 15 tonnes. Cultivation
also became more common in Indonesia and Vietnam, and it is most likely
that all future supplies to the international trade will be from plantations.
The cassia of European antiquity probably originated in the Assam area of
India and reached the Middle East via early Mesopotamian civilizations,
whose records on clay tablets indicate considerable knowledge of spices to
flavour and prepare foods as early as 2000 BC (Bottero, 1985). From
Mesopotamia to Egypt, thence to Rome and Greece is a natural progression,
and cassia was widely known in Europe by the fifth century BC. Pliny
describes both cinnamon and cassia in his Historia Naturalis (6.163-97), and
Lauraceae 169

apparently there were several kinds of bark and twigs known as cinnamon
and cassia. In fifteenth century England ‘synamome was for lordes, but
canelle (cassia) was for commyn people’. The powdered bark is current in
the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific remedy for flatulent dyspepsia
or colic with nausea.

Chinese cassia

The bark was probably first described in China in the fourth century BC
Elegies ofCh’u (Rosengarten, 1969), again mentioned in the third century as
kui, and the medicinal use of bark reported by T’ao Hun-kin (Laufer, 1919),
but its use must have predated these writers since the tree has been familiar
to peoples of China’s southern provinces before recorded history (Bretsch-
nider, 1895). A later mention of what could be cassia was in Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea, written about AD 200 (Huntingford, 1976). ‘Kasia bark’ was
listed as shipped from Somalia, but this was most likely re-export of Indian
or Indonesian material as the author found no Cinnamomum spp. native to
eastern Africa. Arabs and Persians later knew cassia bark as darchini, from
dar meaning wood or bark and chin meaning China. However in some
countries, including India, darchini came to mean true cinnamon!

Botany
Cinnamomum cassia Presl. ex-Blume, closely resembles C. obtusifoliumNees
of which it was originally considered a variety, and also incorrectly known as
C. aromaticum Nees. Chinese cassia produces dried buds, bark, and bark and
leaf oils of similar composition. Chinese cassia is known generally as kwei or
kui in China, widely as cassia lignea (true cassia) in international commerce.
Cinnamomum cassia is an evergreen tree to 20 m, naturally conical in shape
with small white flowers and coarse greyish-brown bark (Chun, 1921). The
tree is aromatic in all its parts, but only bark and leaf oil are economically
important. The root system of a wild, fully grown tree has apparently never
been described; however, under cultivation roots are deeply penetrating and
extensive, with normally a single taproot and several substantial laterals.
When grown from cuttings rooting is slow, commonly 6-8 months before
sufficient roots develop to allow planting out. This tardy root growth may
also account for the slow rate of above-ground growth, since at 5-7 years
trees may reach only 1.5-2.5 m. Roots contain an essential oil of no
commercial importance.
There is normally one central trunk on uncut trees to 20 m, 20-25 cm
DBH at 10-1 5 years of age. Cultivated trees are usually coppiced when 5-7
years at 2-3 m, and subsequent regular cutting keeps trees to 3-3.5 m. Trees
required to produce cassia buds or fruit are left uncut. The trunk is normally
well branched from low down, and the progressively acute angle of branches
170 Chapter 6

gives the tree its conical shape. Bark on mature trees rough, greyish brown;
on young shoots and stems smooth and greyish. Bark from mature wild trees
is locally considered especially valuable for medicinal use. The inner bark is
brown or brownish red, containing irregularly shaped oil cells in the phloem.
Bark from young shoots is removed, scraped, dried and becomes the cassia
bark of commerce. The inner bark contains 1.5-4.0% essential oil and
Kwangsi bark generally has a higher average oil content than Kwantung
bark; the main constituent is cinnamaldehyde a t 60-98%. The wide range of
yield and main constituents is apparently due to similar factors affecting
these characters in C. verum. For example, bark from trees growing at higher
altitudes, Kwangsi, is of better quality than trees from lower levels, whose
coarser bark is the cassia lignea of commerce. A detailed description of the
morphology and histology of various cassia barks is contained in Parry
(1962).
The leaves are alternate or nearly opposite, oblong-elliptic to lanceolate,
acuminate, basically cunate, petioles 1.O-1.5 cm. Young leaves are light
green, flaccid and soft; mature leaves stiff, thick, and leathery, with three
prominent ribs from the base, 8-20 X 4-7.5 cm, shiny dark green above,
finely hairy below. Fresh leaves may contain up to 1.6% oil although yield
after distillation seldom exceeds 0.5-0.6%; the main constituent is cinnam-
aldehyde at 80-95%.
The inflorescence is a lax, spreading, terminal or axillary silky-tomentose
panicle, 7.5-15 cm; the flowers are small, pubescent, white or whitish
yellow, in cymose arrangement of threes on short pedicels; the perianth is
pale yellow and deeply divided into six oblong, blunt lobes; main flowering
in China is June-August. The fruit is an ovalielliptic, black to blackish-
purple pulpy drupe, 1.O-1.5 cm, containing one seed borne in the shallow
cup of calyx lobes. Fruits are avidly eaten by birds which are the main seed-
dispersal agents; fruits mature February-March. The seed is oval, 1 cm,
dark brown with lighter stripes, usually 2500-2700 per kg. Immature fruits
are dried and become the misnamed cassia buds, Flores cassia, of commerce.
The morphology and histology of cassia buds have been described in detail
(Parry, 1962).

Ecology
Chinese cassia is a subtropical forest tree, between 30"N and 30"s latitudes
and within these limits has adapted to a range of environments. Cassia
occurs naturally in south-eastern China, northern Assam and Burma, but is
cultivated only in southern China (mainly Kwangtung and Kwangsi), and
on Sumatra. It was introduced to South America, the southern USA, Hawaii
and Sri Lanka, but is not commercially cultivated. Cassia flourishes in hot,
sunny and humid conditions, at temperatures of 1 5 3 0 ° C but is adaptable to
B very wide seasonal range from the high 30s to -7"C, and also to very large
differences in day-night temperatures. The main areas of cultivation in
Lauraceae 171

China have a summer maximum of 38°C and minimum of 28OC, winter


15°C and -0.5"C respectively. Cassia cannot withstand periods ofvery cold
weather, but is resistant to sporadic light frost. Lowest temperatures tol-
erated were -2.5"C in China, -6.5OC in Florida, USA, and below freezing
in Paraguay (Anon., 1976b; Plucknett, 1978).
A minimum annual rainfall of 1500 mm is necessary and there is appar-
ently no upper limit where soils drain freely. In cassia's natural habitat,
monsoon conditions apply and rainfall occurs as very heavy seasonal storms
interspersed with dry periods of irregular length. Trees can therefore with-
stand short periods of waterlogging or dry weather, but prolonged periods of
either adversely affect growth. The most favoured situation for plantations
in China are middle slopes of high hills or low mountains facing north-east
(Anon., 1976b). Plantations in China are usually below 500 m, frequently
below 100 m, but wild trees up to 1500 m. Altitude generally affects the type
of bark produced as noted. Cassia is a forest tree and thus partially shade
tolerant, especially young trees, but mature cassia grows well in full sun-
shine.

Soils and fertilizers


The soils of cassia's natural habitat are generally well-drained, severely
leached, hill or mountain soils of low fertility and many strongly acid, p H
4.5-5.5. Thus cassia is most suitable for areas or situations with few
alternative cash crops. For this reason it is usually planted on hillsides where
its deep-rooting and evergreen characteristics resist erosion. When culti-
vated on hillsides in China, special terraces are constructed and where
possible these are also irrigated. Similarly to cinnamon the only fertilizers
applied to cassia plantations in China are organic wastes or mulches.
Fertilizer recommendations for cinnamon are equally applicable to cassia
under the same standard of management.

Cultivation
Cassia can be grown from seed, cuttings or layering, but the first is most
common in China. Ripe fruit is picked and treated as for cinnamon. Seed is
planted as soon as possible; if sown within 7 days germination is around 90%
after 20-40 days; after 20 days storage viability quickly falls. Seed can be
sown in pots or prepared beds, 1.5 cm deep and 3 cm between seeds. Most
seed-beds are located under trees and thus intermittent shade is provided
naturally until seedlings are strong enough to be planted out in 1-3 years.
Cuttings can be one, two or multiple leaf, from ends of new growth, and
allowed to wilt before planting. Rooting is slow (2-18 months) and the strike
rate is usually about 50%. The optimum time for taking cuttings is just after
the new flush of growth has matured, when flaccid young leaves become firm
and horizontal. Single leaf cuttings with 5 cm stems and the top axillary bud,
172 Chapter 6

must be exposed to full light to promote development. Preparation of


planting holes is generally as for cinnamon, and seedlings are planted out at
15-1 8 cm high. A spacing of 50-60 cm in 100 cm rows is usual in China, but
density is often regulated by shape and size of individual fields and terraces.
Between 9500 and 10,000 treesiha is considered the optimum for leaf oil
production.
Trees are cut almost to ground level at 5-6 years, and subsequently to
15-25 cm every 3-4 years. The strongest three to four shoots are allowed to
develop and cut when 2-4 cm in diameter. Some trees are left uncut to
produce seed and cassia buds, usually 15 X 30 m apart, and these provide
intermittent shade. Plantation life is 40-60 years before replanting, although
dead or diseased trees are replaced. Weeding and plantation maintenance is
generally as for cinnamon in Sri Lanka. Irrigation, especially of young tress,
is common where water and topography allow. An improved system of
management was developed in Hawaii to obtain maximum leaf and twig
production, with a minimum population of 10,000 treesiha. Trees are not
cut back to near ground level, but are cut to provide a vertical framework of
stems and branches to maximize leaf and twig production, which ‘leaves a
harvested plant which resembles a vertical hatrack structure rather than a
stump’ (Plucknett, 1978). Since the climate in Hawaii is not strongly
seasonal, trees are cut three or four times annually.

Harvesting
Bark collection, stripping and drying is basically as for cinnamon and has
been described in detail (Purseglove et al., 1981). Cassia buds, kui tsz, are
the dried immature fruit including calyx and often pedicel. These are
harvested from trees especially left in plantations, or collected from wild
trees in October-November. Cassia buds are smooth, greyish or reddish
brown, 6-10 X 5 m m in diameter; the attached calyx is hard and wrinkled.
Bark, leaves, twigs, small stems and fruit buds can be used for oil production
since characteristics are similar.
Leaves are collected when the bark is harvested, but prunings and excess
foliage can be distilled at any time. The main harvest in China is June-July,
a lesser in January-February; the highest oil yield is from green leaves
harvested in May-July (Anon., 1976). Oil quality depends on time ofharvest
and leaf maturity, but there are no published data on seasonal or regional
influences. Large mature leaves are considered to yield best quality oil in
China, and a high admixture of twigs and small branches reduces quality.
Leaves are often wilted for 6-8 days before distilling, but the reason for this
is unclear since fresh leaves generally give a higher oil yield. Pests and
diseases are as for C. verum and C. camphora.
lauraceae 173

Distillation
Leaf oil was formerly produced in simple, locally constructed, direct-fired
stills but the establishment of rural communes in China allowed the in-
troduction of more modern stills, centrally operated and maintained. These
stills take charges to 200 kg, are coal fired, and cohobation is normal. The oil
quality, characteristics and cinnamaldehyde content are subject to official
standards, which are not very efficiently enforced. The oil content of fresh
leaves in China is 0.3-0.4%, seeds (buds?) 1.5% and small twigs and stems
1-2% (Anon., 1976), but Parry (1962) quoted the oil content of bark as
1.5%, buds 0.55%, budsticks (pedicels?) 1.64%, and a mixture of leaves,
petioles and young twigs as 0.77%.

Products and specijkations


Chinese cassia leaf or Chihese cinnamon crude oil is a brownish-yellow to
dark-brown viscous liquid which can deposit a resinous sediment with
storage. The odour is similar to rectified oil, but more tenacious, and thus
preferred by food processors and cola beverage makers to whom the dark
colour is no disadvantage. Rectified oil is clear, pale to dark yellow, less
viscous, with a persistent, sweet, spicy warm note. The flavour is warm,
spicy, balsamic, and very sweet. Rectified oil is also used in the flavouring
industry, but its clarity enables it to be used in perfumes, toiletries, soaps and
similar products. The major constituent is cinnamaldehyde (70- 95%), with
unadulterated oils and Chinese official grade oils having a minimum content
of 85 or 90%. However, an analysis of leaf oil from C. cassia growing in
Nigeria gave a cinnamaldehyde content of only 4.2%, but 92% benzyl
benzoate (Lockwood, 1979). Constituents of Chinese cassia oils have been
described and compared (Lawrence, 1994). There are few data on the
characteristics of unadulterated Chinese cassia oil; some are quoted in Table
6.5. The properties of rectified oils reflect those of the parent crude.
Genuine cassia oil differs markedly from many commercially available oils
sold as Chinese leaf oil. Adulteration of Chinese oil was so frequent in the
past that it is doubtful if any substantial amount ofpure oil was ever available
commercially. References to composition and characteristics thus had little
relevance to the commercial oil offered, which was sold on its individual
character to a specific buyer. Common additives were kerosene, rosin,
synthetic cinnamaldehyde, or a mixture of the aldehyde with benzyl acetate.
Detection is now much simplified and thus adulteration less practised.
Standard specifications are shown in Table 6.5.
Cassia bark oil is similar to leaf oil, contains cinnamaldehyde as its major
constituent, and varies in its characteristics and composition. Factors affect-
ing cinnamon bark oil also affect cassia bark oil. Analysis of bark oil from
trees growing in Nigeria gave 71% cinnamaldehyde and 13% eugenol
(Lockwood, 1979). Cinncassiol E has been isolated from the oil (Nohara et
al., 1985); occurrence of the cis-isomer of cinnamic acid is uncommon in
174 Chapter 6

Table 6.5. Main characteristics of Chinese cassia oil

Crude oil Rectified oil


Specific 1.055 1.046 1.045 1.049
gravity (25°C) 1 .O7Oa 1.059 1.063 1.067b
Refractive 1.600 1.6045 1.602 1.600
index (20°C) 1.606 1.6135 1.615 1.614
Optical -1"O -0"40' -I0 n9
rotation (25%) t 6"o t o"30' +I0
Acid number 6-15 (to 20) ng ng < 7.0
Cinnamaldehyde(%) 75-90 88-99 > 80 ng
Carbonyl value ng ng ng > 340
Solubility (viv 70% 112-3 1 :2 1 :2 1:3
alcohol)
a15'C: 20°C; ng, not given. Figures in columns are range,
Source: Abstracted from published data: Column 3, US Pharmacopeia; Column 4, British Standard
Specification,

nature, the only other major source being a by-product of cocaine extraction
from Erythroxylum coca. Methods of distinguishing C. verum bark oil from
bark oil of other Cinnamomum spp. have been published (Lawrence, 1969;
Salzer, 1975). The minor components used are ortho-methoxy cinnamalde-
hyde, eugenol and coumarin. Cassia bud oil is similar to leaf oil with a yield
of 2%, and aldehyde content of 80%. It is neither produced nor available
commercially. The leaf and bark oils from other Cinnamomum spp. occur-
ring in China have been described (Zhu et al., 1994)

Indonesian cassia

Cinnamomum burmannii (CG & Th.Nees) is native to Indonesia, Borneo and


Malaysia (Hall and Koppel, 1949; Isdyoso, 1977). Indonesian cassia pro-
duces bark, bark and leaf oils and dried buds, but only bark is commercially
important. Since oil is unlikely to be available in commercial quantities or
able to compete with cinnamon and Chinese cassia oils in the foreseeable
future, only brief details of the tree and its cultivation are given.
Cinnamomum burmannii is generally similar in form to C. cassia but less
tall, frequently below 6 m. Leaves are smaller, dull green with the three ribs
less prominent and often not continued to the apex. Flowers are similar but
panicles smaller. Fruit similar in shape and colour, but slightly smaller (Fig.
6.2). Cinnamomum burmannii is known as kayu manis in Indonesia where
two main forms are recognized: one with red young leaves occurring at
higher altitudes, the other with green young leaves at lower altitudes. The
first, korintji, produces higher-quality bark than the last, named Padang or
lauraceae 175

Batavian and cassia vera. Cultivation, harvesting and preparation of bark is


similar to that of cinnamon in Sri Lanka.

Products and specz3cations


Indonesian cassia bark is available in several types but quality is very variable
and, although the Indonesian government introduced standards, adultera-
tion with bark of other Cinnamomum spp. or with aromatic bark of unrelated
trees is common. Thus data said to be derived from Indonesian cassia should
be treated with caution. The oil is obtained by steam distillation with yields
of 1.5-4.0% for korintji and 1.0-3.0% for Batavian. The oil is colourless to
brownish yellow, with an agreeable aromatic odour, and a sweet, pungent
but not astringent taste. Crude oil distilled in Indonesia is very variable in
quality and composition; the main constituents are cinnamaldehyde at
60-80% and phenols to 15%. Also present are alpha-terpineol, coumarin
and benzaldehyde but no eugenol (Datta et al., 1962; Lawrence, 1969).

Fig. 6.2. Cinnamomumburmanii, fruiting shoot. (Department of Agriculture Library, Kuala Lumpur.)
176 Chapter 6

Indonesian leaf oil is obtained by steam or hydro-distilling fresh or wilted


leaves and twigs, with a yield to 0.5%. The oil is pale to darkish yellow or
yellowish brown, and crude oil distilled locally is, like bark oil, very variable
in colour, odour and composition; the main constituents are cinnamalde-
hyde at 40-65% and phenols to 10%. It is seldom available commercially.

Vietnamese cassia

Cinnamomum loureirii Nees, native to Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and prob-


ably also to neighbouring areas of Thailand and Malaysia, is considered by
some taxonomists to be a variety of C. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees, occurring
from the central and northern Himalayas, through Bengal, Assam, to Burma
and the Andaman Islands; also confused with C. japonicum (syn. C. ped-
unculatum Prs.) native to China, Korea, the Ryukyu Islands and Japan; and
with C. sieboldii also native to the Ryukyu Islands but introduced and widely
planted in Japan. A common name for C. loureirii in arboreta or botanic
gardens is the cassia flower tree. The bark is known as canelle de Saigon,
Saigon, Annam, or Tonkin cassia, cassia lignea, and as Annamese cinnamon
in China. Bark from selected trees in Thanh-ha province was known as que-
thank or canelle royale at the Hue court of the Vietnamese kings. Vietnamese
cassia produces bark, bark and leaf oils and dried buds. Since the oils are
unlikely to be produced in commercial quantities in the foreseeable future,
only brief details of the tree and its cultivation follows.
Cinnamomum loureirii is a medium-sized tree to 8-1 0 m, similar in shape to
C. cassia. The leaves are opposite or alternate, rigid, elliptic or oblong,
alternate-acuminate, 7.5-1 2.5 X 3-5 cm, three-ribbed, green to dull green,
petiole 12-1 5 mm. The flowers are very small and white to yellowish white.
The fruit and seed are similar to C. cassia but smaller. The wood is reddish
grey, moderately hard and glossy. Cultivation is similar to that of Indonesian
cassia, except trees can be much older when first harvested. Harvesting and
preparation of bark is also similar.

Products and sfleczjkations


Bark is the only product of commercial importance and sold under a number
of regional names with Annam and Tonkin origins considered superior, but
most bark was available under the general name Saigon cassia. The Viet-
namese government introduced the name Vietnamese cassia as a standard
without reference to regional origin and established official grades, but bark
from several Cinnamomum spp. is still found in most consignments.
Vietnamese bark oil is locally obtained by hydro or steam distillation but
only in very small quantities, and reports and data on the oil are from
analyses carried out on exported bark, with a yield of 1.5-4.0%. The oil is
dark yellow to yellow brown; the major constituent is cinnamaldehyde to
Lauraceae 177

80%, but the proportion of other components is unreported. Some compo-


nents of bark and wood oils, but not their proportions, have been published
(Asakawa et al., 197 1). The oil is aromatic with a sweet, pungent and slightly
astringent taste.
Leaf oil data is mainly from C. loureim'i trees growing in Japan, where it is
known as Nikkei hi, and thus may not be directly applicable to Vietnamese
cassia. Steam distilled leaves and twigs yielded 0.2% light brown oil,
containing 40% linalool, 27% aldehydes (mainly citral) and cineole (Nitta,
1984). Another leaf oil contained citral as its major and eugenol as a minor
component. Thus leaf oil is of quite different composition to bark and root
oils. Root bark oil data is lacking, but some information is available from
Japan, thus the same qualification applies. Steam distilled bark in Japan
yielded 1.2% of light brown oil, the major component being cinnamalde-
hyde to 80%, with camphene, linalool and cineole as minor components
(Asakawa et al., 197 1).

Indian cassia

Indian cassia bark and leaf oil are obtained from Cinnamomum tamala Nees
& Eberm. native to the subtropical Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam and
Bangladesh. The tree is known as tejpat or tajpat in Hindi and Bengali,
tejpatra in Sanskrit and tamalpatra in Gujarati. Bark is traded locally as
Indian cassia bark or Indian cassia lignea, and substantial amounts of bark
and dried leaves are exported to neighbouring countries. Fresh and dried
leaves, as tajpat leaves, are commonly sold as a spice in markets, and an oil is
obtained by hydro or steam distillation of fresh, wilted or dried leaves.
Two types of C. tamala are known; one whose leaves yield oil high in
eugenol, the other in cinnamaldehyde. The strains are somewhat dissimilar
in appearance and range, though the latter overlaps. The fruits are attractive
to birds, which are the main seed-dispersal agents. Both types apparently
grow easily from seed, as almost pure stands can be found in some areas,
Sylhet, Bangladesh for example, and commonly found growing naturally in
forests between 900 and 2000 m on the Himalayan foothills. Bark from both
is used to adulterate C. zlerum bark.
Cinnamomum tamala (eugenol type) is an evergreen primarily forest tree
generally below 8 m, with the central trunk to 45-50 cm DBH, and
mucilaginous bark. The leaves are large, dark green, generally lanceolate,
acute, three ribbed, on short, stout petioles. The flowers yellowish to white,
on loose terminal panicles. The fruit a small pulpy, purplish drupe contain-
ing one small brown seed. The tree is very long-lived, and when only leaves
are harvested, cultivated trees over 100 years old are known in northern
India (Gulati, 1982). The eugenol type occurs generally over the natural
178 Chapter 6

range of the species in India and Bangladesh and wild trees make a sub-
stantial contribution to the total of harvested leaves and bark. The tree is also
widely cultivated in large and small plantations to provide dried leaves as
spice, but leaf-oil production is less common; the bark is coarser than C.
verum bark, although possessing the true cinnamon odour, and is a used as
a substitute and adulterant.
Cinnamomum tamala (cinnamic type) is generally slightly smaller than the
eugenol type, to 7.5 m, with the central trunk 30-40 cm DBH when mature.
The leaves are opposite, glabrous, green to dark green, three ribbed, ovate-
oblong, acute, on short petioles; young leaves are lanceolate, acute, initially
pink. The flowers are small, whitish to yellow white, on loose terminal
panicles. The fruit is a small fleshy, purplish drupe, containing one dark
brown seed. Main flowering is in May and the fruits ripen in June-July. This
type of C. tamala is more restricted in its range, although locally common in
a specific area. It is especially plentiful in hills around Nainital, where it is
also cultivated on small farms. Wild and cultivated trees are harvested
primarily for their leaves, which are dried and sold as a spice, and only a
small amount of leaf oil is distilled.

Cultivation and harvesting


Wild trees supply a significant proportion of bark and leaves produced, but
both types of C. tamala are also cultivated, which includes care and main-
tenance of basically wild or self-sown trees whose numbers and density in
some areas allow this kind of supervision. These semi-wild plantations
become the property of individual families who manage and harvest them.
Preparation of seedbeds, care of seedlings or cuttings, and transplanting are
similar to C. verum. Seedlings are transplanted into the field at 4-5 years old,
at a spacing of 3 X 2 m or 3 X 3 m. Shade trees are planted or trees retained
in new clearings for the first 8-10 years.
The trees are not usually harvested for bark and the first harvest of leaves
is at around ten years of age and continues annually until the tree dies; up to
100 years. Such plantations receive little regular attention once established,
mainly slashing or removal of vegetation and protection from fire. The leaves
are harvested after the main monsoon rains have ceased (October-March)
or during dry periods, as rain depresses oil content and aroma of leaves and
thus their value as spice; the annual yield is 10-20 kg of leaves per tree.
Although cultivation of naturally established plantations appears perfunc-
tory, analyses show a higher oil yield of 45% from leaves harvested from
these trees compared with an average from wild trees of 33% (Gulati 1982;
Bradu and Sobti, 1988). The leaves are normally dried for 3-4 days before
distilling and generally sold to a still owner for distillation; thus oil produced
is very variable but acceptable for local purposes.
Lauraceae 179

Table 6.6. Characteristics of WOtypes of Cinnarnomum tarnala leaf oil from India

Cinnamic type (b)


Eugenol
tvDe (a) Wild Cultivated
Specific gravity (30°C) 1.025 (20°C) 0.956349643 0.97304.9876
Refractive index (30°C) 1.526 (20°C) 1.4942-1.5038 1.5119-1.541 9
Optical rotation t 1V37' +0"12'tO -0"6 -0"30
Aldehyde content (??) ng 24-37 50
Eugenol content (%) 60-80 ng ng
Solubility (viv 70% alcohol) 1 :1.2 ng ng
Source: a Sarin et al. (1978); Gulati 91982); from one sample only: ng, not given.

Products and specz3cations


Leaf oil characteristics from the two types of C. tumalu are shown in Table
6.6. Another eugenol type had a specific gravity at 15°C of 1,0257, and a
refractive index of 1.5775. The main components of both are shown in
Table 6.7. Another sample of the cinnamic-type oil distilled from dried
leaves bought at a local market had a cinnamaldehyde content of 6 1%. Bark
oil obtained from C. tamalu (type unspecified) is pale yellow, with 7 0 4 5 %
cinnamaldehyde. The odour is that of true cinnamon, but fainter and
coarser.

Table 6.7. Main components of Cinnamomum tarnala leaf oil from India (%),

Cinnamic type a
Wild Cultivated Eugenol type
~~ ~

Camphor 0.90 3.19 ng


Linalool 15.28 15.67 0.2
Pinene ng ng 1.5
Borneo1 1.07 1.18 ng
Beta-caryophyllene 7.26 4.00 ng
Caryophyllene ng ng 0.7
Cadinene ng 3.06 ng
p-Cymene ng ng 3.2
Alpha-terpineol 1.54 1.77 0.3
Limonene ng ng 0.7
Benzyl cinnamate 1.87 1.81 ng
Benzaldehyde 2.00 4.1 1 0.2
Cinnamaldehyde 55.19 41.20 ng
Cineole ng ng 0.9
Eugenol 4.23 13.2 7.8
Euaenol acetate 2.06 12.45 1.2
ng, not given.
Source: a Gulati (1982); Sarin etal. (1978).
180 Chapter 6

Cinnamon

It was as spices that cinnamon and cassia first became commercially im-
portant and cinnamon is still considered one of the finest sweet spices, with
cassia a coarser substitute. Reports of cinnamon usage in dynastic Egypt or
ancient China are considered unsound and probably referred to cassia, if
indeed the references were to any kind of Cinnamomum bark. This is
particularly so in China, where early Chinese writers habitually referred to
several spices with the same character(s), the meaning often changing over
time according to the spice’s relative importance. The very ancient use of
these spices in their natural habitat to flavour food, in social and religious
ceremonies, and in herbal remedies, with their dissemination along tradi-
tional eastern trade routes is well documented. As this trade gradually
extended from Asia to Europe, so knowledge and use of the spices grew,
creating greater demand. This demand finally sent Europeans sailing in
search of their source and thus broke Arab domination of the oriental spice
trade - a monopoly the Arabs had maintained for centuries by inventing
fantastic stories of the origin of cinnamon and the dangers involved in its
collection, many retold in the Thousand and One Nights. It was to search for
a route to the spice islands that sent Columbus sailing west to make landfall
in the Americas, discover gold not spices, and led to the destruction of the
great Aztec and Inca empires.
An early mention of Ceylon cinnamon by the Arab writer Kasawini about
AD 1275 was followed by that of a Minorite friar, John of Montecorvino in
1293. The noted traveller Ibn Batutah in 1340 also referred to Ceylon
cinnamon in his books, and described the huge storehouses, bangasalus,
which then existed in what is now Colombo. In the eighteenth century the
Dutchman Francois Valentijn described bark harvesting in detail (Arasar-
atnam, 1978). Arabs called it kitfut-ed-darsini, corrupted later to kitfah
which survives as kelfar used to describe Malabar cinnamon bark.
When the Portuguese arrived in Ceylon in 1505, cinnamon bark was
obtained from wild trees, and the historian Ribeiro described various meth-
ods used to collect and prepare bark in the Kingdom of Kotte (Fatalida
historica da Ilha Ceilao. Lisbon 1836 trans.). Following the Dutch occupa-
tion, systematic cultivation began between 1767-1 770 by a colonist, de
Kok, encouraged by Governors Falk and Van der Gaff. Under the Portu-
guese and Dutch, cinnamon production in Ceylon was a state monopoly,
protected by the most stringent laws, but the British abolished the monopoly
in 1833. Removal of the very high export duty in 1843 encouraged exports,
and large shipments were made to Europe. Contemporary authors state the
Portuguese extracted an annual tax of 110,000 kg of bark; the Dutch
produced about 180,000 kg annually, and under the British this rose to
lauraceae 181

500,000 kg. The area under cultivated cinnamon in Sri Lanka was 16,000 ha
in 1850, falling to 14,000 ha in 1970 (Wijesekera et al., 1976).
The Dutch also introduced cinnamon into their East Indian colonies,
particularly Java, and Indonesia is now a major producer and exporter of
cinnamon products. The Central Bureau of Statistics reported that bark
exports in the period 1989-94 were, in tonnes, 3293, 2957, 3958, 7857,
3379, 3890, with the USA, Singapore and The Netherlands the main
destinations in that order. Liberalization of the industry is expected to
increase production of cinnamon products and exports. Cinnamon was
brought to the Seychelles in 177 1 by Pierre Poivre and, by 1880, successfully
established (Fock-Heng, 1965). Although cinnamon has been introduced to
many other tropical countries, significant commercial production is limited
to Sri Lanka, the Seychelles, Madagascar and India in that order. Where and
when cinnamon oil was first produced is unknown, but it was steam distilled
in Ceylon during the Dutch occupation. An early mention of cinnamon oil is
in European documents of the sixteenth century, when a German ordinance
was published controlling its price.

Botany
Cinnamomum verum Presl. (syn. C. zeylanicum Breyn; Laurus cinnamomum
L). The generic name is derived from the Arabic or Persian mama via the
Greek amomum meaning spice, and the prefix chini to its believed origin.
Cinnamon is commonly known as kurundu in Sri Lanka, dalchini and
ilayangam in India, in Sanskrit tamalpatra, in Dutch caneel, in Spanish and
Portuguese canela, and commercially as true cinnamon to distinguish it and
its products from those derived from other Cinnamomum spp. In this section
cinnamon will designate C. verum and its products unless stated other-
wise.
Cinnamomum verum is a bushy, evergreen tree to 15 m with numerous
branches, long, leathery, bright green leaves, small yellow flowers and ovoid
blackish fruits (Fig. 6.3). The bark and leaves are strongly aromatic. There
is considerable physical variation within the species, indeed between in-
dividual trees, and distinct local strains exist. In Sri Lanka for example, six
named types are differentiated by the taste and aroma of their leaves.
Chemical classification would be a more accurate method of differentiation;
however, some differences are probably due to local environment as soil and
climate have a substantial effect on tree growth, type of bark and oils
produced, as discussed later. That three quite distinct essential oils (bark,
leaf and root) are obtained from one tree is of particular phytochemical
interest, and the method of biosynthesis which can generate or store eugenol
in leaves, cinnamaldehyde in stem bark, and camphor in root bark is
remarkable; light may be a major factor. The biosynthetic pathways of
phenylpropanoids and terpenoid compounds leading to oils with varying
182 Chapter 6

characteristics has been investigated but not fully determined (Senanayake


and Wijesekera, 1990).
Cinnamon commonly produces moderately deep and extensive roots,
which contain about 3% essential oil with camphor to 60%. Seedling root
growth is initially rapid, with formation of a penetrating taproot followed by
numerous spreading laterals. There is normally a single central stem to 20
m, usually 12-1 5 m, but under cultivation trees are coppiced to 3 m at 3-4
years. The trunk on uncut trees can reach 60 cm DBH, up to 90 cm in the
Seychelles, with numerous, often drooping branches beginning low on the
trunk. Wood of mature trees varies from light brownish grey to grey or
yellowish brown, without markings, more or less lustrous and faintly
scented. The timber is light to moderately heavy, usually straight grained,
even textured, and weak. It seasons early but warps, splits, cracks and
stains.
The bark on young shoots is smooth and pale brown, on mature branches
and stems rough, dark brown or brownish grey. The bark contains 0.5-2.0%
oil, the main constituent being cinnamaldehyde at 60-70%, but there is a
basic difference between oil distilled from outer and inner bark. Oil cells are
located in the phloem, and are oval or round in cross-section. A detailed
description of the morphology and histology of cinnamon bark has been
published (Parry, 1962). Trees with a purple flush of new growth in India
had nearly 30% more bark oil than trees which flushed green, and thus flush

Fig. 6.3. Cinnamon plantation, Sri Lanka.


Lauraceae 183

colour could be used to select seedlings with a high bark oil content
(Krishnamoorthy et al., 1988). Bark on young shoots is removed, scraped,
dried and becomes the cinnamon quills of commerce. Five bark types are
recognized in Sri Lanka, but the major differences are probably more
environmental than genetic, since visual differences do not consistently
correlate with oil yield and type. Commercial cinnamon bark is a dull pale
brown, to 5 . 5 mm thick, with the inner surface somewhat darker, and finely
striated longitudinally. The finest quality has a delicate fragrance and tastes
warm, sweet and pleasant. The presence of calcium oxalate crystals has been
correlated with low quality bark (Mikage et al., 1987).
The leaves are opposite, leathery, generally ovate or elliptic, 5-18 X 3-10
cm, base rounded, tip acuminate; exstipulate; petiole 1-2 cm, upper surface
grooved. They are green to bright green above, dull grey-green below, but
young leaves may initially have a reddish tint. The leaves have three to five
conspicuous longitudinal light-coloured veins running from base to tip (Fig.
6.4). The anatomy of many Cinnamomum species has been described in
detail (Bakker et al., 1992).There is considerable local variation in leaf shape
and size, and four types are recognized in Sri Lanka based on taste: sweet,
neutral, pungent and bitter, but only the last two are distilled. By keeping
them separate it is possible to produce two types of oil, but there is no
commercial demand. The two leaf oils formerly available in Sri Lanka were
regional types; one high and one low in eugenol. Green leaves yield about
1% essential oil, cinnamon leaf oil, whose main constituent is eugenol at
70-95 %.
The inflorescence is a lax terminal or axilliary panicle, peduncle soft,
hairy, to 5-7 cm. The flowers are up to 3 mm diameter, pale yellow or cream,
and have an unpleasant fetid smell. The calyx is campanulate, softly hairy,
with six acutely pointed segments; a corolla is absent. The superior uni-
locular ovary tapers to a short style, and contains a single ovule. Main
flowering is April-May in Sri Lanka, January-February in India. The fruit a
black or bluish fleshy ovoid drupe, 1.5-2.0 cm when ripe, the enlarged calyx
persisting at its base. Fruits mature in 3-5 months, are edible and attractive
to birds which are the main seed dispersal agent. Ripe fruits have a distinct
odour when opened, and a flavour resembling juniper. Crushed ripe fruits
boiled in water yield an oil known in India as cinnamon suet, used in candle
making. The globular brown seeds contain approximately 33% fixed oil.

Ecology
Cinnamon is a tree of the wet tropics and a somewhat restricted natural
range in Sri Lanka, India and South East Asia. Introduced to other coun-
tries, it thrives and is grown commercially only where the climate is very
similar to its natural habitat. In the Seychelles, fruit pigeons and the
introduced Indian mynah so widely dispersed seeds that cinnamon became
dominant in secondary forest on the main islands of Mahe and Silhouette a
184 Chapter 6

century after its introduction, and seedlings appeared on almost any vacant
undisturbed land. Another important factor assisting establishment is that
cinnamon is not an attractive browse plant to cattle and, once past the
seedling stage, is normally ignored.
Cinnamon produces the finest bark in sunny regions with an average
temperature of 27-30°C, but will grow well in a wide range of environments
as specimens in botanic gardens in many countries demonstrate. Bark from
these trees is usually of indifferent quality; for example bark collected by the
author from trees growing in the Botanic Gardens, Entebbe, where the
climate is cooler and drier than Sri Lanka, was thin, brittle and of poor
quality; similarly in Melbourne, Australia. A rainfall of 2000-2500 mm with
no pronounced dry season is the optimum, thus productive regions near
Colombo, Sri Lanka and Victoria, Seychelles, have an almost similar annual

Fig. 6.4. Cinnamomum verum, cinnamon, A, Flowering shoot; B, flower in longitudinal section; C, fruits;
D, fruit in longitudinal section. (Purseglove et al., 1981,)
lauraceae 185

average of 2365 and 2354 mm respectively. Cinnamon grows naturally from


sea-level to 1500 m, but for good quality commercial bark 500 m is
considered the maximum altitude in Sri Lanka, somewhat higher in India.
Essentially a forest tree, cinnamon grows well in a more open or low tree
environment, and heavy shade is apparently detrimental. T o what extent
this affects bark production per tree, or quality of bark and oil is not known,
but most plantations in Sri Lanka are unshaded.

Soils and fertilizers


Cinnamon grows naturally on a very wide range of soils, but soil type directly
influences rate of growth, especially of young stems which produce commer-
cially desirable bark. Sandy soil produces the highest-quality bark in Sri
Lanka and India, but in the Seychelles a more loamy soil is the best. Lighter
soils in the 2000 mm rainfall zone generally produce acceptable quality bark
and oil, with yield mainly affected by standard of management. In Sri Lanka
under similar management, highest-quality bark is produced on light sandy
soils of the western region around Negombo, while lateritic soils of the
southern region produce a heavier bark of lower quality, although yield per
tree is significantly higher. Coastal loams are favoured in Madagascar, but
cinnamon also grows on lateritic soil further inland. Waterlogged soils are
unsuitable and low-lying areas subject to sporadic flooding should also be
avoided, as bark from trees growing under these conditions is generally low
in oil. Cinnamon is considered susceptible to salinity, but there are no data
to support this. In the Seychelles and on Zanzibar healthy trees grow in
coastal coconut plantations within reach of sea-spray, but no comparison of
bark obtained from such trees and those growing elsewhere was available.
The most common fertilizer applied to cinnamon is animal or plant
residues, and although chemical fertilizers are generally recommended, little
is used. Cinnamon produces a relatively large root system, even when
regularly coppiced, and is thus able to scavenge a moderately large soil
volume for nutrients. Placing phosphate in planting holes is recommended,
and single is preferable to double or triple superphosphate as it contains a
small amount of sulphur which is often beneficial in tropical soils. In India
and Sri Lanka, a mixture of equal parts of dung and leaves, coconut poonac
or topsoil is commonly placed in holes when planting out seedlings.
A Sri Lanka recommendation, also followed in south India, is a 2: 1.5:1.5
mixture of urea, rock phosphate and potassium chloride, applied annually to
trees 1-3 years old at 40-60 kgiha, and to mature trees at 100 kgiha in two
equal applications between April-August and October-January, depending
on beginning of the rainy season and combined with weeding which hoes in
the fertilizer. Since quick growth produces the finest bark and plants are
required to coppice readily, a nitrogenous top-dressing at the beginning of
the rainy season is advisable even where no other fertilizer is used. Well-
186 Chapter 6

established estates in India which have their own stills return residue to the
plantation as mulch.

Cultivation
Cinnamon is propagated vegetatively or from seeds but as cinnamon is open
pollinated, vegetative propagation from selected parents is recommended
and modern micropropagation methods have been successfully used to
produce large numbers of seedlings (Rai and Chandra, 1987). The fruits are
avidly eaten by birds, and it is usually necessary to bag fruits for protection.
Ripe fruits for seed are heaped until the pulp rots and the seeds are then
washed, shade-dried, and planted as soon as possible since viability quickly
declines. In India, where freshly harvested seed was sown daily for the first
7 days and weekly for 7 weeks thereafter, the highest germination rate of
94% was obtained by sowing the third day after seed was harvested, fell to
50% after 14 days storage and was nil after 40 days. Seeds sown within
7 days germinated in 20-25 days; later sowings extended the period to
32-42 days (Kannan and Balakrishnan, 1967).
Seeds should be sown thickly in rows 20 cm apart and covered with
2-3 cm of soil. Four-month-old seedlings may be transplanted into baskets,
and planted out 4-5 months later. Seedlings may also be left in the nursery
until required for transplanting, but from six months shade should be
gradually reduced. Cinnamon can be propagated by cuttings, layering, or
division of rootstocks, and the last is probably the quickest method of
upgrading a plantation, since high-yielding stools can be selected. Plants are
cut to within 15 cm of the ground, suitable sections of rootstocks removed
with adhering soil and planted out immediately into prepared pits. The great
advantage of this method is that stems are ready for cutting in 12-1 8 months
compared to 2.5-3.0 years for seedlings. A comparison of cuttings of
different lengths and ages in the Seychelles showed young two-node cuttings
planted in polythene bags filled with a mixture of red soil and coconut coir
dust then placed under a polythene tent had the highest strike rate and were
ready for planting out in 12-18 months. Apical cuttings with three leaves
were best in Sri Lanka, and treatment of more mature hardwood cuttings
with IBA at 2500 ppm encouraged rooting.
A field spacing of 120 X 120 cm or 90 X 90 cm is recommended in Sri
Lanka for commercial plantations, and blanks should be infilled to ensure
this population is maintained (Wijayaratne and Pieris, 1981). For direct
sowing, a 2 X 2 m spacing is usual and up to 20 seeds are placed into
prepared holes and later thinned. In India, a common spacing is 3 X 3 m
with several seeds sown per site. Seedlings are planted out just prior to the
rainy season with supplementary watering, or just after the rains commence.
This is normally June-July in India, May-June in Sri Lanka, and October-
November in the Seychelles. Weeding three or four times annually is
necessary during the first two years, thereafter twice per year should be
lauraceae 187

sufficient. Herbicides are seldom applied to cinnamon plantations, and it is


unlikely that their use would be profitable under present production sys-
tems.
Plants are coppiced after two years to 10-15 cm from the ground and
stools covered with soil. This encourages shoot formation and four to six are
allowed to grow and kept straight by pruning side shoots and excess foliage,
as shade retards growth. Stems are cut at 2-3 m and 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter.
Stools are pruned after cutting to remove all unwanted material and earthed-
up. The number of shoots from a stool normally increases annually reaching
a maximum at eight and declines after 10-12 years.

Harvesting
The stems are cut during the rains to facilitate peeling, when the red flush of
the young leaves is beginning to turn green and the sap is flowing freely. In
Sri Lanka, harvesting is mainly in May-June and October-November,
although harvesting on a limited scale continues throughout the year. The
first harvest yields a thick bark of inferior quality, but quality improves from
successive cuts. The finest quality is obtained from shoots with uniform
brown thin bark, 1.0-1.25 m X 1.25 cm diameter, from central shoots, and
the middle portion of shoots. The leaves and twigs remaining after cutting
can be distilled. Cut shoots are bundled and removed for peeling and drying
(Fig. 6.5). Bark to be distilled for oil should not be left in wet bundles or
become damp, as this encourages mould or fermentation which directly
affects oil composition. A detailed description of the preparation of cinna-
mon quills, and the various grades and qualities obtained are contained in
Purseglove (1 98 1).
A brief description of the various grades is useful, since the names will
occur in the text. Quills are yellowish-brown, cylindrical, approximately 1 m
X 10 mm diameter, scraped, smooth, thin, rolled bark with occasional scars,
and fine, light-coloured wavy lines running lengthwise and clearly visible.
These have a pleasing, fragrant odour and a warm, sweet, aromatic taste.
Quillings are broken pieces of quills of various grades, length and diameter,
which approach but do not equal the full aroma and taste of sound cinna-
mon quills. Featherings are the shavings and small pieces of bark remaining
after processing inner bark into quills, with a taste similar to quillings. Chips
are small pieces of mature, unpeelable bark, occasionally fragments of inner
bark, greyish brown within, and deficient in both aroma and taste.
Bark yield per hectare in Sri Lanka depends mainly on the standard of
management. Smallholders average 100-125 kg/ha quills and 25 kgiha chips
annually; on well-managed larger plantations the first crop after 3-4 years
yields 56 to 67 kgiha quills subsequently increasing to 168-224 kg/ha. About
63 kg of cinnamon chips and approximately 2.5 t of undried leaves per
hectare are also obtained, but only 75% of leaves available are distilled, the
remainder left as mulch. On well-established plantations in India, the first
188 Chapter 6

Fig. 6.5. Harvested cinnamon.

harvest yields 100-120 kgiha quills rising to 200-250 kgiha. A cinnamon


plantation can remain profitable for 15-45 years depending mainly on the
standard of management, and the effective life can also be extended by
selecting only high-yielding, long-lived material at establishment or replant-
ing. Little information on this aspect of management is available, indeed few
comparisons of individual tree yields could be found, data which would
appear to be a basic requirement for improved profitability. In Tamil Nadu
State, India, tree yield is being monitored for information to be used in
selecting high-yielding trees. Production in the Seychelles depends mainly
on felling self-sown trees for their bark. Oil was formerly the most important
cinnamon product exported, but was later replaced by rough-grade cinna-
mon bark, consisting of unselected pieces obtained from bushes and trees.
Yield varied from a few kilograms per bush to 45 kg dried bark from a large
mature tree. Average annual yield in the 1950-60s was 0.6 tiha, but declined
rapidly in the 1970s (Lawrence, 1984). When leaves only were collected, up
to 2 t/ha annually was usual. Rough bark is also produced in Madagascar
using techniques similar to those in the Seychelles. Plantations have received
little attention since the Second World War, although birds have dispersed
seed over large areas. Trees are not regularly coppiced and usually harvested
only when bark or oil price is high.

Distillation
Cinnamon bark produces two oils, a superior type derived from the inner
bark and a lower quality from broken quills, chips and bark. In Sri Lanka, a
third oil, katta thel, is produced from bark and twigs for local consumption.
lauraceae 189

Leaf oil is usually complementary to bark production; leaves stripped from


shoots, together with small leafy twigs and stems are left in the field for 3-4
days then transported to the distillery. Root bark also contains an essential
oil high in camphor, but is produced only when a plantation is uprooted for
replanting. Roots are cleaned of soil, trimmed and peeled prior to distill-
ing.
The use of modern stills constructed of metal or similar materials is not
obligatory, nor should their lack preclude stills made of more traditional
materials if their use enables a local industry to be established at little cost.
Standard of still management is usually far more important in producing
high quality oil, In Sri Lanka for example, cone-shaped still bodies are made
of vertical planks of wood, tightly bound by horizontal metal bands, and so
well made and fitted are the planks that there is little leakage. Maintenance
and replacement cost are low and within the competence of local craftsmen.
Traditional wooden stills hold about 200 kg leaves, with steam generated in
a separate wood-fired boiler, and distilled for 8-9 hours at the height of the
bark-peeling season, but up to 24 hours in the off season. Oil yield varies
from 0.5-1 .O% (about 30-40 kg/ha), depending on the distilling method,
the time of year the leaves are harvested, and whether the leaves are fresh or
wilted.
Bark oil is obtained by steam- or hydro-distillation with cohobation, but
solvent extraction of the distillate is recommended to obtain the finest
quality oil; highest grade oil is produced from selected bark in the USA and
Western Europe. Oil from various distillation methods is basically similar in
characteristics and composition but quite different in odour and taste,
properties of paramount importance to end users (Wijesekera and Ratna-
singham, 1975 ) . Cinnamon bark contains water-soluble volatile aromatic
components, recovered by extracting distillation water and adding the
extract to water-distilled oil. Such oil is known as complete oil and is
considered superior to the distilled bark oil generally available. Oil is
commonly obtained by rather primitive methods in most spice producing
countries using inferior materials, and such oil differs in yield, characteristics
and composition. Oils produced in the same still from quillings, featherings
or chips, indicate how varying the proportion of chips affects the oil pro-
duced.
Chip oil has a very good odour and flavour although containing 20% less
cinnamaldehyde and twice the amount of eugenol than bark oil. Hydro-
distilling chips, plus variable amounts of featherings, quillings and wild
cinnamon bark (pathura) is the usual practice in Sri Lanka. Most stills are
small, copper, built into a stone hearth, and heated by direct fire. About
23-27 kg chips and 180-225 litres water is the usual charge, distilled for
5 hours; the residual water from one distillation is collected and used in the
next. Oil yield is approximately 0.2%. Very similar methods are general in
India, although large private plantations in Kerala State have upgraded their
190 Chapter 6

stills and obtained yields of 1.5-2.5%. Yields of 0.5-2.0% are obtained from
Sri Lanka chip material by using stills developed by the CISIR, although oil
quality frequently improves before an increase in yield.
Leaf oil in Sri Lanka is obtained by similar methods, frequently in the
same stills. Since leaves are bulky and difficult to transport, stills are usually
located at a convenient site, and constructed of materials locally available.
Thus leaf oils in India, Sri Lanka and elsewhere can be very variable, but
where more modern equipment has been installed, oil of excellent quality
and type is produced. Seychelles oil is produced by water-steam distillation
of leaves hand stripped from shoots cut for bark production. Leaf stripping
is unpleasant, hand-blistering work and thus unpopular with local people,
who gladly abandoned it for less onerous jobs in the booming tourist
industry. Leaves are collected during January-September, with an average
yield of 1.8-2.0 tiha, and are distilled as soon as possible after arrival at the
distillery. A charge is 300 kg fresh leaves, distilled for about 6 hours. Under
the government's 1982-1 986 Development Plan, two modern distilleries
plants were constructed, but neither achieved full commercial operation.
Assessing available information on leaf oil production showed that there
appears to be a lack of basic data on effects of the various techniques used:
for example, the oil yield and any change in oil composition resulting from
distilling fresh leaves or leaves wilted for 1-7 days. This information is
essential to ensure a distillery operates efficiently and profitably, and greatly
assists the integration of oil production with other plantation operations.

Pests and diseases


Many insects noted on cinnamon are of little significance; those damaging
young stems and bark are most important, others attacking leaves becoming
important only where leaf oil is produced or defoliation greatly reduces stem
growth. Pesticides can be used to control infestations but few data have been
published. Insects marked with an asterisk* are also pests of C. camphora and
other Cinnamomum species. In India and Sri Lanka, caterpillars of the
cinnamon butterfly Chilasa clytia* are the most destructive pest, and nor-
mally appear in December when trees have a flush of new growth. Cater-
pillars are voracious feeders and, if uncontrolled, quickly defoliate trees,
especially in new plantations where leaf loss adversely affects growth, and
can cause death of newly planted seedlings. Shoot borers cause significant
damage to individual trees and reduce bark quality; in India and Sri Lanka
shothole borers, Xylosandrus spp. are frequently recorded.
Leaf miners, especially Phyllocnistis crysophthalma and to a lesser extent
Acrocercops spp.*, become important when, by defoliation, they reduce rate
of shoot growth. Similarly gall and leaf mites, especially Eriophyes bois and
Typhlodromus spp., caterpillars of the leaf webber Sorolopha archimedias* and
arboreal ants Oecophylla smaragdina. Young seedlings in the nursery may be
eaten-off a t ground level by agrotid larvae or mole crickets Gryllotalpa spp.",
lauraceae I91

and in the field after transplanting. Larvae of various Popillia spp., which
attack roots, are particularly damaging in nurseries and on young seedlings.
Most often recorded are P. complanata and P. discalis. Pests recorded from
stored cinnamon quills in India and Sri Lanka include Lasioderma sem'corne,
Pyralis farinalis and Sitodrepa panicea.
The numerous pathogens recorded from cinnamon are mainly of little
importance, are normally found at a low level of infection on other local trees
and seldom warrant control measures. Diseases of C. verum also attack other
Cinnamomum spp. and are marked with an asterisk*. In India, Sri Lanka and
Indonesia, a most important disease is caused by Corticium salmonicolor*
(syn. C. javanicum). Symptoms are the formation of a pale, pinkish-white
brittle layer (crust) on young stems or branches and, unless controlled, the
infection spreads, destroying bark and finally killing shoots. The pathogen
also attacks mango, jackfruit, custard apple and other fruit trees often
growing in the vicinity of cinnamon plantations. Affected prunings and other
plant parts should be burnt. Also attacking shoots and young stems is
Phytophthora cinnamomi*; the most obvious symptom being vertical strips of
dead bark which are most numerous near ground level. The disease is
prevalent on badly drained soils. In Indonesia, it has also been recorded on
other Cinnamomum spp.
A stem disease caused by Exobasidium cinnamomi can become serious in
some years in Sri Lanka, and may also spread to leaves. Symptoms on leaves
are small yellowish concave spots whose underside bears greyish-white spore
bodies. A stem blight due to Diplodia spp. attacks young seedlings in the
nursery and when first planted out. Symptoms are small light brown patches
on stems, which spread and cause eventual death. Several root rots are
damaging to some extent; brown rot caused by Phellinus lamaensis, white rot
by Fomes lignosus* and two black root rots by Rosellinia spp. Symptoms are
roots covered with a network of black mycelium and small white starlike
spots under the bark. Rosellinia spp. attack a range of cultivated trees and
shrubs. Leaf blight caused by Pestalotia cinnamomi, known in Sri Lanka as
grey leaf spot or blight, can cause severe damage and defoliation. Symptoms
on leaves are small yellow spots, becoming grey with central black dots. A
closely related species attacks coconut, and cross-infection is suspected.
Glomerella cingulata* can become locally or seasonally severe in India with
similar effects on trees. Three other leaf diseases have been recorded, caused
by Aecidium cinnamomi, Leptosphaeria spp. and Gloeosporium spp. but the
extent of damage was not noted.

Products and speciJications


A striking feature of the three cinnamon oils is their composition, each
containing a different major component, this being cinnamaldehyde to 60%
in bark oil, eugenol to 80% in leaf oil, and camphor to 60% in root-bark oil.
The main constituents are shown in Table 6.8.
192 Chapter 6

Table 6.8. Main constituents of cinnamon oils from Sri Lanka (%)

Leaf oil Bark oil Root bark oil


Alpha-pinene 0.2 0.2 1.7
Beta-pinene ng ng 1.2
1,bCineole 0.15 1.65 15.2
p-Cymene 0.35 0.55 1.o
Camphor ng trace 60.0
Linalool 1.5 2.3 1.2
Beta-caryophyllene 1.85 1.35 ng
Alpha-humulene 0.2 0.2 0.2
Alpha-terpineol 0.15 0.4 3.8
Saf roIe 0.65 ng 0.7
Cinnamaldehyde 1.3 74.0 3.9
Cinnamyl acetate 0.8 5.0 0.3
Eugenol 87.0 8.8 5.0
Acetyl eugenol 1 .o trace ng
Benzylbenzoate 2.67 1 .o 0.3
_ _ _ ~ ~

ng, not given.


Source: Wijesekera et al. (1974).

Cinnamon bark oil is a pale to dark yellow oily liquid with a strong, warm,
sweet, spicy, tenacious odour and a sweet, pungent but not bitter taste.
Lower-grade commercial oils are usually darker and lack the powerful odour
and tenacity. Oils distilled in the U K usually differ from those produced in
other European countries and the USA in having a lower specific gravity and
containing about 60% cinnamaldehyde and 10% eugenol. Oil from first
grade Sri Lanka quills, often known as Ceylon oil, is considered the best
quality. The main oil use is to flavour foods, beverages, pharmaceutical and
dental preparations, cosmetics and perfumes. Bark oil is considered to have
a strong germicidal activity and is a fungicide (Mangiarotti et al., 1990).
Research by the British Ministry of Agriculture produced a cinnamic acid
preparation with strong bird repelling properties which, when sprayed on
fruit trees and bushes, effectively protected fruit from their depredations.
Adulteration of bark oil is common, most frequently with cinnamon leaf oil,
cassia oil, clove leaf oil, eugenol and cinnamaldehyde, which is mass pro-
duced from coal-tar bases, especially toluene. Methods of detection have
been published.
The major oil constituent is cinnamaldehyde, but other components
impart the characteristic odour and flavour distinguishing this oil from other
Cinnamomum bark oils. The powerful characteristic note of high quality oil
is believed due to a combination of methyl-n-amylketone and other alde-
hydes and ketones, but the relationship between oil composition and orga-
noleptic properties has still to be accurately determined. Analyses of the
lauraceae 193

three oils are shown in Table 6.8.; however, the analytical method used can
produce differing results (Lawrence, 1994). The proportion of individual
components in Sri Lanka bark oils can vary; for example ester content is
partly dependent upon the hydrolysis occurring with a particular distillation
method. Aldehydes can range from 51-76% (average 5 9 , with eugenol
5 1 8 % but up to 31%. A high proportion of chips in distilled material can
increase eugenol content, and quillings and featherings can increase the
aldehyde content. Seychelles bark oil is generally considered inferior to Sri
Lanka, with a harsher odour probably due to camphene and camphor not
present in Sri Lankan oils. Efforts to improve quality produced oil with a
cinnamaldehyde content similar to Sri Lanka oil, but eugenol of only 3 4 % .
Few studies of Madagascar bark oil have been published; material distilled
in Europe gave oil yield of 0.6-1 .O%, aldehyde content of 62-65% (Paillot-
Cressole and Duquenois, 1952), but there is some doubt if this bark was
wholly from C. verum. A Malaysian bark oil had a cinnamaldehyde content
of 72-80%, eugenol 1-2%, and isoeugenol 1%.
Information on non-commercial sources of bark oil has been reported;
Ghana (Talalaj, 1967; Angmor et al., 1972); Burma (Kya and Min, 1970),
and some possessed unusual properties compared to commercial oils. The
major characteristics of bark oils from selected origins are shown in Table
6.9.
Leaf oil is a yellow to brownish-yellow, with a warm, spicy, somewhat
harsh odour, lacking the richness of bark oil and a slightly bitter, burning,
very spicy and powerful flavour. The main use is in perfumery and con-
fectionery and as a source of eugenol. The main characteristics of leaf oil
from selected origins are shown in Table 6.10 and the major components in

Table 6.9. Characteristics of cinnamon bark oils from selected origins.

Sri Lanka Sevchelles Madaqascar BP EOA


Specific 1.023 0.943 1.016b 1.010 1.010
gravity 1.040 a 0.976 1.030 a 1.030
Optical 0" - T30' -2'34' O0 0"
rotation -1% -5'10' -2O -2O
Refractive 1.581 1.52843 1.5746 1.573 1.573
index (20'C) 1.591 1.53271 1.595 1.591
Solubility 1 :2-3 1:IO 1 :2.5 1 :3 113'
(viv 70% alcohol)
Aldehyde as 65-76 22-84 61.4 60-70 55-78
cinnamaldehyde (%)
Eugenol content (%) 4-1 0 6-1 5 10 ng
Acid number ng ng 5.6 ng
a20°C; 15'Cc; 25%: ng, not given; BP, British Pharmacopoeia: EOA, Essential Oil Association.
Figures in columns are ranges.
194 Chapter 6

Table 6.8. Leaf oil is also produced in India and oil originating from
commercial estates in Kerala State is of international quality. Oil from other
Indian regions is very variable, and some published analyses may be from
material other than C. zlerum. The eugenol content is generally 70-85%, and
some characteristics are shown in Table 6.10. Seychelles oil is a valued
source of eugenol, usually above 90%, with phenols 78-95% and aldehydes
5%. Madagascar oil has a eugenol content of 70-90%, and a distinguishing
feature is the relatively high benzyl benzoate content. A GLC study of leaf oil
prepared from cultivated trees in Ghana showed 92% eugenol, 2% eugenol
acetate and 1% cinnamaldehyde (Angmor et al., 1972), but apparently no
significant amount of benzyl benzoate, although 3% was found in Sri
Lankan samples. A similar study on Malaysian oil gave a eugenol content of
68-82% and isoeugenol 5-9%, considerably lower than Sri Lankan oils.
Thus the geographical origin of leaf oil could be determined on eugenol and
certain minor component content, but this would require more data from
detailed analyses. The only common adulterant is clove leaf oil, used when
cinnamon leaf oil is higher in price; the reverse also occurs.
Root-bark oil is colourless to pale yellowish brown, similar in odour to
stem bark oil but weaker, lacking in fragrance, and camphoraceous. The
major component is camphor, to 60%, which crystallizes out on standing.
Oil yield from root bark at 1-2.8% is higher than from stem bark and leaves.
GLC studies of oil obtained from single sources in Sri Lanka (Wijesekera et
al., 1974), and Ghana (Angmor et al., 1972) showed monoterpene compo-
nents at 80%, cinnamaldehyde at 8%, and a trace of eugenol in the
Ghanaian sample. In the Sri Lankan sample, 22 components were identified

Table 6.10. Characteristics of leaf oil from selected origins

India Sri Lanka Seychelles Madagascar


Specific gravity 1.0443a 1.044a 1.0206b 1.054b
1.0620 1.066 1.064
Refractive index 1.51223~ 1.530a 1.533" 1.535c
1.5350 1.540 1.537
Optical rotation -I0 -I0 -2"32' -1'4'
t 3O t3" t 1'27'
Acid value 14 15.7 ng ng
Ester value 4.7 16.7 ng ng
Eugenol (%) 70.0 70.0 78.0 78.0
80.5 95.0 94.0
Cinnamaledehyde (%) ng <4 <5 ng
Solubility (viv alcohol 70%) 1:lO 1 :I .5 1:1.5 1:I
a30°C; 1 5 T : 20'C; ng, not given.
Figures in columns are the range.
Source: Abstracted from published data.
lauraceae 195

with 1,8-cineole (1 5%), eugenol (5%) and cinnamaldehyde (4%) the princi-
pal minor components, with monoterpene composition similar to stem bark
and leaf oils.
Oleoresin is prepared by extracting cinnamon bark with organic solvents;
the yield using ethanol is 10-12%, using benzene 2.5-4.3%; more recently
1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluorethanehas been used (Bernard et al., 1989).
Oleoresin is a deep reddish or greenish brown rather viscous liquid, and
contains steam-volatile oil, fixed oil and other extractives dependent on the
solvent employed. Little information is available on the composition of
cinnamon oleoresins, but volatile oil content is 16-65%. The major use is in
flavourings, cake and similar mixes, pickles, prepared meats, convenience
foods and related products where flavour stability at high temperature is
important. Oleoresins are normally commercially available dispersed on
various bases and usually sold on a volatile oil content of 23-27 or 65%.
Oils obtained from a large number of other Cinnamomum spp. of little or
no commercial importance have been described from India (Gulati, 1982;
Khana et al., 1988): Sri Lanka (Wijesekera and Jayewardene, 1974; Sri-
tharan et al., 1994): Nepal (Sthapit and Tuladhar, 1993): the Philippines
(Concha and Cruz, 1968; Lawrence and Hogg, 1974): Taiwan and China
(Hiraizume, 1950: Hirota and Hiroi, 1967; Lin and Hua, 1980): Far East
(Fujita et al., 1974; Lin and Hua, 1987).

Sassafras

Sassafras oil production began after European settlement of North America,


and the oil is obtained by steam distilling root bark of Sassafras albidum Nutt.
Since the use of sassafras oil could decline following bans on its incorpora-
tion in certain foods and drinks in some countries, only brief details are
included. The oil is produced wholly from wild trees. Initial use was a
decoction obtained by boiling roots, prescribed as a stimulant or tonic, and
was derived from the indigenous peoples’ habit of chewing pieces of root to
alleviate fevers. The French later developed sassafras to treat kidney and
bladder stones, and the name sassafras is believed to be a distortion of the
Latin saxijrage meaning stone-breaker. It was used in medicine as Oleum
sassafras, and known as the ague tree; the local name was pronounced
pavane. The medicinal properties of sassafras were noted by Monardes
during an expedition to Florida in 1564, and in 1574 wood and roots were
sent to Spain. It was known as fennel wood, lignumfioridum and lignum
pavane from 1582 in Germany, and as sassafras wood in England from 1597.
An Italian, Angelus Sula, is credited as the first to distil the oil. In modern
times, sassafras oil was widely used in many countries to flavour soft drinks,
but little used in medicine.
196 Chapter 6

Botany
Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees (syn. S. oflciizale Nees; S. variifolium Karst.;
S. sassafras Karst.; Laurtls sassafras L.) The generic and common name is
derived from the French or Spanish salsafras as noted, and the common
name is used in many languages almost without change. There are two other
members of the genus, S. randaieme Hayata, native to Taiwan and very
scarce, and S. tzumu Hemsl. which is more common in China and some-
times cultivated. All are generally similar in appearance. A number of
unrelated species are also called sassafras, including Californian sassafras
Umbellularia californica Nutt., swamp sassafras Magnolia virginiana L., and
Tasmanian sassafras Atherospemza moschatum Labill.
Sassafras is a deciduous tree to 35 m, but generally half this, and when
undisturbed has an irregular, pyramidal head. T h e bark is grey and vertically
fissured; the timber fragrant, tough and durable. Trunks were hollowed by
local people to make excellent canoes, and settlers later used the wood for
fence posts and casks. Wood and bark yield a bright yellow dye. The leaves
are alternate, 7.5-15 cm, three-veined, and vary in shape from more or less
entire when young to two- and then three-lobed when mature and all three
shapes can be found on the same branchlets. The colour is bright green
above, becoming orange and red in autumn. Sassafras is one of the few
deciduous laurels. Fresh leaves when crushed emit a strong sweet scent of
orange-lemon-vanilla, quite different from the odour of the root oil. Oil
distilled from fresh leaves contains citral and geraniol but little or no
safrole.
The flowers are yellowish-green, usually unisexual sometimes bisexual, on
5 cm racemes, appearing before the leaves in April-May; petals are absent
and there are six sepal lobes. T h e male flowers have nine stamens; females a
single ovary and style. T h e fruit is an ovoid bluish-black slightly waxy drupe
7 mm in diameter, with a fleshy, red pedicel and containing one dark brown
to blackish ovoid seed, 6 X 4.5 mm; its wall is papery and brittle. Propaga-
tion is by seed, suckers which are freely produced, or root cuttings. Trans-
planting of large seedlings or young trees is difficult due to the long tap
root.

Ecology
Sassafras is native to eastern and south-eastern North America from Maine
to Florida, and west to Texas with the main producing areas in the Appa-
lachian Mountain region. Sandy soils are favoured, but sassafras can be
found on heavy loams, less often on more clayey soils. Because of its wide-
spreading and fast-growing root system, sassafras quickly colonizes cleared
land or neglected farmland, and grows rapidly in the first five years. It can
thus suppress more locally desirable species in its native habitat, and there
was a continuous supply of material available for distillation from farmers
and landowners keeping their properties free of sassafras. Trees less than ten
Lauraceae 197

years of age are normally not harvested in commercial felling as the oil yield
is too low.

Products and speciJications


Sassafras oil is obtained by steam distilling the dried inner bark of roots, to
yield 10%. Other plant parts also contain oil, but in insufficient quantities to
make distillation profitable. Fresh root bark is almost white, but darkens
rapidly on exposure. After removing the outer corky layer and drying, it is
marketed as crude sassafras or sassafras root. It is aromatic and slightly
mucilaginous, with a pungent and astringent taste. The bark also contains
tannins to 6%, the reddish colouring agent sassafrude to 9%; balsamic resin,
wax and gum producing a mucilage in water.
Sassafras oil is a yellowish to pale brownish- or reddish-yellow, somewhat
viscous liquid with a sweet-spicy, slightly camphoraceous odour. The main
constituents are safrole to 80%, phellandrene and pinene 10%. T h e major
components and main characteristics of sassafras oil are shown in Table
6.11. More detailed analyses have been published (Sethi et al., 1976;
Choudhury et al., 1976). T h e sweet, rather woody taste is a main reason for
the oil’s use in soft drinks, especially north American root beers. Sassafras is
also the main flavouring agent in sarsaparilla drinks, since the latter has little
taste or odour. Sarsaparilla oil is obtained by steam distilling roots of various
Smilex spp. A secondary use for sassafras oil is in soaps and similar products.
T h e oil has insecticidal and bactericidal properties and is a general antiseptic
due to the high phenol-ether content. A safrole-free oil is produced by
solvent extraction, and safrole is the raw material for heliotropin and other
fragrance materials.
True sassafras oil was almost replaced in international trade by Brazilian
Ocotea cymbarum oil (q.v.), and was frequently adulterated with ocotea oil,
synthetic sassafras oil, or a blend of unrelated essential oil fractions with
similar characteristics and odour of sassafras oil. Chinese sassafras oil is
obtained from a number of unrelated Cinnamomum species, or from brown
camphor oil as noted (Zhu et al., 1994). Production of Chinese oils sold as

Table 6.1 1, Constituents and characteristics of sassafras oil from the USAa,

Characteristic Constituent %
Specific gravity (25’Cj 1.065-1.076 Safrole 80
Refractive index (20’Cj 1.530 Alpha-pinene plus
Optical rotation (25”Cj t2’0 to t 4 9 Phellandrene 10
Acid number to 1.0 Camphene 7.0
Ester number 0.5-5.0 Eugenol 0.5
Solubility (viv) alcohol 1 :2 (90%) Other 3.0
Solidification 4-6°C
a Average values.
198 Chapter 6

sassafras oil in 1995 was about 1000 tonnes, with half further processed
domestically to produce heliotropin. Australian sassafras oil is obtained by
steam distilling the bark and leaves of Doyphoru sassafrus Endl. of the small
Monimiaceae family, whose members are confined to the Southern Hemi-
sphere tropics.
Doyphoru sassafras,locally known as golden deal, is native to warmer,
high rainfall areas of eastern Australia and is a tall rain-forest tree to 42 m but
generally smaller, to 1.2 m DBH. The leaves are opposite, oblong-
lanceolate, glossy green above, dull green below, and fragrant when crushed.
The flowers are white, 2-3 cm diameter, on three-flowered axillary panicles.
The fruits are ovoid, 2 cm, containing two to four seeds; the carpels are very
hairy. The wood is pale yellow when freshly cut, darkening with exposure.
The leaves, bark and sapwood contain the essential oil which it is now
unprofitable to produce. A characteristic of undisturbed D. sassafrus stands
are circular clumps of trees, each having arisen from a decayed central
parent.

Ocotea

The genus Ocotea Abl. contains some 350 species mainly in the New World
tropics and sparsely represented in Southern Africa and Madagascar. Many
species are important timber trees: in South Africa 0. bullata (Birch) E.
May, stinkwood, was so extensively felled that it is now a protected species;
wood of 0. rodiaei of South America is so hard it must be drilled before nails
or screws can be used, and is important in maritime construction. Brazilian
sassafras oil or, more correctly, ocotea oil (and it will be so designated), is
obtained from wood of 0. pretiosa and is similar in its main components to
true sassafras oil, for which it is generally substituted. The oil was initially
and incorrectly described as obtained from 0. cymbarum. There are at least
two types of 0.pretiosa in Brazil; one whose wood is rich in safrole, the other
containing methyleugenol and virtually no safrole (Mors et al. , 1959). Since
the latter is confined to Minas Gerais State and the former to Santa
Caterina, there is little local confusion over oil source. Any trace of a
cinnamon scent in ocotea oil is due to adulteration.
Production of ocotea oil is a recent development, beginning in the late
1930s and quickly reaching several hundred tonnes annually. Production is
wholly from wild trees which are abundant in Brazilian forests particularly in
Santa Catarina State. Although trees occur naturally in other South and
Central American countries, only in Brazil has it been commercially ex-
ploited for its oil. Uncontrolled cutting has resulted in depletion of suitable
trees close to distilleries, and transport costs are now affecting profitability of
the industry. Similarly to sassafras, only basic details are included.
lauraceae 199

Ocotea pretiosa is a medium-sized tree to 15 m sometimes taller, with a


single trunk to 30-50 cm DBH. The leaves are alternate, large, oblong to
oblong-lanceolate and a glossy dark green. The trees are dioecious. The
flowers are small and yellowish, in axillary panicles. The fruit is oval to 2 cm,
with a retained receptacle, and resembles an acorn (Fig. 6.6). Trees for oil
are felled, then the logs are transported to distilleries, reduced to chips and
sawdust and steam distilled. Distilleries may also operate as part of a
sawmill, processing offcuts, chips and sawdust from timber production.
Since efficiency varies widely, so does the type of oil produced, and only
modern, well-supervised plants produce oil of acceptable safrole content.
Oil yield varies from 0.9-2.0% depending mainly on age of tree and whether
newly felled or seasoned from lying in the forest after cutting. Reports of oil
yield are also confused by inclusion of wood from other Ocotea spp. very
similar in appearance to 0. pretiosa. For maximum oil yield Ocotea trees at
least 40 years old are preferred.

Fig. 6.6. Ocotea pretiosa, leafy shoot and fruit. (Agriculture Department, Georgetown, Guyana.)
200 Chapter 6

Products and speciJications


Ocotea oil is a pale to very pale oily liquid with a sweet, spicy, somewhat
camphoraceous odour and a sweet, woody taste similar to sassafras oil. Its
main constituent is safrole to 90%, with most other constituents below 1%.
Table 6.12 shows the main constituents and characteristics. Bark and leaf
oils contain the same major constituents but in differing ratios. The cam-
phor content of wood oil is low but is 30-33% in leaf and bark oil, while the
safrole content ofwood oil is at least twice that of the other two (Brasil et al.,
1979). The main use of ocotea oil is as a source of safrole but it is also used
in soaps and similar products. It is a direct substitute for sassafras oil in
flavouring food and drinks but will probably be subject to the same restraints
on such usage; it is used as an industrial perfume for masking undesirable
odours.
Ocotea cymbarum wood contains mainly alpha-phellandrene, p-cymene
and alpha-pinene, but no safrole (Diaz et al., 1980), while 0. quixos, a native
of Peru and neighbouring countries, is the source of a local ciiinamon spice
substitute. The dried flower calyx contains cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid
and methyl cinnamate (Naranijo et al., 1981). Ocotea wrightii, native to Cuba
and other Caribbean islands, has a very aromatic bark, but is not ex-
ploited.

Laurel
Laurus nobilis L. commonly bay laurel, is one of two members of the genus
Laurus, the other being L. azorica (Seub.) Franco. (syn. L. canariensis Webb
& Berth.), native to the Canary Islands hence the common name Canary
Island laurel, although a number of other species were formerly included in
the genus. In 1737 Linnaeus adopted the Latin Laurus for this tree and the
Greek Daphne for the quite different spurge-laurel and related species.
Laurel is widely applied as a suffix to common names of many unrelated
plants; ironically, dried laurel leaf used as a spice is called sweet bay or bay
leaf, although true bay oil and leaves are obtained from Pimenta racemosa
(Mill.), a member of the Myrtaceae (Chapter 8). Cherry laurel, Prunus

Table 6.12. Main constituents and characteristics of ocotea oil.

Characteristic Constituent (%)


Specific gravity (25°C) 1.076-1.092 Safrole > 90.0
Optical rotation (25%) -0'30' to -2"27' Alpha-pinene < 1.0
Refractive index (20° C) 1.5251-1.5363 Eugenol 0.6
Solubility (80% alcohol) 1 :&I0 Furfural 0.2
Congealing point ("C) 9.5-7.0 Cineole 0.2
Source: Abstracted from published data.
Lauraceae 201

laurocerasus L., has serrated leaves which contain prussic acid and taste of
bitter almond, and mountain laurel, Kalmia latifolia L., also has toxic
leaves.
Laurus nobilis was sacred to the god Apollo in classical Greece; legend has
it that when Daphne the nymph daughter of the earth goddess Gaia was
pursued by Apollo, slayer of her bridegroom, she entreated the Gods for
assistance, who changed her into a laurel tree. Apollo then crowned himself
with a circle of laurel leaves, and declared the tree sacred to his divinity. A
garland of woven laurel leaves was awarded as a symbol of honour or victory
in Rome, but it is said that Julius Caesar preferred a crown of Alexandrian
laurel (Ruscus racemosus), as its broader leaves covered more of his bald pate!
Later in the Middle Ages distinguished men were crowned with a wreath of
berried laurel, hence for example the English title of Poet Laureate. Uni-
versity graduates were known as Bachelors from the Latin baccalaureus
(bacco a berry and laureus of laurel) and they were forbidden to marry as this
would distract them from their studies; hence the general designation in
Europe of unmarried men as bachelors. Laurel was also said to confer the
gift of prophecy, and a withering laurel tree in a garden predicted a disaster.
As a spice it is considered a vital ingredient of the genuine bouquet gami.
Various parts of laurel have long been used in herbal medicine; an infusion
of fruit was used to suppress profuse menstruation, and to hasten childbirth.
Berry oil is also believed to assist in alleviating stomach disorders, and was
also used in veterinary medicine. Infusions of bark and leaves were fre-
quently prescribed to alleviate kidney disorders and respiratory problems.
Wild trees have been harvested for centuries in many Mediterranean
countries to produce dried leaves, particularly Turkey to which laurel is
indigenous. The international trade in dried laurel leaves (bay leaves)
exceeds 2000 t with Turkey normally supplying two-thirds. Laurel leaf oil is
of comparatively recent origin, although when it was first commercially
distilled is uncertain. The oil is produced in small quantities in Spain, Italy
and Turkey, and in other European countries from imported dried leaves.
Laurel oil is currently of little importance, but has a number of advantages
over dried leaves for food manufacturers. Should demand for oil increase,
production could be rapidly expanded, as laurel is an easily established and
managed plantation crop which can be fully mechanized.

Botany
Laurus nobilis is believed to have originated in Asia minor, but is now
indigenous to many Mediterranean and European countries and widely
introduced elsewhere as it is most adaptable. A variety of L. nobilis is native
to China, but the leaf oil has a high phenolic content similar to Pimenta
racemosa. Laurel is commonly planted in gardens as a hedge or screen, and
in tubs to produce fresh leaves for culinary use. There are many horticultural
varieties, and very popular is L. nobilis Aurea, golden or variegated laurel.
202 Chapter 6

Laurel is a leafy evergreen tree generally 5-10 m, but when cultivated is


usually pruned to below 3 m. The bark on mature trees is greyish and on
younger stems it is smooth and shiny, often with a reddish tint. An essential
oil can be obtained from young shoots and bark; the main constituent in bark
oil is 1,8-cineole to 40%, but alpha-terpinyl acetate to 45% in wood oil
(Kekelidze, 1987).
The leaves are carried on short petioles and are alternate, somewhat
leathery, entire, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 3-7.5 X 1.5-3.0 cm,
slightly undulate, dark green shiny above and pale yellowish green below. Oil
is contained in cells which occur below the adaxial and abaxial epidermis,
and can be distinguished early in growth. A detailed description of their
structure and development has been published (Maron and Fahn, 1979).
The leaves have a faintly anise-like odour and an aromatic and slightly bitter
taste. Time of picking may have some influence on the taste and odour of
laurel leaves and leaf oil; in Israel 1,8-cineole content was highest (60%) in
spring, and lowest (40%) in summer (Putievsky et al., 1984). The oil content
of young shoots in Turkey is also substantially higher than that of mature
shoots (Anac, 1986), but in Russia highest leaf-oil content was in mature
leaves (Bagaturiya et al., 1985). Turkish laurel leaves have a very delicate
flavour favoured by international traders, and thus command a premium.
True laurel leaves can usually be distinguished from non-laurel species by
holding a leaf against the light, when the translucent leaf margin is plainly
visible (Fig. 6.7). The flowers are inconspicuous, yellowish, three to four in
small axillary umbels, with the sexes usually on separate trees. Each flower
has a whorl of four sepals; male flowers have 8-14 usually 12 stamens,
females have four stamminodes and one style. Flowering is normally in late
spring or early summer. The fruit is a small, hard, round (to 15 mm), shining
dark purple to black berry, surrounded by the persistent perianth.

Ecology
Laurel favours regions of moderate rainfall, with long sunny periods. Al-
though tolerant of lower temperatures when mature, it is not generally frost
resistant and young trees and seedlings usually succumb to a severe frost.
Laurel is intolerant of waterlogging and, should this coincide with very cold
periods, mortality is high. Laurel generally grows below 700 m, the upper
limit being determined by the degree and occurrence of frost, and flourished
in frost free areas of the Kenya highlands between 2000 and 3000 m. Low
temperature due to altitude affects general growth of trees, can also reduce
leaf size, and may also reduce oil content of leaves. In Turkey and Greece oil
content is higher in leaves from trees growing at or near sea-level than from
those growing on inland hills (0. Anac, Istanbul University, personal
communication). Considerable regional and even district variation in leaf oil
composition exists, especially in relation to phenol and phenol-ether con-
tent, partly due to ecological factors but mainly to a dominant regional strain
Lauraceae 203

Fig. 6.7. Laurel leaves and berries.

or local type. Seasonal and agronomic factors however, especially time of


picking, are far more important in determining the type of oil produced.

Soils and fertilizers


Laurel flourishes on fertile, well-drained soils but is very adaptable under
good management, and soil per se is less important than other agronomic
factors as was demonstrated on heavy clay soil in Russia (Chkhaidze, 1990).
There is no information on the effect of fertilizers on the growth of laurel, oil
content of leaves, or oil composition and characteristics. In Russia, spent
leaves were returned to pilot plantations as mulch, and as protection against
frost damage to roots.

Cultivation
Laurel is generally uncultivated but can easily be grown in commercial
plantations, or existing natural stands managed on a more systematic basis
when this is profitable. Propagation is by 10-12 cm cuttings, taken from
mature sections of current season’s shoots in late summer, for planting out
the following spring. Cuttings from shoots arising from apical buds grew
more vigorously than shoots from lateral buds in Russia and Romania
(Vadachkoriya, 1984: Selaru, 1992). Cuttings root readily if correctly plan-
ted, tended, and treated with a fungicide (Ravid and Putievsky, 1984).
There is significant variation in leaf oil content and oil components between
individual trees (Kutubidze and Kharebava, 1990), thus selecting a high-
yielding parent should quickly increase average oil yield per hectare, and
204 Chapter 6

micropropagation should quickly produce large numbers of plantlets (Sta-


nica et al., 1992). Plants may be grown from seed but germination is often
irregular. Soaking seed for 12-24 hours in warm water can increase per-
centage germination and hasten emergence, and such seed sown in poly-
thene bags containing a potting mixture resulted in 98% germination in
Georgia (Vadachkoriya and Loladze, 1986). Shading and mulching seed-
beds can increase germination and early seedling growth (Sheryshov, 1975),
but the time and expense involved are often too great.
When grown as a rainfed tree crop to provide cash income for small-
holders, 6 m between mature trees is desirable and the initial spacing should
allow for progressive thinning to the final stand. Thus an initial 3 X 3 m
spacing will allow sufficient bushes to provide an income while trees are
growing. Closer spacing is possible in commercial plantations; in Russia, 0.5
X 2 m rows, in Israel 2 X 3 m where supplementary irrigation is available.
Hedge-type trees may be required in fully mechanized plantations
(Chkhaidze and Vadachkoriya, 1989). Interplanting with low-growing an-
nual crops is possible in the first 2-4 years to reduce establishment cost and,
in less-developed regions, a permanent system of intercropping laurel could
be the most profitable. Weeding is generally manual and there are no records
of herbicides being used.
Well-rooted spring planted cuttings should be ready for first harvest in
autumn of the same year when irrigated or in the following year if raingrown.
T h e time of harvesting can significantly affect oil yield and oil composition,
as previously noted. In general, leaf oil content tends to rise as the season
progresses and the proportion of newly mature leaves rises. The ratio
between major oil constituents also varies over the same period, especially
1,8-cineole, from 25 to 55%, although seldom exceeding 40% in distilled oil
(Anac, 1986; Kekelidze et al., 1987; Riaz et al., 1989). Oil from young leaves
in the Russian spring was high in terpinen-4-01, alpha-pine01 and eugenol
and in summer it was high in pinene, sabinene and cineole, but the highest
content of 1,8-cineole was in oil from leaves harvested in November (Baga-
turiya et al., 1985).
Three harvests per year are possible in commercial plantations, but two
cuts generally gives the highest yield of green material. Cutting twice to 40
cm above ground in Russia gave twice the yield of dry leaves at 4900 kgiha
over cutting once to 8-10 cm (Chkhaidze and Vadachkoriya, 1985;
Chkhaidze, 1988), but irrigated plants cut once annually to 60 cm in Israel
gave a calculated yield of 9000 kgiha fresh leaves. Leaves apparently grow
vigorously for 30-40 days, more slowly for the next 15-20 days, generally
cease growing after approximately 60 days, and may remain on trees for 1-3
years. The yield of green leaves per tree will vary with the system of
management, since this will influence the number of leaves and their rate of
growth. Irrigated plantings in Israel averaged 5.5 kg green leaves from trees
7-9 years old, equal to an oil yield of 91 liha (Putievsky et al., 1984). The
Lauraceae 205

reported variation in leaf yield per tree from various countries indicates that
selection could quickly increase average yield per hectare. Harvesting is
currently mainly manual but hand-held mechanical cutters could be more
frequently employed. In Russia when laurel was grown in hedges and
mechanically harvested, one annual or three cuts every two years were the
most profitable (Chkhaidze and Kechakmadze, 199 1).

Distillation
Oil yield from fresh laurel leaves is normally 0.5-3.5% and from dried leaves
1.25-2.5%. There is little difference in the oil content of leaves dried at
temperatures of 40 to 70°C under controlled conditions, with the recom-
mended temperature 60-70°C (Skrubis, 1982), but when over-dried in the
sun, oil quality can be adversely affected. When correctly dried, there is no
significant difference in constituents and characteristics between oil from
fresh or dried leaves; it is only the yield which varies. The method of distilling
has a direct effect on oil yield and composition, but the data are conflicting.
In general, it appears that water and steam distillation or a combination
produce oils of similar composition but varying yield. Oil produced by
hydro-diffusion differs significantly in composition, having much less
1,8-cineole and monoterpenes but more monoterpenoid alcohols, acetates
and benzenoids (Boelens and Sindreu, 1986).

Pests and diseases


There is little information on the economic damage caused by insects, and
most records are from garden plants. The abundance of wild trees ensures
that there is always a sufficiency of leaves, even when individuals or small
areas may suffer severe damage. Diseases are far more important and often
widespread in any specific population. The two most damaging diseases of
wild laurel are a root rot caused by Phytophthora spp. which also attacks other
Lauraceae, and leaf spots caused by Colletotrichum spp; P. cinnamomi can
damage plants a t any age and growth stage. Symptoms in young plants are a
general yellowing and wilting of leaves and failure of stems, and a severe
attack is fatal. Such plants in plantations should be uprooted, burnt and
replaced by healthy stock. On more mature plants, leaves turn yellow and fall
and twigs may die back. A severe infection may cause general defoliation and
often death; in one less severe only part of the tree dies. Symptoms of
infection by C. laurus are brown spots which become progressively larger and
coalesce. The leaves desiccate and fall and, unless controlled, leaf loss can be
severe. Commonly there is a general but low level of infection with only
minor damage to leaves, but it is accompanied by a substantial fall in leaf-oil
content. Routine spraying may be necessary in areas where the disease is
endemic. Chemicals can leave residues on leaves or in oil and analyses
should always be carried out to determine if this is so, and the spraying
206 Chapter 6

programme adjusted accordingly. Residues of DDT and BHC in dry leaves


have been detected (Sullivan, 1980).

Products and speciJications


An essential oil is obtained by steam distilling leaves or berries, and a fat
expressed from berries whose main constituent is glycerol laurate plus a
volatile element high in cineole. The main constituents and characteristics of
leaf oil are shown in Table 6.13; the major component is 1,8-cineole at
40-45% and over 100 constituents have been isolated (Boelens and Sin-
dreu, 1986; Lawrence, 1993). Different distilling methods affect the propor-
tion of main constituents and oil characteristics which can vary, sometimes
considerably, from those quoted. Leaf oil is normally colourless or very pale
yellow, with a strong, sweet, aromatic, slightly camphoraceous odour and a
sweet-warm, spicy taste. The oil is used to replace dried leaves in flavouring
meats, pickles, processed foods, confectionery, etc. since amounts used can
be more accurately controlled and thus the desired flavour level in finished
products. The oil is used to a lesser extent in perfumery, toiletries and soaps.
One well-known use in the Middle East was the manufacture of Aleppo's
famous sabun bighar, containing olive oil and 5 2 0 % laurel oil. This golden
soap has been produce and exported from Syria for at least 500 years.
Laurel leaf oil with its major constituent, 1,8-cineole, differs from that of
Umbellularia calijornica (Nutt), the Californian or mountain laurel with
umbellulone as its major constituent (Buttery et al., 1974), and Pirnenta
racemosa (Mill) J.W.Moore, the true bay whose main constituents are
eugenol and chavicol (Chapter 8). The three oils are thus not interchange-
able or alternatives for their particular uses in the pharmaceutical and food-
processing industries. The main constituent of leaf oil from Laurus azom'ca L.

Table 6.13. Main constituents and characteristics of laurel leaf oil.

Characteristic Constituent (%) a


Specific gravity (15°C) 0,912-0.926 1,8-Cineole 40
Optical rotation -1V16'to 1 8 " t I ' Alpha-terpinyl acetate 9
Refractive index (20°C) 1.4669-1.4695 Sabinene 7
Saponification number 13.0-36.6 Alpha-pinene 7
Solubility (80% alcohol) 111 vlv Beta-pinene 4
Terpinen-4-01 4
Alpha-terpineol 3
Linalool 10
pCymene 1
Gamma-terpinene 1
Methyleugenol 5
aAverage figures. The ratio may not occur in the same sample, as there is considerable, though not
wide, variation in oil obtained by similar methods of distillation.
lauraceae 207

is alpha-pinene at 12-15%, beta-pinene at 5 4 % and only 10-12%


1,8-cineole and it is not an alternative to laurel (Hokwerda et al., 1982).
Berry oil is a pale, greenish, or olive yellow mobile liquid with a spicy,
camphoraceous odour and a warm spicy taste. The major constituent is
terpinen-4-01, and although the oil's composition is similar to that of leaf oil,
the relative proportions of components are quite different. Little berry oil is
produced. Laurel leaf oleoresin (commercially bay leaf oleoresin) is pro-
duced in very small quantities almost wholly in the USA for a very limited
market in the processed food industry.

Litsea cubeba
The genus Litsea Lam. contains about 200 species widely distributed in
tropical Asia, Australia and the Pacific, and many members produce fruit or
seeds containing a fixed or volatile oil. In Java, the hard fat from L. sebifera
Pers. seeds is used in candles and soaps, bark from L. diversifolia Hk.f.
produces a poor quality cinnamon extract, and an essential oil is obtained
from fruit of L. cubeba.
Litsea cubeba (Lour) Persoon. (syn. L. citrata, Tetranthera polyantha var.
citrata Nees) is native to east Asia, especially China where it is known as may
chang and extensively cultivated, and to a lesser extent in Taiwan and Japan.
Litsea cubeba is also known as tropical verbena, more accurately applied to
Aloysia triphylla Britt. the lemon verbena, to which it is not related.
Litsea cubeba is a small tropical tree with fragrant flowers and leaves, which
emit a lemony odour when crushed. The small fruit resemble cubeb pepper,
hence the species name. Steam-distilling fruit produces an essential oil with
a high citral content, to 85%; specific gravity (26°C) 0.866-0.893; optical
rotation about +7.0"; refractive index 1.46-1.48. The oil is a pale yellow
mobile liquid with an intense, lemony, fresh-fruity odour, sweeter than
lemongrass but not so tenacious. China is the main producer and consumes
a significant proportion domestically (Liu et al., 1990). An oil can also be
distilled from bark whose main component is citronellal, and from leaves
with the main component cineole, but both are of no commercial im-
portance.

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Pakistani L . nobilis in different seasons. Pak. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 32(1), 33-35.
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lauraceae 213

Zhu, L., Ding, D. and Lawrence, B.M. (1994) The Cinnamomum species in China.
Perjiuum. Flavour. 19(4), 17-22.
Myristicaceae
7-
The order Magnoliales contains several major families including the Myr-
isticaceae of 18 genera, Myristica L. being the largest with 70-75 species.
Two others, Pycnanthus Warb. and Virola Aubl., contain species of eco-
nomic importance; P. angolensis Warb. a tropical hardwood exported from
West Africa as ilomba, and V. surinamensis Warb. and related species
exported from South America as virola.
The Myristica are normally evergreen trees of tropical lowland rain forests
from India and Sri Lanka eastwards through South East Asia to Taiwan, the
Pacific islands and Australia. Papua New Guinea is considered to be centre
of origin and distribution of the genus with some 40 known species, 34 of
which are endemic. A number of Myristica species are cultivated on a minor
scale, but only M . fragrans Houtt., nutmeg, is grown commercially. Seeds of
many species are locally utilized, and it is possible some could be marketed
for their individual characteristics if regularly available in sufficient quantity,
since there is now considerable consumer demand for a greater range of
natural flavourings. Seed and arils from fruit of M . succadanea Blume.,
cultivated in hill regions of the Molucca Islands, are sold and exported as
nutmeg and mace, while seeds and arils from the Papua nutmeg M . argentea
Warb., and the Bombay or false nutmeg M . malabarica Lam., are used as
adulterants of genuine nutmeg products. The Papua nutmeg has a peculiar
odour and rank flavour, but the Bombay nutmeg has little odour or taste.
Myristica canarica Bedd., which grows wild in western India, has seed with a
very high fat content and, when crushed and inserted in hollow bamboo, is
used as candles. Seed of M . laurifolia Warb., wild in India and Sri Lanka, and
M . elliptica Wall. in Malaysia, are locally used as nutmeg substitutes.
Myristica muelleri, which is native to northern Australia, bears a nutmeg-
flavoured fruit used as a substitute by early European settlers. Myristica
castaneaefolia Grey which grows wild in Fiji and other Pacific Islands is
locally used to treat diarrhoea.
A relative in the Annonaceae, Monodora myristica Dunal., the calabash or
African nutmeg native to west and east Africa, has seeds which resemble

214
Myristicaceae 215

nutmeg in odour and flavour. The seed is collected for sale in local markets,
especially in Nigeria, and substantial amounts are involved nationally
(Onyenekwe and Ogbadu, 1993). A member of the Lauraceae, Cyptocaya
moschata Nees.& Mart. the Brazil nutmeg, is similarly used in South Amer-
ica. The so-called clove-nutmeg is obtained from Ravensara aromatica
Gmel.; the Californian nutmeg is Torreya californica Torr. Use of the term
nutmeg without qualification in the text refers to M . fragrans and its
products.

Nutmeg

Nutmeg is considered native to Banda and Amboina islands in the MO-


luccas, Indonesia, and is seldom found as a truly wild plant but, because of
its popularity as a spice, it has been planted wherever conditions are suitable.
Nutmeg is commercially cultivated in very few countries, Indonesia and the
Caribbean island of Grenada being the most important with lesser amounts
from Sri Lanka. According to the Directorate General of Plantations, the
area under nutmeg in Indonesia was 67,000 ha in 1994 producing 14,000 t
of nutmegs, and the Central Bureau of Statistics stated that exports of
nutmeg and mace for the years 1989 to 1994 were, in tonnes (mace in
brackets): 2470 (465), 6392 (1050), 7335 (1549), 4658 (1180), 7500
(1150), 7900 (1400).
The use of nutmeg as a food flavouring or medicine has a long history in
its original home, and probably also in China, but there are few early
references which positively identify the spice. It was recorded in the Sanskrit
Susruta Samhita about AD 600 as jaiphal, and probably arrived by trade from
Hindu colonists of Java. Nutmeg was unknown to the Greeks or Romans,
and the first authentic European record is by Actius of Constantinople in
about AD 540. Nutmeg is not mentioned in the Christian bible, nor the
Periplus of The Erythrean Sea probably written about AD 200, although
many other spices carried to the region are discussed therein. Arab traders
brought it to Europe from the Moluccas via Java and India and, as with other
spices, the Arabs hid the true source to avoid competition; however it was an
Arab, Kazwini, who is regarded as first to publish the Moluccas as source of
nutmeg in AD 1300.
By the twelfth century it was well known in Europe and in 119 1, when
Emperor Henry V1 entered Rome for his coronation, the streets were
fumigated with nutmegs and other strewing aromatics. In the thirteenth
century, mace was selling in England for 4s 7d per lb, equal to one sheep or
half a cow. It was the search for a route to the spice islands which resulted in
Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India in 1498 and by 15 12 the Portuguese had
reached the Moluccas, source of the nutmeg trade which they were to
216 Chapter 7

dominate for nearly a century. The Portuguese were replaced in the sev-
enteenth century by the Dutch, who in turn monopolized the trade for
another 200 years.
The Dutch endeavoured to limit nutmeg production to Banda and
Amboina by forcible destruction of all other trees and by 1650 this was
generally effected. Many writers commented that the scheme was thwarted
by fruit pigeons which swallowed seeds and voided them on neighbouring
islands, but the original source of this statement was not identified and the
reports discredited. Fruit pigeons are, however a major dispersal agent for
Virola surinamensis; birds swallow whole ripe seeds, digest the aril and void
the seed at a distance from the parent tree (Howe and Kerckhove, 1980). In
addition to limiting production in the Moluccas, the Dutch East India
Company in 1735 burnt 570,000 kg of surplus nutmegs in Amsterdam to
successfully maintain a high price. Supplies of mace were also deliberately
restricted, and the 1806 London price was 85-90 shillings per pound plus
import duty of 7s Id per pound.
The first attempt to break the Dutch monopoly was by the French on
Mauritius, then Ile de France, when Pierre Poivre obtained 32 nutmeg
plants in the Far East and arrived at Port Louis in December 1753 with only
five survivors. Later, Provost in the ship 1’Etoile du Matin was able to collect
quantities of nutmeg seeds and seedlings and a smaller number of clove
seedlings on the island of Begy. He returned to Ile de France where their
arrival has been graphically described (Ly-Tio-Fane, 1958). Despite an
export ban, plants from his expedition were taken to the Seychelles, Reunion
(Ile de Bourbon) and Cayenne. A later governor, Cere, discovered nutmeg
was unisexual. According to a contemporary writer ‘The first French nut-
meg was picked in December 1778 in the presence of a distinguished
assembly and Cere afterwards gave a magnificent reception to celebrate the
event’. Nutmeg was introduced to Zanzibar in 1818 from Mauritius or
Reunion but, although trees thrived, nutmeg never became as important as
cloves.
During the British occupation of the Moluccas (1 796-1 802), the Hon-
ourable East India Company sent their botanist, Christopher Smith to
collect seedlings of nutmeg and clove to establish the spice in Penang and
other countries under British control. Smith trained at Kew and had sailed
with Bligh on the Providence. By 1798 there were 600 nutmeg and some
clove trees growing in Penang; two years later 5000 nutmeg plants and
15,000 cloves arrived, more in following years, until by 1802 Smith had sent
71,265 nutmeg and 55,265 clove plants to Penang. The first Penang tree
fruited in 1802 but, in general, trees were not well tended and in 1805 the
company sold their spice gardens, then containing 51,000 nutmeg and 1600
clove trees. Penang nutmeg and mace were considered superior to Mo-
luccan products, a reputation maintained until the industry declined. Sir
Stamford Raffles, who founded Singapore in 18 19, supported local nutmeg
Myristicaceae 217

planting but trees did not thrive. Most trees in Penang and Singapore were
destroyed by disease between 1859-1886, and although cultivation in
Penang was later revived, commercial production virtually ceased early this
century (Burkhill, 1966).
Introduced into Sri Lanka in 1804, nutmeg flourished and continues to do
so as a minor crop. Nutmeg was taken to the Caribbean island of St Vincent
in 1802, probably from Kew, and was among the first plants transferred to
Port-of-Spain Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, in 1824. Planted on Grenada in
1843, the first crop large enough to influence the world market was exported
in the mid-l860s, and Grenada continues to be a leading producer of
nutmeg and mace. Mace is more expensive than nutmeg and there exist
much-quoted anecdotes concerning British and Dutch colonial officials in
Europe, who unaware that both spices come from the same tree, requested
growers in Indonesia and Grenada to reduce nutmeg and increase mace
production!
Nutmegs have long been used in herbal remedies, in medicine, and
preserved in syrup were formerly a delicacy in Europe, but became un-
popular when their toxic effects were generally appreciated. Nutmegs have
long been used as a narcotic but the first recorded hallucinogenic effect was
by Lobelius in 1576, who in his Plantarurn seu Stiripium Historia described a
pregnant English lady who ‘became deliriously inebriated after eating 10-1 2
nutmegs’ apparently to induce an abortion. The physiologist J.E. Purkinje in
1829 ate three nutmegs and described the effects as similar to Cannabis
intoxication, including disorientation, hallucinations and later a deep sleep.
Subsequently a number of descriptions of nutmeg-induced poisoning, delir-
ium or hallucinations were published. The response to nutmeg intoxication
is extremely varied, some individuals experience a profound distortion of
time and space and have visual hallucinations, and freshly grated nutmeg
produces the most profound intoxication (Weil, 1965). When these effects
were first noted and how used is uncertain, none suggest a religious motive.
A Materia Medica published in Bombay in 1883 stated the Hindus of West
India take Myristica as an intoxicant, while an Ayurvedic name for nutmeg is
made shaundu, narcotic fruit. Nutmeg powder is mixed with betel nut and
snuff in certain parts of southern India, and in Indonesia powdered nutmeg
is also used as a snuff. On Zanzibar and Pemba the author found local
women chewed nutmegs (kungumanga) as an alternative to smoking the
local bhang (marijuana), with almost the same effects.
The aromatic ethers are the most likely source of hallucinations from
either M . fragrans or M . malabarica, but the mode of action remains obscure.
Myristicin constitutes about 4% of nutmeg oil, and 25% of this fraction is
elemicin, which degrades to two potent hallucinogens, TMA (trimethoxy
amphetamine) and MMDA (3-methoxy-4, 5-methylenodioxy ampheta-
mine) by becoming ammoniated in the body. Crude nutmeg and myristicine
(a synthetic) both produce a degree of monoamine oxidase inhibition in vivo
218 Chapter 7

and in vitro. While in vitro studies showed conversion of nutmeg oil to


amphetamines, it has not yet been shown to occur in vivo (Emboden, 1979).
Although nutmeg is seldom deliberately used as a narcotic, bark extract from
the closely related Virola spp. is widely used in the Amazon region to
produce a hallucinatory snuff, used by local shamans to induce a religious
trance.

Botany
Myristica fragrans Houtt. (syn. M . oficinalis L.f.; M . moschata Thunb.; M .
aromatica Swartz; M . amboinensis Gand.) Basic chromosome number of the
genus is x = 7, and nutmeg 2n = 42. There are no recognized varieties of M .
fragrans, but many local cultivars. The English nutmeg is from the Latin
muscus, via French mugue and medieval English notemuge; mace from
maccis. Spanish neuz moscada;Portuguese noz moscado, mace macca or clava;
Dutch notemuskaat, mace foelie; Malay buah pala; India jaiphal generally,
Tamil sadhi-kai; Sri Lanka sadhika; Indonesian pala, with local suffixes; bali,
mada, etc.
Nutmeg is a spreading dioecious evergreen tree to 15 m with dark green
leaves, yellow flowers without petals and large yellowish fruit (Fig. 7.1). All
parts of the tree are aromatic. The roots are generally extensive, superficial,
often partially exposed, and on light soils trees are often unstable. The trees
are normally 10-15 my but to 25 m, with one main trunk to 30 cm DBH.
The bark is greyish-black, becoming darker and fissured longitudinally with
age; when slashed it exudes a watery sap. An essential oil containing no
aldehydes can be obtained by steam distilling the bark to yield 0.15%.
Branching is extensive beginning almost at the butt; the twigs are slender,
glabrous, greyish-brown, and carry a large number of leaves which form a
dense canopy.
The leaves are alternate, glabrous, and exstipulate, on a 1 cm petiole.
They measure 5-1 5 X 2-7 cm and are elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, with the
base acute and the tip acuminate. They are coriaceous, shiny, medium to
dark green above and light green or subglaucous below. The blade has 8-1 1
pairs of slender nerves curving out to the edge with indistinct anastomosis;
reticulations are usually invisible above, but distinct beneath, forming a lax
network. The leaves are aromatic and steam distilling produces an oil similar
to weak nutmeg oil, of little commercial importance. The characteristics of
an Indonesian leaf oil were (all at 25°C); specific gravity 0.860-0.865;
optical rotation - 1' to + 4 O ; refractive index 1.471-1.473; acid number
0.29-0.80; ester number 1.1-5.1; after acetylation 16.2-30.1; solubility in
90% alcohol 1: 1; yield 1.3-1.4% (Rusli and Murdjanah, 1977). Distillation
time affects oil characteristics; for example specific gravity changed from
0.8606 to 0.8630 after 3 and 9 hours respectively. Where it is profitable to
distil leaf oil, fallen leaves are collected, as in Indonesia, where individual
Myristicaceae 219

trees shed 0.7 kg dry leaves weekly yielding 1.5-3.0% oil. Dried leaves
contained 10% myristicin and 80% alpha-pinene (Meyer, 194 1).
The tree is typically dioecious, a proportion bear male and female flowers,
more rarely hermaphrodite flowers, but mature male trees occasionally
produce female flowers and may eventually become female. There is no
satisfactory method of determining tree sex until flowering, but it has been
claimed nutmeg seedlings can be sexed with reasonable accuracy by a
colorimetric test using ammonium molybdate as a reagent (Phadnis and
Choudhari, 197 l), or by the shape of oxalate crystals in leaves (Nayar et al.,
1977).
Male and female inflorescences are similar; glabrous, axillary, and carry-
ing 1-10 flowers in umbellate cymes. The main axis measures 1.0-1.5 cm
and is not branched or rarely branched more than twice. The pedicels are
pale green, 1.O-1.5 cm, with a minute caducous bracteole a t the flower base.
The flowers are fragrant, creamy-yellow, waxy, fleshy and glabrous (Fig.
7.2). The calyx is bell-shaped, nectiferous at the base, with reflexed triangu-
lar lobes. Petals are absent. T h e male flowers are smaller than the female; the
androecium to 7 mm, glabrous, stalk 2 mm, apex acute, 8-10 stamens with
anthers adnate to a central column and attached to each other by their sides.
Female flowers are up to 1 cm, with the ovary sessile, puberulous, superior,
one-celled, to 7 mm, and surmounted by a very short, white, two-lipped

Fig. 7.1. Myristica fragrans, nutmeg. A, Flowering shoot of male tree; B, male flower with part of calyx
removed; C, female flower with part of calyx removed; D. female flower in longitudinal section; E, shoot
with dehiscing fruit; F, seed surrounded by aril; G, seed in longitudinal section. (Purseglove eta/.,
1981 .)
220 Chapter 7

stigma: anthesis occurs in the early morning from 3-5 a.m. T h e floral
biology and histology of flowers has been studied in detail (Armstrong and
Drummond, 1986). An essential oil of no commercial importance can be
extracted from flowers. Trees may flower throughout the year, but there are
normally two peaks; July and October in Kerala, India. Insects are the
primary pollinators and excluding them from a female tree prevented
pollination and fruit set on Grenada (Cruickshank, 1973); in India, small
beetles were particularly important (Armstrong and Drummond, 1986) and
in some areas a specific insect may be pre-eminent, Formicomus braminus in
Kerala.
T h e fruit is a yellow fleshy drupe resembling a large apricot, usually
pendulous, broadly pyriform, smooth, 6-9 cm, with a circumferential longi-
tudinal ridge and persistent remains of the stigma, and containing one seed
(Fig. 7.3). When ripe the succulent, aromatic pericarp, about 1.3 cm thick,
splits along the suture to expose the purplish-brown lustrous seed (nutmeg)
enveloped in a crimson, fleshy, lacinated membrane, the aril (mace) (see
Fig. 7.4). The pericarp, or pod, is used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singa-
pore for jellies and preserves. Also in Malaysia piles of rotting pods provide
excellent material to grow the very popular mushroom kulutpala, and pods
are in great demand for this purpose. The seed is ovoid or ellipsoidal,
2.0-4.0 X 1.5-2.5 cm, with considerable variation in shape and size between
individual trees. Trees bearing different types of fruit in the Moluccas are

Fig. 7.2. Nutmeg flower.


Myristicaceae 22 1

distinguished by a suffix; pala bali has large globoid fruit, pala tidore has pear-
shaped fruits (Nitta, 1993).
The seed surface is furrowed, longitudinally wrinkled, the raphe groove
extending from basal scar to apical depression; it is relatively soft when fresh,
becoming hard with age or drying, and is easily cut or scraped. A cut surface
shows the pale brown endosperm marked by many veins containing the
essential oil. When the seed is halved longitudinally, remains of the small
embryo are visible. A detailed description of the morphology and histology
of seed and aril has been published (Parry, 1962). Cut seed has a character-
istic aromatic scent and a warm slightly bitter taste. Dried seed is the nutmeg
of the international spice trade, dried aril is the spice mace, and a detailed
description of the preparation of both has been published (Purseglove et al.,
1981).
Nutmegs usually contain, in per cent: water 9, carbohydrate 30, protein 7 ,
fixed oil 33, essential oil 4.5. Analyses of Indian nutmegs gave average
values, in per cent: moisture 14.3, protein 7.5, ether extract 36.4, carbohy-
drate 28.5, fibre 11.6, mineral matter 1.7, calcium 0.12, phosphorus 0.24,

Fig. 7.3.Nutmeg fruit


222 Chapter 7

Fig. 7.4. Nutmeg. L to R: dried and wet nutmeg; aril; nutmeg enclosed in aril

iron 4.6 mgilOOg (Gopalan et al., 1971). A semi-solid yellowish-red butter


can be obtained by pressing with a yield of 24-30'30, containing trimyristin to
75% and 13% essential oil. Individual nutmegs vary considerably in volatile
oil composition; when six Indonesian nutmegs were extracted, methyl
eugenol was 0.3-18.0% of volatiles; myristicin 0.2-15.0% and myristic acid
from 0-11'30 (Sandford and Heinz, 1971), with no correlation between
external appearance and volatiles content. The variation in composition
between individual nutmegs from one region is frequently greater than the
average variation between regions, indicating an almost unlimited reservoir
of material for selection or breeding purposes.
Mace contains about 22% fixed and 10% essential oil, although these
levels are very variable plus, in per cent, moisture 16, carbohydrates 48,
phosphorus 0.1, iron 12.6 mg/lOO g. Analysis of Indian mace gave 21.6%
ether extract with chloroform-soluble lipids accounting for 88% by weight,
consisting of, in per cent, neutral lipids 60, glycolipids 27 and phospholipids
13; neutral lipids were mainly glycerides, free fatty esters and hydrocarbons,
with free sterols 1.7% and sterol esters 0.9% respectively; the main fatty
acids were palmitic and oleic (Prakashchandra and Chandrasekharappa,
1984). The red pigment in mace, so important in influencing its commercial
value as a spice, has been determined as lycopene, identical with the red
colourant in tomato (Gopalkrishnan et al., 1979).
The main characteristics of nutmeg and mace oils are shown in Tables 7.1
and 7.2, and West Indian oils are considered of finer quality than Indonesian
(East Indian). The main constituents of nutmeg oil are, in per cent: ten
monoterpene hydrocarbons 60-90, six oxygenated monoterpenes 5-1 5 and
Myristicaceae 223

Table 7.1, Physical characteristics of nutmeg oils.

West Indiana Indonesiana Sri Lankanb


Specific gravity 0.860-0.880 0.885-0.915 0.835-0.903
Refractive index 1.472-1.476 1.475-1.488 1.463-1.482
Optical rotation t 2 5 " to t 4 0 " t8" to 25O t21"o t42O
Solubility (viv % alcohol) 1:4 (90%) 1 :3 (90%)
Source: a BSS (at 20°C); Sarath-Kumana, 1985 (at 30°C).

five aromatic ethers 2-20; main constituents of mace oil are, per cent:
monoterpene hydrocarbons 75-95, oxygenated monoterpenes and sesqui-
terpenes 4-18, aromatic ethers 0-6. Oil composition is further discussed in
the section on products and specifications.
A number of commercially accepted grades of nutmeg are recognized, and
those currently exported by the two major producers, Indonesia and Gre-
nada, are summarized as they will occur in the text. In both countries sound
nutmegs are graded as 80s or 11OS, according to size in numbers per pound;
mixtures of sizes are exported as sound unsorted. Sound nutmegs are used
mainly for grinding and to a lesser extent for oleoresin extraction in import-
ing countries. Substandard nutmegs of two types are exported from In-
donesia, sound shrivelled and BWP (broken, wormy and punky). In Gre-
nada, floats from the water-flotation process plus badly bruised and broken
pieces of sound nutmegs are combined in a defectives grade, similar to
Indonesian BWP but generally of higher quality. Indonesian sound shriv-
elled nutmegs contain a higher percentage of volatile oil than mature sound
nutmegs and are used for grinding, oleoresin extraction and oil distillation in
importing countries. West Indian defectives and Indonesian BWP grades
are seldom distilled, since both normally yield below 8% oil. Indonesia
exports two distilling grades; the poorest BIA or ETEZ has a volatile oil
content of 8-10%; the BSL or AZWI grade contains less shell material with
12-13% volatile-oil content. Grenada exports a distillation grade to the
USA consisting solely of floats. Two types of poorest quality Indonesian

Table 7.2. Physical characteristics of mace oil and oleoresin,

Caribbean oil Indonesian oil Oleoresin


~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~

Specific gravity (25")0.854-0.880 0.880-0.930 0.955-1.005


Refractive index (20°)1.469-1 ,480 1.474-1.488 1.469-1.500 (of oil)
Optical rotation t2O0 to t45O t2"to t 3 0 " -2" to 45" (of oil)
Solubility (viv % alcohol) 1:4(90%) 1:3 (90%) ng
Volatile oil ng "g 20-50 ml/lOO g
ng, not given.
Source: EOA specifications.
224 Chapter 7

nutmegs are distilled locally and are rarely seen in international trade: an
assortment of broken and decayed fragments, and Padang originating
mainly from this region of Sumatra.
Indonesian dried mace is exported as either whole or broken blades;
Grenadian cured mace as whole pale mace, No. 1 broken mace, No. 2
broken mace, unassorted and pickings. The No. 2 broken grade consists of
material which does not acquire the desired pale colour and is generally
shipped in bags. Whole pale mace and No. 1 broken mace are packed in
cases for export.

Ecology
Nutmeg is native to the wet tropics and trees thrive with a high well-
distributed rainfall and moderately high temperature with little seasonal
variation. An annual rainfall of 2200-3700 mm is considered the optimum
for high fruit yield, but trees grow and fruit well at 1500-2500 mm with good
management; below 1500 mm where irrigation is available. In regions with
a pronounced dry season, as on Grenada where there can be 2-3 months
without rain, fruiting is more seasonal than in Indonesia. A temperature of
2 5 3 5 ° C is the optimum and, although mature trees are little affected by
lower and higher temperatures for short periods, flowering can be adversely
affected by temperatures above 35"C, or a hot dry wind. Frost will cause
extensive damage at any stage and normally precludes commercial produc-
tion; thus irrigated cultivation at higher altitudes in the dry tropics has not
been successful. The superficial root system makes trees very susceptible to
wind damage unless protected by shelterbelts. The devastating effect of
cyclone Janet in December 1955 on nutmeg plantations in Grenada has
been well documented; similar effects on a smaller scale have been noted
from other cyclone-prone regions.
Nutmeg thrives under an insular maritime climate and is seldom grown on
a commercial scale above 500 m with individual trees and small plots at
much higher elevations, but there is little information on yield, since most
are grown to supply domestic needs. Sunny sheltered hill valleys often
provide ideal sites. An open situation is preferred for mature trees, but
shading seedlings promotes rapid growth, prevents sun-scorch, and young
trees are often interplanted with fast growing species such as bananas. In
more exposed situations, intermittent shade and wind protection can be
provided by lines of trees such as Albizzia spp. or Eythrina spp.

Soils and fertilizers


Trees flourish on the rich volcanic soils of Banda and Amboina, and could
be the reason why Grenada has become a highly successful nutmeg pro-
ducer, since its soils are similar. Fertile soils with some clay content,
reasonably deep, and free-draining or artificially drained are suitable, since
Myristicaceae 225

nutmeg cannot tolerate waterlogging even for short periods, especially when
young, It grows well in hill valleys but seldom flourishes on river flats. A
neutral to slightly acid soil p H 6.5-7.5 is preferable, but nutmeg will tolerate
more acid soils provided these are well managed; saline and alkaline soils are
unsuitable.
T o produce high fruit yield, nutmeg trees require a high level of natural
soil fertility as occurs in Indonesia and Grenada, since most plantations have
a relatively low level of management and a systematic fertilizer programme is
the exception. Whatever organic manure or plant residue locally available is
spread around trees and mulching with grass, straw or similar material is
common when seedlings are first planted out. Well-rotted plant residues,
animal wastes or residue from fish processing are usually placed in the pits
into which seedlings are transplanted. More efficient producers also place
these materials in a trench round larger seedlings and young trees during
growth and before the spreading root system precludes its use. Once trees
have an established root system, the material should be spread within the
canopy diameter; in India annual application of 2.5 kg cattle manure or
40-50 kg plant residue per tree is recommended, and young trees so treated
grow faster, are larger and tend to flower earlier than unfertilized trees. T h e
application of chemical fertilizers on a regular basis is uncommon although
their use is generally beneficial, but as nutmeg is usually grown on fairly
fertile soil, it is essential the nutrient status is accurately determined before
fertilizers are applied.
Little information is available on the effect of individual plant nutrients on
tree growth, fruit yield, seed size or composition. Reports indicate a sub-
stantial response to manure and fertilizers, but there are few data from
formal trials. The official recommendation per tree in Kerala State is 20 g N,
18 g P, 50 g K in the planting hole, increasing gradually each year until at 15
years the rate reaches 500 g N, 200 g P and 1000 g K per tree. How many
growers actually apply these levels is unknown, but trees receiving any
fertilizer are obvious by their greater size and higher yield. A 13:8:24 N P K
mixture at 25 giseedling increasing to 2.5 kgitree at 10 years was suggested
by the Grenada Agricultural Department as a general guide to producers,
but only progressive growers use any fertilizer.

Cultivation
Nutmeg trees were initially planted in cleared areas in forests or jungles, but
the opportunity for so doing has been drastically reduced. When planted in
the virgin soil of these clearings, trees grew virtually untended except for
periodic slashing of grass and weed growth. Today most nutmeg trees are
planted to replace those which have died, and this is reflected in the
following remarks. Nutmegs are generally grown from seed sown in specially
prepared seedbeds or containers. Seed nutmegs should be sound and fresh,
with the testa intact and aril removed; those from immature fruits, or over
226 Chapter 7

3-5 days old seldom germinate. Seeds kept in wet moss or polythene bags
remain viable for 15 days in India, but storing seed for more than a day or
two is not recommended. Seed is still widely used to produce seedlings, but
is time-consuming since nutmegs are male and female and sex cannot be
determined until flowering.
Seed should be sown 2.5-5.0 cm deep, 30 cm apart in beds; germination
is slow, between 45 and 80 days and, despite widespread belief to the
contrary, there is no difference in speed of emergence between males and
females. Seedlings are ready for planting out after 6 months or at 15 cm high;
although seedlings aged 18-24 months and 30 cm high made better growth
than smaller seedlings in southern India. Care is essential when removing
seedlings to ensure the long tap-root is not damaged. Seedlings in banana
leaf or modern biodegradable pots can be sown intact into planting holes
without root disturbance; polythene tubes should be carefully removed.
Vegetative production from female trees is preferable, and parents should
be selected for high fruit yield, resistance to a local disease or a similar
desired characteristic. Approach-grafting and marcotting are well known
techniques and easily applied by growers. Clonal propagation and tissue-
culture methods have been developed which enable large numbers of
plantlets from selected trees to be produced, but these techniques are
relatively expensive and most trees are still grown from seed.
In well established nutmeg plantations, seedlings found growing near
parent trees can be transplanted; that they are growing near a female tree
does not guarantee they will be female. Seedlings grown from seed will be
half male, and as only 10% are sufficient to ensure pollination, excess males
may be removed, or their sex changed by grafting with scions from female
trees. Spacing should be at least 9 m apart on the square and closer spacing
invariably reduces yield. Vegetatively propagated plants are placed one per
hole, but three seed-grown seedlings are planted 90 cm apart on the triangle,
and later thinned to one female, with a male left for every ten female trees:
carried out when plants flower in 5-7 years. Young plants in exposed
situations require shade, preferably established the previous season; bananas
are ideal, give shade, mulch and an income to offset establishment cost. In
Indonesia, Canariurn commune L., the kanari or Java almond is deliberately
planted to provide shade and a wind break as it bears an edible fruit, the pili
nut which also produces a cooking oil.
Plantations, once established, usually require little attention from grow-
ers, who slash weeds and carefully clear an area round young trees to reduce
insect damage. The dense canopy of mature trees normally suppresses weed
growth, but under-tree vegetation should be kept low to enable fallen fruit to
be seen easily. Small livestock often graze under trees, but goats and cattle
should be excluded since both cause extensive damage. Herbicides are used
where profitable, and directed sprays of glyphosate and simazine are recom-
mended in young plantations, but applying many common herbicides under
Myristicaceae 227

mature trees is hazardous, since they can be absorbed by or damage the


superficial roots.
Trees raised from seed begin to bear at 5-9 years but vegetatively propa-
gated plants at 4-7 years. Fruit ripens 6-9 months after flowering, which
continues throughout the year, but normally has two peaks. Trees reach
maximum production in 15-20 years and can continue at this level for
decades. Fruiting trees around 80 years old are common in Indonesia, but
the life of most cultivated trees is usually determined by other than genetic
factors; disease, mismanagement and natural disasters. A study on the
economics of nutmeg cultivation in the main producing state of Kerala,
India, indicated that trees remained profitable for some 60 years (Ipe and
Varghese, 1990).

Harvesting
Fruit is ripe only when it has split, and is picked or allowed to fall and
collected daily; the latter is more economical but, in the Caribbean, picking
is becoming general. However pickers paid by weight tend to be unselective
and can also damage trees by climbing among branches. In Malaysia and
Indonesia, high fruit is picked using long poles fitted with cutters and a
basket. After harvesting, the nutmeg in its shell with the surrounding mace is
separated from the pericarp. Mace is later detached and carefully flattened
by hand or between boards to avoid breakage, which downgrades quality.
Mace is usually sun-dried on large trays or mats, and 2-4 hours is normally
sufficient in Indonesia and Grenada, mace retaining its original scarlet
colour.
Indonesian mace is usually exported in the red form, changing to reddish-
orange by the time it reaches the consumer. Grenadian mace is stored in
darkness up to 4 months, gradually becoming brittle, horny and pale orange-
yellow; it sells at a premium to Indonesian mace. After removal of the mace,
nutmegs are dried in their shells on large wooden trays, and turned daily by
stirring with wooden paddles to prevent fermentation and promote even
drying. Sun-drying for about one week is usual in Indonesia, or in special
buildings heated by slow fires to prevent shells cracking and melting the fat
which forms a large part of the kernel. O n Grenada, nuts are air-dried for
about 8 weeks in special buildings, losing about 25% by weight. Natural
drying is lengthy and tedious, and artificial forced-air bed-drying reduced
the time to 23 days using cold air, and to 7 days using air heated to 37"C,
without affecting quality (McGraw and Sankat, 1984). Practically all of
Granada's nutmegs and an increasing proportion of Indonesian are now
mechanically shelled.
Fruit yield per tree is very variable as is the average size of nutmegs, while
standard of management also has a considerable effect on yield, especially
adequate pest and disease control. Thus inter-regional comparisons are of
little value, and the following yield figures are given as a general guide. A
228 Chapter 7

mature tree in full bearing in India yields 750-2000 fruits annually, but up to
10,000 from one 25 years old. T h e Sri Lankan average is higher at
2000-4000 per year, with an individual tree yield of 12,000 fruit. In
Grenada, the annual average was 1500 fruit per tree, but in recently
established groves from vegetatively grown seedlings is almost double. The
yield of mace varies similarly, but from sound healthy nutmegs averages
15-20% by weight.

Distillation
When sound nutmegs are distilled, the fixed oil tends to retain some volatile
oil reducing the yield. Defective nutmegs either shrivelled or infested with
weevil larvae, which consume most of the fixed oil, have higher yields; they
also cost less! Nutmegs should be comminuted to a coarse powder then
transferred immediately to the still since, once ground, there is a rapid and
substantial loss of volatiles. Distillation should be with low-pressure live
steam and cohobation may be necessary. About 80% of oil distils within two,
the remainder within ten hours. High-pressure or superheated steam should
not be used, as it carries over small quantities of myristic acid from the fixed
oil. High-quality oils are produced on Grenada from defective nutmegs; a
single preliminary crushing in a roller mill was followed by water distillation
preferably without cohobation; steam distilling also yielded satisfactory oils.
By contrast, water-and-steam distillation with cohobation was not as satis-
factory; yield was variable and quality below that of water-distilled oils.
Distilling for 6-12 hours with a 45 kg charge of crushed nutmegs at a rate of
9-1 0 litres of condensate per hour was the optimum (Coward et al., 1972). In
general, oil yield should be 6-12% by weight, and average at least 8%.
Nutmeg and mace oleoresins are prepared by extracting comminuted
spices with organic solvents. Commercial oleoresins vary in their essential oil
and fatty oil content depending on the solvent; benzene extraction yields
3 1-37% oleoresin containing a substantial amount of odourless and flavour-
less material, mainly trimyristin, removed by washing with cold ethanol in
which the fat is almost insoluble. Extraction of nutmeg directly with cold
ethanol provides 18-26% crude oleoresin; on chilling, filtering and evapor-
ating ethanol under slight vacuum, the yield is reduced to 10-12%. Mace
extracted with petroleum ether yields 27-32% oleoresin containing 8-22%
volatile oil. Hot-ethanol extracts yield 22-27% crude oleoresin; after pro-
cessing 10-1 3%.
Nutmeg contains 2 5 4 0 % fixed oil obtained by expressing crushed nuts
between heated plates in the presence of steam, or by solvent extraction. The
product, concrete, expressed oil or nutmeg butter is a highly aromatic,
orange-coloured fat, with the consistency of butter at ambient temperature;
consisting mainly of trimyristin and a high proportion of volatile oil difficult
to separate by steam distilling.
Myristicaceae 229

Pests and diseases


The principal economic pests of nutmeg attack fruit and seed, although a
particular insect may cause major tree damage in a specific region or season.
Chemical control is infrequent for two main reasons: (i) the cost of the
chemical and its application, since most nutmegs are produced by small
growers who do not have the cash resources to carry out a regular spraying
programme, or whose level of tree management is so low that pest control is
irrelevant; and (ii) the degree of economic damage (with one major excep-
tion later noted) is usually too low to warrant control. Also affecting the
overall use of pesticides is the small number of trees owned by individuals;
thus a high degree of cooperation is necessary to ensure that pest control is
effective, and is usually lacking.
A most serious pest is Phloeosinus ribatus, a small, dark brown weevil 3 m m
long, which bores through bark and cambium, and attacks both above and
below ground plant parts. Numbers breed-up very rapidly and can quickly
cause dieback and death. This insect is blamed for the virtual collapse of
nutmeg production in Singapore and Penang in the 1860s. Other damaging
scolytid borers (ambrosia beetles) are Xyleborus fomicatus and X . nzyristicae;
the former a well-known pest of many plantation crops including tea.
Stephanoderes moschatae and Dac yphalus sumatranus are less often recorded,
but can be very damaging in specific localities. Larvae of these borers are the
worms which attack the nutmeg itself, resulting in the wormy nutmegs used
for nutmeg butter and oil.
The larvae of a number of polyphagous tropical moths cause defoliation,
but frequently become heavily parasitized once numbers increase. A scale,
Coccus expansium, attacks leaves and young shoots in India and South East
Asia, but there are no details of the degree of damage. Coccus spp. are widely
distributed in the tropics, are pests of many tree crops and may occur more
widely on nutmeg than has been reported. Superficial tree and seedlings
roots can be attacked by the larvae of several moths including Agrotis spp.,
termites and nematodes including the polyphagous Meloidogyne javanica.
Stored nutmegs are readily attacked by the usual pests of stored edible
products; Araecerus fasciculatus, the coffee bean weevil, is considered by far
the most damaging in nutmeg growing regions of Asia and the Pacific
region.
The total damage caused by disease is much greater than caused by
insects, but the same remarks regarding chemical control apply. Probably
the most obvious are fruit rots which either cause shrivelling, rotting or
premature fruit fall. I n India, Diplodia natalensis attacks and destroys half-
ripe fruits, and a related Diplodia spp. in Malaysia and Indonesia. In South
East Asia, premature fruit fall was associated with Coyneunz mytisticae, but
the causal organism was not determined. In India, Gloeosporium spp. and
Fusarium spp. were isolated from rotten fruits, but again it was not deter-
mined if they were the cause. In Kerala, fruit rots are a major source of fruit
230 Chapter 7

loss. A thread-blight due to Corticiunz stevensii occurs in the Caribbean, very


damaging in a particular season. A serious disease where it occurs is wilt
caused by Rosellinia spp. which also attacks roots of many tropical trees; R.
pep0 is common in the Caribbean, especially on Grenada and Trinidad.
Leaves of badly infected trees wilt, turn brown, fall and the tree eventually
dies; the fruits appear wrinkled and desiccated.
Root-rots due to Fornes spp. commonly occur from Asia eastwards; F.
Pzoxius and F. lamaoensis are most often recorded as causing severe damage,
and sometimes death of trees. Greasy spot, recorded mainly in the Car-
ibbean, raises dark-brown greasy lesions on leaves, although several organ-
isms may be responsible. Diseases with similar but less greasy lesions have
been described from Asia and Indonesia, but apparently remain unidenti-
fied. Mace scab reported from Grenada is not considered to be due to a
pathogen but is physiological and recognized by accumulation of calcium
oxalate. Stored nutmegs and mace can be attacked by a number of patho-
gens, easily controlled by adequate and supervised storage.

Products and specifications


Nutmeg oil production is dominated by Indonesia, with smaller and irregu-
lar supplies from Grenada, St Vincent and Sri Lanka. A small quantity of oil
is distilled from imported nutmegs in North American and Western Euro-
pean consuming centres to satisfy demand for a very high quality product.
Nutmeg and mace oleoresins obtained by solvent extraction are also pre-
pared mainly in North America and Western Europe. Butters are normally
produced by individual manufacturers. T h e commercially more important
nutmeg oil has been more intensively studied than mace oil, but the two oils
produced in the same geographical area are usually very similar in properties
and generally organoleptically interchangeable. Both oils have insecticidal,
microbiological and antifungal activity, and this is increasingly discussed in
the literature. A detailed comparison of oil yield and composition of nutmeg
and mace oils from individual trees on Grenada showed both were similar in
quality but differed in composition.
Nutmeg oil is a pale-yellow to almost water-white mobile liquid; its odour
being fresh, warm-spicy and aromatic with a rich, sweet-spicy bodynote;
freshly distilled oil tends to have a rubbery topnote which disappears with
age. T h e major components are, in per cent: monoterpene hydrocarbons
61-88; oxygenated monoterpenes 5-15; aromatic ethers 2-18. T h e main
constituents of the monoterpene hydrocarbon fraction are alpha- and beta-
pinene and sabinene; myristicin of the aromatic-ether fraction (Table 7.3).
Traces of myristic acid found in oil probably arise from hydrolysis of its
glyceryl ester, the major component of nutmeg fat during distillation, and
carried over into the oil; p-cymene, p-methyl-isopropenyl benzene, cycla-
men aldehyde and cumene are probably artefacts. Commercial steam-
distilled oils also tend to differ from natural oil present in spice or oleoresin
Myristicaceae 23 1

extracts by containing a higher proportion of monoterpenes, particularly


alpha- and beta-pinene and sabinene, owing to incomplete distillation of the
oxygenated components.
The organoleptic properties of nutmeg oil are influenced by composition;
West Indian oils are low in alpha-pinene, safrole and myristicin, with a
higher sabinene content; conversely East Indian oils are higher in myristicin,
up to 13.5% compared with below 1% in West Indian oils. The greater
proportion of myristicin and safrole in East Indian oils and the different
monoterpene component ratio probably gives the stronger nutmeg flavour.
Oil from other countries generally resembles one or other of the two main
types, due probably to source of the original introduction. It is interesting
however, that Sri Lankan oil resembles West rather than East Indian oil,
with a sabinene content of 30-50% and mean myristicin and elemicin

Table 7.3.Some constituents of East Indian nutmeg oil


~~~ ~ ~

polar non-polar
Alpha-thujene a 2.2
Alpha-pinene 22.6 22.8
Camphene 0.3 0.3
Beta-pinene 15.4 15.7
Sabinene 18.5 18.6
Myrcene t delta-3-carene 3.2 a
Alpha-phellandrene 0.9 2.4
Alpha-terpinene 3.5 3.4
Limonene 3.9 3.7
Beta-phellandrene 2.4 a
Gamma-terpinene 5.1 5.1
pCymene 1.I a
Terpinolene 2.4 1.7(b)
Alpha-copaene 0.2 0.2
Linalool 0.4 a
Terpinen-4-01 8.0 7.7
Alpha-terpineol 1 .o 1.o
Safrole 2.0 2.1
4-Pentylanisole a 0.3
Eugenol a 0.2
lsoeugenol a 0.2
Alpha-bergamotene a 0.1
Myristicin 6.9 5.3
Delta-cadinene a 0.3
Total 97.8 93.3
a, not separated; b, including linalool.
Source: Based on RIC (1984).
232 Chapter 7

contents of 2.3 and 1.2% respectively (Sarath-Kumara et al., 1985). Nut-


meg oils can be adulterated with natural products high in monoterpenes,
myristicin or synthetic materials, but there is little value in so doing. T h e
main use for nutmeg oil is as flavouring in a wide range of processed edible
products, ketchups and soft drinks, but the monoterpenes have a pro-
nounced tendency to polymerize and produce undesirable off-notes when
heated, and terpeneless oils are preferred for flavouring many food products,
including canned foods.
Terpeneless oil is normally produced by counter-current solvent extrac-
tion to avoid heating, for the reason previously noted. The oil is used in
pharmaceutical products to alleviate bronchial troubles, in domestic aerosol
sprays and increasingly in male toiletries including after-shave lotions.
Nutmeg extract from sound nutmegs is a dark orange, viscous mass, with a
warm spicy, strongly aromatic odour, and the burning, spicy taste of nut-
meg. It can be used directly in special formulations or alcohol-washed to
remove the suspended solids, mainly glycerol myristate. The extract is
seldom available and usually prepared by end users.
Mace oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid which partly resinifies and
develops a turpentine-like odour upon exposure to air. It is very similar in its
characteristics and organoleptic properties to nutmeg oil, but produced in
very small quantities. The main use for mace oil is as a flavouring in liquid
products such as sauces, pickles, etc. and it is generally a direct substitute for
nutmeg oil. Cured Grenadian mace oil contains, in per cent: monoterpene
hydrocarbons 75-94, oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes
4.7-17.6, aromatic ethers 0-5.9; nutmeg oil 85-93, 6.6-12, 0-3.5% re-
spectively. T h e composition of the monoterpene hydrocarbon and oxy-
genated monoterpene fractions are broadly comparable in the two oils from
the same tree, the main difference being that aromatic ethers were slightly
higher in the cured mace oil.
Nutmeg and mace oleoresins are prepared by extracting with organic
solvents and contain steam-volatile oil, fixed oil and other extractives soluble
in the chosen solvent. A high fixed-oil content is obtained with hydrocarbon
solvents; a lower fixed-oil and resin content with polar solvents alcohol and
acetone. T h e lower fixed-oil content of mace, compared with nutmeg,
produces oleoresins containing less odourless material. Nutmeg and mace
oleoresins are considered to possess a more true odour and flavour than
corresponding steam-distilled oils. Although the organoleptic properties of
nutmeg and mace are similar, end users consider mace oleoresin has a finer,
more rounded and fresh-fruity character.
Oleoresins extracted by non-polar solvents with a relatively high fat
content are preferred in flavouring foods, since they have greater tenacity
and heat stability; perfumers prefer oleoresins extracted with solvents such
as ethanol. Nutmeg oleoresin is a pale to golden yellow viscous liquid which
is clear and oily or opaque and waxy, becoming clear on warming to 5OoC.
Myristicaceae 233

Commercial nutmeg oleoresins are graded on volatile oil content (ml/lOO g)


as 25-30, 55-60, 80 and 80-90. Mace oleoresin is an amber to reddish-
amber clear liquid, and graded on volatile oil content (mli100 g) as 8-24,
40-45, 50 and 50-56. Mace contains little fatty oil or other odourless,
flavourless substances soluble in hot ethanol, and mace oleoresin so pre-
pared is one of the most concentrated forms of the nutmeg-mace flavour.
Nutmeg butter obtained by extracting or expressing sound nutmegs, is an
orange-red to reddish-brown soft solid, with the distinct odour and taste of
nutmeg. It has a melting point of 45-51°C, is partly soluble in cold, almost
completely in hot alcohol, and is freely soluble in ether and chloroform. Its
specific gravity is 0.9950-0.9990, saponification number 172-179, iodine
number 40-52, and acid number 17-23. A saponification value of 196 and
acid value of 9.0 have been recorded (Gopalam and Zacharia, 1989). Mace
butter is similarly obtained but contains 40% saturated and 60% un-
saturated fats compared to 10% and 90% in nutmeg. Mace butter is
produced by end users. Butters can replace their respective oils in many
applications, but use is restricted as oils and oleoresins are favoured by
manufacturers.

References

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Myrtaceae
8-
T h e Myrtaceae consists of some 75 genera and nearly 3000 species of mainly
tropical evergreen trees and shrubs. T h e chief centres of distribution are the
American and Asian tropics and Australia. A major revision placed many of
the Asiatic Eugenia L. in the genus Syzygium Gaertn., which contains about
500 species mainly in the Asian tropics, and the most important spice and
essential oil source is clove, S. aromaticum L. T h e genus Eucalyptus L’Herit.
is also large, containing about 700 species almost entirely native to Australia;
many produce an essential oil but few are commercially exploited. The
genus Melaleuca L. has some 200 species also mainly native to Australia, but
only half a dozen have been exploited for their essential oil. T h e genus
Leptospermum Forst. contains about 80 species mainly native to Australia;
one is cultivated for its essential oil. The genus Pimenta Lindl. contains 18
species native to tropical America and the Caribbean region; two produce a
commercially important essential oil. The genus Myrtus L. contains about
100 species mainly native to South America, but only M . communis L.
produces a commercial oil.

The Arabs knew clove as karanful, believed to be the origin of the Greek
Kayophyllon. T h e modern English name of clove is from the French clou
meaning nail, probably derived from the Latin clavus, while the original
Chinese name translates as sweet-smelling nails. T o avoid unnecessary
wordage, clove will be used to designate clove tree, harvested buds and the
spice, the context ensuring no confusion.
The clove is indigenous to the Moluccas (the Spice Islands) now part of
the Republic of Indonesia, but apparently the buds were little used as a spice
or flavouring. The first recorded use was in the Chinese Han period BC
220-206, when courtiers sweetened their breath with clove buds in the

235
236 Chapter 8

Emperor’s presence. The Chinese probably extended cultivation or knowl-


edge of clove to regions under their influence, as the Chinese name theng-hia
has been incorporated into many languages; in Java and Malaysia as cheng-
kek and in Persia as nzakhak.When clove first reached India is uncertain, but
was probably little earlier than the fourth or fifth century. In Sanskrit clove is
lavanga, the origin of most local names although in Tamil lavanga means
cinnamon bark! The various types, qualities and price of cloves are discussed
in the Ain-i-Akbari written in Agra in 1590. Cloves were then obviously well
known, although there is no mention of clove cultivation in the seventeenth
century by Rheede in his Hortus Malabaricus. A major traditional Indian use
is as an ingredient of the betel chewing quid pan pati (q.v.).
Cloves were regularly imported into Alexandria, Egypt, in the second
century, and in the fourth century were traded around the Mediterranean;
the Emperor Constantine presented the equivalent of 70 kg of cloves to St
Silvester, Bishop of Rome (AD 3 14-335). By the eighth century cloves were
known throughout Europe probably via entrepots on the Red Sea coast. T h e
Alexandrian, Cosmos Indicopleustes, who visited India and Ceylon, de-
scribed the clove trade in Topographia Chrktiana (about AD 548). Jewish
traders, Radanites, who kept the trade routes open between East and West in
the eighth to tenth centuries, brought cloves to Spain, France and elsewhere
in Western Europe. The Frankish king, in AD 716, authorized delivery of
spices including 1 kg of cloves to the monastery of Corbie in Normandy.
Ibrahim Ibn Yaacub, the Moorish physician and merchant, reported in AD
973 that cloves could be purchased in Mainz, while in England the Countess
of Leicester recorded she ‘paid 10-12 shillings per pound for cloves’ in AD
1265.
Venice was the leading European source of cloves and other spices in the
13th century and became tremendously rich. Trade was via the Arabs, who
for centuries had a virtual monopoly of the sea-borne spice trade until it was
broken by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. T h e origin of cloves
became known in Europe following publication by Marco Polo in AD 1298 of
his famous journeys; a book which later resulted in Spanish and Portuguese
searches for the spice islands, and brought Vasco de Gama to India in AD
1498. In less than 20 years the Portuguese had occupied the Moluccas and
trade in cloves and nutmegs became a royal monopoly for a century. A tree
reportedly from the Portuguese period and said by the locals to be at least
350 years old survives on Ternate Island; it is of enormous size for a clove
and still bearing.
The Dutch subsequently broke the Portuguese monopoly instituting one
of their own, which they locally maintained with the utmost ruthlessness.
Under a proclamation issued in 162 1 they destroyed all clove trees except on
Amboina and adjacent islands. This short-sighted policy virtually ensured
clove trees were planted in other countries to circumvent the Dutch monop-
oly, and led finally to the pre-eminence of Zanzibar and Madagascar in the
Myrtaceae 237

clove trade. Based on Batavia, now Jakarta, the Dutch clove trade is
described in detail by Rumphius (HerbariumAmboinense, 1750). The whole-
sale destruction of wild and cultivated trees by the Dutch resulted in a great
loss of genetic diversity, a lack noted by Rumphius in 1741, when he
described only three types of trees differing mainly in size and colour of ripe
cloves; he also stated that the locals believed that cultivated cloves, if left
untended, reverted to the wild type. On Amboina island, in a protected
enclosure, is a tree believed to be at least 300 years old, reputedly planted by
locals in an attempt to evade the Dutch monopoly. Indonesia is once again
the world’s largest producer and consumer of cloves, mainly used in kretek
cigarettes. Clove production rose slowly but steadily in the decade
1952-1962 from 3000 t to 7000 t, but following the 1964 revolution on
Zanzibar (later noted), clove production in Indonesia rapidly increased and
by 1972 was 15,000 t, reaching 25,000 t in 1982, according to figures
released by the government Statistical Bureau (Biro Pusat Statisik, Dja-
karta), Domestic clove production was subsequently related directly to the
use of clove powder in kretek cigarettes, reaching 30,000 t in 1992; since
then there has been a substantial internal surplus of cloves. Reviews of the
trade in cloves and clove derivatives to 1970 is contained in Willems (1 97 1)
and to 1973 in Adamson and Robbins (1975).
Clove and nutmeg were introduced into Mauritius in 1770 from seeds
smuggled out of the Moluccas for Governor Pierre Poivre and the first crop
of cloves was picked in 1776. Seedlings were later distributed to other Indian
Ocean islands under French administration, including the Seychelles and
Reunion. Few original seedlings survived and it is locally recorded that one
tree on Reunion supplied seed from which are descended practically all trees
on Reunion and Madagascar. Cloves were found growing on Papua New
Guinea in the 1770s and were probably also introduced to neighbouring
islands (Sonnerat, Voyage en Nouvelle Guide, 1776).
Clove was first planted in Malaysia in 1786 but was not successful. Trees
from a second introduction in 1880 flourished and a small but thriving
population remains in the Penang region. Seeds from Reunion were planted
on Sainte Marie Island off the Madagascar coast in 1827, thrived and
produced about 15 t of cloves by 1880. Plantings expanded after 1885,
cultivation was extended to mainland Madagascar in 1890, and that country
is now a major producer of cloves and exporter of clove leaf oil.
Possibly the most important introduction of cloves to any country was to
Zanzibar early in the nineteenth century. The most reliable account tells
how a local Arab, Harameli bin Saleh, banished by the Sultan for murder,
took service with a French officer and obtained clove seeds in Reunion.
These he presented to the Sultan, Sayyid Said Bin Sultan, and obtained his
pardon. The first plants were grown near the royal palace of Mtoni, 6 k m
north of Zanzibar town. The Sultan realized the economic potential of the
238 Chapter 8

crop and forced local landowners to plant cloves under threat of confisca-
tion. Substantial areas were planted on Zanzibar and Pemba, helped by the
large number of slaves (Fig. 8.1). The 1872 cyclone caused widespread
destruction of trees on Zanzibar, but did not affect Pemba. The Sultan of the
day, Sayyid Barghash bin Said, enforced replanting on Zanzibar while high
prices encouraged additional planting on Pemba. Zanzibar (now part of
Tanzania) later became the world’s largest exporter of cloves but, following
the revolution of 1964, production slumped. Land was nationalized, planta-
tions were split into uneconomical 1.5 ha plots and the government paid
growers only 4% of the export price. This was below the cost of production,
there was no incentive to maintain healthy trees or replant, and the majority
are over 60 years old. Production fell to less than 1000 t, rising slowly to
3000 t i n 1995-1996, well below the pre-1964 average of 9000 t, and far less
than the annual 20,000 t of the decades to 1960. New plantations estab-
lished on the Tanzanian mainland near Tanga are now in bearing. Relative
newcomers to the clove trade are Sri Lanka and Brazil but, with the world
surplus of cloves likely to continue for the foreseeable future, both are
unlikely to expand production beyond domestic demand.
When clove oil was first produced is uncertain, and initial mention of an
elixir of cloves was for the treatment of toothache, probably a direct result of
sucking dried cloves which not only sweetened the breath but acted as a
palliative. An extract was used as a prophylactic against skin and respiratory
diseases in the Middle Ages. The major constituent of clove oil was first
described by Liebig in 1836, as nelkensaure or acid of cloves, subsequently
eugenic acid, and in 1875 as eugenol by Johann Karl Tiemann of Berlin,
who used it to produce synthetic vanillin U. Chem. Soc. 1900, 600).
Several other unrelated species produce either fruit or an essential oil
popularly called cloves or clove oil, and two are well-known members of the
Lauraceae. Ravensara aromatica Gmel, the Madagascar clove-nutmeg, is a
medium-sized tree to 12 m, with small leathery leaves and small round
aromatic fruit whose taste resembles a mixture of clove and nutmeg; oil
distilled from its leaves is commonly an adulterant of true clove leaf oil.
Dicypellium cayophyllaturn (Mart.) Nees, the Brazil clove, bears highly
aromatic flower buds very popular locally for flavouring, which are harvested
and dried in a similar manner to cloves. Oil is distilled from wood and bark,
known as clove-cassia or clove-bark oil and exported to Europe, especially
France.

Botany
Syzygium aromaticurn (L.) Merr. & Perry (syn. Eugenia arornatica Kuntze; E.
ca yophyllata Thunb.; E. calyophyllus (Sprengel) Bull. & Harr.; Cayophyllus
aromaticus L.). The genus Syzygium Gaertn. includes some 500 species
native to the Asiatic and African tropics and Australia. In addition to
essential oils and spices, some members of the Myrtaceae are cultivated for
Myflaceae 239

their fruit including the popular guava Psidium guajava L. The clove tree was
long known as Eugenia aromatica or E. caryophyllata, but revision of the large
Eugenia genus, as noted, resulted in clove being reclassified (Schmid,
1972).
The clove’s nearest relative is the wild clove common on the forested
lower slopes of the Moluccas and Papua New Guinea, which differs from
cultivated clove in having larger, less aromatic leaves and flower buds. Also,
the essential oil content is lower and the oil has different characteristics. A
potentially valuable feature of these wild species is resistance to Matibudjang

Fig. 8.1. Harvesting cloves, Zanzibar, c. 1860.


240 Chapter 8

disease (q.v.). Hybrids between wild and cultivated cloves are fertile but
have not been studied cytologically, and it is not certain whether the wild
clove should be treated as conspecific or as a separate species, E. obtusijolia
Roxb. Thus it is interesting to note the findings of Dr Meijer in Indonesia,
who over many years collected buds from wild trees and analysed their oil
(Meijer and Schmid, 1948). These oils lacked eugenol but did contain
eugenone, eugenin, isoeugenitin and isoeugenital, with an odour quite
different to oil from cultivated cloves. They also speculated on whether
cultivated clove evolved by selection to the present type, or if there were
initially two quite different wild types. No true cultivars of clove are recog-
nized in Zanzibar and Madagascar since almost all existing trees are descen-
dants of the original limited introductions; there is thus little genetic variabil-
ity or opportunity for selection. Greater variability exists in cloves’ native
Moluccas and probably also elsewhere among wild and cultivated types.
Cultivated clove is an evergreen tree to 15 m, generally conical when
young becoming more cylindrical with age, and bearing glossy green leaves,
fragrant red flowers and purple fruits. It is long-lived and recorded as
remaining productive for 150 years. The seedling has a pronounced but
short tap-root, which is quickly replaced by two or three primary sinkers. In
the first year, a mass of fibrous roots spreads out from the tap-root to a radius
of 30-50 cm and a depth of 25 cm; during the second year these fibrous roots
thicken to become main horizontal laterals. The roots finally extend to a
radius approximately equal to tree height and, when roots of neighbouring
trees overlap, natural grafting can occur. The trunk, to 30 cm DRH, often
forks near the base into two or three erect branches, a habit sometimes
simulated by planting two or three seedlings close together. The bark is grey,
smooth to rough depending on age, and slash on a healthy tree is white to
rose-pink.
The wood is very hard, and from a tree which has died from natural causes
is ash-grey; from a tree which died from sudden death it is yellow, while
infection from die-back produces a reddish-brown discoloration. The main
branches are nearly upright with few side branches, giving a cylindrical
appearance to mature trees. Smaller branches and twigs are also ascending,
terete, very brittle and greyish-white. During harvesting in Zanzibar, pickers
frequently climb trees, damaging these brittle branches and leaving open
wounds, allowing entry to the pathogen causing ‘die-back’ (see section on
pests and diseases).
The leaves are simple, opposite, coriaceous, exstipulate, glabrous and
aromatic. The lamina are lanceolate or narrowly elliptic, sometimes nar-
rowly obovate, 7-1 3 X 3-4 cm, gland-dotted, densely and obscurely pinna-
tinerved. The apex is shortly or broadly bluntly acuminate, the base cuneate
and the margin wavy and recurved. The petiole is slender, 2-3 cm, some-
what swollen, the base pinkish and the leaf blade partly decurrent in the
Myrtaceae 24 1

upper portion. New bright pink leaves appear in flushes; the upper surface
later becomes glossy dark green, the lower dull and paler. Crushed leaves
emit the characteristic clove scent and, as the volatile oil also evaporates,
clove plantations after rain are permeated with the rather cloying odour.
The inflorescence is a terminal, corymbose, trichotomous panicle, shortly
pedunculate, branched from the base, shorter than the leaves and very
variable in number of flowers; from three on a simple three-forked peduncle
to 50 or more on multiple peduncles (Fig. 8.2.). The angled peduncles and
shorter 5 mm pedicels constitute the clove stems of commerce. The bracts
and bracteoles are narrow, acute, to 2-3 mm, and are quickly shed. The
flower is hermaphroditic with a fleshy hypanthium surmounted by sepals;
the hypanthium is 1.O-1.5 cm, cylindrical, angled, green in the young bud
but flushed pink at anthesis, becoming deep reddish after stamens fall. The
four calyx lobes are fleshy, triangular, slightly incurved, 3-4 mm, and easily
observed in the spice. The inflorescences are harvested when the buds have
reached full size but before they open, thus the petals together with the
enclosed stamens form the head of the dried clove. The four petals are
imbricate, tinged red, rounded, 6 mm diameter, falling as a hemispherical
calyptra as the flowers open. The stamens are numerous, the anthers are pale
yellow and ovate; the style is very stout to 3-4 mm, with the base swollen,
and pale green. The two-celled, multi-ovulate, inferior ovary is embedded in
the top of the hypanthium. The morphology and histology of clove flower
and bud has been described (Parry, 1962).
The fragrant flowers are attractive to and regularly visited by bees and
other insects which are probably the main pollinating agents. Controlled
cross-breeding is also possible (Nair et al., 1974). In Indonesia clove is
locally considered to be self-pollinated but bagged inflorescences in Zanzi-
bar never produced viable seed (Zanzibar Department of Agriculture,
1949-1965). Flowers covered with polythene bags in Sri Lanka set 30%
seed, a percentage not significantly increased by artificial pollination (Sri-
tharan and Bavappa, 1981). Few flowers develop fully to form fruit, the
greater number fall and can be gleaned and processed into an inferior spice.
The effect of growth regulators on clove has been little studied; a Zanzibar
unreplicated trial using NAA applied in December caused a yield increase
the following December (Zanzibar Department of Agriculture, 1949-1 965).
There are two flowering seasons on Zanzibar, July-September and
November-January; in Madagascar, the main flowering is July-August; in
India, September-October in the plains, December-January in the hills; in
Indonesia, October-February depending on the area. Bud initials appear
about 6 months before they are ready to be harvested, and six stages with
local names are recognized in Zanzibar. It is thus possible to make a
reasonable crop estimate some time before harvest. A profuse flowering
leading to a bumper crop occurs every 4 years in Zanzibar and Indonesia.
242 Chapter 8

Fig. 8.2. Syzygiurn aromaticurn, clove. A, Flowering branch: 6, bud in longitudinal section: C, flower in
longitudinal section; D, fruit; E,fruit in longitudinal section; F, dried clove. (Purseglove et al., 1981.)
Myrlaceae 243

Clove oil is normally obtained from dried buds and published analyses
relate to this oil type. Oil from fresh buds at different stages of maturity
varies considerably in physical characteristics, composition and odour. Data
from India are shown in Table 8.1; subsequent analyses confirmed that
eugenol content increased with maturity while eugenol acetate decreased;
caryophyllene is apparently absent in fresh buds (Gopalakrishnan et al.,
1982). Oil from fresh buds had a pleasant fruity odour, while oil from young
buds was more mellow than from mature buds.
Fruits, mother-of-cloves, are oblong fleshy drupes, shortly tapering at
each end, reddish purple, 2.5-3.5 cm long by 1.2-1.5 cm in diameter,
surmounted by four enlarged fleshy calyx lobes, and there are normally
350-375 ripe fruit per kilogram. The fruit contains a single seed, rarely two,
with a thin fleshy pericarp 2-3 mm thick. The 2 cm, oblong purplish seed is
rounded at both ends, with two large cotyledons and no endosperm; the
cotyledons lie side by side, the inner faces folded and interlocking, attached
near their centres to the large hypocotyl. Seed from freshly harvested fruit is
normally viable and, when correctly treated, germination is usually above
90%. Growth inhibitors and temperature can affect the viability of stored
seed (Hasanah et al., 1984).

Table 8.1. Composition and characteristics of clove buds and bud oil at different maturity stages from
India.

2 months 3 months 4 months


0 Ba 0 Ba 0 Ba
Specific gravity (27°C) 1.0244 1.0290 1.0395
Refractive index (26") 1.5215 1.5225 1.5264
Optical rotation (23%) -6.36" -8.76" -9.04"
Volatile oil0 18.5 94.6 18.8 147.4 16.7 146.6
Non-volatile ether extractb 12.5 64.0 11.2 88.2 11.6 101.9
Eugenol (%) 48.2 45.5 54.3 80.0 68.3 101.1
Eugenol acetate (%) 26.0 24.5 21 .o 30.9 9.0 13.1
Caryophyllene ("h) 10.9 10.3 12.1 17.8 11.2 16.4
Polyphenolsc
total tannins 22.5 114.5 22.2 173.7 30.6 180.2
true tannins 13.6 69.2 11.3 88.7 8.5 78.4
Total hydrolysable 7.3 37.3 8.7 68.7 11.5 101.1
carbohydrate (as starch)
Crude fibre 12.4 63.5 12.5 98.1 15.9 139.8
Crude protein 6.8 35.1 6.9 53.8 6.9 60.4
Ash 5.4 27.5 5.6 43.9 6.5 57.7
aMilligram per bud; dry weight; as quercitannic acid; 0, oil; B, bud
Source: Gopalakrishnan et al. (1982).
244 Chapter 8

Ecology
Clove grows naturally in a tropical maritime climate but, although such
conditions can be found in many countries to which clove has been in-
troduced, commercially viable plantations exist in very few; thus conditions
favouring clove production may be more critical than originally believed.
Clove is seldom grown commercially above 200-300 m although to 600 m in
the Seychelles and Madagascar, and some of the highest-yielding planta-
tions in India are in the Western Ghats above 1000 m. Although commercial
plantations are seldom established above 500-600 m, the tree will make
healthy growth at much higher elevations, as in the botanic garden at
Entebbe, Uganda, altitude 1200 m. Such trees normally make slow initial
growth, the time to first harvest is considerably lengthened, but trees remain
healthy and produce cloves for many decades. A temperature of 24-33°C is
recorded in main clove-growing regions of Indonesia and Zanzibar, similar
to that of the Moluccas. Lower mean daily temperatures occur in India, but
there is no information on the effect of varying temperature on tree growth,
flowering or fruit development.
The most productive clove areas of Zanzibar and Madagascar have an
annual rainfall of 2000-3000 mm similar to the Moluccas 2200-3600 mm,
with a dry period coinciding with flowering, which also greatly assists
harvesting and drying. Although there are no data in support, it has been
suggested a dry period is necessary to initiate the floral differentiation of
buds (Waard, 1974). If this is so then variation in the dry period, its length
or indeed absence may be a factor influencing the highly variable annual
yield. High humidity at flowering reduced yields in Singapore, Penang and
certain areas of Indonesia. A well-distributed rainfall of at least 3000 mm is
desirable to ensure continuous regrowth for leaf-oil production. A very dry
year can kill many young and also more mature trees especially where soils
are shallow or very free-draining. Such trees often exhibit similar symptoms
to die-back and death may be very fast. Research in Indonesia indicates trees
do not exhibit wilting symptoms under high water stress and leaves become
highly cutinized. Trees reportedly recovered very slowly and highly stressed
trees frequently died; a similar phenomenon also occurred in Madagascar
(Maistre, 1955).
Clove is essentially a forest tree and flourishes in a plantation environment
with partial shade from neighbouring trees. Isolated trees exposed to strong
direct sunlight as in some botanic garden specimens frequently show foliar
scorch, reduced young growth and flower number. Young trees in planta-
tions should be shaded initially by interplanting with suitable local species;
on Zanzibar Gliricidia spp. and Peltophorum spp. were used but the most
effective was bananas with the added advantage of providing food or income
during plantation establishment.
Young growth and branches are quite brittle, high winds cause consider-
able damage, and cyclones are devastating. The well-documented Zanzibar
Myrtaceae 245

1872 cyclone caused havoc and made extensive replanting essential to save
the industry. Tree damage was related to the later spread of sudden-death
disease (Nutman and Roberts, 197 1). Although extensive structural damage
can be caused by high winds, trees are seldom blown over or uprooted as the
extremely tough trunks resist breakage. Damaged trees generally recover,
although regrowth is slow, and if trees are extensively damaged replanting is
probably the quickest method of re-establishing clove production. Damaged
trees also appear to be more susceptible to infection by pathogenic fungi.
When establishing new plantations in areas where there are few other trees,
windbreaks are essential in the initial years and permanent windbreaks may
be necessary.

Soil and fertilizers


The most suitable soils are deep, well-drained fertile loams, sandy loams or
sandy clays; soils with impeded drainage or which are markedly saline
should be avoided. The most serious diseases of clove are the various forms
of die-back, but similar symptoms can occur in uninfected trees and are
most often due to unsuitable soil, as previously noted. Clove will tolerate
acid soils to p H 4.5 but p H 5.5-6.5 is most suitable. An upper limit has not
been determined and most records are taken from stands of established trees
which were originally planted with no regard to soil status. Best growth and
yield in Malaysia is on well-drained soils derived from volcanic rock, but on
young volcanic soils in Madagascar cloves made poor growth. Heavy clay
soils are generally unsuitable, but in Penang clove thrives on such soils since
the hillsides on which the trees are planted ensure adequate drainage. Soils
which become waterlogged for even relatively short periods are also unsuit-
able, and trials in Indonesia with seedlings subjected to flooding for varying
periods resulted in death of 60% after 5 weeks. The same percentage was
killed in 2 weeks when Phytophthora spp. was present (Syafrudding et al.,
1980).
There are few data on the effect of fertilizers on clove and that available is
conflicting, probably due more to varying conditions of climate and soils in
the regions concerned than to tree reaction. Ploughing-in a green manure, or
raw animal and human waste may severely reduce yield, a not uncommon
result generally in tropical agriculture as large amounts of such material can
result in a short-term nitrogen or soil-moisture deficit. Placing compost or
well-rotted cattle manure topped with rich forest soil in planting holes is
recommended in India, or 100 kg of rich river silt per tree (Nair, 1978).
Applying 10-50 kg coconut meal per tree on Zanzibar resulted in substantial
yield increase, but the response was not consistent (Zanzibar Department of
Agriculture, 1949-1 965); superphosphate or an N P K mixture produced no
yield increase, but a top dressing per tree of 0.9 kg ammonium sulphate at
flowering or potassium sulphate at the same rate gave a non-consistent yield
increase (Tidbury, 1949). A mixture of 0.5 kg urea, 1.9 kg triple-
246 Chapter 8

superphosphate and 0.6 kg potassium chloride applied to 14-year-old trees


in Madagascar increased yield from 1036 to 1512 kgiha, but potassium may
not have been necessary although the total application was profitable (Du-
fournet and Rodriguez, 1972).Yield increase was significant on mature trees
in Indonesia only after 4 years annual application per tree of 900 g of a
12:12:17 NPK mixture plus 225 g urea (Wahid, 1977); applying 100 g of
15:15:15 mixture improved growth of 3-year-old trees (Daswir, 1986).
Young trees which received nitrogen and potassium together, but not singly,
had improved growth rates, were larger and had more leaves. There was little
response to phosphate (Wahid and Usman, 1984). Annual application per
tree of 2-5 kg bone or fish meal is common in India (Nair, 1978), but in the
first years after planting in Kerala State, the Department of Agriculture
recommends (per tree) 20 g N, 8 g P and 42 g K, and to trees in bearing 300
g N, 110 g P and 62 g K annually during the monsoon in May-June (Nair,
1978). Fish and animal refuse is spread around trees and hoed in Malaysia
and Indonesia, but also rock phosphate, bone meal and similar material
where available and cheap. There is little information on the effects of minor
elements on clove; the data available is from laboratory or pot trials and may
not be applicable in the field (Nazeem et al., 1993).

Cultivation
Clove trees are cultivated primarily to produce the clove used as a spice, and
clove oil production is a complementary activity. Oils can be obtained from
buds andior stems and are basically by-products of the spice trade; leaf oil
requires different cultural methods as trees are not required to flower.
Cloves may be propagated from seeds, layered, grafted, or by simply pegging
young branches to the ground and allowing them to root (Watt, 1908; Wit,
1976). Large numbers of plantlets can be produced from selected parents
using in vitro methods of propagation (Babu et al., 1993). Interspecific
grafting on rootstocks of Eugenia brasiliensis, E. unifora L., E. jambolana
Lamk. and Syzygiurn cumini L. was successful.
The usual method is to sow seeds and special trees must be left in
plantations to provide seed. High-yielding, regular-bearing trees should be
selected and a single tree yields about 2000 sound fruit in an average season.
Self-sown seedlings are also transplanted from existing plantations. Clove is
normally cross-pollinated, thus seedlings from a single tree can vary widely
in their characteristics. Variation is less where most trees are descendants of
very few imports, as in Zanzibar and Madagascar.
Fruits for seed are allowed to ripen and fall onto a cleared area around the
tree, collected daily, and kept moist under wet sacks for 2-3 days to soften
and facilitate hulling, which is usually manual to prevent seed damage. Seed
selected for planting should be sound, large, olive-green, from single-seeded
Myflaceae 247

fruit, the radicle not blackened, and the standard on Zanzibar was ‘never
more than 1100 seeds per kg’. Seed is normally sown immediately into
nursery beds, but also into pots or directly into prepared pits in the field.
Seed should be placed vertically in the soil, radicle down, and approximately
two-thirds of the seed covered; a spacing of 20 X 20 cm is common, and
seeds normally germinate in 10-15 days. Germination of selected seed is
usually above 90%, and epigeal. Where a regular supply of seedlings is
necessary, a permanent nursery can be established. The Tanzanian and
Indonesian governments have established nurseries to produce healthy,
well-grown seedlings sold cheaply to local clove growers.
About 12 months after sowing when seedlings are 25-50 cm, they are
removed from the seedbed together with sufficient soil to fully protect the
roots, and the tap-root pruned to promote lateral root growth. One or two
seedlings are planted in prepared pits to which animal manure or compost is
often added, plus a phosphatic fertilizer. The last is probably the most
important, since there was no apparent difference in growth and yield of
trees from seedlings planted in pits with or without organic manures (Zanzi-
bar Department of Agriculture, 1949-1 965). Seedlings should be shaded
until established; banana or palm leaves are quite suitable and usually easily
available. A field spacing of 6-8 m on the triangle is recommended when
grown for clove production, and seedlings which die should immediately be
replaced. When grown solely to produce leaves for oil extraction, hedge
planting is preferable to close planting of individual trees and coppicing. A
3-5 m row spacing with 0.75-1.0 m between plants is recommended in
Madagascar (Dufournet and Rodriguez, 1972). Row spacing should allow
use of cultivating and harvesting machinery.
Weeding is essential for the first 2-3 years following planting, then ring
weeding around individual trees, mowing or slashing is usually sufficient.
Hedge planting requires three to four weedings annually, or the herbicides
used generally in plantations to control local weeds are suitable, e.g. glypho-
sate. Local trials are essential to determine the effect of particular chemicals
on clove, as in pot trials 2,4-D, dalapon and napropamide caused abnormal
development in seedlings (Freire et al., 1985). Intercropping has been
suggested as a method of controlling weeds, and can be successful in newly
established plantations, but once trees have reached 3 m their roots can be
severely damaged by the necessary cultivation. Cover crops can be useful as
has been noted in the section on fertilizers, but normally suppress only less
aggressive local weeds and are of little value against persistent stoloniferous
species. Cover crops may also deplete soil moisture; on Zanzibar for exam-
ple tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) used more soil moisture to 1 m
depth than the local weeds; however, in Indonesia, a cover crop slashed
three times annually plus clean weeding around the base of 3 year old trees
increased rate of tree growth and retained soil moisture (Daswir, 1986).
248 Chapter 8

Harvesting
A description of harvesting and preparation of cloves as a spice has been fully
described (Purseglove et al., 1981). Clove begins to bear after 4-5 years,
attains full bearing at 20 years and can remain productive for a further 100
years. Although young trees may begin to bear after 4 years, heavy picking is
not recommended, since it not only damages young trees but adversely
affects future growth. O n Zanzibar the 4-year cycle usually produces one
poor, two medium and one excellent clove crop, and a similar cycle has been
noted in Indonesia.
There are normally two harvests annually on Zanzibar, the rnwaka in July-
October and the vuli in December-January, with harvesting on Pemba about
1 month later. It was estimated in the 1950s and 1960s that some 10,000
persons travelled annually to Pemba from Zanzibar to work as pickers (Fig.
8.3). In India, there is basically one harvest, January in the plains and
March-April in the hills. Since clove is now grown in many regions of
Indonesia the harvest occurs at different times. T h e main harvest is usually
very short, 7-10 days, and large numbers of pickers move from island to
island. In Madagascar, harvesting is usually October-November, the main
harvest in November. There is frequently a shortage of pickers in specific
districts and thus annual plantation yields vary widely. Clove clusters are
picked when buds are full-sized, most have developed the characteristic pink
flush, but no petals have fallen to expose the stamens. I n Indonesia and
Madagascar, an experienced picker paid by the day harvests about 25 kg wet
cloves, but Zanzibar pickers paid by weight regularly reaped 55 kg.
Harvested clusters are taken to a central store where the cloves are
separated from the peduncles and pedicels and dried. The peduncles and

Fig. 8.3. Harvesting cloves, Zanzibar, 1956.


Myifaceae 249

pedicels, usually called stems and will be so designated for convenience,


constitute approximately one-quarter of total dry weight of sound cloves
harvested. Stems are spread to dry on matting which prevents bruising and
physical damage, which reduces oil content or quality. Stems are gently
raked to ensure complete drying, and prevent heating or mould formation.
With clear sunny conditions, drying is usually completed in 4-6 days. Stems
lose about two-thirds of their green weight after drying and contain about
6% oil. The average yield per tree of dry cloves on Zanzibar is 1-4 kg, a
plantation of 15-year-old trees in Madagascar averaged 2-3 kg, but the
overall yield is usually 1-2 kg. Yields to 50 kg from individual trees have been
recorded in all the main clove-growing countries, and research into the
reasons for the wide variation would probably be rewarding, as would
vegetative propagation of such trees.
Harvesting cloves has traditionally been manual and will probably remain
so, since fragmentation of holdings, the need to provide work in rural areas
plus the generally low cost of such labour, ensures mechanization is unlikely
quickly to be introduced. Tractor-mounted platform pickers as used in
modern fruit orchards would reduce the heavy damage manual harvesting
often causes to trees. Dryers would reduce the cost of open-air drying and
danger of spoilage due to inclement weather, and several solar-powered
models are suitable for cloves. T o make harvesting easier and as a method of
reducing damage caused by pickers climbing trees, topping to 3-4 m is
practised in the Moluccas, but on Zanzibar topping to produce a more
compact tree resulted in many deaths and was discontinued (Tidbury,
1949). The use of chemicals to cause cloves to fall has been tested in Brazil,
and, although successful, was more expensive than hand harvesting, al-
though the method became more financially attractive as plantation size and
yield of cloves rose (Araujo et al., 1989).
Clove leaf oil is usually obtained from foliage cut from trees originally
planted to produce the spice, and only on Madagascar have cloves been
planted specifically to supply leaves. The normal method in the Seychelles
and Mauritius is to cut branches from existing trees, strip the leaves and
distil the oil. Since removing branches reduces the subsequent clove crop,
the choice is thus between a higher yield of cloves and no oil, or a moderate
yield of both. Since production of leaf oil is mainly a cottage industry in the
Seychelles, Madagascar and Indonesia, individuals decide on a basis of their
own inclination or interest. Trees regularly harvested for leaves are usually
topped to produce a profusion of side branches for ease of cutting. Branches
are often bundled or placed in small heaps in the shade and left to wither for
several days. Twigs, leaves and immature fruits are then stripped off and
distilled. Fallen leaves are also included, since there is no significant differ-
ence in oil yield between fresh, dried or naturally fallen dry leaves. Fresh
leaves contain about 5 7 % oil and 15% moisture. Leaves are harvested every
2-3 weeks, producing 1-2 kg of sun-dried leaves per tree; longer intervals
250 Chapter 8

produce a greater weight of foliage but the oil yield per kilogram de-
creases.
In Indonesia, the major supply is from fallen leaves which are collected by
family labour, bundled and sold to leaf-buyers. Leaf-fall occurs throughout
the year and 1-1.5 kg of naturally dry leaves per tree can be collected every
2-3 weeks. A major factor affecting regional leaf-oil quality and type in
Indonesia is the often scattered location of clove trees, which may also be
interspersed with other tree crops; in times of scarcity much non-clove
material can be included. The larger more modern distilleries established as
joint ventures with Dutch companies employ their own buyers to reduce
adulteration to the minimum, and leaves are transported in company
vehicles to maintain an even flow of material. The companies also buy and
refine local crude oil, and produce eugenol, rectified clove leaf oil, and
related products.

Distillation
Clove bud oil was formerly produced in Europe or North America from
imported cloves, but is now regularly produced in Madagascar and In-
donesia, and on a small scale in India. First-quality bud oil requires high
quality cloves and thus producers had to ensure high standards of drying and
packing. For this reason the guaranteed grades formerly supplied by the
governments of Zanzibar and Madagascar prior to these countries becoming
independent were a valuable guarantee. Oil can be obtained by hydro- or
steam distilling whole or comminuted buds, and this affects the oil obtained.
Comminuted buds should be distilled immediately to reduce oil loss by
evaporation. Some distillers use whole cloves which extends distillation time
up to 24 hours, as the oil has to diffuse through the mass and a proportion of
the eugenol acetate hydrolyses, increasing the apparent eugenol content of
the oil. Steam distillation has the same effect and oils obtained by using dry
steam have the highest proportion of free eugenol.
The finest UK oil containing 8 5 4 9 % eugenol is from hydro-distillation,
but in the USA much clove bud oil is direct steam distilled. Stems were
previously exported from Zanzibar, but as a significant proportion was used
in the adulteration of the more expensive clove bud oil, stem exports were
prohibited for some 50 years. Commercial quantities of clove stem oil were
prepared exclusively at the government distillery under the British admin-
istration, but rapidly diminished after 1964. The plant consisted of
12 stainless steel stills each holding about 680 kg stems; steam distilling for
16 hours yielding 557% of an almost water-white oil, which darkens with age
to yellow, sometimes violet tinted. An oil yield of 1 5 1 7 % can be obtained
from selected high quality dried stems.
Leaf oil is generally obtained by hydro- or steam distillation in locally
constructed stills; many in Madagascar are made of sheet iron or iron drums,
embedded in stone or mud hearths, and heated by a wood fire. Others, of the
Myrtaceae 25 1

more advanced Deroy type, are made of copper. Still capacity is 1000-1500
litres charged with 300-400 kg of bundled branchlets and covered with
water. Yield after continuous operation for 24 hours, which includes 5-7
hours to boil the water, is about 1.5-1.8 %. The oil obtained is dark due to
the presence of iron eugenates. Private distillers now have modern equip-
ment producing a high-quality light-coloured oil.
Distilling in Indonesia is also generally a small-scale operation, although
several large modern distilleries have been built. The smaller stills are
usually vertical cylinders 3 X 1.6 m diameter charged and discharged
through the lid. A long pipe connected to the lid is submerged in a ditch or
concrete channel, where running water serves as condenser and cooler.
Distillate is separated in a cascade of cisterns, and the oil collected and sold
to dealers. The usual charge is about 1000 kg dry leaves yielding some
20-25 kg crude oil; in the rainy season from wet leaves the yield is usually
15-20 kg. Steam distilling takes 4-6 hours, direct firing 6-10 hours. The
distilling method affects both oil yield and characteristics; combined water
and steam distilling produces more oil than steam alone, as does an increase
in distilling time. Using water and steam for 4 hours gave the highest oil yield
of 3.0%; steam alone produced oils lower in eugenol, with a lower specific
gravity and refractive index (Nyrdjanah et al., 199 1). Oil characteristics may
change when stored leaves are distilled; in Indonesia, characteristics of oil
obtained from leaves stored for 1 or 8 months were (8-month in brackets):
specific gravity at 25OC, 1.0425 (1.0486); refractive index at 25'C, 1.5282
(1.5304), optical rotation - 1'32'(- 1'39'); solubility in 70% alcohol 1:2-3
(1:2), eugenol content 83% (79%) (Muchlis and Rusli, 1978).

Pests and diseases


Insect and similar pests are seldom a serious problem in the main clove-
growing areas with the exception of termites which ring-bark seedlings or
newly planted trees at the collar, but seldom consume the dead plant; in
Zanzibar Bellicositermes bellicosus is mainly responsible. Roots may also be
damaged by other insects but seldom seriously enough to require control;
the chafer Idaecamenta eugeniae has been recorded from Zanzibar. Beetle
larvae cause varying degrees of damage by boring shoots and stems but,
although a particular species may be the main local insect pest, the extent of
tree damage is usually minor. However, in parts of Sumatra it can be serious
enough to cause extensive dieback, and death in extreme cases. The most
important borer in Madagascar is Chysotypus mabillianeum; in Indonesia
Hexamitodera semivelutina, Nothopeus fasciatipennis and N. hemipterus, but
the most economically damaging is Hindola striata. Adults and nymphs can
cause serious damage in a particular season, but the insect is more important
as a major vector of Sumatra disease. Chelidonium brevicome and Paralecta
antistola are important in Malaysia.
252 Chapter 8

Unidentified scales have been reported as the most serious pest of clove
nurseries in India. T h e red tree-ant, Oecophylla longinoda, known in Zanzi-
bar as maji-ya-moto (‘firewater’), is a serious nuisance rather than a pest. It
makes large nests about 15 cm in diameter, and the very active, pugi-~acious
workers swarm on pickers during harvesting, inflicting extremely painful
bites.
Nematodes have been reported on clove roots in several countries, but
with no assessment of damage, including Dolichodorus spp., Helicotylenchus
dihystera, Rotylenchulus renijormis and Trichodorus spp. Some, however, are
serious pests of other tropical crops, and where these are grown in prisximity
to cloves there could be greater danger of damage. In Brazil for example,
Meloidogyne incognita, which is a serious pest of pepper, could require
control.
The most economically important disease of cloves in terms of its effect on
world production is sudden-death disease, which may have different causes
but basically the same symptoms. On Zanzibar and Pemba, over half the
mature trees have succumbed since 1930. So many trees died that clove
timber became a major source of fuel on Zanzibar, and the disease continues
to be the single most important factor affecting local clove production. T h e
characteristics of this disease and remedial measures are well documented
(Dabek and Martin, 1987). There are several causal organisms, one of the
most serious being Cyptosporella eugeniae, always associated with injury,
particularly when branches are broken during harvesting. T h e branch slowly
dies back, leaves turn brown and the fungus proceeds downwards. When a
fork is reached, the unaffected branch above it dies suddenly. A serious
cause of tree death first recognized in western Sumatra in 196 1 and named
Sumatra disease has become widespread and is caused by Pseudomonas
syzygii, whose major vector is the boring beetle Hindola striata. An attempt to
introduce a degree of immunity into clove by grafting clove buds onto 27
immune or resistant species of Myrtaceae was unsuccessful (Jarvit: et al.,
1986).
T h e die-back known as Matibudjang in Indonesia begins with a :general
decay of fine feeder roots, which soon produces secondary leaf shedding and
dieback, initially at top of the crown and subsequently extending throughout
the canopy. Trees slowly decline and usually die 2-3 years from onset of the
symptoms. T h e primary cause is considered to be unfavourable soil condi-
tions rather than the associated fungal infection. A similar disease in Mada-
gascar, apoplexia, is also restricted to areas of poor soil.
Leaf spots recorded from several countries include Cylindrocladiuin guin-
queseptatum and Gloeosporiumpiperatum which attack seedlings, Mycosphaer-
ella cayophyllata associated with Altemaria spp., and various sooty moulds
such as Capnodium brasiliense and Aschersonia spp. A thread blight caused by
Corticium spp. is also of minor importance. Wilts may cause death of
Myrtaceae 253

seedlings in the nursery and after transplanting; causal organisms are Cylin-
drocladium spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia bataticola, Phytophthora spp. and
Colletotrichum spp. The parasitic alga, Cephaleuros mycoidea, is most damag-
ing to leaves in Malaysia but is seldom serious on healthy trees; it has also
been reported from India.

Products and specijkations


Clove products can be basically divided into three: clove buds which are
used whole and as a ground spice and are also raw material for clove bud oil
and oleoresin; clove stem oil; and clove leaf oil, used principally as a source
of eugenol.
The major use of cloves, both whole and ground, is for domestic culinary
purposes and the production of sauces and pickles. The ground spice is
generally prepared in consuming centres. A major alternative use for ground
clove buds is in the production of Indonesian kretek cigarettes which contain
up to 8% clove powder, and kretek manufacturers are the main users of
Indonesian cloves. A full description of the use of cloves as a spice and
flavouring material has been published (Purseglove et al., 1981). The
characteristic odour and flavour of cloves, clove stems and leaves are
determined by the composition of their essential oil, and the steam-volatile
components are the most important. The major component of the three
commercially important oils (bud, stem and leaf) is eugenol, but odour and
flavour differ significantly due to the varying proportions of minor and trace
components. A detailed comparison of the composition of bud, stem and
leaf oils of Indian origin has been published (Gopalakrishnan et al., 1988;
Lawrence, 1995). The major components of various clove oils are shown in
Table 8.2., and the physical characteristics in Table 8.3.
There are considerable differences between individual oil samples which
is most pronounced with bud oil, due to origin, season, maturity at harvest,
post-harvest treatment, and method of distilling. It is, however, possible to
determine differences in oils from a specific region due to seasonal or other
factors as was demonstrated with Madagascar bud and stem oils (Gaydou
and Randriamiharisoa, 1987). In Indonesia there is a direct relationship

Table 8.2. Major components of clove oils.

A B C D
Beta-caryophyllene 4.35 5.13 9.86 12.50
Alpha-humulene 0.54 0.60 1.10 1.36
EugenoI 88.95 92.35 86.89 84.77
Eugenyl acetate 5.54 1.25 1.59 ng
A, Madagascan clove bud oil; B, Zanzibar clove stem oil; C, Madagascan clove leaf oil;
D, Indonesian clove leaf oil; ng, not given. Source: Adapted from Srinivas (1986).
254 Chapter 8

Table 8.3. Physical characteristics of clove bud and stem oil

Bud oil Stem oil


Zanzibar Madagascar Zanzibar Madagascar
Specific 1.051 1.050 1.040 1.050
gravity 1.056 1.055 1.065 1.055
(15") (25°C) (15°C) (25%)
Refractive 1.530 1.5325 1.530 1.5352
index 1.539 1.5357 1.538 1.5357
Optical -0"32' -0"25' - o"30' -0'32'
rotation -0"38' -3"36' - 1"' -0'336'
Total phenols (%) 91-95 91-95 ng 91-94
Eugenol (%) 80-95 80-90 85-95 ng
Solubility (viv 70%
alcohol)
ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.
Average of published figures. Specific samples may differ considerably.

between amount and intensity of heat applied during distilling leaves and oil
yield, eugenol content and oil characteristics. The amount of material in the
still had a similar effect at any given heat level (Rusli et al., 1979).
Clove bud oil is a clear, colourless to yellow mobile liquid, becoming more
brown with age or contamination with iron or copper, with a strong charac-
teristic sweet and spicy clove odour, and a warm, almost burning and spicy
flavour. The composition and organoleptic properties of distilled bud oil
differ somewhat from the volatile oil present in spice; Hydro-distillation
reportedly provides the finest oils for perfumery and flavour use with a
eugenol content of 85589%. The more common steam distillation produces
oils with a eugenol content of 91-95% resulting from hydrolysis of eugenyl
acetate. Distilling whole spice provides oil with a high eugenol content and
a specific gravity above 1.06; comminuted spice has a lower eugenol content
and a specific gravity below 1.06. Bud oil stores well in sealed light-proof
containers, and although colour may darken, characteristics and quality are
little affected.
Bud oil consists basically of three components: eugenol70-90%, eugenyl
acetate to 17%, and caryophyllene sesquiterpenes (mainly beta-
caryophyllene) 5 1 2 % . The main constituents of bud and stem oils are
shown in Table 8.4., and the main characteristics in Table 8.5. There is also
regional variation in eugenol content, and oils from Comoro may have a very
high total phenol content. The distilling technique also affects eugenol
content, especially the time material is retained in the still. In general, a
longer period increases oil yield but lowers the eugenol content. When bud
oil is required for eugenol, fast distillation is preferable but requires a higher
steam pressure and is more expensive. Although bud oil composition has
Myrlaceae 255

been frequently reported, the relative importance of various trace compo-


nents in determining odour is not clearly established; methyl-n-amyl ketone
is said to be responsible for the fruity top-note. As mentioned earlier,
eugenyl acetate content in distilled oil depends upon the extent of hydrolysis
during distillation; oleoresins from the spice usually contain twice the
eugenyl acetate content of commercially distilled oils.
Adulterants of bud oil are usually clove stem or leaf oil, or clove terpenes
remaining after eugenol extraction. Such adulteration may be difficult to
detect analytically, thus organoleptic evaluation is necessary for use in
flavourings or perfumery. The major use of bud oil is in seasonings and
processed food, perfumery, and to a lesser extent in pharmaceutical and
dental preparations. Although its medical properties are now considered of
minor importance, it is a stimulant, carminative and used to treat flatulence.
The oil also has antimicrobial activity.
Clove bud oleoresin is a viscous brown liquid which can deposit waxy
particles on standing. The odour and flavour are regarded as superior to
distilled oil and much closer to the natural spice, but can be tainted by the
solvent employed. Extracting the spice with organic solvents produces an
oleoresin containing a volatile oil, a fatty oil and other constituents soluble in
the particular solvent. In general, a yield of 18-22% is obtained with
benzene (90-92% volatile oil) and 22-32% with alcohol, but the latter has a
high resin content and is unsuitable for perfumery. Commercial oleoresins
extracted with a hydrophilic solvent such as acetone normally contain

Table 8.4. Main constituents of clove bud and stem oils from
Madagascar.

Bud oil Stem oil


Alpha-cubebene 0.18 0.1 8
Alpha-copaene 0.14 0.14
(E)-alpha- 0.04 0.04
bergamotene
Methyl benzoate 0.12 0.08
Beta- 10.50 11.20
caryophyllene
Alpha-humulene 1.26 1.31
Terpinyl acetate 0.17 0.16
Caryophyllene 0.28 0.22
oxide
Eugenol 80.80 77.10
Eugenyl acetate 4.40 7.38
lsoeugenol 0.17 0.17
Chavicol 0.11 0.10
All percentages in table are average of 5 years' analyses
Source: Gaydou and Randriamiharisoa (1987).
256 Chapter 8

Table 8.5.Standard specifications for clove bud, stem and leaf oils.

Bud Stem Leaf Oleoresin


BSS EOA 178 EOA 55 EOA 238
Specific 1.041 1.04
gravity (20°C) 1.054 1.06
(25°C) 1.048 1.036
1.056 1.046
Refractive 1.528 1.534 1.531 1.527
index (20°C) 1.538 1.580 1.535 1.538
Optical 0" 0" < -1'30
rotation (20°C) -1.5O - 1'30' 0 to -2"
(25°C)
Total phenols (%) 85-93 89-95 84-88 ng
Volatile oil per 1009 "g "g ng 66-88ml
ng, not given: BSS, British Standard Specification; EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA; BSS is virtually
identical.
Figures in columns are range.

70-80% volatile oil. Oleoresins extracted with alcohol are much darker than
those from hydrocarbon solvents and have a more powerful perfume and
flavour, but are considered less refined or delicate in odour. Extraction on an
industrial scale is by specialist firms in major consuming countries, which are
now using supercritical fluid techniques. Oleoresin is normally dispersed on
salt, dextrose, flour or rusk, and sold weight for weight equivalent in strength
to the dry spice. The main advantages over dry spice are little risk of bacterial
contamination, standard strength and quality. The oleoresin has gained in
market share from both dry spice and bud oil especially in the food industry,
mainly in meat and soup products, and is also used directly in perfumery.
Clove bud concrete is obtained by solvent extracting dried and commi-
nuted buds; benzene and petroleum ether are commonly used. Commercial
concrete is a very viscous liquid or semi-solid mass, pale olive-green through
yellow-brown to dark brown. Highest quality is usually a clear viscous liquid,
olive to pale brown, with a refreshing, oily-sweet, intensively rich and spicy
odour closely resembling that of dry buds (Arctander, 1960).
Bud absolute is prepared by extracting concrete using similar solvents;
petroleum ether produces the finest, benzene a richer odour. Absolute is a
viscous or oily liquid, semi-solid at low temperatures; olive-green, greenish
brown to orange-brown and soluble in alcohol in all proportions. Absolute
differs from bud oil in containing only those constituents present in the
unprocessed bud; there is, for example, no trace of caryophyllenes. The
odour is of clove flowers in full bloom; floral and refined, balsamic, sour-
sweet and immensely rich with none of the unwanted off-notes and flavour
found in bud oil (Arctander, 1960). The main use is in perfumery, to a lesser
Myrtaceae 257

extent in flavourings. The flavour strength of absolute is about twice that of


average clove bud oil.
Stem oil of good quality is a pale to light yellow liquid, but freshly distilled
oil is almost colourless, with a strong, spicy, somewhat woody odour similar
to eugenol but coarser and more woody than that of bud oil. Redistilled stem
oil contains 90-97% eugenol, but its odour is less sweet and floral than bud
oil. As previously noted, production of clove stem oil was a monopoly of the
Zanzibar government and the oil was one of the most uniform of available
commercial essential oils. The eugenol content of stem oil at 90-95% is
higher than bud oil, but its eugenyl acetate content is low; components
include beta-caryophyllene, methyl alcohol, methyl-n-amyl-ketone and fur-
fural. Certain trace constituents not present in bud oil have been reported in
stem oil, including naphthalene and bicyclic sesquiterpene alcohol. The
main characteristics of stem oil are shown in Table 8.5. Madagascan stem oil
is now legally required to have a minimum eugenol content of 82%,
Indonesian 80-82%. Stem oil is used mainly in flavouring and perfumery, a
small amount for eugenol and its derivatives; stem oil is frequently used to
adulterate bud oil.
Leaf oil (crude) is dark brown, often with a purple or violet tint, cloudy to
some extent, sometimes showing precipitation. Its odour is harsh, woody,
phenolic, slightly sweet, and quite different to that of bud oil. Rectified
(redistilled) oil is a clear pale yellow, with a sweeter, less harsh, dry woody
odour closer to that of eugenol. Oil is obtained by steam or water distilling
fresh or dried leaves but, in many areas where more primitive direct-fired
stills are used, the charge may also contain twiglets, unripe buds or opened
flowers. Thus there can be considerable variation in type and characteristics
of leaf oil from different origins. The following remarks apply, as far as was
possible to determine, to oil obtained from leaves. In areas where there is a
substantial production of leaf oil and little stem oil, or vice versa, the two are
often bulked and sold on eugenol content. Eugenol content is 80-88%,
lower than bud oil with only a small content of eugenol acetate, but a high
caryophyllene content. Indonesian leaf oil may contain beta-caryophyllene
to 18%, humulene 2% and eugenol 80%. Some minor components of leaf
oil remain to be accurately determined. The main characteristics of leaf oil
from several origins are shown in Table 8.6. and standard specifications in
Table 8.5. Leaf oil is mainly used for eugenol production and its by-product
caryophyllene. Rectified oil is used in less expensive perfumes, soaps and
similar products. Soaps containing leaf oil are usually dark brown to mask
the discoloration when combined with an alkali. Leaf oil is generally con-
sidered unacceptable in food flavourings since its harsher note does not
reproduce the genuine clove flavour.
Bud and stem oil have frequently been expensive and difficult to obtain, to
the advantage of leaf oil in spite of the widely held opinion that it is no
substitute for either. However, substitution of leaf oil or its derivatives,
258 Chapter 8

Table 8.6. Main characteristics of clove leaf oil from seiected countries.

Madagascar Seychelles Mauritius


Specific 1.036 1.0324 1.061
gravity 1.044 1.0493 1.067
Refractive 1,5312 1.5333 1.5363
index (20°C) 1.5339 1.5385 1.5391
Optical -0"40' - 1'40' - o"50'
rotation - 1'36' - 1'553' -1"
Total phenois (%) 82-87 ng "g
Eugenol (%) ng 78-88 92-94
Solubility (viv 70% alcohol) 1 :I 1:l-2 1 :I
ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.
Source: Abstracted from published data; average values for commercial samples

forced on many users, proved it an adequate alternative, with little sub-


sequent reversion to stem oil. Demand for stem oil is more constant in the
flavour industry where leaf oil is not an adequate substitute, but stem oil can
apparently be extended with leaf oil, eugenol and other materials. The major
competitor to leaf oil as a eugenol source is cinnamon leaf oil (q.v.) and
should the price of clove leaf oil become too high for end users, expansion of
cinnamon leaf oil production becomes attractive, especially in countries with
few other export crops.
Mother-of-cloves oil is produced by steam distilling ripe fruit, and nor-
mally only when there is spare capacity or a shortage of other material. The
yield is about 2%, the colour yellowish brown to brown, clear to cloudy and
the odour similar to but weaker than that of bud oil. The major constituent
is eugenol at 50-55%. The main use is to adulterate other clove oils. Clove
root oil obtained on Zanzibar by steam distilling fresh roots gave a yield
around 6%. Fresh oil is pale yellow, with an odour similar to but weaker than
that of bud oil; the eugenol content is 85595%. Wild bud oil is obtained by
steam distilling buds collected from uncultivated trees in the Moluccas, to
yield 3.0-7.7%. The oil contains no eugenol and is quite different in odour
to bud oil from cultivated trees (Meijer and Schmid, 1948). Synthetic clove
oil is claimed to be a replacement for bud oil, primarily because there was
widespread and deliberate adulteration of bud oil in producing countries to
take advantage of high prices due to periodic scarcity. Adulteration reached
such levels that true bud oil was only available from expensive imported
buds processed in consuming countries.
The principal constituent of clove oils, particularly leaf oil, is eugenol, and
clove oils were initially the sole source of eugenol used in the production of
vanillin. This almost ceased with the discovery of a process to produce much
less expensive vanillin from the lignin residue of sulphite wood-pulping.
Myrtaceae 259

Eugenol can be isolated from a variety of starting materials, and can also be
manufactured synthetically. Eugenol is smoother in odour than clove oils if
less strong and used mainly in inexpensive perfumes, soaps and similar
toiletries, or where too definite a clove odour is undesirable.

Eucalyptus

Almost all eucalypts are indigenous to Australia where they constitute about
75% of tree flora. Outside Australia, three species occur in eastern In-
donesia, six in Papua New Guinea and one in the Philippines, but inter-
estingly none are native to New Zealand or New Caledonia. The imaginary
floral boundary north of Australia, Wallace's Line, originally considered the
limit of naturally occurring eucalypts, was later modified by Huxley (Fig.
8.4). The large Eucalyptus plantations in other countries have been estab-
lished mainly from Australian seed, and are now so extensive that eucalypts
can form a significant proportion of the forested area, as in Ethiopia and

145"

15"

Fig. 8.4. Eucalyptus: Wallace's line with later modifications. (Australian National University Library,
Canberra.)
260 Chapter 8

South Africa. Eucalypts occur naturally in Australia in great profusion but,


even so, it is rare to find pure stands due to the great number of species and
hybrids.
The ability of some species of eucalypts to grow quickly and coppice
readily makes them valuable where wood fuel is of great domestic im-
portance. The high level of investment in the Brazilian pulp and charcoal
industries, together with a most imaginative use of international germplasm
resources, has produced eucalypts with the world’s fastest growth rate; four
to five times greater than average. Eucalypts are a valuable source of
hardwood but, in general, good timber species tend to be poor essential oil
producers and vice versa. Eucalypts produce some of the hardest, heaviest
and most durable wood known, the ‘Ironbark’ group producing air-dried
timber with average densities above 1 100 kg/m3 (Hillis, 199 1).
Several species yield dark-coloured phenolic exudates, kino, from the
bark, (hence the local name of gum tree), used in medicine and tanning; the
most important is E. astringens Maid. whose kin0 has 40-50% tannins. Kin0
veins or pockets are the most frequently mentioned source of timber degra-
dation or rejection, and presence of kino lowers pulp yield while increasing
consumption of pulping chemicals. The causes of kin0 formation are not
well understood, but its effect on profitable plantation operation can be
substantial in terms of devalued timber. Many species of eucalypts flower
profusely and honey from yellow box, E. melliodora Cunn., is among the
world’s finest. Details of timber, honey or other tree products have been
included to allow overall assessment of a species profitability.
Eucalyptus oil was distilled within a few weeks of the arrival of Europeans
to the newly established colony of New South Wales in 1788. ‘The name
peppermint tree has been given to this plant on account of the very great
resemblance between the essential oil drawn from its leaves and that ob-
tained from the peppermint which grows in England’ (White, 1790). This
oil was from E. piperita Sm. growing around Port Jackson, now Sydney, and
the peppermint scent is due to piperitone also present in other species
collectively known as peppermint gums. The first commercial exploitation
began in Victoria; a pharmacist, Joseph Bosisto, a Yorkshireman despite his
name who migrated to Australia in 1848, was encouraged by the govern-
ment botanist, Dr F. von Mueller, to begin production of eucalyptus oil in
the Dandenong District in 1852. Bosisto produced mainly medicinal oils,
i.e. high in l,g-cineole, also known as eucalypt01 (Bosisto, 1862, 1878), and
the oil was displayed a t 17 major overseas expositions between 1854 and
1891. Bosisto’s Oil of Eucalyptus is still sold in Australia (P. Abbott,
Melbourne, personal communication). The company formed to expand
Bosisto’s original operation began exporting oil to the UK in 1865. By 1900,
the industry was firmly established and for the next 50 years Australia was
Myrtaceae 261

the world’s largest supplier. Interesting and historically valuable descrip-


tions of the development of the Australian eucalyptus oil industry have been
published (Baker and Smith, 1902; Penfold and Willis, 1954; Guenther,
1968; Abbott, 1977; Small, 198b; Shiel, 1985; Boland etal., 1991). Produc-
tion reached a peak of 100 t in 1947, then steadily declined as Brazil, China,
Portugal, Spain and Southern Africa established low cost oil production.
A major initial problem for Australian oil was the great variation caused by
the number of species harvested whose leaves were frequently distilled
together, bulking oil without regard to leaf origin, and adulteration with
non-eucalypt material. It was not until knowledge of terpene chemistry
improved that the quite different characteristics of various eucalyptus oils
became known. By 1900, high quality oils from selected species for specific
end uses were produced and marketed; industrial, medicinal and perfumery.
Industrial oils rich in piperitone, from E. dives and similar species, are raw
material for production of synthetic menthol and thymol; oils containing
high levels of phellandrene, from E. radium for example, are used in
disinfectants and antiseptics. Medicinal oils contain very high levels of
cineole, oils from E. globulus and E. polybractea are typical examples, and
such oils are often referred to collectively as eucapharma oils. For use in
perfumery, the best-known, non-cineole oil is from E. citriodora containing
around 80% citronellal plus citronellol and esters; this oil is used for
isolation of citronellal, source of many important aromatic chemicals includ-
ing hydroxycitronellal and menthol. A detailed bibliography of eucalyptus
leaf oils to 1992 has been published (Coppen and Dyer, 1993).
Eucalypts have been introduced to almost every suitable country, and
specimens can usually be found in local botanic gardens. One of the earliest
records is from Italy where, in 1803, a eucalypt growing at the Camaldules
Monastery, Naples, was named E. camaldulensis Dehnh. and is the famous
river red gum of Australia, immortalized by local poets and painters. By
1829 E. globulus was growing in Portugal, believed to have been introduced
from Tasmania by returning missionaries, and in 1854 was introduced to
Spain. By the latter half of the nineteenth century, eucalypts had spread
around the world. In some countries, eucalypts are of major importance as a
source of fuel for domestic use, industry or railways; as poles for building,
telephone and power lines; for drainage because of their deep roots and high
evaporative ability; and for general reafforestation for quick replacement of
devastated indigenous woodlands. In suitable climates, eucalypts grow
much faster or taller than in Australia, due to higher nutrient status soils or
absence of destructive insects. Eucalyptus oil was invariably a by-product of
a more important local use for trees, but if eucalypts are to remain a
commercially viable source of essential oil it is necessary greatly to increase
oil yield per hectare, either by higher foliage yield or oil content of foliage,
262 Chapter 8

preferably both. Perhaps the greatest single factor must be the selection or
breeding of superior trees to produce uniform, high-yielding progeny.

Botany
The genus Eucalyptus was so named by the French botanist C.L. de Brutelle
L‘Heritier from the Greek eu ( well) and kalypto (covered), in allusion to the
operculum or lid which covers the stamens until they are fully developed
(Fig. 8.5). The first species to be identified and named was E. obliqua
(L’Heritier, 1788). Probably no genus has been more thoroughly investi-
gated since Candolle’s attempt in 1828, and there are at least 700 known
species (Brooker and Kleinig, 1983; Boland et al., 1984; Hall, 1987). Recent
research into the DNA sequences of Eucalyptus spp. however, may require
further revision and provide vital information to plant breeders. Hybrid-
ization occurs naturally between many Eucalyptus species, and an interesting
discussion on its occurrence and significance is contained in Pryor (1 976).
Also notable are chemovars (chemical varieties) within a species which
produce oils with distinct characteristics.
Most eucalypts are trees and many are very large (E. regnans can reach 100
m) but the majority are 10-25 or 30-35 m . Several, including E. polybractea,
have a distinctive form known as ‘mallee’ with multiple stems originating
from a common stock. T h e extremely penetrating and often extensive root
system of mature eucalypts and the resulting massive extraction of soil
moisture by transpiration was invaluable in preserving Australian soils from
excessive salinity. This high water-extractive ability of eucalypts has been
exploited in other countries to reduce local waterlogging or swamps, but
planting eucalypts in dry areas often exacerbates a soil-moisture shortage.
An unusual feature of many eucalypts is the presence of lignotubers, which
consist of a mass of vegetative buds, associated vascular tissue and sub-
stantial food reserves. Eucalypts are evergreens except for a very few tropical
species which defoliate in the dry season, and individual leaves are normally
shed between 12 and 18 months, but up to 4 years on some species. Bud, leaf
and shoot development of eucalypts is considered indeterminate, tends to be
continuous and to occur whenever the environment is favourable, and there
is no requirement for rest or overwintering.
Mature eucalypt leaves differ from juvenile leaves, and new leaves from
those more mature on the same tree. Adult leaves are usually lanceolate,
petiolate, apparently alternate, basically green, usually glaucous, with a
bluish or whitish appearance due to surface wax. Juvenile leaves may be
broad, sessile, remain opposite and glaucous, or narrow, petiolate, becom-
ing alternate and basically green. T o avoid unnecessary wordage, only the
mature leaf will be described, although regrowth from stumps, common in
essential oil production, is usually juvenile or intermediate.
Myiiaceae 263

A characteristic of many Eucalyptus spp. is the strong odour of their leaves,


obvious following bruising and also in plantations after rain, resulting in
eucalypts being known colloquially in China as ‘the foreign stinking tree’!
Oil glands are mainly located near the centre of vein islets, often occupying
considerable leaf volume. The rate of accumulation of oil, changes in
composition over time and factors affecting both have still to be fully
established, despite considerable research on biosynthesis of oil components
in Australia (Boland et al., 1991), and the former USSR (Nizharadze and
Bagaturiya, 1974; Goguadze et al., 1986), but much was published only in
Russian and is difficult to access. A review of the natural use of leaf oil
commented that seasonal variation in oil concentration or composition
might be partly metabolic, involving a balance between terpene synthesis,
abundance and chemical modification and utilization within the plant
(Boland et al., 199 1). It has also been suggested that terpenes leached by rain
from eucalyptus leaves contributed to allelopathic effects on the forest floor
,Stigma
?
Anthers

Stamens

Receptacle

,Stigma \J
Anthers*l g

/+ Receptacle

Fig. 8.5. Sketch of eucalyptus flower and fruit. (CSIRO Library Melbourne.)
264 Chapter 8

inhibiting germination and growth of competitors. Leaf oil repels or sup-


presses activity of certain insects, and this has been investigated together
with the insects controlled.
Leaves of some eucalypts are main food of the koala, an endemic Aus-
tralian arboreal marsupial, and individuals may eat 10 g of 1,8-cineole daily
with no adverse effects. It appears that leaf oil is conjugated with glucuronic
acid present in their blood and excreted with urine in a water-soluble form.
Research in Japan indicated that Eucalyptus leaves are able to absorb
nitrogen dioxide emitted in automobile exhaust gas, and that establishing
plantations in cities could reduce air pollution (Morikawa et al., 1995).
The time of flowering varies not only between individual trees, but also
between sites, regions and countries, and the factors controlling initiation of
floral development are not well understood. Details of the flower and fruit
are shown in Fig. 8.5. Since eucalypt pollen is generally not wind-dispersed,
trees are probably insect pollinated, assisted in Australia by a few bird and
animal species. Inadequate pollination may be one factor limiting seed
supply, and only about 10% of ovules usually develop into viable seed. Other
factors are apparently involved, since hand-pollination and beehives in
plantations often have no effect on proportion of viable seed; a mature
healthy tree with a large crown should produce some 100,000-500,000
viable seeds. Most seed is shed before the fruit, and shedding is greatest after
the onset of a dry period. T h e only practical way to obtain quantities of
eucalypt seed is to pick unopened fruits from standing or freshly felled trees,
and this can be any time after fruit has ripened and while fruit-bearing twigs
are still alive; fruits on dead twigs are usually empty.
Large quantities of seed are normally obtained from trees felled during
logging operations. In some species (e.g. E. globulus) it is preferable to collect
entire fruit-bearing sections of branchlets, since fruits are better ventilated in
store than fruits collected singly. Provided they are kept dry, mature seeds of
most eucalypt species can be stored at room temperature for at least 10 years
with little loss of viability. Seed of all species will remain viable for several
years if stored at 1-5°C and 4-8% moisture content in sealed containers.
Commercially exploited species which produce essential oil are listed in
Table 8.7, but for ease of reference will be described in alphabetical order;
less important species are also briefly discussed.

Ecology
Eucalypts are very adaptable and can be grown and will flourish in a wide
range of environments quite unlike their native Australia. The generally
accepted range limit is between 45"N and 45"S, and outside these latitudes
there is usually some local climatic explanation for vigorous growth. Prob-
ably the main factor limiting growth is low temperature, since in the limited
areas of Australia where snow falls regularly it acts an insulator, and soil
temperature remains above 0°C. In countries where the ground freezes this
Myrtaceae 265

Table 8.7. Most important commercial Eucalyptus oil species

Principal component (%) Oil yielda


Perfumery oils
E. citriodora Citronellal 80-85 1.5
Industrial oils
E. dives Piperitone 45-50 3.5
Phellandrene 20-30
E. dives (phellandrene var.) Phellandrene 60-80 3.5
E. elata (piperitone var.) Piperitone 45-50 2.5
Phellandrene 40
E. radiata (phellandrene var.) Phellandrene 35-40 3.5
Cineole 20-50
Medicinal oils
E. dwes (cineole variant) Cineole 70-75 3.5
E. globuius Cineole 60-70 2.0
E. poiybractea Cineole 80-90 2.5
E. radiata Cineole 70-75 3.0
E. smithii Cineole 70-80 2.0
E. viridis Cineole 70-80 1.5
a Average from steam-distilled fresh foliage.
Source: Lassak (1988).

is invariably fatal to eucalypts, and a feature of Russian research has been the
production of frost-resistant hybrids. Seedling growth of numerous eucalypt
species in glasshouses is minimal below 10°C, increases rapidly at 20-25"C,
peaks between 20 and 30°C and is adversely affected above 30°C. T h e
difference between night and day temperature is apparently of little sig-
nificance.
Eucalypts are particularly well adapted to monsoon Asia and seasonal
rainfall areas of Africa and south America. Species native to winter rainfall
zones of Australia (June-August), particularly those species native to south-
ern Australia, grow poorly if planted where there is predominantly summer
rainfall. The reverse is not so; species which grow naturally in areas of
summer rainfall in Australia (December-February) will often grow well in
areas of winter rainfall; E. citriodoru is a successful ornamental tree in Perth
(Western Australia) and Adelaide (South Australia) although it is confined
to Queensland and does not occur naturally below latitude 26"s.
Although a particular Eucalyptus species in Australia may be widespread
and appear to occur in almost pure stands, this may not be so; in any specific
area one species can replace another across quite sharply defined boundaries
with soil moisture considered a most important factor. This could explain
the rather uneven growth of large single-species plantations the author has
seen in Central Africa and South America, where there are often abrupt soil
changes. T h e most suitable environment in Australia is included in species
266 Chapter 8

description as a guide, but individual factors affect not only general tree
growth, but may also alter leaf oil content and oil characteristics. Oil content
is frequently lowest in very dry or very cold periods, and highest in wet or
warm periods; however, oil content of mature leaves on uncoppiced trees
may show little seasonal variation.

Soils and fertilizers


T h e range of soils on which trees grow well is now so wide as to be of little
value when described in detail, but a few general remarks apply. Most
eucalypts tolerate acid rather than alkaline soils, soils low in plant nutrients,
slightly saline soils, while some species are adapted to soils periodically
waterlogged or seasonally flooded to a depth of 1 m or more. In general,
eucalypts do not thrive on highly calcareous soils, highly saline soils, or very
shallow soils.
Eucalypts seldom receive regular fertilizer applications; residues remain-
ing after distillation may be returned as mulch, but this is practised only on
well-managed plantations, or where labour is plentiful and cheap. Spent
material is normally used as fuel. Application of nitrogen and phosphate,
perhaps potash, to seedbeds and to seedlings when planting out is probably
the most important factor ensuring the desired early and subsequent rapid
growth of seedlings and young trees.
Application of fertilizers to established trees is unprofitable, and the few
results from fertilizer trials have shown no significant increase in either oil or
foliage yield. One major reason is the very large area of soil available to the
tree’s penetrating and extensive root system, which is little affected by
nutritional changes in the surface layer. In Australia, the plant nutrients
contained in 100 t of green wood with bark removed was, in kg: calcium 144,
nitrogen 62, potassium 30, magnesium 12, sodium 11, phosphorus 4, and
there were substantially greater amounts of these nutrients in the first 10 cm
of soil from which the trees were logged. In Victoria, stands of E. polybructeu
close to stills which had been coppiced and regularly harvested for 70 years
showed no reduction in amount of foliage or oil.

Cultivation
Establishment of a commercial Eucalyptus plantation is still bedevilled by the
necessity to obtain pure seed where there is no economic method of large-
scale vegetative propagation. Much seed offered for commercial sale is
misnamed, and unless obtained from a reputable source (generally Aus-
tralia) will usually be a mixture of several species, or contain a substantial
amount of hybrid seed; some species also have a specific germination
requirement. In general, large seeds germinate faster and have a higher
germination percentage; there is no evidence, however, that seed size is
related to later growth rate. A vegetative method employed in South Africa
Myrtaceae 267

on E. radiata subsp. australiana and E. dives var.‘C’ was successful and could
be more widely applied. Shoots were taken from trees selected for high
foliage yield and high oil content of leaves when harvested 18 months after
coppicing at 1 year; criteria for selection were 4.5 kg air-dried leaf and 10%
oil content per tree, Cuttings 150 m m long with one pair of leaves, dipped in
1% IAA in talc, and planted in the autumn gave an 85% take, roots
appearing in 3-4 weeks, Cuttings from specific trees rooted poorly, which
may be a genetic factor since a root inhibitor exists in adult tissue of a
number of Eucalyptus spp. Since most commercial oil is obtained from E.
globulus or E. polybractea, methods of establishment and cultivation suitable
for these species have been described in detail. Only special requirements or
techniques necessary for other species are mentioned.
Mature eucalypts of most species are generally fire resistant but planta-
tions should be protected from fire especially after coppicing, since foliage is
highly flammable; stumps will be little affected and regrow. Mallee types are
not generally fire sensitive, but a hot burn through coppiced natural stands
may kill trees.
Manual or mechanical methods of weed control remain most common in
eucalypt plantations, but generally rising labour cost has increased interest
in herbicides. A number have been tested and the following proved useful:
ametryne, atrazine, glyphosate, oxadiazon, prometryne, profluralin, propa-
zine, simanzine, terbacil and terbutryne. Species vary in their tolerance to a
specific chemical and trials are necessary before large-scale use. For in-
stance, E. globulus can be susceptible to triazine herbicides, and application
rate of terbacil can be critical since there is a relatively small difference
between levels which give effective weed control and those causing damage
to seedlings or young trees.
In Australia, there was invariably severe sheet erosion in natural stands of
E. polybractea and E. dives on undulating land, which were coppiced and
mechanically harvested, and virtually weed-free. Intercropping commercial
eucalypt plantations is not normally viable, and only successful where
eucalypts form a small proportion of the cropped area. Smallholders use the
technique most successfully, especially in India, using Cymbopogon martinii
var. motia (Roxb) Watts, Mentha arvensis L., and a number of pulses and
spices. Intercropping with other essential oil crops can also be of value to
smallholders if it enables greater utilization of a local still.

Harvesting
Harvesting wild trees was initially the usual method wherever there were
extensive stands of the required Eucalyptus spp. In Australia, operations
were almost wholly manual and, according to a contemporary author, ‘The
work was hard, the hours long, the life lonely, the rewards meagre.’ Most
Eucalyptus oil is now produced from plantations in countries other than
Australia. Techniques used for harvesting different species of eucalypts for
268 Chapter 8

oil are basically similar and generally applicable. They are discussed in detail
in the sections on E. globulus and E. polybractea. Where there is a particular
requirement or technique this is mentioned. O n an international basis,
harvesting is currently influenced by traditional rather than technical rea-
sons, and will remain so until more information is available on which to base
systematic management.

Distillation
Oil is obtained by distilling foliage from trees felled for other purposes,
harvesting natural stands, or from specially established plantations. The first
involves no agricultural operations and leaves are distilled by any suitable
method a t a convenient site, but only on large plantations is this profitable.
The current method of distilling E. polybractea is described in the section on
that species, although a few portable stills remain in use by operators
working in rough or mountainous country (Fig. 8.6). Such a distillery
consists of water tanks usually 1.2 X 1.2 X 1.2 m or 2 X 1.5 X 5 m coupled
together and operated in pairs, holding 360-460 kg foliage. Between 3500
and 4500 litres of water are placed in each tank beneath a grid which
supports the charge. Prior to replacing the lid, a thick layer of clay is laid
along the flange, on this is placed a strip of sacking and a second layer of clay
applied. The lid is then fastened in position by cross-timbers, wooden
wedges and iron stirrups. In Brazil generally and also in Spain, foliage is
transported to a permanent distillery often owned by a company which pays
for delivered leaf. Some large Spanish plantation companies also own
distilleries and produce rectified oil to international standards. In Brazil,
where there are very large plantations of E. citm'odora to produce essential oil,
these are fully integrated and well-managed operations.
Modern distilling plants in all countries are very similar and discussed in
the chapter on distilling. Solvent extraction usually recovers more oil than
distillation, but requires more sophisticated equipment, and may also alter
oil composition (Ammon et al., 1985). Disposal of still residue can be a
major problem, but is frequently dried and used a fuel. Transforming this
residue into a saleable product can substantially increase overall profitabil-
ity. A Victorian company has produced 'Eucy-mulch' by converting this
residue into a sterilized mulch in 100 kg bales for sale to nurseries and home
gardeners (P. Abbott, Melbourne, personal communication).

Pests and diseases


An outstanding feature of eucalypts planted outside Australia is their capac-
ity for rapid and sustained growth in suitable environments. Eucalypts have
usually been introduced by seed with two important consequences: (i) leaf-
eating insects are absent thus tree crowns remain larger with more leaf area
and growth is enhanced; and (ii) should an insect which feeds on Eucalyptus
Myiiaceae 269

Fig. 8.6. Typical Australian outback 'eucystill'

be introduced, it is likely to be without its natural predators. The weevil


Gonipterus scutellatus in South Africa, for instance, was later effectively
controlled by introduction of an Australian parasitic wasp Anaphoidea nitens.
While there are many insects which are serious pests of eucalypts, those
which attack seedlings, foliage, coppiced stumps and young trees are of
major interest to essential oil producers. Insects attacking timber plantations
supplying foliage as a by-product are the concern of foresters responsible for
the general health of their trees. Control of foliage eaters is important in
coppiced plantations, but pesticides are rarely used in Australia and are
limited to well-managed plantations elsewhere. Since most pests of euca-
lypts in Australia do not occur elsewhere, to list them is of little value. They
have therefore been mentioned collectively under the tree part most af-
fected. This is intended to act as a guide to potential pests and thus a local
insect related to those mentioned, especially if recorded on trees or in
plantations, should be so regarded. For example another weevil Nematocerus
castaneipennis is a pest of E. citriodora in East Africa, and a cicada, Ugada
limbata, of E. globulus.
Apart from the eucalyptus snout beetle Gonipterus scutellatus mentioned
earlier and also now recorded from East and Central Africa, other in-
troduced insect pests are known. Probably most widespread is the long-
horned beetle Phoracantha semipunctata accidentally introduced into south-
ern and eastern Mediterranean countries, Ethiopia, and Madagascar; trees
suffering moisture stress are particularly susceptible. The chrysomelid Par-
opsis chaybdis, introduced into New Zealand, caused extensive damage to a
number of Eucalyptus spp. including E. globulus, while the scale Eriococcus
2 70 Chapter 8

coriaceus caused serious damage to large areas of Eucalyptus globulus in


particular, but was controlled by introduction of the ladybird Rhyzobius
ventralis.
Major pests attacking leaves and twigs in Australia are stick insects
(phasmids) , in particular Podacanthus wilkinsoni and Didymuria violescens;
scarab beetles, especially Anoplognanthus spp.; leaf-eating beetles (chryso-
melids) , including Paropsis spp., especially P. dilatata, and Chysophtharta
spp.; sawflies, especially Perga dorsalis and Lophyrotoma intermpta; the psyllid
Ctenaytaina eucalypti; the scale Eriococcus coriaceus; a chalcid wasp Rhicno-
peltella eucalypti; and agromyzid flies of the genus Fergusonina. Among major
destructive foliage eaters outside Australia are leaf-cutting ants in Brazil,
Argentina and other South American countries. Interestingly, Eucalyptus
cinerea showed marked resistance in Argentina, and the reason for this could
prove of value although presently undetermined. The damage caused by
insect pests to foliage in Australia is, as noted, greater than to Eucalyptus
planted overseas and their control more difficult and more expensive.
Research by the CSIRO and local timber companies is currently aimed at
producing trees which secrete toxic substances in their leaves which either
discourage or kill foliage-eaters.
Important pests of root and stump are various species of termites which
attack living trees and their roots; in India, placing a pesticide in planting
holes gave greatest protection to seedlings. Some chemicals, however, can
be toxic to young plants and trials are necessary before general use. Roots
may also be eaten by soil-living larvae, including the swift moth Trictena
argentata. Other pests of stump and lower stem are borers, in particular the
cossids, including Xyleutes magn$ca, and the cerambycids, especially Phor-
acantha recurva.
Major diseases recorded on eucalypts in Australia and elsewhere, and the
plant parts most affected, are shown in Table 8.8 and there are many host-
specific associations in Australia which may not occur elsewhere. Control of
most pathogenic fungi outside nurseries is normally uneconomic, and
management systems which reduce their incidence or damage are the most
effective. Most economically important diseases to essential oil producers
are those affecting leaves and young shoots, and root diseases affecting
seedlings and coppiced stumps. Rusts, powdery mildews and viruses prob-
ably have restricted host ranges and can be regarded as host-specific patho-
gens with susceptible species probably limited to members of a particular
Eucalyptus subgenera. Cankers on subgenera Symphyomyrtus and Coymbia
are not considered important in Australia, but pathogens causing cankers on
eucalypt plantations overseas are much more serious. Corticium salmonicolor,
the causal organism of pink disease, has a wide host range in subgenus
Symphyomyrtus in the tropics, and Endothia havanensis caused such serious
cankers in 3-year-old plantations in Surinam that planting of eucalypts was
suspended. The serious canker disease of E. citriodora and other species in
Myrtaceae 271

Brazil, reportedly caused by Diaporthe cubense, is regarded as the most


important disease of local eucalypt plantations.
A most serious disease in Australia is Phytophthora cinnamomi, known as
jarrah dieback for its devastating effects on E. marginata. The fungus is
essentially a root rot and spreads quickly where soil remains wet; it is
unimportant in well-drained soils or dry areas. T he pathogen is widespread
and control measures normally impracticable, except planting in soils in-
imical to spread of the disease. Seedlings of Eucalyptus spp., particularly of

Table 8.8. Major diseases of Eucalyptus spp


~~~

Geographic Sub-genera
Parts affected Pathogen location involved Remarks
Foliage Virus (including Argentina, India, Corymbia Potentially serious effects.
tobacco mosaic) S. Europe Symphyomyrtus
Puccinia Brazil Corymbia (E. Likely to show some host
citriodora) specificity.
Oidium spp. Australia, South Symphyomyrtus Little potential importance
including 0. America, Europe under field conditions.
eucalypti
Fungi imperfecti, Widespread Coiymbia and Of little significance under
Ascomycetes including Symphyomyrtus field conditions.
Australia
Fungi imperfecti, Australia Monocalyptus Evidence of pronounced
Ascomycetes Symphyomyrtus host specificity
Stem and branch Cytospora spp. Widespread Corymbia and Cankers caused by
Endothia including Symphyomyrtus Endothia spp. and
havanensis Australia Diaporthe spp. potentially
important, particularly in
tropics and subtropics.
Diaporthe Brazil Corymbia and
cubense Symphomyrtus
Roots Pythium spp. Widespread All subgenera Of local significance only.
Phytophthora spp.
Verticillium spp. Australia Evidence of resistance
Fusarium spp. among seedlings.
Cylindrocladium
SPP,
P. cinnamomi, Widespread All subgenera This is a potentially
Armillaria spp. including important group of
Armillariella spp. Australia diseases in monospecific
Ganoderma spp. plantations.
Polyporus spp.
Butt and stem Numerous higher Widespread All four Potentially significant
Basidiomycetes including subgenera cause of disease in
Australia monospecific plantations.
2 72 Chapter 8

subgenus Monocalyptus, are very susceptible to damping-off associated with


Phytophthora, Pythium, Fusarium and Verticillium spp.; members of subgenus
Syrnphyornyrm are more resistant, and those of Coyrnbia are highly re-
sistant.
Cylindrocladiurn spp., particularly C.scoparium, are serious nursery patho-
gens in tropical and temperate regions, while in the USA, India and
elsewhere Fusarium oxysporum causes seedling blight and root cankers. Stem
and butt rots are diseases of mature or overmature trees, and in young trees
of species having naturally durable heartwood, decay is confined to the
juvenile wood. There are, however, numerous reports from many countries
of extensive heart defects associated with fungal and termite damage in
young plantations of species which have natural durability. This is mainly
due to differences in the growth rate of young trees in plantations, which
quickly produce large boles consisting mainly of juvenile wood, low in
phenolic extractives that are toxic to fungi and termites.

Eucalyptus citriodora

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. (syn. E. maculata Hook. var. citriodora Bailey) is


commonly known as lemon-scented gum; in Spanish and Portuguese euca-
lipto. This species hybridizes easily in the wild, especially in Australia with E.
maculata to which it is closely related. Hybrids between E. citriodora and E.
torelliana have appeared spontaneously in Nigeria and Papua New Guinea.

Botany
Eucalyptus citriodora is a medium to tall tree to 50 m normally with a single
stem to 1-1.2 m DBH. The bark is smooth throughout, deciduous, bluish
grey to apple-pink, sometimes red, and often blotched with all three colours.
The wood is pale, light to grey-brown, hard, strong, very tough, moderately
durable and easily worked; the basic density is 1000 kgim’. The major use is
in general and heavy construction, and it is not suitable for pulping. Kino
contains the antibiotic citriodoral. Growth of seedlings and young trees is
rapid; in India, stem girth increased from 3 cm at 15 weeks to 10 cm at 60
weeks and to 15 cm at 120 weeks; in Zaire, trees reached 13 m in 4 years; in
Brazil, cloned trees were 15.5 m at 4 years.
The foliage is generally sparse; mature leaves measure 10-15 X 1-2 cm,
are narrow to broad-lanceolate and are strongly lemon scented when
crushed. The oil yield from steam-distilled fresh leaves is 1.5% but up to
2.5%, and up to 5% from dry leaves. The oil is almost entirely mono-
terpenoid with citronellal usually at 8 5 9 0 % . Other significant constituents
are citronellol, cineole and pinenes. Young leaves frequently have a higher
oil content than mature, but in Kenya the author often found greater
Myflaceae 2 73

variation in oil content between leaves of similar age from different trees
than between leaves of different ages from the same tree; oil content may also
be independent of leaf maturity (Mwangi et al., 1981). Interestingly in
Australia, leaves and terminal branchlets from forest trees yielded
0.5-0.75% oil, from isolated trees 1.0-1.3% and cultivated trees to 2.0%,
probably due to a general reduction in inter-tree competition. Oil character-
istics may also change with age of seedlings or leaves (Gulati et al., 1968).
Two types of E. citriodora occur in India with pubescent and non-
pubescent leaves, and their oils have different characteristics and composi-
tion irrespective of location (Gulati et al., 1968). T h e first had a fresh leaf oil
yield of 1.9-2.9% with a citronellal content of 75-85%; the second
1.75-4.0% with a citronellal content of 50-73%. In Australia, at least four
chemotypes of E. citriodora occur with an aldehyde content of 10-85%. Leaf
oil from different countries varies in composition, there are substantial
differences in Indian regional oils, while in Zaire, oil from the Ituri region
had a higher aldehyde content than oil from the Kivu area. In Brazil, there is
considerable regional variation in citronellal content partly due to the
distilling method. Oil characteristics from selected origins are shown in
Table 8.9.
T h e inflorescence is terminal, corymbose, the umbels three to five flow-
ered. The flowers are cream coloured, with the peduncles terete, 5-7 cm; the
buds are ovoid, pedicillate, 10-12 X 7-8 mm. T h e operculum is hemi-
spherical, shorter than the calyx tube; the anthers are obovate. Main flower-
ing is June-July in Australia. Steam distilled fresh buds yield 0.5-0.85% oil
with the following main characteristics: apparent density at 30°C 0.9786,
refractive index at 25°C 1.4736, optical rotation -0.28", acid value 27.7,
ester value 86.12, citronellal 28.8%.
The fruit is ovoid or urceolate, pedicellate, 10 X 3 mm; the disc broad,
descending, with 3-4 valves deeply enclosed; the pedicels are slender, to

Table 8.9. Main characteristics of Eucalyptus citriodora oil from selected originsa,

Australia India Brazil


Specific 0.8640 0.8493 0.8620
gravity 0.8770 0.8860 0.8687
(15°C) (25°C) (25°C)
Refractive 1.4511 1.4521 1.4512
index (20°C) 1.4570 1.4882 1.4575
Optical t 3O to.2n t0'37'
rotation -3" t 3O t1>5
Solubility (viv 79% alcohol) 1 :3-1:5 ng 1 :3-1:3.5
Citronellal (%) 65-75 65-88 74-87
aAbstracted from published data; ng. not given
Figures in columns are range.
2 74 Chapter 8

10 mm. The seed is very small, usually 200,000 but up to 400,000 per kg;
the mean viability is about 30%.

Ecology
Eucalyptus citriodorus is naturally confined to subtropical and tropical zones
in Australia, between latitudes 17' and 26"S, at altitudes of 450-1000 m in
the hotter north, 70-400 m in the cooler south; the species has not been
successful at low altitudes in the wetter tropics. The rainfall is 650-1600
mm, seasonal, with a 4-5 month dry period but up to 7 months. Elsewhere,
reports indicate a minimum of 600 mm, but 900 mm is desirable for rapid
growth. Although relatively drought tolerant, hot arid areas are unsuitable
for oil production. The species is frost susceptible especially when im-
mature. In Zaire, commercial plantings in the Ituri district were around
1500 m with average annual rainfall of 1200 mm. It was planted in the
Kenya highlands and on a small scale in the Njombe area of Tanzania with
a similar climate; in Sri Lanka it was planted below 120 m including the drier
zones.
The substantial plantings of E. citriodora in Brazil, approximately 6 million
trees, are concentrated in Sao Paulo State between 22 and 23'S, at approx-
imately 100 myrainfall 800-1200 mm. The author visited large plantations
near Guatemala City around 1500 m with an annual rainfall above 1000
mm. In China, E. citriodora is extensively planted in Guizhou and Guangxi
Provinces, 22-28"N, but far exceeded in numbers by E. robusta; in Russia,
E. citriodora is planted specifically for essential oil production mainly around
the Black Sea and Caspian Sea between 40 and 45"N. The species is widely
planted in India at varying altitudes to ensure sufficient rainfall, but its range
is somewhat restricted as seedlings are frost sensitive. Main plantings are in
the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh in the north and Andhra Pradesh in central
India; it is also grown successfully in Assam with an average annual rainfall
of 2400 mm.
Environment influences oil production, and rainfall in particular directly
affects yield per hectare, leaf oil content and oil characteristics. The follow-
ing remarks are generally applicable. Leaf oil content increases in the wet
period following a dry season, then falls as the next dry season approaches,
being lowest during that period. Where there are pronounced seasonal
differences in mean maximum and minimum temperatures, leaf oil content
is normally highest in the warm period and lowest in the cool; citronellal
content of oil also follows a similar pattern, and in India is lowest in May-
June (the hot dry season). Climate also influences the strain of E. citriodora
selected for regional planting in India, where the pubescent-leaf type is less
drought resistant than the less valuable non-pubescent type. The influence
of climate was demonstrated on E. citriodora planted at two very different
sites: Kodaikanal, at an altitude of 2200 m with an annual rainfall of 1600
mm; and Bangalore at 920 m with 820 mm annual rainfall. Oil yield and
Myrtaceae 2 75

citronellal content from fresh leaves were (per cent): 1.23-1.7 1 and 7 1-93 at
Kodaikanal; 2.2-2.5 and 73-83 at Bangalore (Rao et al., 1984). While
climate may affect oil constituents and characteristics, these differences can
be masked or modified by other factors such as chemovars, and ignorance of
such chemical varieties could have incorrectly attributed oil differences to
climatic or environmental variation in early references.

Soils and fertilizers


In Australia, E. citriodora commonly occurs on poor gravelly soils, podzols
and residual podzols of lateritic origin, usually well drained and often
undulating. Stands also occur in deep red loams, hard gravelly clay, and soils
derived from sandstone (Boland et al., 1979). In Brazil, it grows well on red
lateritic soils common in the Sao Paulo region, and also on reclaimed forest
soils. The rich volcanically derived soils and more recent alluvial soils in
Zaire which grow excellent coffee are most suitable; trees growing on soils
with a high clay content had a slower rate of regrowth following cutting. In
India, the species is usually planted on available land; on rich loam in the
Terai district of Uttar Pradesh trees made fast initial growth and recovered
very quickly following cutting; in contrast trees also grew well on acid sandy
loams, p H 5.5-6.2 in Assam. Results of fertilizer trials on E. citriodoru are
mainly concerned with the effect of seedbed application, or on seedling
growth and survival. In India, application of different levels of nitrogen
either to soil or foliage had no significant effect on oil yield or oil composition
of young plants up to 16 months old (Sirsi et al., 1984).

Cultivation
Those operations necessary for E. globulus are also generally suitable for E.
citriodora but seedling roots are more sensitive to damage than other euca-
lypts and should be handled carefully when transplanting. Seedbeds should
be watered prior to removal of seedlings and as much soil as possible should
be retained on the roots, which should not be allowed to dry out. Seedlings
should be transported to the planting site with the minimum delay and kept
shaded during transport. Two seedlings should be placed at each site since
mortality is frequently high and it is cheaper to thin than replant. Direct
sowing of seed into prepared lands was successful in Africa, but the favour-
able conditions are infrequent and it is not generally recommended. Viabil-
ity of commercially available E. citriodora seed is extremely variable, and
although germination percentage of seed from reliable sources in Australia is
usually around 30-50%, it may be only 5 1 0 % from a local source. Seed-
lings should be transplanted on cloudy or rainy days, and in southern India
this operation is delayed until the soil profile is moist to at least 75 cm. When
grown solely to produce oil, the trees are regularly topped to maintain good
coppice growth, with a between-tree spacing of 1.5-3.0 m in rows to suit the
equipment employed.
276 Chapter 8

Harvesting
When E. citriodora is grown for oil production young trees are normally
coppiced and the optimum local height maintained by regular cutting. T h e
first harvest is 6-12 months after planting out, and often side branches only
are removed, the main stem remaining to promote regrowth. In the 2nd to
4th year the whole tree may be felled, the timber being used as fuel. T h e
stump remaining produces numerous shoots which are then harvested once
or twice annually. Management should thus aim to increase labour effi-
ciency and yield of leaves or oil per hectare. The number of harvests per year
in relation to optimum still usage and cost per kg of oil should also be
determined. T h e number of cuts varies but is usually once or twice annually.
Once a year or three cuts in 2 years was most profitable in India, and in
Kerala State little was gained by cutting at 8 months compared to 12
months, since the small decrease in total oil at the longer interval was more
than offset by the saving in overall cost. When cut at 8 monthly intervals over
2 years, yield per tree was 600 kg foliage and 7.40 kg oil; at 12-monthly
intervals 539 kg and 7.1 kg respectively (Kannan & Nair, 1965). When
grown by smallholders whose labour costs are virtually nil in cash terms, two
or three harvests per year may be profitable. In north-west India, a major
harvest is taken in April and November, a supplementary cut in July if
regrowth is sufficient.
Other factors may influence the number of cuts; stems of 2 years growth in
treeless regions are valuable for building or fencing, and cutting is postponed
to obtain a supply. Growing E. citriodora in large plantations in India is
uncommon and most oil is produced by smallholders harvesting trees
growing on their own lands; thus yield per tree is important but has received
little attention. A majority of smallholders cut their trees only when they
have time to spare, or a rise in the local oil price makes it attractive. In Africa
and some South American countries, trees are allowed to make normal
growth and then topped at 2.5 my branches also being lopped to provide
foliage for distillation. Trees are topped again at around 5.0 m ythe stem and
woody branches being used as poles or fuel. One or two harvests annually is
normal; February and November give the highest oil yield in Cuba (Miranda
and Zayas, 1985).
Foliage yield from annual cutting of coppiced trees gives 2-5 kg leaves
(exceptionally 8 kg), with selected high-yielding strains 10 kg; mature trees
yielded 300-500 kg of foliage when felled for timber. There may also be a
difference in oil yield and citronellal content between coppiced and pol-
larded trees (Shiva et al. , 1988). Leaf oil content can vary significantly and,
in commercial plantations in particular, it is important to determine the local
reasons for, and the occurrence of, this variation since such data will allow
more profitable plantation and distillery management. Oil content and
citronellal content of oil are highest in young leaves and fall as leaves mature;
however, the reduction in oil content is slow over the first 4-6 months of leaf
Myttaceae 277

life, declining only slightly up to 9 months, and is thus usually offset by an


increase in leaf numbers over this period. The citronellal content of oil tends
to rise slowly for approximately 6 months, but then falls rapidly and can be
significantly lower at 9 months. Reported oil yield from fresh leaves of
plantation-grown trees in Australia is 1.O-2.0% with a citronellal content of
65-75%; in Fiji 1.2-1.7 (43-49); Brazil 0.8-1.5 (70-80); Guatemala
0.5-1.5 (70-80); Colombia 0.8-2.0 (65-70); Cuba 2.0-3.5 (75-85); Zaire
0.5-0.75 (46-50); Nigeria an exceptional 4.8 (50-70); Kenya 0.8-2.5
(40-80); Egypt 0.7-1.1 (60-70); India 0.7-3.0 (50-85); Philippines 4.5-6.0
(55-70); China 0.5-1.25 (70-80).
The productive life of a well-managed plantation of E. citriodora is
unknown, although there are numerous plantations of 25 years of age which
are regularly harvested for oil. Overcutting is almost universal when the oil
price is high, which greatly reduces tree longevity, especially if there is a long
dry period following the last harvest. Planting E. citriodora around the
borders of large fields, farms or estates can also yield a profitable supplemen-
tary income, especially when other essential oil crops are grown and distill-
ing facilities exist. The economics of this type of production in India in 1978
were based on 4400 trees. Oil yield in the second and third years was
60-70 kg and 100-110 kg valued at Rs 2000 and Rs 3000 respectively
(c.US$ 100 and 150), averaging at least 100 kg annually thereafter.

Distillation
Distillation can be hydro or steam, and the methods used for E. globulus are
suitable for E. citriodora. In general, leaves and twiglets should be as fresh as
possible, since oil yield may be reduced and characteristics change after 24
hours, especially loss of the important aldehydes.

Products and speciJications


Citriodora oil is colourless to pale yellow with a strong, very fresh rosy-
citronella scent, and is commercially assessed on odour and total aldehyde
content as citronellal. Standard specifications are shown in Table 8.10.

Table 8.10. Standard specifications for Eucalyptus citriodora oil.

IS0 EOA
Relative density at 20/20"C 0.858-0.877 -
Specific gravity at 25125°C - 0.860-0.875
Refractive index at 20°C 1.4500-1.4590 1.4510-1.4640
Optical rotation at 20°C -2" to t4" -0.5"o t 2 '
Solubility in ethanol at 20°C 1:2(v/v) 80% 1 :3(viv) 70%
Total aldehvdes as citronellal min. 70% (mim) 65-85%
EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA; ISO, International Standards
Organisation; the Australian Standard is similar.
2 78 Chapter 8

Commercial citriodora oil contains 65-85 % citronellal (traders prefer the


higher level), plus isopulegol, citronellol and their esters, beta-pinene and
isovaleric aldehyde; interestingly, an intermediate type oil in Australia yields
guaiol on cooling. The oil is a source of citronellal, particularly hydroxyci-
tronellal and to a lesser extent menthol; the whole oil is widely used in less
expensive perfumes, soaps and disinfectants; and has antibacterial and
insecticidal activity. Hydroxycitronellal is one of the most widely used of all
perfumery materials and can be produced from several sources, but that
from natural oils is preferred; some perfumers favour citronella oil as the
starting material, others citriodora oil.

Eucalyptus dives

Eucalyptus dives Schauer, commonly known as broad-leaved peppermint, is


a medium-sized woodland tree to 12-15 m (but single trees to 25 m), usually
0.7 m DBH. The crown is large with many branches and drooping branch-
lets. The trunk is extensively branched from low down, and on open sites
branches are retained almost to ground level. The bark is grey or grey-
brown, rough and persistent on the main trunk and branches, smooth and
ribbon-like on smaller branches. The wood is pale brown, fairly hard,
moderately strong, not durable and considered inferior timber; its density is
approximately 670 kg/m3. Seedling growth can be fast and in South Africa
1-year-old trees reached 4 m. Mature leaves are slightly glossy, rather thick,
3-15 X 2-5 cm, and broadly lanceolate. Venation is distinct, irregular and
often semi-longitudinal. The leaves emit a strong peppermint scent when
crushed, but this differs between strains as noted later. The reported oil yield
from steam-distilled fresh leaves and twigs in Australia is 2.5-5.0%, in South
Africa around 6.0%, and 3% from terminal shoots in Zaire.
The inflorescence is axillary, simple, with 7-1 5 white flowers, the ped-
uncles compressed terete or angular to 5-1 5 mm. The buds are pedicellate,
clavate, 7 X 5 mm and have no scar. The operculum is hemispherical or
conical and shorter than the calyx tube. The stamens are mostly inflexed,
and all fertile. The anthers are reniform and versatile; the style is short.
Flowering is sometimes profuse, with the main flowering September-
October in Australia. The honey is light coloured and candies quickly.
The fruit is pedicellate, cupular, hemispherical to pyriform, and measures
6-8 X 5-7 mm. The rim is thick, and the disc level or slightly domed, with
three to four valves enclosed or slightly exerted. There are 200,000-250,000
seeds per kg, and viability often very low (Boland et al., 1984).
Eucalyptus dives contains at least four distinct chemovars (Boland et al.,
1991). The cineole-rich type yields a medicinal oil, the piperitone-rich is
processed to obtain menthol and thymol, while a third produces oil with a
Mytaceae 2 79

high phellandrene content. The main characteristics are shown in Table


8.11. Some 35 compounds have been detected in the piperitone-rich oil in
amounts greater than 0.0 1%, and sesquiterpenes contribute approximately
8% of the oil. Since the chemovars are botanically similar, they are not
generally differentiated in the text, except when essential for clarity. Occur-
rence of E. dives variants is widespread in Australia, but each tends to occur
in separate, distinct populations.

Ecology
Eucalyptus dives commonly occurs in South East Australia between 3 1 and
38OS, at altitudes of 150-1400 my with a climate warm humid in summer,
cool in winter, with frost and snow at higher elevations. The annual rainfall
is 600-1 100 mm with few long dry periods. The species is not cultivated in
Australia, and has been planted only on an experimental or pilot scale in
other countries including Zaire and South Africa.

Soils and fertilizers


This species frequently occurs on sandstone ridges and plateaux in Aus-
tralia, or rather shallow, stony soils low in nutrients and free-draining. In
Zaire, small plantations were successfully established on volcanic soils in the
Kivu region. There are no data on response of the species to fertilizers but,
in Australia, trees are taller and larger on more fertile soils in townships,
parks and when regularly watered.

Table 8.11. Characteristics of Eucalyptus dives oils.

Type A B C
Yield 3.0 1.5 2.9 3.0
(fresh material) (%) 4.0 5.1 3.9 4.0
Specific 0.8892 0.8630 0.9062 0.917
gravity 15°C 0.9063 0.8870 0.9148 0.923
Optical -44O -44" -13.4" to +q
rotation - 78O - 66" -28.3"
Refractive 1.4784 1.4750 1.4669 1.4609
index 20°C 1.4810 1.4792 1.4711 1.4640
Cineole ("h) ng ng 25-45 65-75
Piperitone (%) 40-53 2-8 12-1 8 <6
Alpha-phellandrene (%) 20 60 ng ng
30 80 ng ng
Solubility (viv 70% 1:IO 1:IO 1 :3 1:1-5
alcohol)
~~~~~ ~

Figures in columns are range. ng, not given.


Source: Based on Penfold and Morrison (1951). Type C is very similar to E. radiata oil, a closely related
species.
280 Chapter 8

Cultivation
Foliage is obtained wholly from wild trees in Australia, which are felled,
allowed to coppice, then harvested annually, and the leaves and small twigs
transported to a still. The generally hilly areas in which the highest popula-
tions and therefore most exploitable stands occur, confines mechanization
to cutting regrowth and transport. Pilot plantings of E. dives in South Africa
were to determine the feasibility of cineole production. Seedlings grew well
and many reached 4 m one year after planting out, but E. dives was
outproduced in foliage yield per hectare and total cineole by E. radiata
(Donald, 1980).

Products and speciJcations


Oil of E. dives, Type and var. A, were originally exploited in Australia and
later in Southern Africa. Oil A is more commonly used as the phellandrene
content is 60-80%, whereas Type oil is rich in piperitone, now much less
commonly extracted from eucalyptus oil. Type A oil with its high phellan-
drene and low laevo-piperitone content is used mainly as a solvent, and in
industrial perfumery, in insecticides and similar products. The oil is usually
very light yellow to yellow. At one time E. dives oil from the Belgian Congo
was marketed under the name Evolimba oil, a name quite incorrectly stated
to be derived from the Ki-Swahili word for eucalyptus. In Kenya, the tree
was known in Ki-Swahili as miti ya eucalipti and the oil as mafuta za eucalipti;
in the official Ki-Swahili-English Botanical Dictionary, individual Euca-
lyptus species have no Ki-Swahili equivalents. Evolimba oil reportedly had a
piperitone content of 45-55%, but is no longer produced.

Eucalyptus glo bulus


Eucalyptus globulus Labill. is the Tasmanian or southern blue gum, but
commonly blue gum. Four subspecies of E. globulus have been recognized
(with E. globulus subsp. globulus the important oil producer), but whether
they are true subspecies, or E. globulus is a single species, is still to be agreed.
In this text E. globulus will be used without qualification for brevity. This
species has the distinction of being the most studied of all eucalypts by
specialists individually concerned with one particular aspect of the tree or its
derivatives. Thus it is possible to obtain very detailed information on almost
any aspect of the tree and its products by consulting the literature. Eucalyptus
globulus hybridizes moderately easily and hybrids have been reported from
many countries.

Botany
Eucalyptus globulus is a medium-sized woodland tree to 20 my or tall forest
tree to 70 m, and 2 m DBH. Mature woodland trees usually have extensive
Myrtaceae 281

roots which are frequently deeply penetrating, but in plantations the roots
are often more shallow. There is usually a single trunk, much-branched, the
first often fairly high-up and on forest trees branches are usually retained for
less than half the total height. The lower bark is rough, greyish or brownish;
the upper bark smooth, pale, often with a bluish tinge, decorticating in long
strips. Seedling growth is rapid, and young trees may reach 10-15 m in 3-4
years but 8-12 m is more usual; clones from selected trees in Brazil had an
average daily growth of 1 cm (C. Aguair, Espirito Santo, Brazil, personal
communication). Too rapid growth can be detrimental, as above-ground
development can outpace root growth and young trees can be easily up-
rooted by high winds. Trees coppice readily, but the height of coppicing is
important, as noted later; lignotuber development is weak. The wood is light
yellow-brown, open textured, commonly with interlocking grain, strong and
moderately durable; its basic density is 900 kg/m3. The timber is used in
general construction and as poles, piles and railway sleepers. Mature timber
produces poor pulp, but young plantation-grown wood is suitable for paper
and rayon pulps.
The foliage is moderate, the mature leaves being dark glossy green,
alternate, falcate, lanceolate or narrow-lanceolate, 250 X 24 mm, moder-
ately reticulate and firm. Crushed leaves are strongly aromatic, with an
unpleasant odour due to the isovaleraldehyde content. The oil yield from
steam-distilled fresh foliage and small twigs is 1.O-1.5%; young foliage from
coppiced trees yields 3%. Average oil yield from commercial operations is
reported as (per cent): Spain and Portugal 0.7-0.9; Australia 1.2-2.5; India
0.8-1.2; Brazil 0.9-1.5; Colombia 0.7-0.9; California 1.O. A major factor
affecting average yield is age of harvested foliage. Thus trees felled for timber
whose foliage is distilled primarily as a by-product give much lower average
yields per tonne of foliage than coppiced plantations where the foliage is
generally immature with a higher oil content. The oil content of well-dried
leaves is approximately twice that of fresh foliage, and oil content of dried or
partially dried leaves does not fall significantly if leaves are temporarily
stored in cool dry conditions; there is only minor loss if stored up to 1 year.
Eucalyptusglobulus oil, as noted, is the most studied of all eucalyptus oils and
many analyses have been published (Lawrence, 1994). Some 100 con-
stituents have been identified with 1,s-cineole to 60-70%, and about 40
account for less than 1% of total oil volume. The approximate percentage by
volume is shown in brackets: 20 aliphatic compounds (I); 15 monoterpenes
(20-25); 15 monoterpenoid alcohols (3-5); 15 monoterpenoid carbonyls
(1-2); 5 monoterpenoid esters (1-2); 10 sesquiterpenes (3-5); 10 sesqui-
terpenoid alcohols ( 1-2); and 5 benzenoid compounds (0.5) (Boland et al. ,
199 1). Proportions are not constant, and there can be substantial regional
and seasonal variation. The main characteristics of selected oils are shown in
Table 8.12.
282 Chapter 8

Table 8.12. Main characteristics of Eucalyptus globulus oil from selected countries.

Commercial Spain-Portugal
sample standard Brazil Australia
Specific 0.910 0.906 0.9070 0.910
gravity (20°C) 0.926 0.925 0.9105 0.930
Refractive 1.4593 1.459 1.4612 1.460
index (20°C) 1.4710 1.467 1.4653 1.470
Optical O0 0" t0.46" t0'18'
rotation t9.20° t10.0" t0.68O t15O
Solubility (viv 70% 1:1.5-11 1:5 1 :I 1 :1.5-3
alcohol)
1,8-cineole (%) 55-85 min 70 65-70 70-75
Figures in columns are range. There can be substantial variation in oil characteristics

The inflorescence is axillary, simple, with one to three white flowers; the
peduncles are sometimes absent or very short and stout to 40 mm; the
pedicels are usually absent, or stout-angular to 8 mm. The buds are axillary,
obconical, usually solitary, extremely glaucous, and sessile on a very short
peduncle. The operculum is flattened with a very distinct central knob. The
anthers are versatile; the stamens mostly inflexed and all fertile. An essential
oil can be obtained from the flowers. The flowers are attractive to bees, but
of little interest to Australian commercial apiarists.
The fruit is sessile to shortly pedicellate, obconical 1.5-1.5 X 1.5-2.5 cm,
often waxy, the rim thick, disc broad and level to slightly convex, and
smooth. There are four or five valves slightly to distinctly exerted, with a very
distinct concave calycine ring. The fruit contains 1-2% essential oil with a
cineole content of 20-70%; some 30 other compounds have been identified
with sesquiterpenes more significant than monoterpenes (Baslas and Sax-
ena, 1984). A blackcurrant scent can often be clearly recognized from
immature fruit (Boelens, 1985). Seed averages 200,000 per kg with viability
around 33%. Fertile seeds are more plump and healthier looking and, with
experience, are easily selected. Plantation trees normally produce seed in
4-5 years.

Ecology
Eucalyptus globulus occurs naturally in Tasmania and southern Victoria, but
now grows in coastal areas between 31 and 43"S, from sea-level to 1100 m
with a rainfall of 600-1 100 mm annually, and does not occur where there is
less than 500 mm. Mature trees are generally frost resistant, but tem-
peratures below -5°C often kill seedlings, although seed from trees growing
at higher, colder elevations reportedly produced frost resistant seedlings.
Mature trees are very firm in the wind, but young fast-growing trees and
coppiced regrowth can be badly damaged. Mature trees are fire resistant, but
Myiiaceae 283

a succession of severe fires is usually fatal; well-established seedlings fre-


quently recover. Because of the adaptability of E. globulus and its rapid
growth, the species is one of the most extensively planted eucalypts world-
wide. It has been particularly successful in countries with a Mediterranean-
type climate, but also grows well at high altitudes in the tropics. It has failed
only in temperate zones with severe winters, in the low-altitude tropics with
uniformly high temperature, and regions with long, hot dry seasons. Ex-
tensive commercial plantations exist in Ethiopia, India, Portugal, Russia,
Spain, and South America especially Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Co-
lombia.
In Chile, E. globulus is grown mainly between 37 and 42"s with an annual
rainfall above 1200 mm, and commonly withstands temperatures to -7°C.
There are large plantations between Concepcion and Coquibo in central
Chile where summers are long and winters mild; the annual rainfall is
usually 500 mm, mainly in winter. In Argentina with its generally cooler and
wetter climate, E. globulus is widely planted for timber. Following a decree
published in 1919 by the Brazilian Government awarding premiums and
free grants of land to those planting Eucalyptus and other essential oil-
producing trees, and the rapid expansion of commercial forestry from 1965,
there are an estimated 4.5 million ha of private-enterprise plantations in
Brazil, about 75% eucalypts and the remainder pines. Most important are E.
globulus and E. grandis for pulp, and E. camaldulensis for charcoal. The
largest plantations are in Sao Paulo State between 20 and 25"S, rainfall
1000-1200 mm. The cool highlands around 5"sare favoured for E. globulus
in Colombia, but in the Guatemala highlands the species was very suscepti-
ble to damage, including uprooting, by the frequent high winds. Originally
planted extensively in the south-western USA, especially California, E.
globulus is now grown only as an ornamental, or as windbreaks around
orchards (Nishimura and Calvin, 1979).
The alluvial soils of the Russian Black Sea region, 40-50"NJ proved very
suitable for E. globulus, and large plantations of this and other essential oil
producing species have been established. Research produced strains and
hybrids able to withstand more severe and prolonged frost. In Spain and
Portugal the species is most successful where rainfall is 900-1200 mm
irrespective of altitude, but commonly below 500 m. There are large
plantations of E. globulus in the Spanish province of Huelva and the coastal
districts of north-west Portugal. In India, the species does not thrive below
2000 m at 12"N and below 1000 m at 30"N, but flourishes around Ootaca-
mund in the Nilgiri Hills where it was introduced in 1863. In Algeria, the
species is used extensively to dry out marshy areas, e.g. adjoining Lake
Fetzara. In Africa south of the Sahara, E. globulus is the main species planted
in the Ethiopian highlands, proving very suitable not only for the varying
environments encountered in this most mountainous country, but also the
rough and ready methods used for establishment. There is no commercial
284 Chapter 8

production of essential oil, although during the Italian occupation a small


distillery operated near Addis Ababa. Cultivation of E. globulus for essential
oil in Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi ceased when these countries became
independent. Plantations had been successfully established at altitudes of
1200-2000 m, with an annual rainfall generally above 1200 mm. Although
originally extensively planted in South Africa, E. globulus proved susceptible
to severe infection by local pathogenic fungi and was replaced by other
species (Guenther, 1954).

Soils and fertilizers


In Australia, E. globulus is most common on soils derived from granite;
extensive stands also occur on plutonic rocks, sandstones and mudstones,
but not on strongly calcareous or alkaline soils. Since E. globulus makes rapid
initial growth, there is considerable above-ground leverage from strong
winds; thus in loose soils trees are frequently uprooted, as on the volcanic
ash sands near Guatemala City and sandy soils in North Africa. Plantations
are generally more successful on sandy soils than on clay; on soils which
retain moisture without becoming waterlogged; on acid rather than alkaline
soils; and on deep rather than shallow soils, and in East and Central Africa
the author’s experience with a number of eucalypt species grown for timber
confirmed these generalizations. Eucalyptus globulus responds well to fertil-
izer at sowing and when planted out as seedlings, but there is little informa-
tion on response of coppiced trees. Aerial application of phosphate to
extensive plantations can be profitable, but trials are necessary to establish
the amount and frequency of application. Fertilizer is usually applied to
increase timber yield, and its effect on foliage and essential oil production
generally unrecorded. In Chile, a 20:20:14 NPK mixture at 100 kgiha
produced the highest cineole content oil from irrigated plantations (Baez et
al., 1992).

Cultivation
The locally successful methods of establishing plantations of any major
forest tree are suitable for E. globulus. Broad contour-terraces are used on
steep sites in Spain and Portugal, with seedlings planted on the outside of the
terrace to permit mechanical cultivation. In general, the higher the standard
of pre-planting cultivation the greater the response in terms of more rapid,
healthy growth of trees. Plantations on very rough ground or remote areas
can be established with the minimum of preparation; small circular areas are
cleared, a hole dug in the centre, a small amount of a compound fertilizer
mixed with the soil and a sturdy seedling planted. If possible, the cleared
area should be sprayed with a herbicide to reduce weed competition during
establishment. Protection of plantation seedlings may also be necessary as E.
globulus is browsed by rabbits, small animals and sometimes goats, but is
generally unpalatable to deer and other domestic stock.
Myrtaceae 285

Seed may be sown in trays and seedlings transplanted into tubes or pots at
the four-leaf stage. Seed can also be sown into specially prepared seedbeds,
transplanted into nursery beds at the four-leaf stage, to remain until required
for planting out. In India, a seedbed 1.2 X 12 m requires 100 g of viable
seed, sown 0.5 cm deep in 7.5 cm rows; producing approximately
9000-10,000 seedlings. Seed normally germinates in 7-10 days and all
viable seeds in 1 month. Seedlings can be planted out by hand or mechani-
cally, the inter-row wide enough to allow machinery to be used with
between-plant spacings of 3-5 m, the main limiting factors being soil fertility
and available soil moisture. Weeding is essential for the first year, preferably
two, and it is not necessary to clear-weed the inter-row; slashing growth to
ground level is sufficient once seedlings are established.

Harvesting
Unlike E. polybractea most E. globulus is grown for timber, and foliage
obtained from felled trees. The increasing number of self-sown trees,
especially in South America however, are harvested whenever proximity to a
collecting point or distillery makes the foliage saleable. Data on foliage yield
per tree at varying felling ages are scanty; in Spain trees 6-8 years of age
yielded 20-60 kg leaves; elsewhere, foliage yield is invariably given as the
average per hectare. Oil with highest cineole content is obtained from foliage
growing at the ends of branches and the top of the canopy, and selective
harvesting of these leaves produces the highest quality oil. Where timber is
the main product this system could be most profitable, since there will be
less green material, labour and transport costs, and still capacity smaller.
Since felling is frequently year-round, this ensures a continuous supply of
foliage, but oil yield and cineole content are highest in warmest and lowest in
the coldest months. When grown for paper, pulp or firewood, a coppice
rotation of 10-1 2 years is common in Portugal; in South America 5-1 2 years
dependent on growth and use, i.e. firewood, charcoal, pit props. When
grown to supply timber or telephone poles, the rotation is 15-30 years.

Distillation
Well-dried and properly stored leaves normally have approximately twice
the oil content of fresh leaves from the same batch of foliage, and similar oil
characteristics and constituents, but there are no data on how these are
affected by delays in the field. In South America, cut branches are com-
monly left in the field for 2-3 days before being stripped and transported to
the distillery; elsewhere excess leaves can be kept in covered stores for up to
a week. As crude globulus oil is normally rectified, variation in constituents
is relatively unimportant. Crude globulus oil has an unpleasant odour due to
the presence of lower aliphatic aldehydes, which can be removed by first
286 Chapter 8

drying over anhydrous sodium sulphate, then distilling over 1-2% caustic
soda, which produces a dark-brown syrup, eucalyptus tar or resin oil, used in
industrial soaps and disinfectants.

Products and specz3cations


Eucalyptus globulus oil is usually referred to commercially as E. globulus or
globulus oil, and its composition was first investigated by a Parisian chemist
M. Cloez in 1870,who isolated a substance he named eucalyptol; later E.
Jahns (1884) found this was a terpene compound and named the purified
substance cineole. Oil distilled from fresh green leaves is a light to greenish-
yellow mobile liquid with an unpleasant odour which may cause coughing
and irritation when inhaled. The causal aldehydes are removed by rectifica-
tion, which also improves its storage qualities. Rectified oil is water-white,
with an agreeably refreshing, slightly camphoraceous but typical eucalyptus
odour. The main constituent is 1,8-cineole, and the oil is traded under two
basic classifications, 70175 and 80185, with buyers preferring a cineole
content nearer the higher value; 80185 oils have usually been rectified.
Standard specifications for steam-distilled oil from leaves and terminal
branchlets have been published by the International Standards Organisation
(ISO) and the British Standards Institute (BSI) (Table 8.13). The latter
states certain other (unspecified) species of Eucalyptus may be used, but the
standard applies to oils rectified after distillation. The I S 0 has published a
further standard for oil of Australian Eucalyptus (80-85% cineole content),
which defines the oil as produced by steam distilling foliage of appropriate
species of Eucalyptus of Australian origin and possessing a cineole content of
80-85%. Requirements of the British Pharmacopoeia (BP) for rectified
Eucalyptus oil are rather more stringent, and an oil which may conform to
I S 0 or BSI standards can fail the BP requirement for maximum permissible
aldehydes.
The oil is used in household utility products, perfumery and general
flavouring. Pharmaceutical applications include pastilles, lozenges and syr-
ups for alleviation of coughs, colds and chest complaints, and high quality oil
is widely retailed per se by chemists and pharmacists. The antiseptic proper-
ties are utilized in disinfectants, household cleaning and sanitary products,
where its fragrance also masks the less pleasant odours of other ingredients,
and in perfumery for Eau-de-Cologne, air fresheners and bath oils. Frac-
tions from rectification have a variety of uses, some are sufficiently distinc-
tive to be used in speciality perfumes. The oil has bacteriostatic and
insecticidal activity. A resinoid absolute derived from the leaves has a
different odour to steam distilled oil; it is described as a natural green odour
with connotations of blackcurrant, together with those of fenugreek oil,
lovage, and other persistent balsamic woody odours.
Myriaceae 287

Table 8.13. Standard specifications for Eucalyptus globulus oil,

IS0 BS EOA
Apparent density 0.904 0.905
(20") 0.924 0.925 (25")
Relative density 0.906 - -

(20°C) 0.925
Refractive index 1.4590 1.4580 1.4580
(20°C) 1.4670 1.4700 1.4700
Optical rotation 0" -5" -2"
(20°C) t1O0 t10" t10"
Solubility (viv 70% ethanol.20"C) 1:5 1 :5 1 :4-5
Cineole content 70% min 70% min 70%
ISO, Indian Standards Office; BS, British Standards Institute; EOA, Essential Oils Association.
Figures in columns are range.

Eucalyptus polybractea

Eucalyptuspolybractea Baker is commonly known as blue-leaved mallee. This


is considered in Australia to be the most suitable species for large-scale
plantation production of Eucalyptus oil and strains exist with double the oil
yield and much higher cineole content than E. globulus. An added local
advantage is that, although introduced into other countries, E. polybractea
does not appear to thrive outside Australia.

Botany
Eucalyptus polybractea is a multi-stemmed species to 5-10 m, which may
form almost pure stands of 5000 treesiha, but is usually associated with
other mallee species. The tree typically develops a number of similar-sized
stems from one rootstock (large lignotubers) to form the distinctive mallee
growth; the stems are much branched from low on the trunk. The lower bark
is somewhat rough, thin, fibrous, tight, and light to dark grey; the upper bark
is smooth, light grey, pinkish grey or orange tinted. The only use for the
wood is as fuel. Trees when cut coppice quickly and profusely, and are thus
most suitable for mechanized harvesting. The foliage is relatively dense on
many branches. Young leaves which develop from stumps have a bluish
tinge, hence the common name. Mature leaves are petiolate, narrow-
lanceolate, 100 X 10 mm, concolorous, densely reticulate, and a dull bluish
grey or bluish green. The leaves are highly aromatic when crushed. The oil
yield from steam-distilled fresh young foliage and twigs averages 1.5-2.5%
but 5% from managed natural stands, with a 1,8-cineole content of 70-90%.
Other significant constituents are p-cymene, terpinen-4-01, alpha-pinene,
limonene, beta-pinene, and sabinene; there are 44 compounds in amounts
greater than 0.01 %. The main characteristics are shown in Table 8.14.
288 Chapter 8

Table 8.14, Main characteristics of Eucalyptus polybractea oil

Commercial samplesa Laboratory samplesa Australian standard


Specific 0.9225 0.922 0.918
gravity (15%) 0.9267 0.930 0.928 (20%)
Refractive 1.4584 1.4594 1.4575
index 1.4613 1.4616 1.4645
Optical t o"30' t 0'30' -2O
rotation t1'51' t2" t2"
Cineole (%) 80-90 77-84 80-85
Solubility (viv 70% alcohol) 1:1.8-2.0 1:1.8-2.0 1 :3
aAverage values abstracted from published data.
Figures in columns are range.

The inflorescence is axillary with occasional terminal panicles, simple,


with 7-1 2 white flowers, the peduncles slightly angular to 12 mm. T h e buds
are pedicellate, clavate or diamond shaped, glaucous, 7 X 35 mm, without a
scar (two opercula intact). The operculum is conical or hemispherical. The
main flowering in Australia is April-June. The fruit is pedicellate, barrel-
shaped, to 6 X 5 mm; seed to 0.5 million per kg.

Ecology
In Australia, E. polybractea is confined to small areas between 34 and 37"S,
at altitudes of 150-350 m with an average rainfall of 470-540 mm and few
long dry periods. The mean maximum temperature is 29-32OC and mean
minimum 2-4"C, with frost occurring at higher altitudes. Rainfall or avail-
able soil moisture directly affects oil yield as the following comments from a
Victorian still operator's records lodged with the Forestry Department
indicate: 'In a wet year, trees growing in hard country increased their oil
yield per tonne of leaf by 1-2.5 kg, whilst trees growing on granitic sands
decreased by 1-2.5 kg per tonne. In a dry year trees on ridges yielded 5-7 kg
oil per tonne whilst those growing in gullies yielded up to 23 kg oil per
tonne.'

Soils and fertilizers


The species is most commonly found on red-brown loams, sandy soils and
shales, in gently undulating country with clearly defined drainage. It prefers
acid to neutral red loams of some depth and will tolerate soil of p H 5.
Harvested natural mallee stands in Australia are liable to severe erosion but,
in general, no control measures are adopted, resulting in active sheet erosion
with incipient gullying on tracks and access roads. No fertilizers are applied
to natural stands harvested for their oil in Australia. A 1977 internal report
to the Victorian Forestry Department regarding management of natural
Myrtaceae 289

stands of blue mallee, stated that sites close to stills regularly harvested since
the end of World War One showed no obvious loss in either leaf or oil
production (Ferguson, 1985).

Cultivation
Eucalyptus polybractea oil is obtained mainly from natural stands, which are
first heavy rolled or chain-felled, debris allowed to dry and burnt; then
cleared of stones, large stumps etc. which would impede the use of a forage
harvester. When establishing new plantations E. polybractea is normally
raised from seed in special containers, since direct sowing has not been
successful. Seed is very small, viability 50-80%, and enough seed sown to
provide at least 12,000 treesiha. Cuttings can also be taken from young
suckers growing close to rootstocks and the strike rate is usually high. Such
suckers are especially useful for infilling blanks. The following information is
based on New South Wales Department of Agriculture recommendations
(Small, 1986a). Seedlings can be raised in pots (peat or paper) or as open-
root stock. Establishment losses with potted seedlings are less than 5% but
can be 30% with open-root seedlings. Coarse river sand is used for 10 cm
deep, well-drained nursery beds which should be protected until the seed
has germinated and the seedlings established. Seed is sprinkled on the
surface at 2 g/m2 (yielding about 2000 seedlings), or sown directly into
containers or seed boxes and pricked out at 4-6 weeks.
T o prepare lands for planting, all roots, stumps and similar debris should
be removed, ploughed or deep-disced, and this can be limited to row lines.
Where sheet erosion may occur, contour banks are necessary or ripping on
the contour may be sufficient, leaving small ridges raised by the tines to
direct surface flow. Immediately before transplanting, row lines should be
disced to break up a surface pan, kill weeds and provide a seedbed for
mechanical planting. Seedlings are trimmed to 15 cm before transplanting
to give 9000 treesiha in twin or single rows to suit harvesting machinery.
Weed control is important in the first year, and mowing is sufficient. Short
periods of intensive sheep grazing is an effective method of controlling
annual weed growth in established trees.

Harvesting
Hand harvesting foliage is now restricted to areas too small or too uneven to
use machinery or from trees felled for other purposes; a worker is expected to
cut and load 0.6-1.0 tonne per 8-hour day for transport to the still. A few
‘eucy factories’ remain on permanent sites in south east Australia, consisting
of two vats 4 X 3 m in diameter sunk into a pit lined with bricks. The vat lid
is made from concrete or iron, and sealed in place with mud. Steam from an
adjacent boiler at a maximum pressure 350 kPa passes up through the
charge into a condensing pipe submerged in an adjacent dam. Distilling lasts
290 Chapter 8

2-4 hours, loading and unloading the vat 1-1.5 hours. Although unsophisti-
cated, these stills are effective, cheap to operate and produce good quality
oil. The main drawback is the necessity to build a dam to fill with rainwater
from runoff, or locate a creek with a reliable water supply which could be
dammed, not easily found in outback Australia. In dry years the amount of
water restricted distilling and thus all other operations, and work usually
ceased until sufficient water became available. Such shutdown periods have
little effect on the operator, as maintenance costs for the distillery or
harvested area are negligible, only family labour employed, and it is these
special circumstances that allow such small distilleries to survive.
In a mechanized operation, trees are initially coppiced to bring older-
growth mallee into production. In plantations, trees are coppiced after
15-1 8 months to a height depending on the equipment used, and this is the
first harvest. Second and subsequent cuts are every 12-24 months, usually
the longer. For forage harvesting on level land, coppice height can be down
to 5-8 cm, but on uneven ground it may be 30 cm and tractor tyres
‘overcoated’ with old tyres to prevent spiking. Oil yield increases for several
years after initial harvest of coppiced natural stands because most foliage
harvested is high-oil-content juvenile leaves. Harvesting can continue all
year round. Partial mechanization has proved profitable and has been
adopted by several medium-sized operators. Coppiced growth approx-
imately 1-1.2 m high is harvested by chain saw, mechanically shredded and
fed into a mobile distilling vat, usually a rectangular steel vessel with wheels
and a towing attachment. A grid fitted about 30 cm above the floor supports
the charge, and steam pipes are set below the grid. A hinged rear wall swings
open to allow removal of spent leaf. Two men working for approximately 8
hours can fill one vat which is then towed to the still. Two vats are used, one
being distilled while the other is refilled. A 2700 kg charge, steam distilled for
6 hours, yields 90-100 kg oil (3-4%). This system is also most commonly
used for harvesting E. dives and is suitable for many other eucalypt species,
since it is very flexible and inexpensive. The limiting factor is a constant
supply of water in sufficient volume to allow regular operation.
The most successful and profitable operators have wholly mechanized
harvesting and distilling. Coppiced growth to 5 cm diameter is cut by a
heavy-duty forage harvester, and although this tends to bruise leaves and can
reduce oil yield by 5-10%, this is offset by the operation’s speed, ease and
cheapness. After cutting, foliage is fed directly into a 3 t capacity mobile vat
which is towed to the distillery and positioned in a bay where a suspended lid
is lowered and sealed. A flexible outlet connects the lid to a stainless steel
multitubular condenser (Fig. 8.7). Steam is passed through the leaf, requir-
ing about half an hour to heat the charge and a further hour and a half to
complete distillation. Spent leaf fires the boiler, or is spread on harvested
areas as mulch. Usually 5-6 vats are distilled per 8-hour day; a two-bay, four
vat system should easily maintain a production rate of 200 kg of oil per day.
Myrtaceae 29 1

A minimum 400 ha of plantation is required to keep the plant in operation


and, if supplied by a number of growers located near the distillery, it could
operate as a cooperative.
Eucalyptus polybractea and other mallee species are often associated and
cut indiscriminately since the leaf oils are similar, including green mallee (E.
viridis),bull mallee (E. behriana),white mallee (E. dumosa) and red ironbark
(E. sideroxylon). The oil content of their foliage is generally less than that of
E. polybractea, thus total oil yield per hectare will be reduced in proportion as
their numbers increase. A foliage yield of 25 tiha from a commercial lease
was probably the minimum for profitable production in 1995, to give an
average cineole yield of 100 kgiha from 5-year-old mallee.
The profitable life of an E. polybractea plantation is unknown but could be
over a century, since natural stands in Australia have been harvested
continuously for at least 70 years and show little deterioration. The regular
burning-off that occurred naturally is very similar to commercial manage-
ment methods. One commercial plantation has been cut by forage harvester
for nearly 25 years, often to ground level, with no overall reduction in foliage
or oil yield per hectare. Once established, a well-managed plantation should
remain productive for a very long period indeed.

Products and specijications


Crude E. polybractea oil is yellow to brown, becoming almost colourless to
pale yellow (rarely water-white) on rectification, with a pronounced sweet-
camphoraceous odour and taste. The oil is an excellent source of cineole,
which congeals at approximately 1°C and is easily frozen from the oil. The
major use for the oil is in pharmaceuticals, including toothpaste, mouth
washes and cough-drops. Crude oil is sometimes added to sheep and cattle-
dips in Australia, since it is strongly blowfly repellent.

Eucalyptus radiata
Eucalyptus radiata Sieb. ex D C . is commonly known as narrow-leaved
peppermint or black peppermint. There are two legitimate subspecies, E.
radiata subsp. radiata (syn. E. amygdalina var. nitida; E. radiata var. phellan-
dra) and E. radiata subsp. robertsonii (Blak) J&B. E. radiata subsp. aus-
traliana or E. australiana B.& S., frequently referred to as an oil producer in
many texts, is now considered a synonym for E. radiata and will not be
mentioned separately. The subspecies australiana was commonly referred to
in Australia as ERVA in non-scientific literature.

Botany
Eucalyptus radiata is a small to medium-sized woodland tree to 10-1 5 m,
(sometimes a larger forest tree to 20-30 m), with a central stem to 1 m DBH,
Vapour pipe
a n

Cold
water

High pressure steam

Fig. 8.7. Integrated harvesting and distillation unit. (Courtesy of Dr B.E.J. Small.)
Myrtaceae 293

which often forks low down, with many large branches which themselves
branch forming a large spreading tree. The bark is generally rough on the
trunk and larger branches, persistent, finely fissured longitudinally and grey
or grey-brown; it is smoother and greyer on the upper branches (Boland et
al., 1984). The wood is pale brown darkening on exposure, the gum veins
are common and it is soft, with a density of 720 kg/m3 and generally used as
fuel.
The foliage is dense and often retained nearly to ground level on smaller
trees growing in open woodlands. The mature leaves are narrow to broadly
lanceolate, 150 X 15 mm, thin, horizontal, concolorous, and pale to me-
dium green. T h e venation is oblique or semi-longitudinal and densely
reticulate. T h e leaves smell strongly of peppermint when crushed. T h e oil
yield from steam-distilled fresh foliage and twigs is to 3.556%; yield from dry
material in natural stands is usually below 1.5% in Australia, and lowest
yield in any district is in the coldest months. In South Africa, a selected tree
provided 4.5 kg dried leaf with 10% oil when harvested 18 months after
being coppiced (Donald, 1980). The main constituents and characteristics
of the oil are shown in Table 8.15 and have been described in detail (Boland
et al., 1991).
T h e inflorescence is axillary, simple, multiflowered, white, peduncles
terete, to 8 mm, the buds pedicellate, clavate to 6 X 4 mm, with no scar. The
operculum is hemispherical to conical and slightly beaked. Main flowering is
October-January in Australia. The fruit is pedicellate, cupular to truncate-
globose, to 6 X 6 mm, the disc level and the rim thick, with three to five
valves.

Ecology
T h e species occurs naturally in eastern Australia usually below 1000 m in
areas with an annual rainfall of 650-1 100 m m with few dry periods a t higher
altitudes but to 5 months in drier and lower elevations, and average summer
temperature 24-27"C, with winter frost common at higher elevations. T h e
species has been planted in other countries, grows well and produces high
quality oil under suitable conditions, e.g. in Stellenbosch, South Africa
(Donald, 1980).

Soil and fertilizers


Eucalyptus radiata occurs on a range of soils in Australia, but as it was not
cultivated, there are no data on response to fertilizers. In South Africa, 60 kg
N, 40 kg I? and 20 kg K per ha was applied as a soluble fertilizer to what was
stated as subsp. australiana in the first year after planting out (Donald,
1980).
294 Chapter 8

Cultivation
Only wild trees are harvested in Australia and methods used to obtain leaves
and distil oil from E. globulus or E. polybractea are suitable. In South Africa,
seedlings were raised in seedbeds, pricked out into pots at the four-leaf stage
and later planted out at 3 X 1.5 m. Seedlings were mechanically planted
through a plastic mulch which had been machine-laid along rows over a
previously installed drip-irrigation line. Trees were irrigated when weekly
rainfall fell below 25 mm, and cultivated twice annually. After 1 year many
exceeded 4 m but all were topped to 30 cm; the second harvest was 18
months later when regrowth reached 7 m. The average herbage oil content
was 9.84%. The results indicated a properly managed high-yielding clonal
plantation can yield 1000 kg of oil per ha per cut, with a cineole content
averaging 90%.

Products and sfleczpcations


Eucalyptus radiata oil, or radiata oil and often incorrectly named australiana
oil or Australiana Type oil and E. phellandra oil, is colourless to pale yellow,
with a fresh, very powerful, peppery-camphoraceous odour, but little fix-
ative effect (Arctander, 1960). The major components are phellandrene to
40% and cineole to 50%. The oil was previously important as phellandrene
raw material, but is now mainly used to mask the unpleasant odours of
ingredients in industrial detergents, disinfectants, insecticides and similar
products, and to a minor extent in paints and varnishes.

Eucalyptus smithii
Eucalyptus smithii Baker is commonly known as gully-gum or Smith’s gum
and is a medium to tall forest tree, frequently found in gullies and valleys,
hence the common name.

Botany
Trees normally have a single trunk to 45 m, 1.5 m DBH, but a mallee form
may occur on exposed sites. Branching begins high up, with a compact
crown. The bark is rough, dark-brown, persistent, tight, with narrow longi-
tudinal fissures, decorticating from the upper trunk and branches in long
ribbons hanging conspicuously from the crown. New bark is smooth, white
or creamy white. Freshly stripped bark has a strong, pleasant odour of
peppermint. The wood is pale, close-grained, hard, density not recorded,
moderately durable; the timber of limited value, and susceptible to boring by
Lyctus spp. The foliage is generally sparse although isolated trees develop
more branches and a spreading crown. Mature leaves are narrow-lanceolate,
180 X 15 mm, concolorous, dull green and moderately reticulate. The
leaves are highly aromatic with a peppermint scent when crushed. The oil
Myifaceae 295

Table 8.15. Main characteristics of three Eucalyptus oils

E. smithii E. viridis E. radiata


Specific 0.9160 0.926 0.902
gravity (15'C) 0.9198 0.905
Refractive 1.460 1.4632 1.4660
index (20'C) 1.465 1.4695
Optical rotation (20°C) t 5"36 t 0"88' -2 8 9
Cineole ('%) 75-80 80 20-50
Alpha-phellandrene (%) - - 35-40
Citral (%) - - trace
Solubility (wiw 70% alcohol) 1 :I 1 :2 1:1.3-10.0
Figures in columns are ranges.
Source: Abstracted from published data.

yield from steam-distilled fresh young leaves and twigs is 2-4% in Australia,
1-1.50% in Zaire and to 1.75% in Guatemala. The major constituent is
1,g-cineole and the main oil characteristics are shown in Table 8.15.
The inflorescence is axillary, simple, usually with seven white flowers; the
peduncles are slender, angular or flattened, to 12 mm. The buds are
pedicellate, clavate, diamond or oval and 7 X 4 mm. A scar is present and the
operculuin is conical. The main flowering is January-March in Australia.
The fruit is pedicellate, ovoid to subglobular, sometimes campanulate to 7 X
7 mm, with the rim thick, the disc broad and usually with three valves.

Ecology
The species occurs naturally in south-east Australia on the seaward side of
coastal table-lands between 34 and 38"S, up to 1200 m, with a rainfall of
750-1500 mm annually and few dry periods, but frost at higher elevations.
The species has been planted in Zaire at 2000 m, annual rainfall 1500-2000
mm and made excellent growth.

Soils and fertilizers


Eucalyptus smithii commonly occurs on clay loam or deep sandy loam over
clay soils, and also on lower slopes of hillsides on soil derived from sed-
imentary or volcanic rocks and moderately fertile. The highest yielding
plantations in Zaire were situated on deep, fertile, volcanic loams. There are
no data on response to fertilizers, except that seedlings respond well to an
NPK mixture when planting out.

Cultivation
The species is not cultivated in Australia, but oil is obtained from plantations
established in Swaziland, South Africa, and on a smaller scale in Argentina
296 Chapter 8

and Uruguay. Generally, E. smithii makes faster growth than E. globulus and
its foliage also contains more oil of a similar or higher cineole content. Given
suitable conditions, it could be more profitable for oil production under
plantation management than E. globulus. In Australia, foliage is obtained
from wild trees which are felled and allowed to coppice, then harvested
annually as for E. dives. In Zaire, Kivu Province, plantation trees were
topped at approximately 3 m then allowed to coppice, and cut twice
annually giving a total oil yield of 150-600 kgiha. The low 1.0% oil yield was
stated to be partly due to inclusion of considerable woody material in stills to
facilitate distillation using low-pressure steam. In Swaziland and South
Africa, plantations are operated using methods described for E. globulus or
E. polybractea. In Guatemala, the tree is treated similarly to E. globulus.

Products and spectscations


The oil usually has a cineole content of 70-80%, with substantial variation in
commercial samples. South African oil often has a cineole content below
70% and a somewhat acrid odour. Rectified oil is colourless to very pale
yellow with a fresh cineole-type scent; the main uses are as for E. globulus.

Eucalyptus viridis

Eucabptus viridis Baker (syn. E. acacioides A. Cunn. ex Maid.) is commonly


known as green mallee. There are a number of subspecies but only E. viridis
var. viridis is exploited for its essential oil and will be referred to as E.
viridis.

Botany
Eucalyptus viridis is a medium-sized tree of typical mallee habit, to 3-9 m but
up to 15 m, normally with a number of stems from a common rootstock,
each much branched from low down. The bark is rough, thin, blackish, with
small longitudinal fissures, persistent on lower stems; becoming papery,
ribbony, finally smooth, grey to pinkish grey with height. The wood is
yellow, darkening with age to brown, and used mainly for fuel. Mature
leaves are a clear slightly glossy green, narrow, linear to linear-lanceolate,
partially erect, 100 X 8 mm, alternate, concolorous, densely reticulate and
with prominent oil glands. The leaves are highly aromatic with a strong
peppermint scent when crushed. The oil yield from steam-distilled fresh
leaves and twigs is 1.00-1.25%. The major constituent is 1,8-cineole to
85 %; minor constituents are alpha-pinene, cymene, sesquiterpenes, cumi-
nal, phellandral and 1-cryptone. The main characteristics are shown in Table
8.15.
Myrtaceae 297

The inflorescence is axillary, normally simple (may be terminal and


clustered), with 4-8 white flowers; the peduncles are subterate to 7 mm. The
buds are pedicellate, ovoid or broadly fusiform, 7 X 5 mm, with no scar. The
operculum is conical or hemispherical, similar in length to the calyx tube,
and often yellow a t flowering. Main flowering in Australia is November-
January. The honey is of good colour and flavour. The fruit is pedicellate,
hemispherical to goblet-shaped, 4-6 X 4-5 mm, the rim thin and the disc
obscure, with four valves.

Ecology
This species occurs in large but scattered stands in eastern Australia, is
remarkably drought resistant, and often found in arid areas bordering
deserts. It is excellent for low windbreaks or shade trees in dry regions, or
where long dry periods are fatal to other species. These advantages, how-
ever, are not widely appreciated, since there is no record of the species being
grown outside Australia.

Soils and fertilizers


Eucalyptus viridis forms dense thickets on loamy-clay soils, and on stony
ridges in the interior of Australia. There are no data on response to
fertilizers.

Cultivation
As for E. polybractea, and where E. viridis co-exists the two are harvested
indiscriminately since the oils are basically similar.

Products and specifications


Rectified E. viridis oil is colourless to pale lemon, with a pronounced fresh
cineole-type scent. The main uses are as for E. globulus. The main character-
istics are shown in Table 8.15.

Other Eucalyptus species

A number of eucalypts produce an essential oil, and comprehensive tables of


oil yield and principal constituents have been published (Brophy and Las-
sak, 1986; Boland et al., 1991; Lawrence, 1994), but it is unlikely that
eucalypts not previously mentioned will be commercially exploited. Those
listed below could well become useful where a combination of low produc-
tion cost and a local or specialized market exists. Where they co-exist with
species commercially exploited they are usually harvested and distilled
298 Chapter 8

Table 8.16. Main characteristics of some Eucalyptus oils.

Average Specific Refractive


yield gravity index Optical Solubility
@ tr) (1 5°C) (20°C) rotation (70% alch)
E. elata 2.0 0.901 1,479 -46"
0.910 1.482 - 65" 1 :I.2-1.5
E. leucoxylon (c) 1.5 0.910 1.4612 tO"30'
2.5 0.920 1.4624 t2'54' 1 :6
E. rnacarthurii
Australian 0.50 0.9164 1.4665 t 0"7'
0.95 0.9168 1.4660 t O"9' 1:1.5-2.0
Indian (r) 0.6 0.9181 1.4687 t4"7 1:1.5
(20°C)
E. sideroxy/on (c) 2.0 0.915 1.4612 t 0"30' 1:4
3.5 0.919 1.4624 t 2"oo
E. staigeriana (c) 2.5 0.880 1.4798 -31'36 130
ff, fresh foliage; r, rectified oil; c, crude oil.
Figures in columns are range.
Source: abstracted from published data.

together. The main characteristics are shown in Table 8.16 which is com-
piled from published and unpublished sources.

Eucalyptus elata
Eucalyptus elata Dehnh. is commonly known as river white gum and is
naturally restricted to the higher coastal areas of south-east Australia. It is a
medium to tall tree to 30 m but may reach 45 m, trunk to 0.5-1 .Om DBH.
The bark frequently strips naturally from the trees, leaving a clear, smooth
greyish-white trunk, giving the species its common name. It prefers moist
but not waterlogged conditions in valleys and alluvial flats. The oil has a high
piperitone-piperitol-phellandrene content, and is similar in composition
and characteristics to E. dives Type oil, and also described as E. numerosa
Type A.

Eucalyptus leucoxylon
Eucalyptus leucoxylon F.Muel1. is commonly known as yellow gum. There are
a number of subspecies differing little in appearance, which are not differ-
entiated by local oil producers and harvested indiscriminately where they
coexist. It is a medium-sized woodland tree to 16 m in wetter areas of
southern Australia, on granite sands and loams. It grows well in coastal areas
of south-eastern USA, but only isolated specimens have been planted. The
wood is pale brown with yellow or pink tints, and is hard, strong and durable,
with a density of about 1010 kg/m3. It is used for structural engineering,
Myrtaceae 299

fences, railway sleepers, building and poles. The species commonly occurs
in association with E. sideroxylon and E. elaeophora, when foliage is harvested
and distilled together; thus undiluted E. leucoxylon oil is s ldom available.
P
Oil (or mixture) is pale yellow with a somewhat harsh odour; the main
constituent is cineole to 75%, plus alpha-pinene and sesquiterpenes. The
honey is a pale straw, dense clear and mild, candies somewhat quickly and is
of very high quality.

Eucalyptus macarthurii
Eucalyptus macarthurii D. & M. Camden is commonly known as woolly-butt
and is a medium to tall tree to 40 m, restricted to a very small rather wettish
area of New South Wales a t an average altitude of 600 m. The tree coppices
strongly and produces substantial amounts of foliage. The wood is very pale,
moderately heavy but of low durability, and the timber is of little value. This
species has been introduced into other countries, has proved surprisingly
frost hardy, and is recommended for planting in southern Russia and South
Africa. Only in South Africa, Zaire and Brazil was commercial oil produc-
tion attempted. Analysis of a Russian oil gave (percentage in brackets):
1,8-cineole (30.2); terpene alcohols (1 5.9); terpenyl acetate (8.9); globulol
(8.6); sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (3.9); alpha-terpineol (3.2); alpha-
pinene (2.5); sesquiterpene alcohols (2.5); palustrene (1.7); camphene
(0.26); p-cymene (0.18); beta-pinene (0.07) (Antonov and Zhdanov, 1986).
This oil contained terpenes not found in Australian oil from this species, see
below.
Eucalyptus macarthurii oil is one of the few eucalypt oils used exclusively in
perfumery. The bark contains an oil similar in composition to leaf oil but
much lower in yield, usually below 0.15%. The crude oil is yellowish to pale
orange, occasionally more reddish. Rectified oil is generally pale to medium
yellow, containing 80% geranyl acetate; the odour is fresh with a sweet rosy
scent. Unrectified oil has a much coarser odour due to presence of lower
aliphatic aldehydes. Australian leaf oil usually contains 44-56% geranyl
acetate, 28-40% alpha- beta- and gamma-eudesmol collectively, plus cit-
ronellal to 2%, geraniol to 5% and isovaieraldehyde between 2-3%. The
alpha- and beta-pinenes are not found in this oil (Boland et al., 199 1). Oil
constituents can vary widely, and may be more than a regional or environ-
mental reaction, since in India three distinct chemovars occur (Madan et al.,
197 1). These contained as major components, geraniol and geranyl acetate;
eudesmol and geranyl acetate; or 1,8-cineole. Selection to produce an oil
high in geranyl acetate and free of cineole would be of considerable value to
perfumers.

Eucalyptus maidenii
Eucalyptus maidenii F.Muel1. is commonly known as maidens gum and is a
tall to very tall forest tree to 75 m restricted to a small warm to cool-humid
300 Chapter 8

area on the coastal borders of New South Wales and Victoria. The wood
light brown, hard, moderately strong and moderately durable, with a density
of about 930 kg/m3, and is used for general construction purposes. The
species produces a clear golden honey, profusely from pure stands. Euca-
lyptus maidenii has been introduced into many countries as a timber or
amenity tree, but only in South Africa and South America was oil produced.
There is little reference to E. maidenii in South America and it is usually
grouped with E. globulus in statistics, although specialist growers sell the oil
as E. nzaidenii oil. The main constituents of the oil are cineole to 55% and
alpha-pinene, and the major uses are as for E. globulus oil with which it is
frequently bulked.

Eucalyptus sideroxylon
Eucalyptus sideroxylon Cunn. ex Woolls. subsp. sideroxylon is commonly
known as red ironbark and is a medium-sized woodland tree to 25 m whose
foliage is harvested with other species where they co-exist. The species has
been planted in several countries for its very hard, durable timber used
extensively in heavy engineering and railway sleepers. The wood has a
density of about 1170 kg/m3. Oil was produced commercially in South
Africa for use as a flotation agent in the mining industry. The main
constituents are cineole to 7 5 %, alpha-pinene and sesquiterpenes. Analysis
of Indian leaf oil showed 98 constituents, with 1,8-cineole being the most
important (Gupta et al., 1990). Two types of oil are produced by E.
sideroxylon in Spain; that from red flowering trees is high in cineole, and that
from white flowering trees is high in phellandrene (Garcia-Martin and
Garcia-Vallejo, 1977). The red flowering variety may be named E. side-
roxylon var. rosa in botanic gardens and arboreta, but this is a horticultural
designation only. The species produces high quality honey, pale and of good
density.

Eucalyptus staigerana
Eucalyptus staigeruna F.Muel1, ex Bailey is commonly known as lemon-
scented ironbark and is a medium-sized tree to 20 m, whose leaves are highly
lemon-scented. The major drawbacks to its wider cultivation are slow
growth, rather straggly appearance and lack offrost resistance. It is grown for
its oil in Guatemala, the Seychelles, Brazil and Zaire. Oil has not been
produced commercially in Australia, although it has a much higher leaf oil
content than E. citriodora, to 4% from fresh foliage. The main constituents of
Australian leaf oil are (per cent): geraniol (9-18), methyl geranate (1 1-18),
geranyl acetate (4-14), limonene (1-14), beta-phellandrene (12-34) and
neral (8-12). Over 30 of the compounds identified in amounts greater than
0.01% are monoterpenes (Boland et al., 1991). Eucalyptus staiger ana was
Myrtaceae 301

specifically introduced to Guatemala in 1920 and since then six varieties


(probably hybrids with E. globulus or E. smithiz) have been locally described.
These three species are the basis of the local essential oil industry established
in 1900 by Rafael Pinol. The oil yield from trees in Brazil was 0.3-2.5% with
a citral content of 10-63% (Pinto et al., 1976). Selection for high leaf oil
content and required oil composition is not only possible but would be
advantageous. Rectified oil is a pale to dark yellow oily liquid, with a sweet,
fresh and fruity-lemon scent. It is used in perfumery, toilet preparations and
some flavouring, but lack of stability restricts its use in soaps.

Eucalyptus tereticornis
Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm., commonly known as forest red gum, is native to
eastern Australia and Papua New Guinea. It occurs on medium to heavy
soils, and is drought and frost resistant. It is a medium to tall tree to 40 m
with an open crown and is well branched, with the bark mottled white and
grey with a bluish tinge. T h e leaves are linear to 20 cm, thick, glossy green,
and conspicuously veined. The panicles have 4-8 white flowers, and the fruit
is a horned capsule. The species is widely planted in India and when
plantations are felled the foliage is distilled. T h e oil is rich in pinenes, and
total potential oil production is estimated at 4700 t to produce almost 3000 t
pinene (Shiva et al., 1989).

The following Eucalyptus spp. have also been distilled for oil, some as an
admixture with the dominant local harvested species, and a detailed descrip-
tion of many other Eucalyptus leaf oils has been published (Boland et al.,
1991). Eucalyptus cneorifolia DC. (Kangaroo Island mallee) has oil with a
cineole content to 75%, plus alpha- and beta-phellandrene and p-cymene.
An attempt to cultivate this species for oil production in Morocco was
unsuccessful. Eucalyptus elaephora F.Muel1. (now regarded as a synonym of
E. goniocalyx F. Muell ex Miq.) has an oil high in cineole, 70-85%, free of
phellandrene and other terpenic hydrocarbons, and volatile aldehydes are
very low. A hybrid (unspecified) of the species in Spain reportedly gave oil
with a cineole content of 79-93%. T h e foliage of Eucalyptus deglupta Blume.
(from Kamarere, Papua New Guinea) has an oil content between 0.4 and
0.8%, and is very high in nerolidol to 45%, plus alpha-pinene, alpha-
phellandrene, p-cymene and ocimene. There are a number of varieties of
Eucalyptus oleosa F. Muell ex Miq. (red mallee) which produce an oil high in
cineole, between 45 and 95%. The dry leaves ofEucalyptus youmanii Blak. &
McK. (Youman’s stringy-bark) have a rutin content of 20%, and several
unsuccessful attempts have been made to commercially extract the rutin
from foliage collected from natural stands.
302 Chapter 8

Chinese eucalyptus oil


Genuine oil obtained by steam distilling mainly E. globulus foliage is becom-
ing increasing available in world trade; however, a considerable proportion
of oil sold as Chinese eucalyptus oil is a by-product of camphor production
(see Chapter 6). One fraction remaining after extracting camphor from
crude camphor oil is known as white camphor or light camphor oil, with the
major constituents being cineole and monoterpenes. The oil was made up to
eucalyptus oil specifications by re-processing and adding cineole and other
terpenes. The characteristics of this oil are very similar to those of true
eucalyptus oil, specific density (1 5°C) 0.92; optical rotation +5”; refractive
index (20°C) 1.46; and cineole content 80-85%. The odour is very similar
to true eucalyptus oil of the same cineole content, but slightly harsher. The
oil’s low price is attractive to manufacturers and established the inter-
national price at which some genuine eucalyptus oils could be sold; so low
that, at times, production of true eucalyptus oil became unprofitable in
many countries including Australia.

Melaleuca
The generic name Melaleuca L. is derived from the Greek melos (dark, black)
plus leukon (white). This apparently contradictory name was given to the
first species described, M . leucadendron (L.) L., which had white papery bark
on the higher stem and branches and a black lower trunk, a combination
which commonly occurs in Australia due to fire. The genus is predominantly
Australian, but some species occur in Asia, South East Asia and the Pacific
region. The 200 species currently described are widely distributed in Aus-
tralia (Byrnes, 1986), but a proposed revision could substantially increase
this number. The common generic name of paperbark refers to the paper-
like bark which can often be peeled from larger trees in broad strips. Leaves
of many species contain essential oil but only M . alternijolia (tea-tree oil), M .
cajupti (cajuput oil) and M . quinquenervia (niaouli oil) have been commer-
cially exploited. Cajuput oil was first to attain commercial importance for its
medicinal and pharmaceutical uses; niaouli oil has similar properties but to
a lesser extent; tea-tree oil has many medical uses and is commercially
produced in Australia.
Melaleuca spp. with leaves rich in terpinen-4-01 and 1,8-cineole were
reportedly used by Australian Aborigines to relieve colds and headaches; the
leaves were simply crushed in the hand and the volatile oil inhaled. This
usage was continued by early European settlers, who also made infusions of
crushed leaves (Lassak and McCarthy, 1983). The name tea-tree was first
used by Captain Cook in his ‘Voyage Toward The South Pole’ in 1777,
when he recorded the use of Melaleuca or Leptospermum leaves to brew a ‘tea’
Myrtaceae 303

he instructed his men to drink to prevent scurvy. Later settlers also used
Leptospermum leaves as a tea substitute during periodic shortages of true tea.
The common name of tea-tree applies to a number of species of Lep-
tospermum and Melaleuca. Ti-tree is incorrect when applied to the trees or
their oils, as this is the Maori name for the New Zealand cabbage-tree,
Cordyline australis Hook. f.
The first oil distilled from Australian Melaleuca was from M . alternifolia in
1924 (Penfold, 1925). Since then the composition, characteristics, and
actual and potential uses of oil from a number of other species have been
determined, and the results are available in the literature. Some important
characteristics and major components of oil from selected species are
included at the end of this section.
Many Melaleuca spp. have a number of chemotypes, the oils differing
substantially in their major components; they also cross-pollinate readily
and seedlings may thus have foliage of varying leaf-oil content and composi-
tion. T o obtain plants with uniform high oil content leaves, vegetative
propagation of selected parents is necessary. Cuttings may be used although
the strike rate is erratic for undetermined reasons, and tissue culture has
been successful in the laboratory, but there is currently no viable method of
large-scale commercial production of seedlings.
The Melaleuca spp. discussed have a number of common features (Fig.
8.8). The trees are normally evergreen, the foliage is sometimes sparse, and
many leaves are shed in very dry years. Most species flower profusely and
produce abundant nectar and pollen, thus they are a favourite of Australian
bee-keepers for their excellent honey. A characteristic is that the flowering
spike may continue to grow after fruiting, and become a leafy branchlet. The
bark is distinctive, and in many species consists of thin paper-like layers of
cork separated by thin fibrous layers, which may reach 5 cm in thickness
before peeling naturally. Outer layers are loose, frequently torn, ragged and
partially unrolled on the lower trunk. This papery bark had a number of
traditional Aboriginal uses and is now in demand by gardeners as a filling for
hanging baskets; the author so uses bark from trees in his Melbourne garden.
The bark is potentially a raw material for the production of fibreboard and
insulation. Timber of larger trees is moderately dense, 700-850 kg/m3, hard
and often cross-grained, but sawn timber does not readily season. It was
formerly used for a wide range of building and similar purposes as the wood
is termite and water resistant, but the main current use is for domestic
firewood.
Despite the widespread occurrence of Melaleuca spp. in Australia, little
was known regarding insect pests or the degree of damage inflicted by a
particular species. Recent research indicates there are some 400 species of
herbivorous insects associated with M . quinquenervia which also occur on
other members of the genus, and it appears that no one species causes major
damage but the combined effects of the normal level of infestation of all is
304 Chapter 8

Fig. 8.8. Natural stand of Melaleuca, Australia

sufficient to substantially suppress growth (Balciunas and Burrows, 1993;


Burrows et al. , 1994). This is dramatically demonstrated by comparing the
rate of growth of Melaleuca spp. in Florida where these insects are absent,
and in Australia. Florida saplings grew 100 cm per year, those in Australia
20-25 cm, with final dimensions of trees 30 m and 163 cm DBH and 20 m
and 74 cm DBH respectively. Two unusual pests have been recorded:
tropical crabs of the genus Serarma cause severe injury to seedlings in certain
environments, while hares Lepus crawshayi, have been reported as killing but
not eating seedlings, by biting through the stems. The white root rot caused
by Fomes lignosus has been recorded from Melaleuca spp. but with no
indication of its importance or degree of damage. A number of Loranthus
spp. and other mistletoe genera have been reported as parasitic on Melaleuca
in Australia.

Melaleuca alternifolia

Melaleuca alternijolia, commonly known as narrow-leaved paperbark in


Australia, is very similar but botanically distinct from the larger M . linar-
iifolia.

Botany
Melaleuca alternijolia (Maid. & Bet.) Cheel. (syn. M . linariijolia var. alter-
nijolia Maid. & Bet.) is a shrub or small tree to 5-7 m, occasionally higher,
usually with a single trunk but multiple stems may originate from a common
Myfiaceae 305

rootstock; the trees coppice quickly and vigorously. Branching may be high
or low, few or many, and in dense stands there are few branches per stem
which grow almost vertically. Similarly to other trees growing in swampy
areas, the roots a t base of the stem are often partly exposed and adventitious
roots occasionally occur. The amount of foliage is basically governed by
growth of individual trees and is limited to the crown and the ends of
branches in thick stands, but on isolated trees may be a dense mass from low
down. Mild trees cut for foliage are usually ready for re-cutting in 16-24
months, half this period in plantations. The leaves are green or bluish green,
glabrous, soft, very narrow, usually less than 1.5 X 20 mm, alternate, entire,
and stoutly petiolate. The oil yield from steam-distilled fresh foliage and
twiglets is 2.0- 3.0% but from individual trees to 5%; the main constituent
is terpinen-4-01, at 25-45%, but can be higher from individual trees. The
main characteristics and major components are shown in Tables 8.17 and
8.18. One minor component is viridiflorene not previously known to occur
naturally. There is considerable variation in cineole content, apparently
related to habitat.
The flowers are generally creamy-white, sometimes yellow tinted, sessile,
in open or condensed multi-flowered terminal spikes, giving a fluffy appear-
ance to a tree in full bloom. Main flowering in Australia is October-
December. The fruit is a woody capsule, globular, usually less than 0.5 mm
diameter, occurring in elongated clusters around branchlets. The seeds are
brown, normally 10,OOOig and viability is generally poor.

Table 8.17. Main characteristics of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea-tree) oil

Laboratory sample Australian Standarda


Specific gravity 0.8950 0.890
0.9050 (15°C) 0.906 (20°C)
Refractive index (20°C) 1.4760 1.475
1.4810 1.482
Optical rotation t 6"48' t5"
tY48' $15"
Ester number 2-7 ng
(after acetylation) 80-90 ng
Solubility 1 :0.6 1:2
(viv 80% alcohol) 0.8
Terpinen-4-01 (%) 25-50 min 30
1,8-Cineole (%) 10-1 7 max 15
Gamma-terpinene (%) < 12 ng
p-Cymene (??) < 12 ng
'AS 2782-1985 (terpinen-4-01type); ng, not given.
Figures in columns are range.
306 Chapter 8

Table 8.18. Main constituents of tea-tree oil.

A B C D E
Alpha-pinene 2.1 1.8 2.2 2.7 2.0
Beta-pinene 0.4 0.4 0.7 1 .I 0.3
Sabinene 0.2 0.1 0.1 ng ng
Myrcene 0.4 0.5 1.5 2.5 ng
Alpha-phellandrene 0.8 0.6 ng ng 0.9
Alpha-terpinene 7.1 6.8 1.7 0.3 5.7
Limonene 1.4 0.9 3.7 7.9 1.5
1,8-Cineole 3.0 7.0 30.3 64.1 3.5
Gamma-terpinene 15.7 13.3 4.3 0.7 10.9
p-Cymene 6.2 2.4 5.6 0.6 13.9
Terpinolene 3.4 2.5 0.9 0.2 2.6
Linalool 0.2 0.1 ng 0.3 0.9
Terpinen-4-01 45.4 52.9 18.0 1.7 38.2
Alpha-terpineol 5.3 5.8 6.3 11.8 6.2
A, commercial oil low in 1,8-cineole; B, from selected trees: C, from selected trees, medium 1,8-cineole;
D, from selected trees, high 1 ,8-cineole; E, commercial (adulterated) oil: ng, not given.
Source: Williams and Home (1988).

Ecology
Melaleuca alternifolia is naturally confined to the warmer, wetter, east coast
of Australia, between 32 and 27"S, seldom above 300 my and often forms
dense almost impenetrable thickets. The mean summer maximum is
27-3 1"C, and mean minimum 17-19°C; mean winter maximum is 18-2 1"C
and mean minimum 6-7 "C, and the species is frost sensitive. The average
annual rainfall is 1000-1 600 mm, falling mainly in the Australian summer
and autumn. The species has not been planted outside its natural habitat
except as a specimen tree in arboreta or botanic gardens, and such trees
often grow much taller and more upright than wild trees. Leaf oil content is
lower in cooler than warmer months, but seasonal variation is less than that
due to variation in leaf age at harvest. Data suggest rainfall in the 6 months
preceding cutting has a significant effect on total oil yield (Small, 1981,
1986b). Substantial short-term variation in oil content of foliage occurs, and
the reason for this is unclear. What is important is the effect on plantation
profitability, as the oil content of dried foliage was 2.9 and 1.8% on two
successive days and 1.8 and 3.4% on two others. Cutting on a low-oil-
content day would thus have reduced by 33-50% the amount of oil pro-
duced (Murtagh and Ethrington, 1990). Thus daily determination of oil
content during cutting should be routine.
Leaf oil composition of the species changes from north to south of its
natural range; in the north oil is high in terpinen-4-01 and low in 1,8-cineole,
southward the cineole content gradually rises until finally it is similar to that
Myrtaceae 307

of cineole-rich eucalyptus oil (Butcher et al., 1994, 1995). The closely


related M . linariifolia and M . dissitiflora also have strains that produce oils
with a high or low cineole content, and these oils are virtually indistinguish-
able from oils produced by the equivalent M . alternifolia forms.

Soils and fertilizers


Melaleuca alternifolia naturally prefers swampy areas, drainage lines and river
banks, but will grow well on a range of soils, provided there is adequate soil
moisture. Preference for swampy areas made harvesting of wild stands very
difficult in years of heavy rain, and this was the main reason for the
fluctuating amounts of oil available commercially and subsequent inability
to provide the steady and reliable supply essential to manufacturers. The
species will tolerate acid soils p H 4.5-5.5, but also grows well on soils with
a neutral reaction. Pilot plantings to determine the best cultural methods
were located on well-drained clay soils, since natural swampy areas were
unsuitable for mechanization. Trees have flourished and it appears cultural
methods are more important than soil type within very wide limits. There are
no published data of fertilizer trials on this species, and no records of regular
fertilizer applications other than an NPK compound in the nursery and at
planting out.

Cultivation
Oil was initially obtained exclusively from wild stands which are sufficiently
extensive to supply existing demand. Branches were slashed and roughly
stripped of leaves, and the mass of material transported to stills similar to
those used for distilling eucalyptus foliage. The work was labour intensive,
unpopular and, as wages rose, oil production became unprofitable. Com-
mercial plantations have since been established, and oil output can now
satisfy growing world demand. Cultivations necessary to establish a planta-
tion of M . alternifolia are similar to those for any plantation crop. In
Australia, an annual cash crop may be sown in the first and perhaps second
year to obtain a return to offset clearing costs prior to establishment (C.
Dean, Ballina, New South Wales, personal communication),
Seed can be directly sown, but this is not recommended as the seed is very
small and thus difficult to sow evenly or at the correct spacing. Seed from
selected parent trees is also very limited, and direct sowing wasteful of this
important asset in plantation profitability. Seedbeds are a mixture of coarse
sand and loam, treated with herbicide, and preferably fumigated. Alterna-
tively, seedlings can be raised in pots from seed or cuttings, and tissue
culture of selected high-yielding parents has been successful. The choice of
seedlings from nursery beds, potted seedlings or cuttings depends almost
entirely on circumstances. Establishment losses using open-rooted seedlings
can reach 30%, below 5% from potted seedlings; however, the cost of the
latter is usually much higher than nursery-raised plants. Seed is sown in
308 Chapter 8

nursery beds at 0.5 glm', and a watering-can fitted with a fine rose is very
effective to ensure even distribution. Seed sown in seed boxes is pricked out
to individual pots when 4-6 weeks old (Fig. 8.9). Optimum times for
transplanting in Australia are December-February, and May-July. A me-
chanical transplanter is used, and seedlings prepared to suit the equipment
(Fig. 8.10). Soil should be moist to 50 cm or irrigation available. Seedlings
can also be watered-in at planting, using commercially available equip-
ment.
Row spacing should suit the equipment to be used for inter-row cultiva-
tions and harvesting, and in-row spacing adjusted to ensure optimum plant
population. For M . ulternijolia in Australia, this is at least 35,000 trees/ha.
Close in-row spacing promotes leaf growth and thus oil yieldiha, and
maintenance of an optimum population is also a major factor in plantation
profitability. Weed control is essential until seedlings are well established,
preferably until the first harvest. Mechanical and chemical methods can be
used, but once trees are well grown and being regularly cut, a mown grass
cover is sufficient and assists in controlling soil erosion.

Harvesting
The method of harvesting commercial plantations of E. polybructea is suita-
ble (Figs 8.11, 8.12). The first cut is at 15-18 months, subsequently at
12-15 month intervals. Plants should be cut when stem or shoot diameter is
less than 2 cm and 5-1 0 cm above soil level. In colder regions, cutting should

Fig. 8.9. Tea-tree seedlings, Australia


Myrtaceae 309

be so arranged that new shoots are not developing when frost may occur.
Foliage yield in a year of average rainfall and a population of 30,000-35,000
treesiha, should be 8-10 tiha, and oil content offresh herbage 1.O-2.0%. Oil
yield per hectare rises for the first 3 years after establishment in Australia,
then remains at this level except for annual variation caused by seasonal
differences. In the first 3 years of an irrigated planting, oil yields were 70, 100
and 150 kgiha, then levelled off at about 150 kgiha. Oil yield from non-
irrigated (rainfall only) plantings was 15, 20 and 30 kgiha, then 30 kgiha.
Irrigation sharply increases oil yield but the economics of so doing must be
accurately assessed. Increased oil yield also means increased cost of harvest-
ing more foliage, and of all other charges which flow from an increased
throughput of material. The effective age of a plantation has yet to be
determined, but under good management should be measured in decades
since wild stands have been regularly harvested for 70 years.

Distillation
The system used to distil E. polybractea is basically suitable, with modifica-
tions to suit differences in distillate behaviour (Johns and Rudolph, 199 1).
In general, the rate of recovery of terpinen-4-01 and 1,8-cineole is directly
related to steam volume, whereas other components require fine chopping

Fig. 8.10. Transplanting seedlings, Australia.


310 Chapter 8

Fig. 8.1 1, Harvested plants, Australia,

or crushing of herbage to improve the recovery rate. Thus there is opportu-


nity to manipulate oil composition to produce the most saleable product,
since the market for tea-tree oil is expanding and new uses may require
different types of oil.

Products and specijications


Tea-tree oil is the currently accepted trade name, but Australian Melaleuca
Oil is more correct and should be adopted. Commercial production of the
oil was initially almost wholly by Australian Essential Oils Ltd, and when this

Fig. 8.12. Mobile harvester-still, Australia


Myrtaceae 31 1

company ceased to exist in 1975 all records pertaining to the company, early
history of the tea-tree oil industry and most medical and other data were
apparently destroyed. Production of Australian oil from established planta-
tions has steadily increased and totalled 200 t in 1995, most of which was
exported.
Crude oil is dark yellowish-green but steam-distilled oil is white to pale
yellowish green; the odour is spicy aromatic, combining elements of carda-
mom, nutmeg and sweet marjoram with a camphoraceous slightly bitter,
warm and spicy taste. The major components are (per cent); terpinen-4-01
(to 45), gamma-terpinene (to 25), 1,8-cineole (3-17), limonene (to 5) not
necessarily in the same sample. Oil should preferably be stored in glass or
stainless steel containers as it is a powerful solvent and interacts with a
variety of plastics. The medical and dental uses of the oil are now well
documented, a most important attribute is the ability to penetrate unbroken
skin. Detailed reviews of the medicinal properties and uses for the oil have
been published (Williams et al., 1993; Williams and Home, 1995; AUS-
TEAM Ltd, 1995).) The oil also has definite antimicrobial activity (Carson
and Riley, 1995). Although mainly used for medicinal and veterinary
purposes, the oil could be of wider interest in perfumery, as it blends well
with other oils and introduces its own distinctive note.

Melaleuca cajuputi

Melaleuca cajuputi is commonly known as cajuput tree in Australia, in India


as kayaputi and cajaputu; in Malaysia and Indonesia as kajoe poutah or
cajuputi; and in the USA as punk tree. This is another Melaleuca spp. which
has been widely misnamed or misidentified, most commonly with M .
leucadendra (syn. M . leucadendron).Thus many references and analyses of
cajuputi oil in the literature are suspect. It is also most likely many reported
unsuccessful attempts to cultivate M . cajuputi where it has been introduced,
or the inferior type of oil obtained when it did grow, are due to selection of
another species or planting material. In Australia, three subspecies whose
oils differ are recognized: subsp. cajuputi, subsp. cumingiana and subsp.
platyphylla.

Botany
Melaleuca cajuputi Powell (syn. M . minor Sm., M . leucadendron var. cajuputi
(Roxb) Nied., M . leucadendron L. var. minor Sm.) is a medium sized tree to
30 m (half this in more dry areas), with usually a single trunk to 1.5 m DBH,
but several stems may grow from the original rootstock. Branching is seldom
extensive. The trees frequently have small crowns, especially in pure stands,
with smaller branches and often slender twigs. The bark is whitish, papery,
thin and flaking. Major roots can appear above ground near the stem base,
312 Chapter 8

and in very swampy conditions several to many adventitious roots are


produced. Trees coppice readily and the generally vigorous growth of the
species allows it to dominate those less competitive. This vigorous growth,
and ability to regenerate quickly or produce shoots from the frequently
extensive root system, causes problems to farmers when stands of trees abut
agricultural land. The foliage is dense on trees in moist situations, less so on
taller trees in pure stands. The leaves are alternate, petiolate, often vertical,
finely hairy, 3-9 X 2-5 mm, pointed at both ends, slightly thickened and stiff
with parallel veins. Young shoots are covered with dense silky hair, giving a
silvery appearance. More mature leaves are a dull green to greenish-grey,
lighter on the underside.
Leaf oil content is 0.5-2.5%, but there is little published data which is
directly comparable from the various countries in which the species occurs,
for reasons previously stated. In Australia, leaf oil content to 3.0% has been
recorded from individual trees. The oil yield from water-distilled fresh
foliage is usually below 1%, but could increase by using more modern stills.
The main characteristics and constituents of cajuput oil are shown in Table
8.19. Similarly to other Melaleuca spp., the composition of the oil varies
regionally for reasons still to be determined, but distilling methods have far
greater effect.
The inflorescence is a terminal spike to 15 cm, usually single but some-
times multiple in upper axils, with many white or creamy-white flowers,
which may be tinged with yellow, pink or purple on individual trees. The
flowers produce nectar unpalatable to bees, and an unpleasant-tasting
honey. The fruit is globoid and attached to stems, persistent, and containing
many small, narrow, brown seeds.

Table 8.19, Main characteristics of Melaleuca cajupufiaoil.

Indonesia Australia Vietnam


Specific 0.922 0.903 0.9061
gravity (20°C) (15°C) 0.913
Refractive 1.4670 I ,458 1.4739
index (20°C) I ,468
Optical -054’ -0.5” to t 1.5O -1.3”
rotation (20°C)
Ester number ng ng 26.5
Saponification number 6.5 ng ng
Acid number ng ng 0.96
Solubility (viv 80% 1:I 1 :I ng
alcohol)
Cineole (%) 64 45-65 ng
a Believed to be correctly identified M. cajuputi oils (there is very wide variability
in published analyses); ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.
Myrtaceae 313

Ecology
Melaleuca cajuputi occurs naturally from Burma and Thailand through
South East Asia to northern Australia, and has been introduced into a
number of other countries, particularly India, where it has become natural-
ized. In many it is known by one of its synonyms, and thus the accuracy of
references is difficult to determine, since the species with which it was
confused were also introduced. Wherever the species occurs it favours moist
to swampy conditions and in suitable areas forms large almost pure stands.
Swamp forests of M . cajuputi are a feature of monsoonal areas in Indonesia,
Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea. On drier areas and in bushland subject to
fire, the very vigorous regrowth of the species allows it to recover quickly,
and over time can become dominant and form dense stands. These stands
are the basis of the local cajuput oil industry since the supply of foliage is
almost inexhaustible; fires which severely damage or kill other species
merely result in a renewed supply of leaves! It is also resistant to salt-laden
winds, and is sometimes planted on shorelines as windbreaks or amenity
shelter belts.

Soils and fertilizers


Melaleuca cajuputi is now so widespread that listing soils on which it grows is
of little value. Provided there is adequate soil moisture, soil type and
structure is relatively unimportant, and it is tolerant of salinity including
brackish coastal waters. There are no data on the effect of fertilizers.

Cultivation
There are no economically viable plantations of M. cajuputi, and all com-
mercial oil supplies are currently obtained from wild trees. Branches are
slashed, stripped of leaves, and transported to mainly portable stills. The
vigorous regeneration of cut trees has been noted and it is possible to cut-
over an area once annually if necessary. This, combined with extensive areas
under the species, easily produces enough oil to meet world demand. A very
readable description of how the industry was organized in Malaysia is that of
Penfold (Guenther, 1950). Since then there has been little basic change, and
cajuput oil production remains a cottage industry. A similar situation exists
in Indonesia, and although there have been attempts to modernize the
industry, oil of any quality is so readily saleable locally there is no real
pressure for improvement. Crude oil is also exported from Malaysia and
Indonesia for rectification mainly in Europe. Small plantations were estab-
lished in India and treated similarly to Eucalyptus, but oil yield was too low to
be profitable and it is unlikely that commercial plantations of the species will
be viable elsewhere.
314 Chapter 8

Products and speci)?cations


Crude cajuput oil is usually green or greenish yellow, and frequently adult-
erated often with kerosene, especially when sold directly to consumers.
Rectified oil is clear, sometimes with a yellowish tinge, with a pleasant
camphor-like odour. The taste is aromatic and first imparts a burning then a
cooling sensation on the tongue. The oil is soluble in alcohol, ether, benzyl
benzoate, fixed oils and diethyl phthalate; it is slightly soluble in mineral oil,
but is insoluble in glycerine. Some components of Australian oils are shown
in Table 8.20; the variation is remarkable. An oil obtained in Vietnam, and
stated to be from M . leucadendron, was reportedly very rich in lJ8-cineole
(Todorova and Ognyanov, 1988).
Cajuput oil is used mainly for medicinal purposes, is considered a panacea
in India, Malaysia, Indonesia and other South East Asian countries (Motl et
al., 1990),and also widely and effectively used in the treatment of intestinal
worms. In producing countries the oil is also used as an insecticide and
insect repellent. Cajuput oil is now little used in more developed countries,
since its major qualities are duplicated by less expensive or more effective
agents, especially eucalyptus oil.

Melaleuca quinquenervia
Melaleuca quinquenervia, commonly known as five-veined paperbark, or
broad-leaved paperbark, also occurs in Indonesia, New Caledonia and

Table 8.20. Characteristics and main components of Melaleuca oils

M. bracteata M. quinquenervia M. quinquenenliaa


Specific gravity 1.025 0.8815 0.912
(15%) 1.039 0.9003 0.1922
Refractive index 1.529 1.4812 1.4670
(20°C) 1.535 1.4824 1.4722
Optical rotation - 1'24' t 6"7l -0"lO
(20°C) - 4OO t11'7' -1"8
Acid number 0.7-1.3 ng ng
Ester number 5.3-1 7.1 ng ng
Ester number 17.0 ng ng
(after acetylation) 32.9
Saponification number ng ng 3-5
Solubility (viv 70% alcohol) 1 :I 1:1.5-2.0 111 (80)
Methyl eugenol 70-90% ng ng
Phellandrene 3-5% ng ng
Cineole ng < 2.0% 50-60%
a Niaouli oil; ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.

Source: Abstracted from published data.


Myrtaceae 315

southern Papua New Guinea. This species is source of niaouli oil produced
in New Caledonia, formerly attributed to M . viridijlora or M . leucadeizdron
(Blake, 1968). Another source of confusion is that M . quinquenervia also has
several chemovars which produce leaf oils of differing composition. Thus it
is difficult to allocate data and reports in the literature to the correct species,
particularly in respect of analyses prior to 1968.

Botany
Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S.T.Blake (syn. Metrosideros quinquenervia;
Melaleuca smithii; M . maidenii, etc.) produces a large penetrating root
system, partially exposed in damp situations. Roots grow vigorously and, if
the main trunk is severed, quickly produce new shoots. Shoots can also
appear some distance from the main trunk, and thus trees quickly spread to
colonize suitable areas. This is well demonstrated in the Florida Everglades,
to which it was imported in 1906 to turn what was then regarded as merely
useless swamp into productive timber plantations. It has since colonized
almost 160,000 ha of this environmentally important area. Aerial spraying
with aboricides has been partially successful, and methods of biological
control with insects is possible (Balciunas and Burrows, 1993; Burrows et
al., 1994).
It is a medium tree to 8-12 m (occasionally to 25 m), with usually a single
stem. On trees in open stands branching occurs fairly low down and spreads
out from the stem; in dense stands the few branches are closely appressed
and give the appearance of multiple stems. The bark is typical of the genus.
The sapwood is pinkish; the heartwood pinkish grey, moderately strong,
with a density of 725-800 kg/m3.The timber is durable in water and soil but
does not season well, contains silica which blunts saws, and has few com-
mercial uses. The leaves are usually a dull green, alternate, petiolate,
lanceolate-oblanceolate, straight to slightly oblique, 5-9 X 0.6-2.5 cm,
coriaceous, typically with five longitudinal veins, and often obscured glan-
dular dots. New leaves appear silky grey due to a dense coat of fine hair.
Leaves, when crushed, have a resinous scent and a taste similar to eucalyptus
oil.
The oil yield from steam-distilled fresh foliage and twiglets is 1.5-3.5%
since there is considerable variation between individual trees; oil yield from
field stills in New Caledonia is normally below 1.5%. Similarly to M .
alternijolia there are strains or regional types whose leaf oil contains more or
less cineole; one strain common in New Caledonia yields oil with a high
1,s-cineole content. The main characteristics of oil from Australia and New
Caledonia are shown in Table 8.20. There are three major chemovars in
Australia; one produces cineole-rich oil almost identical with that from New
Caledonia, the others produce oil rich in nerolidol or linalool. The first is
readily distinguished as crushed leaves release an odour similar to that of
medicinal eucalyptus oil; the other two have a distinct sweetish floral odour.
316 Chapter 6

Four chemovars have been identified in Madasgascar, whose oils differ from
those in Australia in their major component (Ramanoelina et al. , 1994).
The inflorescence is a terminal spike in the upper axils, one to three
together but sometimes singly, measuring 4.0-9.0 X 2.5-3.5 cm, and
densely flowered in the typical bottle-brush shape (Fig. 8.13). The flowers
are fragrant and usually white or creamy-white. The species is open-
pollinated and remarks referring to M . alternifolia apply. The main flowering
in Australia is April-July. Nectar and pollen production are profuse; honey
is light to dark amber, strongly flavoured with the distinctive tea-tree taste
and candies readily. The fruit is globoid, approximately 5 mm diameter,
rather woody and may persist on twigs for 12 months. The seeds are very
small, numerous, narrow, brown, and viability is generally low.

Ecology
Melaleuca quinquenervia is confined to the east coast of Australia between 11
and 34"S, the southern coastal areas of Papua New Guinea between 7 and
10"s; and between 22 and 23"s on New Caledonia; from sea-level to 100 m
in Australia, to 300 m in New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea. Trees
flourish in areas with a minimum average rainfall of 1000 mm, and a
temperature of 15525°C. It favours swampy sites surrounded by open forest,
but the species is resilient and will colonize relatively dry and otherwise
unfavourable areas. In Australia, it forms almost pure stands in suitable
localities, but elsewhere usually coexists with other Melaleuca spp. including
M . viridzj?ora and Eucalyptus spp. On New Caledonia it is often the locally
dominant species especially in the northern Gomen area. Oil derived from
M. quinquenervia trees on New Caledonia is the cineole-rich type, but oils
derived from the same species in Australia vary with the region in which trees
grow. Many analyses in the literature, however, refer to M . viridiflora and
thus the extent ofvariation inM. quinquenerviahas still to be determined. Oil
from trees growing in Egypt gave a cineole content of 57.2% (Aboutabl et al. ,
1991).

Soils and fertilizers


Soil type is relatively unimportant and, away from preferred marshy areas,
trees can be found growing on rocky areas, sandstones, sandy and clay loams
and wet podzols. There are no data of the effect of fertilizers on tree growth
or oil production.

Cultivation
Oil is obtained wholly from wild trees and these are more than sufficient to
meet present demand. Should plantations or a more efficient method of
producing the oil become profitable, the system outlined for M . alternifolia
will be suitable. Foliage is obtained by slashing branches and stripping leaves
which are transported to stills. Modern plants in New Caledonia produce
Myrtaceae 317

good quality oil with a higher recovery rate than the normal 1.0% from
traditional stills.

Products and speciJications


The most important oil is sold commercially as Niaouli oil and produced
wholly on the island of New Caledonia, where it is also colloquially known as
gomen oil, since the Gomen District is the centre for oil production. Almost
all oil is exported to France under preferential tariffs. New Caledonian
niaouli oil is a white to pale or greenish yellow oily liquid, and generally
resembles medicinal eucalyptus oil. The slight differences however are

Fig. 8.13. Melaleuca quinquenenlia, flowering shoot (Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens. Melbourne.)
318 Chapter 8

sufficient to give niaouli oil the specific taste and flavour preferred in France.
Its main use is as a direct substitute for eucalyptus and cajuput oil in medical
and pharmaceutical products and, should these three oils become com-
petitive in France, niaouli oil would probably be replaced by the cheaper
eucalyptus oil; eucalyptus oil is also the most common adulterant. Oil was
produced in Australia up to the mid-1970s but could not compete with
similar eucalyptus oils and production ceased. Australian niaouli oil is
almost identical to New Caledonian oil and a direct substitute.

Melaleuca bracteata

Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. is commonly known as black tea tree, and is


very similar to M . trichostachya Lindl. with which it coexists in the drier areas
of its range. It is a medium tree to 15-20 m, occasionally taller, usually with
a single stem. The bark differs from other Melaleuca spp. being dark to very
dark, brownish-grey, hard, deeply fissured and flakes in lumps resembling
cork. Branching is variable with trees in drier areas branching lower on the
stem, and branches bear characteristically long terminal branchlets. The
dull green leaves are alternate, small, linear-lanceolate, 2 X 0.2 cm, and
fairly stiff. The oil yield from steam-distilled fresh leaves and twiglets is
usually below 1.0%, but from individual trees up to 2.5%; the main
constituents are methyl eugenol to 90%, phellandrene to 5%; the main oil
characteristics are shown in Table 8.20. There are chemovars of M . brac-
teata, since individual trees yield oil containing a very high content of methyl
isoeugenol or elemicin.
The inflorescence is normally a loose cylindrical terminal spike to 2.5 cm,
bearing up to 20 white to creamy-white flowers. The calyx is long for the
genus (up to 1 cm), ending in five triangular lobes. Flowering spikes are
interrupted by floral leaves, and the axis often grows out before flowering is
completed. The fruit is a globoid to cylindrical woody capsule, containing
small brown seeds.
The species is of restricted occurrence in eastern Australia and has been
introduced into eastern Africa, and possibly elsewhere although there is little
information other than references to an oil of similar composition to M .
bracteata oil. A genuine oil from M . bracteata in Egypt had a very high methyl
eugenol content of 97.7% (Aboutabl et al., 1991). The oil is a clear light-
amber, sometimes with a greenish tinge. The odour is very variable in
strength with samples described as delicate or strongly eugenol. The main
value is the high methyl eugenol content, but the low oil yield currently
obtained would make commercial exploitation difficult.
Mydaceae 319

Other Melaleuca species


The leaf oils of other Melaleuca spp. occurring in Australia have been the
subject of considerable research, and reported in the literature in a series of
papers mainly by Drs J.J. Brophy, E.V. Lassak, D.J. Boland and colleagues;
two species are described below.

Melaleuca linariifolia
Melaleuca linariijolia (Sm.) is confined to the east coast of Australia mainly
south of M . alternifolia. The oil content of fresh foliage is 1.5-4.0 from
individual trees. Oil constituents vary substantially between individual trees
and also regionally. The major constituents are (range in per cent);
lJ8-cineole (4-8), alpha-terpinene (8-1 2), gamma-terpinene (18-25) and
terpinen-4-01 (32-42).

Melaleuca dissitiflora
Melaleuca dissitijlora F. Muell. is a semi-desert species of inland areas. The
oil content of dry foliage is 1.4-4.2% from individual trees. Similarly to other
species, oil constituents vary. The major constituents are (range in per cent):
alpha-terpinene (6-lO), gamma-terpinene (13-20), 1.8-cineole (3-1 5 ) , and
terpinen-4-01 (30-52) (Southwell and Stiff, 1990; Kerry et al., 1990; Wil-
liams and Lusunzi, 1994).

Leptospermum
The previously ill-defined Leptospermum Forst. genus has been divided into
two groups and several subgroups (Thompson, 1989; Bean, 1992). Eighty
species are currently included, most native to Australia, with two occurring
in South East Asia, one in Papua New Guinea and one in New Zealand.
Thompson’s group 1 consists of 38 species, group 2 of 41 species, including
the L. petersonii subgroup of 6 species. Interspecific hybrids occur naturally,
but many more are produced by horticulturalists to provide a range of
popular garden shrubs. Few of the 80 species have been cultivated for their
essential oil, although most are aromatic. The chromosome number for the
genus is stated as 2n = 22, 2n = 44.

Lep tospermum petersonii


Botany
Leptospermumpetersonii Bailey (syn. L. JEavescensvar. citratum Bail. & Wht; L.
citratum Chall), commonly known as lemon-scented tea-tree, is a shrub or
small tree to 8 m (frequently less) with usually a single main trunk to 8 cm
320 Chapter 6

DBH. If damaged or cut, multiple stems arise from the stump. The tree is
widely planted as an ornamental or kept clipped as a hedge. The bark is light
brown, furrowed and fibrous on the lower stem, smooth on the higher stem
and branches. The foliage is relatively dense, especially on harvested trees or
those damaged by fire and regenerated. The leaves are petiolate, smooth,
dark to medium green, with one or two sometimes prominent veins, narrow
elliptical 3-4 X 1.5-3 mm, with obtuse or acuminate tips, and flat or slightly
recurved margins. Crushed leaves have a strong lemon scent, hence the
popular name. The oil yield from steam-distilled fresh leaves and twiglets is
usually 1-1.5%, but from individual trees up to 2.5% The main constituents
are, in per cent: citral 40-50, citronellal to 35, plus eugenol, isopulegol and
hydrocarbons. The main characteristics of Type oil are: specific gravity
(15OC) 0.872-0.8856; refractive index (21OC) 1.4688-1.4757; optical rota-
tion + 3'30' to + 5'; solubility (70% alcohol) 1:l to 1:5; total aldehydes
(citral+citronellal) 75-80%. There are chemovars of L. petersonii producing
oils with different characteristics and composition to the Type oil; one has
little or no citral or citronellal but various terpenes including gamma-
terpinene; a second has to 20% citral plus geraniol.
The flowers are borne on axillary or terminal racemes and are solitary,
white to creamy-white, on short lateral branches. Main flowering in Aus-
tralia is December-January. The fruit is globoid, 6-7 mm in diameter, and
the capsule is domed. The seed is linear-cuneiform to 2 mm, and viability is
usually below 50%.

Ecology
The species is irregularly distributed in north-eastern Australia with re-
stricted local occurrence, but a very wide distribution as a popular garden
plant. This indicates adaptability to a range of climatic conditions not
normally found in its natural habitat and thus the potential of the species for
commercial exploitation. Rainfall in its natural range is 800-1500 mm, with
dry periods of 3-6 months; temperature to 35°C in the north to -5°C in the
south. The species is considered both drought and frost resistant and there
may thus be local strains adapted to a region. In Kenya it grew well in the
highlands at 1000 m with an average rainfall of 1000-1200 mm and occa-
sional frosts. In Guatemala the author saw healthy, well grown trees in
somewhat neglected plantations on the coastal plateau and inland with a
rainfall of 1000-1500 mm.

Soils and fertilizers


Trees can often be found on stony hillsides in Australia but grow best on wet
or periodically damp sandy loams, and prefer alkaline to acid soils. In Zaire,
a plantation visited was on soil of p H 7.1, and on rather infertile highland
loams in Kenya, p H 6.1-7.8. Pilot plantings in Kenya were also successful
on sandy soils derived from granite. Seedlings were placed in holes into
Myrtaceae 32 1

which about 100 g of 10:20:5 (NPK) fertilizer had been placed; no other
fertilizer was applied. Plants grew well and were cut annually.
Trial plantings established by the author in western Kenya received
approximately 90 g triple-superphosphate per planting hole, plus 200 kgiha
ammonium sulphate top-dressing applied annually immediately the rainy
season commenced (Weiss, 1963-1 966). In Australia, ammonium nitrate
had no effect on herbage yield or oil content up to 40 kg Niha. There was,
however, a major change in oil constituents with increasing nitrogen, as
geraniol and citronellal content peaked at 40 kg Niha; noted as the first
record of such an effect on the essential oil of an Australian native plant
(Diatloff, 1990).

Cultivation
Trials in Australia showed L. petersonii can be grown as a commercial crop,
but no plantations exist. In Kenya and Guatemala, plantations were success-
ful and oil produced and sold in commercial quantities. Seedlings are
normally grown from seed obtained from wild trees, but as there are
chemovars of L. petersonii careful selection of parent trees is necessary.
Vegetative propagation of suitable parent stock is essential to raise leaf oil
levels and increase citral and citronellal content if plantations are to be a
viable proposition. The original Kenya planrations were established from
Australian-supplied seed, sown in boxes, transferred to nursery beds at
12-15 cm, then planted into prepared holes, spaced at 124 X 124 cm; all
cultivation including weeding and harvesting was manual. The first harvest
was 3 years after planting out then annually, the cutting period being
determined mainly by work on other more important essential oil crops and
still capacity. This system worked extremely well, was cost-effective, and
produced good quality oil, but the plantation did not survive the transition
from European to Kenyan ownership at independence. Small plantations in
the Kivu region of Zaire were worked on a similar basis and suffered a similar
fate.
A pilot plantation established by the author in western Kenya was planned
to be fully mechanized following planting out of seedlings. Spacing was 120
X 40 cm between plants to produce a hedge to be cut by forage harvester.
The plants grew strongly and the first cut was at 2.5 years, coppicing was fast
and regrowth vigorous with a subsequent cut at 10 months. No further work
was possible as the estate was take over by the government for smallholdings.
Oil yield over the two cuts averaged 400 kgiha (approximately 1.5%), and
analyses showed oil was similar to Australian Type oil with 46% citral and
34% citronellal. On this basis such a plantation would be profitable. Stills for
eucalyptus oils are suitable and steam distilling preferred.
322 Chapter 8

Pests and diseases


Leptospermum spp. seldom suffer major damage from insects in the wild and
the general remarks regarding Melaleuca apply (q.v.). A very common
disease of seedlings and young trees is blackspot caused by Pythium spp.

Products and specifications


Leptospermum petersonii oil is commonly and inaccurately described as L.
citratum oil and this name will probably continue to be used since world
trade names are often unrelated to botanical origin. The oil is pale to olive or
brownish-yellow, with a very strong pungent, but not objectionable, lemony
odour. The main use is in perfumery, since its high diffusive power allows
very small quantities to impart a quite distinctive note. Once included in a
formula the oil is reportedly difficult to replace. The distinctive odour is due
to the high citral and citronellal content, but other constituents are involved
since laboratory combinations of these and other components have failed to
reproduce the odour. The oil is also source of citral, used to produce ionone
(scent of violets). Terpeneless oil is produced by vacuum redistilling with a
loss of about 10-15% by weight, including a small amount of citral. The
odour is intensely fresh, with a pleasant taste. Redistilled oil is less liable to
oxidation and is used in a wider range of perfumes and toiletries. Common
adulterants of crude oil are Eucalyptus citriodora, lemongrass and citronella
oils.
The oils of a number of other species have been described, many originally
in publications of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney;
subsequently oils of L. sphaerocarpum Cheel., L. lanigerum Sm. var. macro-
carpum; L. scoparium var. rotundijoliurnM.& B. were described (Flynn et al.,
1979). A species with several chemovars is L. ZiversidgeiBak.& Sm., one high
in citral, another in citronellal.

Pimenta
The genus Pimenta Lindl. contains 18 species of aromatic trees or shrubs
native to tropical America and the Caribbean. The genus name is derived
from the Spanish pimenta (peppercorns), and was originally applied to P.
dioica because its berries resembled the then more familiar spice. The most
important commercially are P. dioica L. Merr. providing the spice pimento
(allspice), and P. racemosa (Mill.) Moore the source of oil of bay. The genus
is closely related to Myrtus L. and Eugenia L., differing mainly in the flowers
and fruits, hence the confusion in early identification. The history and
cultivation of P. dioica to produce the spice has been described in detail
(Purseglove et al., 198 1). Production of pimento berry oil, pimento leaf oil
and their derivatives, and composition and characteristics of the oils will be
discussed in this section. Oil of bay should not be confused with bay leaf, a
Myrtaceae 323

spice made from leaves of Laurus nobilis L., or with oil obtained from the
Californian bay Umbelhlaria californica Nutt.

Pimenta racemosa
This species is commonly known as bay or bay rum tree and the latter is to
be preferred, since the former may be confused with the true bay. In the
Caribbean, it is known as ausu, malagueta, wild cinnamon and bay-berry,
pimenta de Tabasco (Cuba), bois d’lndie (Haiti and other French-speaking
islands), ozua or canelillo (Dominican Republic), bay boom (Surinam).
Malagueta is incorrect and more accurately applied to the unrelated Aframo-
mum melegueta (Rose.) Schum., Zingiberaceae, source of melegueta pepper,
native to West Africa and introduced by the Portuguese to their South
American colonies.

Botany
Pimenta racemosa (syn. P. acris (SW) Kostel.; Myrcia acrzs; Myrtus acris;
Amomis cayophyllata (Jacq.) Krug & Urban). A number of local P.racemosa
varieties or races have been described, most of doubtful authenticity. One
locally known as ausu and named P. racemosa var. grisea (Kiaersk) Fosberg
has dense, finely grey or white hairs on undersides of leaves, young twigs,
flower stems and fruits (Little and Wadsworth, 1964). The leaves yield oil
high in geraniol, methyl eugenol and isoeugenol (Tucker et al., 1991).
Another designated P.racemosa var. citriodora (syn. P. acris var. citriodora)
coexists in certain areas; the leaves yield a strongly lemon scented oil
containing 33% neral and 54% geranial. A believed chemovar of P.racemosa
produces an anise-scented oil containing 32% methyl chavicol, 43% methyl
eugenol but only small amounts of eugenol and chavicol. Indiscriminate
harvesting and distillation of either with true bay rum produces inferior
quality oil.
Bay rum is a small to medium-sized forest tree to 15 m occasionally 20-25
m, with a single trunk to 25 cm DBH, often slightly angled or grooved. The
bark is greyish, sometimes scaly, and is often shed giving the trunk a mottled
appearance. The inner bark is pinkish, with a slightly bitter astringent taste.
The sapwood is light brown, the heartwood mottled brownish red or
blackish, very hard, heavy, strong, tough, durable and termite resistant.
Timber from mature trees is used for general carpentry and posts, and is an
excellent fuel. Branching is normally extensive on uncut trees, usually fairly
high on the stem and uncut trees have a dense columnar crown. The twigs
are initially green becoming brown with age, angled when young, with gland
dots, usually smooth but sometimes finely grey-hairy. The trees are ever-
green and leaves are shed at 1.5-2.5 years. The leaves are simple, opposite,
entire, elliptic to obovate with a tapering base; large, 5-13 X 3-5 cm, midrib
324 Chapter 8

sunken and margins rolled under. The leaves are leathery, glandular on
lower surface, highly aromatic when crushed, and a dark shiny green,
sometimes finely hairy beneath; the petioles are short and reddish. Although
all tree parts are generally aromatic, an oil is commercially extracted only
from fresh or dried leaves and twiglets.
The oil content of mature leaves is generally similar or lower than that of
juvenile, but the phenol content is higher. The oil content of fresh mature
leaves is 1-3%, but can be 5% from specific trees; the main constituents are
phenols to 70%, mainly eugenol and chavicol. The major characteristics and
constituents are shown in Table 8.21. Leaf oil from four chemovars growing
in the Dominican Republic differed substantially from P. racemosa and each
other (Tucker et al., 199 1). Since there is a more than ample leaf supply to
satisfy current oil demand, little selection and propagation of high-yielding
trees has occurred. Decoctions of leaves are widely used by local herbalists to
alleviate respiratory infections, and mixed with shark oil to treat pleurisy.
Inflorescences are terminal on branchlets, the small fragrant white to
greenish-white flowers on much-branched cymes or corymbs, 2.5-7.5 cm.
The light green hypanthium is usually less than 3.5 mm and extends beyond
the ovary. The flowers have five broad, spreading sepals, less than 1.5 mm,
and five white, rounded petals, widely spreading to 4 mm. The flowers differ
from those of P. dioica, which have four sepals and petals. The flowers
contain numerous white stamens to 1.5 mm with small anthers, a pistil
composed of an inferior two-celled ovary and a slender, slightly bent white
style to 5 mm. Flowering is April-August within the Caribbean. The
flowering shoots and flowers yield the highest quality oil, but shoots are
normally harvested together with leaves (Fig. 8.14). The fruits are small
fleshy ovoids, 0.5-1.5 cm, 90 mm diameter, black when ripe drying to a dark
reddish-brown and containing one to three 4-7 mm diameter dark brown
seeds, viability extremely variable. The fruits are attractive to birds which are
the major seed dispersal agent, and bay rum trees are thus widely naturalized
in the Caribbean.

Table 8.21. Main characteristics of Pimenta racemosa oil.

A B
Specific gravity (25°C) 0.95-0.99 0.957-0.988
Refractive index (20°C) 1.51-1.52 1.5075-1.5170
Optical rotation (20°C) 0" to - 3 O -4"4' to -2'56'
Solubility in 70% alcohola 1 :I-2 1 :I
Phenol content (%) (mainly eugenol and 55-65 (max) 55-65
chavicol)
a Fresh oil only (solubility declines rapidly with age); A, EOA specification; B, Commercial samples
Myrtaceae 325

Ecology
The bay rum tree is native to the Caribbean and north-eastern South
America and has been successfully introduced into south-eastern USA, Sri
Lanka, West and East Africa and Indonesia. It is frequently planted in
botanic gardens and arboreta, indicating a much wider potential range, but
is grown commercially for oil principally in Dominica and Puerto Rico.
Trees flourish at 15-35"C, below 15°C having a greater adverse effect than
above 35OC. Clear sunny days promote foliar growth, reduce the incidence
of leaf disease, and leaf-oil content is frequently higher during warm,
relatively dry periods than the converse. The tree is frost sensitive. An annual
rainfall of 2500 mm well distributed throughout the year is the optimum,
and few months should receive less than 200 mm. Trees will grow satisfacto-
rily on 1250-1 500 mm but regrowth following cutting is slow and so extends
the period between harvests that commercial plantations are unprofitable.
An annual rainfall of 750 mm is sufficient where there are large numbers of
wild trees to provide the foliage necessary. Trees flourish from sea-level to
750 m, with the upper limit set by the minimum temperature. Leaf-oil
content may decrease with altitude, but this has not been confirmed by
accurate sampling.

Fig. 8.14. Pimenta racemosa, flowering shoot. (Department of Agriculture. Jamaica.)


326 Chapter 8

Soil and fertilizers


Bay rum trees will grow on a wide range of soils, but flourish on deep, fertile,
well-drained loams. Wild trees thrive in valleys and on lower slopes of hills
where the soil is usually deeper and more fertile, with a slightly acid to
neutral pH. Plantations, however, are frequently on less favourable soils,
since local population growth requires all suitable land to be under food
crops.
The only fertilizer generally applied to established plantations is a mulch
of spent leaves mixed with ash from leaves used as fuel. Little is known of the
effect of fertilizers on tree growth and oil production, but since soils in areas
growing bay rum are similar to those on which trials have been carried out
using other crops, some general conclusions can be made. Nitrogen is
usually deficient and top-dressing with a nitrogenous fertilizer after cutting
should result in quicker regrowth and shorter cutting interval. Phosphate
and potassium are also widely deficient, but application should be limited to
planting holes. In the absence of recommendations based on local data the
following is suggested: 250 g of 10: 10:10 (NPK) mixed with surrounding
top-soil and any well-rotted vegetative material, and placed in holes prior to
planting seedlings.

Cultivation
Most plantations of bay rum trees (groves) are established on land unsuit-
able for other crops with only the minimum of clearing; usually consisting of
cutting and burning scrub, and moving large stones to field boundaries.
Seedlings are then planted into prepared holes, and subsequent cultivation
limited to slashing or mowing weeds. Seedlings can be raised in nursery beds
or pots and techniques used to produce eucalyptus seedlings are generally
suitable. Where there are large areas ofwild trees, the most common method
is to collect self-sown seedlings of the required age, and plant them im-
mediately into prepared holes. T o establish a nursery, seed should be
collected when fruits are mature, usually August-October in the Caribbean.
Seeds must be removed from fruits, washed and planted within 48 hours
since viability is frequently low and germination erratic (between 2 and 6
weeks).
Selection of high-yielding trees as parent stock is little practised, but
methods of vegetative propagation successful with pimento will probably be
equally effective on bay trees. Budding and approach-grafting are well-
known techniques among orchardists, while cross-budding between P.
dioica and P. racemosa is also usually successful. The low world price for bay
leaf oil has generally precluded such relatively expensive operations, but if
groves are to be profitable on an increasingly competitive world market,
upgrading trees is essential. That this is possible is shown by the high leaf-oil
content of 4% obtained from individual trees compared with the common
Myrtaceae 327

1.5-2.5%, and average oil yield from local distillers of below 2%. Micro-
propagation could provide large numbers of improved plants should it
become profitable to use this and similar techniques.
Seedlings are ready for transplanting in 18-24 months and before planting
the long tap root should be pruned to encourage lateral rooting, and
seedlings topped to 15 cm. Seedlings should be planted following rain when
soil is wet below root depth, or watered in and shaded from direct sunlight
until established. Spacing is determined mainly by topography, but on level
lands 2-5 m between trees in 5-10 m rows allows adequate space for
development and inter-row cultivations. Topped seedlings frequently pro-
duce several leading shoots and some growers leave two to produce trees
with two main stems, since experience has shown total foliage yield is higher
than from single-stemmed trees. Trees are topped at 2-3 years or 3-5 m and
maintained at this height. Misshapen, aged or diseased trees are usually cut
back almost to ground level and a new shoot allowed to grow from the
stump. Weed control normally consists of mowing grass and other herbage,
but small cleared areas may also be maintained around trees to reduce the
incidence of insect and fungal attack on stems, a technique based on the
experience of pimento growers. Herbicides are seldom used but, should they
become a viable alternative, those compounds used in pimento will probably
be suitable.

Harvesting
The harvesting interval can vary from 1-2 years and is not necessarily
dependent on regrowth; a too-long interval between cuts, 2 years or more,
can result in low foliage yield since individual leaves begin to fall after 24-36
months. Experienced producers believe that leaving mature leaves on trees
for an extended period suppresses emergence of new leaves; thus well-
managed groves are cut annually, or at least three times in 4 years. Leaves
can be harvested year-round, but usually between January and June. In
regions where there is a dry period this is preferred, since more oil is obtained
per still charge. Whether this is due to a generally higher leaf oil content or a
greater proportion of more mature leaves which have a higher oil content is
immaterial to producers, since the end result is similar. What is more
important is to ensure harvesting is coordinated with still capacity in order to
maintain regular operation. The extent and timing of harvesting, and
whether this should be seasonal or year-round, must be related to a dis-
tillery’s capacity to store and process leaves.
Leaf yield from individual trees varies greatly, with low yield and rate
of regrowth genetically determined, since vegetatively produced seedlings
exhibit parental characteristics. Yield from established groves is 9000-
35,000 kg/ha with annual cutting, a wide variation due primarily to location,
but also to the system of management; the most efficient growers obtain the
highest local average yield of foliage and oil. Where cheap or family labour is
328 Chapter 8

available, leaves and twiglets only will be plucked from trees, packed in sacks
and transported to the nearest distillery. Alternatively, leafy branches are
cut, bundled, and transported to the distillery where leaves are removed.
Harvesting wild trees is often by contract with the local distillery, and
workers engaged to deliver a regular flow of leaves. Whatever method of
harvesting is employed, cheap labour is essential and, should this situation
change, bay oil production usually becomes unprofitable.
Although groves can be laid out to suit fully mechanized operations as for
eucalyptus, this is currently too expensive to be profitable, but could become
so if groves of high yielding trees are established. The life of a grove is
indeterminate, since trees are regenerated from stumps or replaced when
they cease to bear sufficient foliage. Individual trees of 50 years of age are
known, but the effect of regular cutting and good grove management on tree
life is unknown. Since long-term high average annual oil yield per hectare is
important, the best method of harvesting to ensure this must also be
determined.

Distillation
Harvested leaves can be processed immediately, or stored for up to a week in
suitable conditions with no oil loss. The factors affecting yield and quality of
pimento leaf oil are generally accepted as applicable to bay in absence of
specific data. Leaves are normally finely chopped or comminuted, and
distillation may be by water, steam or a combination of both plus cohoba-
tion. The operation differs from eucalyptus distillation in that two types of
distillate are produced, one lighter and one heavier than water, later com-
bined to produce crude oil of acceptable phenol content. A 1:3 mixture of
sea and fresh water was used in Puerto Rico stills and produced more oil with
a higher phenol content from the same amount of leaves than fresh water
alone; a 25% sodium chloride solution was an effective substitute. Although
most stills were initially locally made of any available material, many have
been replaced by stainless steel which produces a finer, lighter coloured oil
from a distillation time using high-pressure steam of 4-6 hours. Bulk oil
from smaller producers is usually sold to the owner of a larger still, who
filters, cleans and often adjusts the phenol content to an accepted stand-
ard.

Pests and diseases


Th e most important pests are those attacking leaves and young shoots, but
as there is an abundance of trees and not all suffer similarly, loss of foliage on
individuals is easily compensated from those which suffer less. Leaf-eating
caterpillars cause major damage on single or neighbouring clumps of trees,
and occasionally occur in large numbers in a restricted area. The bag-worm
caterpillars of Oeceticus abboti and related species are most often recorded.
Young leaves may be badly damaged by whiteflies, Aleyrodidae, and the red-
Myrtaceae 329

banded thrips Selenothm'ps rubrocinctus. Adults of the weevils Prepodes (Exo-


phthalmus) spp. and Pachnaeus spp. also feed on leaves and their larvae
damage roots. Borers are widespread but major infestations are rare, the
greatest damage is caused through secondary infection by pathogenic fungi.
Most often noted are Cyrtomenus, Cylindera and Neoclytus spp. Scale insects,
soft and hard, are usually present on trees but normally do little damage.
Also causing little physical damage but making harvesting unpleasant are
black ants, Crematogaster brevispinosa, which are also responsible for trans-
ferring scale insects between trees.
The most serious disease is leaf rust caused by Puccinia psidii which also
attacks P. dioica; young leaves, shoots and inflorescences become covered by
a bright yellow powdery mass of urediospores. Severe infection results in
defoliation, and successive attacks may kill young trees. The disease is most
prevalent in areas where there are frequent fogs or heavy dews. A wound
parasite, which seldom affects young trees, is a die-back or canker locally
known as fireblight, caused by Ceratocystisj5mbm'ata. The disease is wide-
spread, but can be very local; pruning and burning diseased branches is the
most efficient method of control. Other diseases recorded from P. racemosa
may also attack P. dioica, but there is little information on their overall effect,
since there are plenty of healthy trees to supply the necessary leaves. Thus
the relative importance of the various diseases and control methods have
been little investigated. Where chemical control of pests or diseases is
considered necessary or profitable, those compounds successful on P. dioica
should prove effective.

Products and specz3cations


Bay leaf oil, also known as myrcia oil, is yellow to dark brown depending
mainly on the still used; stainless steel produces the lightest coloured oils.
Crude oil has a sweet rather penetrating odour strongly phenolic with a
fresh, spicy, sweet-balsamic undernote, and a pungent, warm-spicy, some-
what bitter taste (Heath, 1981). The major oil constituents are shown in
Table 8.22; approximately 80 compounds have been detected, including 20
monoterpenes, 19 sesquiterpenes, 6 aromatics (predominantly eugenol and
chavicol) and 23 aliphatic compounds. The major use for leaf oil is in hair
lotions, especially Bay Rum. This preparation was originally produced by
distilling rum over leaves but is now usually a formulation of terpeneless bay
leaf oil, alcohol and rum. Bay leaf oil is frequently adulterated with clove leaf,
bois de rose, lime or synthetic terpenes, and oils with a phenol content above
65% are usually adulterated.
Terpeneless bay leaf oil is crude oil with low-boiling-point monoterpenes
removed leaving the sesquiterpenes. It is pale straw to brownish orange in
colour, with an intense!y sweet, mellow, spicy-balsamic scent. This oil is
readily soluble in alcohol and thus used in hair and after-shave lotions. Bay
leaf oil absolutes are very pale oils produced from steam-distilled de-
330 Chapter 8

Table 8.22. Major components of Pimenta


racemosa oil.

Compound Percentage
Myrcene 31.6
Limonene 1.4
1,8-Cineole 2.0
Trans-ocimene 2.1
3-Octanone 1.o
p-Cymene 0.5
3-Octanol 0.5
1-0cten-3-ol 1.3
Linalool 3.0
Terpinen-4-01 0.3
Caryophyllene 0.9
Methylchavicol 0.3
Neral 0.5
Alpha-terpineol 0.8
Geranyl acetate 0.8
Eugenol 38.6
Chavicol 11.0
Source: Lawrence (1977).

terpened oils, or by alcohol washing crude oil, and lack terpenes and
sesquiterpenes. Oleoresin has been produced in small quantities for use in
fragrances and the flavour industry.

Pimenta dioica
Pimenta dioica, commonly pimento, is cultivated in Jamaica, Mexico and
Central America, primarily to produce dried berries known as pimento or
allspice.

Botany
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. (syn. Myrtus pimenta L.; M . dioica L.; Eugenia
pimenta DC.; Pimenta oficinalis Lindl.) is an evergreen tree to 7-10 m
(sometimes to 15 m) with a slender trunk, branching from 1 m, secondary
branches profusely branched at extremities. The bark is smooth, shiny and
silvery pale brown and is often shed in long strips. The wood is pinkish,
close-grained, heavy, strong and durable. The leaves are simple, opposite,
entire, thinly coriaceous, punctate, with pellucid glands, borne in clusters at
end of branches and highly aromatic when crushed. The flowers are small,
white and fragrant, on many-stalked cymes in the axils of upper leaves.
The fruit is sub-globose, 4-6 mm diameter, and contains two seeds. Ripe
fruit is a deep purple to glossy black, with a mucilaginous mesocarp and is
Myrtaceae 331

sweet and spicy. On drying, the fruit is dark brown, rough, and more
aromatic. The dried berry contains an aromatic steam-volatile oil, fixed oil,
resin, protein, pentosans, starch, traces of alkaloids, pigments and minerals;
the proportions vary considerably and are most pronounced in the volatile
oil. The aroma and flavour are due to steam-volatile compounds, pungency
to non-steam-volatile constituents.
The major use of ground pimento is as a flavouring and curing agent in
processed meats and bakery products, but for domestic culinary use it is
often supplied mixed with other ground spices. Information on the chem-
istry of pimento is almost wholly from Jamaican spice and leaf oil, but there
is considerable variation in the chemical composition of both from different
areas of the Caribbean and Central America (Green and Espinosa, 1989).
The major constituent of pimento spice and leaf oil is eugenol, and thus it is
similar in general character to clove bud, clove leaf, tropical bay leaf and
cinnamon leaf oils. Although eugenol is the major component of distilled
berry and leaf oils, the two oils are organoleptically quite distinct. A detailed
description of the methods used to grow and harvest P. dioca has been
published (Purseglove et al., 1981).

Distillation
Leaves may be fresh, withered or dried and stored for 2-3 months prior to
distilling with little effect on oil yield or phenol content. Yields from dried
and fresh leaves are 0.5-3.0 and 0.3-1.25% respectively. Stills take a charge
of 1000-2200 kg, have perforated false bottoms upon which leaves are
packed to prevent channelling, and distilling is by low-pressure steam for
4-5 hours. At some distilleries the milky distillation waters are run into large
concrete tanks, the oil settling out is normal leaf oil but a dark colour, which
is collected and added to the other fractions. The combined oil is filtered and
stored for export, preferably in stainless steel drums.
Berry oil is obtained by crushing berries immediately prior to loading, and
distilling by direct steam for about 10 hours usually with cohobation; total
oil yield is 3.3-4.5%. Central American berries have a volatile-oil content of
1.5-3.0%, but commercial samples of Belize berries examined in London
yielded 3.4-4.4% (average 3.5%). Oil from Caribbean and Central Amer-
ican berries varies considerably in organoleptic properties, but there is little
reliable information on differences in composition (Green and Espinosa,
1989). Local variation is well known in Jamaica, with methyl eugenol
content from zero to greater than eugenol, and a number of chemovars
apparently exist. This is supported by oil distilled from pimento collected in
Belize, whose methyl eugenol content ranged from zero to 10%. Informa-
tion on oil composition of wild pimento from other sources in Central
America is limited, since this material is seldom distilled. Oil from Jamaican
undried green berries is similar in composition to that from dried berries, but
has a higher monoterpene content.
332 Chapter 8

Products and specifications


Pimento berry oil obtained from dried Jamaican berries is yellow to
brownish-yellow, with a warm-spicy sweet odour with a peculiar fresh and
sweet topnote. Composition and characteristics vary according to the raw
material used and distillation method. The main characteristics of some
berry oils and specifications are shown in Table 8.22. The principal compo-
nents are usually, in per cent, eugenol 65-90, methyl eugenol to 10, beta-
caryophyllene 4, humulene 2-3; terpinen-4-01 4-5, cineole 2-2.5 (Lawr-
ence, 1994). Some 50 constituents have been detected including 3 phenols,
11 monoterpene hydrocarbons, 5 oxygenated hydrocarbons, 12 sesqui-
terpene hydrocarbons, and 4 oxygenated sesquiterpenes. The main con-
stituents affecting organoleptic properties are the amounts and ratio of
1,8-cineole and alpha-phellandrene.
Berry oil was formerly distilled only in the main consuming countries, but
is now produced in Jamaica. Not all berries imported into the UK are
considered suitable for oil, and those rejected are sold as spice. Pimento
berry oil is similar in composition and odour to the ground spice and
oleoresin, but lacks their flavour. It is normally blended with ground spice in
meat products, as a flavour enhancer in jams and other fruit-based products,
and in perfumery especially men’s after-shave lotions and colognes. Very
small quantities are used in medicines to relieve indigestion and related
ailments.
Oleoresin is produced by specialist firms in major importing countries,
but little information has been published on the methods employed. Oleo-
resin prepared by solvent extracting crushed spice, then evaporating the
solvent, is a brownish to dark-green oily liquid, and two grades are available
based on volatile oil content: 40-50 and 60-66 ml/lOO g. A US specification
requires a minimum 60 m1/100 g. The fat content depends on the solvent
used, and is highest with hydrophobic solvents such as petroleum ether. For
flavouring purposes, oleoresin is dispersed on a neutral base (salt, dextrose,
flour, rusk), sold by weight equivalent in strength to dry spice, and the small
quantities prepared are used in meat processing and canning. The oleoresin
has the considerable advantage of avoiding risk of bacterial contamination
and its strength and quality are more consistent. Some perfumers consider
odour quality of solvent-extracted oleoresin superior to distilled berry oil
and also regard water distilled as finer than steam distilled oils.
Pimento leaf oil is a brownish-yellow liquid with a dry-woody, warm-spicy
aromatic odour, although odour and flavour are coarser than berry oil with
which it is frequently blended. It can also be mixed with clove stem and leaf
oils to produce a relatively inexpensive berry oil substitute. There is sub-
stantial seasonal and regional variation in leaf oil content and oil composi-
tion as noted; phenol content for instance can range from 50 to 90% in
different districts of Jamaica. The eugenol content of leaf oil is somewhat
higher than berry oil at 65-96%; prolonged distillation increases the eugenol
Myrtaceae 333
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ ~

Table 8.23. Main characteristics of Pimenta dioica oils

Berry Leaf
BSS EOA BSS EOA
Specific 1.025 1.018 1.037 1.018
gravity 1.045 1.048 1.050 1.048
(20°C) (25°C) (20°C) (25%)
Refractive 1.526 1.527 1.531 1,532
index 20° 1.536 1.540 1.536 1.536
Optical rotation O0 0" ng t 0'30'
-5" -4" -2O
Solubility (viv 70% 1:2 1 :2 1 :2 1 :2
ethanol)
Total phenols is', vol) 65 80 80-90
BSS, British Standard Specification; EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA; ng, not given.
Figures in columns are range.

content. The main characteristics ofthe oil are shown in Table 8.23. Leaf oil
is distilled almost solely in Jamaica, and is widely used in meat products and
confectionery. It can partially replace pimento berry oil, which is generally
considered a more suitable oil for flavouring, but is much more expensive.

Myrtle

Myrtus communis L. is the only other member of the Myrtaceae to yield a


commercial essential oil. Commonly known as myrtle, without qualifica-
tion, it must not be confused with the wax myrtle Myrica cerifera L. or bog
myrtle Myrica gale L., whose essential oils are toxic. The ancient Persians
regarded myrtle as a holy plant, and in Pharaonic Egypt women wore its

Table 8.24. Main characteristics of myrtle leaf oil,'

Spanish Moroccan
Specific gravity (15%) 0.911-0.930 0.900-0.912
Refractive index (20°C) 1.466-1.470 1.466-1.467
Optical rotation t2I0to $26" t23" to t24'40'
Solubility (viv 80% alcohol) 1 :2 1:>7
Acid number max 2.7 ng
Ester number 63-92 ng
Ester number (after acetylation) 80-1 17 ng
ng, not given.
Source: Mazza (1983).
334 Chapter 8

Table 8.25. Main constituents of myrtle berriesa,

Alpha-pinene 77.1
Delta-3-carene 3.9
Limonene 18.4
Alpha-terpinene 3.6
p-Cymene 5.7
Linalool 6.0
Terpinen-Col 2.2
Alpha-terpineol 8.3
Methyl hexadecanoate 9.1
Linalyl acetate 1.9
Alpha-terpinyl acetate 2.7
Nery acetate 7.8
Methyl eugenol 2.3
1 &Cineole 69.3
a mgikg berries Source: Mazza (1983).

blossoms together with pomegranate and lotus on festive occasions. T o the


Jews myrtle was a symbol of love and peace, to the Greeks it was sacred to
Aphrodite, and to the Romans to Venus. Dioscorides prescribed extracts of
the leaves or berries for lung and bladder infections.
Native to the Mediterranean region and western Asia and widely culti-
vated elsewhere as a garden plant, it is especially common in Morocco,
Algeria and Tunisia, where large areas of wild shrubs are the basis of local oil
production. It is nowhere cultivated for the oil, which is produced mainly in
the North African countries named, with Tunisia being the most regular
supplier almost wholly to France (Anon., 1984). Very small quantities of oil
are produced in Spain, France and Italy. An extract of the leaves is used
locally in north Africa to alleviate coughs and chest complaints, especially in
children. In sixteenth century Europe the leaves and flowers were the major
ingredients of a skin lotion known as ‘angels water’.
Myrtle is an evergreen shrub or small tree, generally 3-7 m, and well
branched. T h e branches are stiff and young branches and twigs reddish. The
leaves are a dark glossy green. The flowers are fragrant and white or pinkish.
Th e fruit is a round, reddish-blue to violet berry. All plant parts are
aromatic, but fresh leaves are the main product and used as a culinary spice;
dried leaves lack the characteristic scent. An oil distilled from fresh leaves is
known as oil of myrtle or the preferred myrtle oil. Leaves are harvested from
late spring to early autumn, and frequently distilled in the same stills used for
other local plants. The oil yield from a local still using unselected material is
0.25-0.55%, but twice this when only fresh young leaves, flowering shoots
and twiglets are used, which also yield the highest quality oil.
Myrtle leaf oil is a yellow to greenish-yellow liquid, with a fresh camphora-
ceous, floral-herbaceous odour, later slightly resinous, and a warm spicy
Myrtaceae 335

taste. It is used mainly as a flavouring and in alcoholic drinks. A constituent


of myrtle oil is the unsaturated primary alcohol myrtenol, occurring as the
acetate. Myrtenol has a warm woody odour a n d is used in perfumery a n d
toilet preparations. T h e main characteristics of oil from selected countries
are shown in Table 8.24. T h e main components are normally alpha-pinene,
1,8-cineole and rnyrtenyl acetate (Lawrence, 1993). Analysis of Russian
material gave limonene, linalool, alpha-pinene a n d 1,8-cineole in that order
as major components (Shikiev et al., 1978), b u t regional samples from
Turkey differed from both (Akgul and Bayrak, 1989). Myrtle berry oil is not
produced commercially, but myrtle berries are used in bitters and certain
liqueurs. Berries contain the major volatile components, alpha-pinene,
1,8-cineole a n d limonene, but interestingly n o rnyrtenyl acetate (Table
8.25).

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Oleaceae
9-
The Oleaceae, order Scrophulariales, contains 27-30 genera with approx-
imately 600 species, and the genus Jasminum L. is usually stated as contain-
ing some 200 species, but a proposed review could reduce this by at least
half. The genus name is derived from the Persian yasmin (fragrant). The
genus Osmanthus Lour. contains 15 species, some are timber producers,
others contain an essential oil.

Jasmine
The largest number ofJasminum species is centred on the Indian and South
East Asian region, with some 40 native to India and one apparently to South
America. Three are commercially cultivated for their essential oil, J. aur-
iculatum, J. grandiJEorumand J. sambac, but other species for their fragrant
flowers. Many Jasminum species are grown in gardens and there are a
multiplicity of so-called cultivars which are basically selected strains given
names to preserve a separate identity for their developer. Such selection is
relatively simple, since there is considerable variation within species in
respect of type and rate of growth, flower size, colour and scent. Table 9.1
lists well-known jasmine species and unrelated plants often called jasmine.
Jasmine’s fragrant flowers ha<e been used since very ancient times for
personal adornment, in religious ceremonies, strewn at feasts and in bath
water in practically all countries in which the plants occur. The combination
o f a very powerful, rich scent with a white flower has a particular aesthetic
appeal. It is possible to accurately identify the flower in paintings from
ancient Egypt and India, and Romans and Greeks used jasmine pomade.
The Roman Lucius Plotius, a triumvirate member in hiding from his
political enemies, was betrayed by the strong jasmine scent of which he was
inordinately fond. It is doubtful, however, if either the Greeks or Romans
knew how to prepare jasmine pomade and probably imported it via the
Middle East. This relationship was recently revived with the development of

342
Oleaceae 343

Table 9,l. Some Jasminum species and unrelated plants often called jasmine.

SDecies English name Other plants English name


J. angusiifolium Vahl. Wild jasmine Androsace spp. Rock jasmine
J, azoricum L. Madeira jasmine Gardenia spp. Cape jasmine
J. gracillimum Hook. f. Pinwheel jasmine Gelsemiurn spp. Carolina jasmine
J. mesnyi Han. Japanese jasmine Cestrurn spp. Bastard jasmine
J. multiflorum (B)Andr Star jasmine Mandevilla spp. Chilean jasmine
J. nitidum Skan. Angelwing jasmine Phillyrea spp. Box jasmine
J. nudiflorum Lindl. Winter jasmine
d. odoratisslmum L. Formosan jasmine
J. oficinale L. Poets jasmine
J. paniculatum Roxb. Chinese jssmine

a valuable export trade in fresh jasmine flowers by air from Bombay to the
Middle East and Gulf States, which totalled 30,000 kg in 1995.
A large cheap labour force is essential to harvest jasmine flowers and this
is a major reason why Egypt has in the last decade become a significant
supplier of concentrate to world markets. European companies, especially
French, have established joint ventures to locally produce concrete for their
parent companies, and their scientists are breeding higher yielding cultivars
or flowers with novel scents.
Jasmine species were mentioned in ancient Indian literature including the
Ayurveda, lain-i-Akbari and in the Tamil Sangam period, but a variety ofJ.
sambac known as Tuscan jasmine was apparently introduced into India by
the Duke of Tuscany about 169 1. The sea trade between southern India and
the Arabian Peninsula is very ancient, with jasmine plants shipped to the
Persian Gulf and Red Sea ports and their products onward to Europe. The
movement has recently been reversed with European technology flowing to
India to improve local agronomic and processing techniques. A French joint
venture in Coimbatore reportedly processed 500,000 kg flowers in 1995,
and its specialists have bred jasmine varieties whose flowers produce an
absolute with tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.), and orange blossom top-
notes.
Jasmine reached China along the Silk Road and the use of its flowers to
flavour tea, mo-li-hua-cha, probably originated there. Such teas now com-
monly use J . paniculatum flowers; however, a jasmine indigenous to China
has recently been recorded (Bai, 1992). The steady decline in jasmine
concrete exports from China is notable, since China is one of the few
countries with a reservoir of low-paid labour so important in jasmine
harvesting. One reason is that domestic demand is increasing as rising
disposable incomes create a market for higher quality cosmetics.
Jasmine oil or essence has long been valued for its medicinal properties; it
is widely believed to stimulate the reproductive system not only as an
344 Chapter 9

aphrodisiac but more generally as a muscle relaxant i.e. in childbirth.


Culpeper in the English Physician (1652) ascribes the following to jasmine
oil: ‘It warms the womb and facilitates the birth, it is useful for coughs,
difficulty of breathing etc. The oil is good also for hard and contracted limbs,
it opens warms and softens the nerves and tendons. It removes diseases of
the uterus and is of service in pituitous colics.’Jasmine roots, especially those
of J. sambac, are commonly included in Asian and East Asian herbal
medicines, in China specifically to relieve headache, rheumatism and other
afflictions of the joints.
In recent times the Grasse region of France became the centre of Euro-
pean jasmine cultivation and processing, and at the end of the 17th century
there were 15 ha under J. grandiflorum; flower production reached 80 t in
1856 rising to 200 t in 1900. Peak production occurred in 1920, then
steadily declined; in 1930 there were 800 ha of jasmine, only 50 ha by 1976
and the crop is now grown only on a very small scale. Not surprisingly, since
pickers were paid FF 22 per kg of flowers in 1920 and only FF 5 5 in 1994,
although the selling price of Grasse concrete has increased from FF 13,000
to FF 80,000 in the same period! Jasmine cultivation moved to the then
French colonies of Algeria in 1900 and Morocco in the 1950s. Sicily began
cultivating jasmine in the 1920s, Spain in the 1950s, and Egypt in the 1970s
where the area under jasmine and concrete exports have steadily in-
creased.

Botany
Jasminum species are deciduous or evergreen shrubs or clambering climbers,
with opposite or alternate, pinnate leaflets, sometimes apparently simple
consisting of one leaflet. The flowers are white, pink or yellow in terminal or
axillary cymes, rarely solitary, the calyx mostly with four to nine lobes of
varying length, and the corolla salverform with slender tube and four to nine
lobes. Some species have very fragrant flowers, the principal natural source
of jasmine perfume. Growth regulators can influence flowering, and in
general chlormequat, ethephon and daminozide tend to advance flowering
and increase flower yield, while GA tends to delay flowering, although the
duration of flowering is usually unaffected. However, flower oil content and
thus concrete recovery may be depressed (Bhattacharjee and Divakar, 1989;
Gowda and Gowda, 1990). The fruit is usually a two-lobed black berry. The
ontogeny ofJasminum spp. has been described in detail (Muthuswamy and
Shanmugavelu, 1982). The basic chromosome number is x = 13, 2n = 26,
but triploid forms occur naturally.
Jasminum auriculatum Vahl. (Hindi juhi; Tamil usimalligaz) is a twining
shrub with small mostly simple, occasionally trifoliate leaves, the two lower
leaflets small, reduced to auricles or lacking. The flowers are fragrant, small,
white, in pubescent, compound, multiflowered, lax cymes, approximately
2600 flowers per kg. The flowers have five to eight elliptic corolla lobes. The
Oleaceae 345

carpels are black, solitary and globose. The flowers normally open between
6 and 7 p.m. but up to 2 hours later on hot, dry days. In southern India
where it is widely cultivated, plants flower almost continuously from April to
December, with May and September yielding the greatest proportion of the
total; 21% and 16% respectively. Selected strains have a flower yield
25-50% higher than the local average of 2000 kgiha, twelve in Tamil Nadu
gave concrete yields of 0.28-0.41%, while one selection yielded 8800 kgiha
flowers with a concrete recovery of 0.34% (Sambandamurthi and Kadar,
1982). In this region the highest flower yield is in June-July. Correlations
exist between 100 bud weight and number of petals per flower, style length
and corolla tube length (Indiresha et al., 1986).
Jasminum grandiforum L. is considered to be J. oficinale forma grand-
$orurn (L.) Kobuski, commonly referred to in the literature as J. grand-
iflorum Hort. which designation will be used in this text. It is known as
Catalonian or Royal but more often as Spanish jasmine; in Hindi chameli,
Tamil padder malligai, and in many countries there are locally named
cultivars varying substantially in growth habit, leaf, stem and flower colour.
Jasminum grandzflorum is an evergreen shrub or climber to 5 my but the
ribbed stems require support when cultivated and pruned to reduce height.
The leaves are opposite, dark green, with five to seven ovate leaflets to 2 cm;
the terminal leaflet is longer, and acuminate, the lateral leaflets sessile or
shortly petiolate, the distal pair with a broad connate base confluent with the
terminal. The flowers are very fragrant, up to 4 cm diameter, white often
purple tinged, on lax axillary or terminal cymes longer than the leaves. The
bracts are ovate to spatulate-oblong, and foliaceous (Fig. 9.1). The pedicels
of the central flowers are shorter than those of the lateral flowers; the calyx is
glabrous with teeth linear to 10 mm, and the corolla tube is up to 2 cm with
5-6 oblong lobes. The corolla tube encloses two stamens on short slender
filaments. Selected J. grandiflorum cultivars usually had higher flower yield
than other Jasminum spp. in India (Srivastava, 1991).
Since the number of flowers is often the main criterion in assessing
reaction to factors under test, picking is tedious and lengthy. The minimum
number of plants per treatment to accurately reflect the result required is
thus important; in India, six plants per plot was the optimum (Ramchander
and Bhattacharjee, 1986). Under natural conditions, seed set is generally
very low, and pollen sterility in diploids frequently above 75% and to 95% in
triploids (Chandra, 1982). Flowers normally open between 6 and 7 p.m.
and main flowering in India is May-August with July and August supplying
the major proportion of total yield. In a trial of six selections in Tamil Nadu,
one yielded 10,000 kgiha flowers with a concrete recovery of 0.29%;
concrete recovery ranged from 0.25 to 0.32% over the six.
Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. Arabian jasmine; in Hindi mogra, Tamil kuda-
malligai, is the most common cultivated species in India and there are many
named cultivars, some yield flowers for oil, others for garlands. Leaves and
346 Chapter 9

roots are used to treat diarrhoea and fevers, and a paste of flowers to treat
conjunctivitis and dermatitis. It is basically an evergreen sub-erect shrub or
vine, with stems rather slender, naturally trailing but supported when
cultivated. The stems are woody and the branchlets pubescent. The leaves
are opposite, glabrous, usually ovate or elliptic, very variable, and with
prominent lateral nerves. There are one to three leaflets to 7.5 cm, with
undulating margins on some cultivars. The flowers are very fragrant, white,
2 . 5 cm diameter, on solitary or three-flowered terminal cymes. T h e calyx
has five to nine teeth, and is linear, subulate, to 10 mm. The corolla lobes are
narrowly oblong to orbicular, to 12.5 mm and equal to the tube. The carpels
are black when ripe. Flower yield and strength of fragrance varies sub-
stantially between cultivars, many are double flowered with rounded petals

Fig. 9.1, Jasrninurn ofkinale forma grandifloruum,flowering branch. (CSIR, New Delhi.)
Oleaceae 347

and globular buds, while single flowers have rounded multi-whorled petals
and large buds to 3 cm diameter. T h e flowers are widely used in India to
make garlands and as part of temple offerings.
The flowers open between 8 and 9 p.m. and in India main flowering is
April-August. Concrete yield seldom exceeds 0.20%, but a single flowered
cultivar yielded 4200 kgiha flowers and 4.35 kgiha concrete (Sharma et al.,
1979). An absolute prepared by enfleurage in East Africa had these charac-
teristics: specific gravity (15°C) 1.024, refractive index (20°C) 2.41; optical
rotation 1.5061’; saponification value 153.3. An Indian absolute was deep
red, with a strong powerful odour suggestive of jasmine and orange flowers.
The constituents of J. sambac absolutes from various origins including
China, Indonesia and the Philippines have been compared (Lawrence,
1994). Constituents of the flower oil have been determined (Boros and
Stermitz, 1991), and the water-soluble extract from flowers contains various
glycosides (Zhang et al., 1995).

Ecology
Jasmines are tropical or subtropical plants, native to eastern and southern
Asia, Africa, Australia and basically day-neutral. Warm sunny conditions
promote growth and flowering, and with adequate soil moisture, jasmine
can withstand short periods of very high temperature without undue stress.
Growth and flowering are depressed by shade, low daytime temperature and
cool wet conditions. In regions where there are severe frosts, pruned plants
must be protected in winter.
Jasminum auriculatum is probably native to southern India, adapted to a
region with high temperature and above-average rainfall, hence the 2000 ha
under the crop in Tamil Nadu State. Temperature has a significant effect on
the onset and duration of flowering, and a relatively low day and higher night
temperature favours bud formation; thus highest flower yield occurs in
June-July in Tamil Nadu.
Jasminum grandzflorum is native to northern Iran, Afghanistan and Kash-
mir, and has been widely introduced and commercially cultivated in many
countries, principally around the Mediterranean. Basically adapted to a
mild-temperate climate, local cultivars are often drought and frost resistant.
An above average day and below average night temperature is required for
maximum floral initiation. Budding suitable J . grandzflorum cultivars on to
the local wild J . oficinale produced frost resistant plants in Sicily and
increased disease resistance in France. Most J. grandzflorum plantations are
below 500 m, and some are at sea-level in Europe, but the effect of altitude
on a specific cultivar has not been determined. T h e cultivar ‘Siu-En’
previously considered to be a form of J. odoratissimum is cultivated on
Taiwan; it is self-supporting, with opposite, pinnate leaves of five to seven
leaflets, the terminal leaflet being sessile. The flowers are whitish yellow,
2.1-2.7 cm in diameter.
348 Chapter 9

Jasrninurn sambac has a long history of cultivation and thus widely dis-
seminated in early times, but it is probably native to southern India where
birds are the main seed dispersal agent. The many local cultivars are adapted
to a wide range of environments, although all are frost sensitive and many
have little drought resistance. In China, protection of the local cultivar is
essential if plants are to survive the winter (Deng et al., 1986). Individual
cultivars react differently to a specific environment but, as the species is
commercially cultivated only in India, growers are well aware of any local
requirements. In general, cultivars with a potentially high flower yield have a
more restricted range than those with lower, as the former require longer day
length and above average day and night temperature to produce the highest
flower yield.

Soils and fertilizers


The three jasmine species require similar soils, react similarly to applied
nutrients, and will be referred to collectively as jasmine in this section, with
specific reference when necessary. The most productive soils are usually
sandy clays or loams, but almost any well-drained soil is suitable; marshy,
waterlogged or very stony soils should be avoided. A neutral to slightly acid
soil, p H 6-8 is favoured, but more acid soils can be utilized with some loss of
flower yield. Saline soils are normally unproductive, since many jasmine
cultivars are salt-sensitive.
Jasmine responds well to added nutrients and high flower-yielding culti-
vars usually give greater increases than lower-yielders at the same level
applied. A cultivaritype of fertilizer interaction has occurred and local
fertilizer trials are necessary to determine the optimum level. Most data
show the effect of applied nutrients on flower yield since this is the most
important single factor; the effect on concrete yield or aroma has been little
noted. Fertilizers are normally applied manually and hoed-in during weed-
ing. Where smallholders are the main producers, FYM or well-rotted plant
residues are placed in planting holes, with a further amount spread around
plants following pruning, and again prior to main flowering. This not only
provides plant nutrients, it acts as a soil ameliorator and mulch.
An annual application per plant of 40-60 kg plus 1-2 kg ammonium
sulphate or urea in split top-dressings is usually sufficient; phosphate and/or
potassium can be added to planting holes, but additional amounts may be
necessary in succeeding years. In southern India, an annual application per
plant of 30 kg FYM, 600 g ammonium sulphate, 1500 g superphosphate and
420 g of potassium chloride in six applications between January and No-
vember is officially recommended. Where animal or plant residues are not
utilized, a compound fertilizer is usually applied at planting out, the propor-
tions determined by soil analysis; a common NPK ratio is 1: 1.5:1. On larger
north Indian plantations, 350 g ammonium sulphate, 850 g superphosphate
Oleaceae 349

and 65 g potassium chloride per plant annually for 5 years is recommended


by the Agricultural Department.
Where there are large phosphate rock deposits, as in Morocco, the ground
rock is broadcast annually between rows after pruning and worked into the
soil but, in general, superphosphate or di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) are
used. In some soils there is a high residual effect from a phosphate applica-
tion and additional phosphate not required for 2-3 years. Once a deficiency
of potassium has been alleviated, further applications are usually small and
their necessity must be accurately determined. Nitrogen generally raises
flower yield by increasing the number of flower-bearing laterals, but the
optimum rate of application varies with the soil type and cultivar. The
number of applications is more critical than the total amount or type
applied. Monthly application during flowering tends to give a greater in-
crease in flower yield than longer intervals, while split applications produce
a greater total flower yield than the same amount applied only in the seedbed
and as one top-dressing.
Fertilizers can affect the concrete yield per kilogram of flowers, but the
results are extremely variable and probably applicable to the trial locality
only. Nitrogen was the nutrient most often noted and number of applica-
tions or type of nitrogen fertilizer was considered more important than the
amount. In general, a significant increase in concrete recovery per unit of
flowers only occurred when a growth-limiting deficiency was corrected.

Cultivation
The most important operation prior to establishing a jasmine plantation is
deep ploughing, mainly to bring roots and similar material to the surface.
These must be collected and burnt, since jasmine is very susceptible to root
diseases spread from pathogens remaining on such debris; it was believed in
France that jasmine would only succeed on land that had remained fallow
for some years. Jasmine plants can be grown from seed, but viability is
seldom above 50%, and seed less than six months old should be used. In
India, a dormancy period of one month was noted in some local cultivars
(Srivastava and Karmakar, 1986). Jasmine is normally propagated by cut-
tings, layering or budding on selected rootstock and the technique selected
is that applicable to the local cultivar, since some provide easily-rooted
cuttings, others must be layered. Cuttings of 12-20 cm should be from
terminal shoots and dipping in a rooting preparation increases the strike
rate. Irradiation generally reduces root development (Devaiah and Shriv-
astava, 1989). Mist-propagation of small cuttings or plantlets is possible, but
requires special equipment.
Layering carried out in the field is simple but lengthy, and mature one-
year-old shoots provide the best material. A slanting cut is made approx-
imately half-way through the shoot some 50 cm from the end; this portion of
350 Chapter 9

the shoot (which must remain attached to the plant) is then buried horizon-
tally about 10-1 5 cm deep and pegged down with the terminal end remain-
ing above ground. Layers must be kept moist as roots form relatively slowly,
and it may be 4-6 months before the layers can be severed from the parent
and removed for transplanting.
Cuttings are usually placed in prepared planting holes and watered. In
some soils it is preferable to open the pits at least a week before planting, and
well mix the fertilizer with the soil to avoid damaging cuttings. Since jasmine
is very susceptible to soilborne fungal diseases, dipping cuttings in a fungi-
cide or adding it to the water is recommended. A spacing of 2 X 1.5 m is
common, and will require 3500-4500 cuttingslha. Spare cuttings should be
available for infilling. Local spacing varies very widely resulting in 3000 to
30,000 pph, but a high plant population generally produces more flowers
and thus concrete per hectare in the same locality than a low population. In
India, 4500-5000 pph consistently out-yielded lower populations, but in the
highly fertile and well-watered Nile Delta of Egypt, 3000-3500 pph is
common with flower yields of 8000 kglha.
Jasmine plants require support, ranging from individual stakes and trellis
to post and wire systems as used in vineyards; the choice entirely dependent
on local preference and cost. Since jasmine plantations can remain pro-
ductive for up to 15 years, a sturdy system should be selected. Jasmine plants
make slow growth in the first 2 years after planting out, require frequent
weeding, and manual or mechanical weeding should be as shallow as
possible. Herbicides are little used and are normally also too expensive for
smallholders. In India and other Asian countries intercropping in the first 2
years is usual to defray plantation establishment cost. In southern Italy,
jasmine is intercropped in bergamot orange plantations, which may not
become productive for 10-15 years.
Irrigation is normally necessary to ensure a continuous supply of flowers,
with water applied after pruning until end of flowering; in drier areas weekly
watering may be necessary to induce continuous flowering. Surface irriga-
tion is most common since overhead irrigation during flowering reduces the
amount of b n c r e t e produced,.and may also attenuate flower scent. It is
important locally to determine the most efficient method of applying water
and the amount, since both affect plantation profitability. Monitoring of
available soil moisture (ASM) is now simple with a range of inexpensive
instruments and should be the basis of any irrigation programme. In Tamil
Nadu, irrigating at 60% ASM produced highest flower yield from J. grand-
iflorum; delaying to 20% ASM reduced yield (Thamburaj et al., 1984).
Flowering begins about 6 months after planting out although flower yield
in the first 2 years is generally low. Plants flower profusely in the third year
and may continue to do so for another 10-1 2 years. Mature plants flower for
7-9 months in warm regions, 4-6 months in more temperate areas, and
main flowering is usually July-October in Europe, January-December in
Oleaceae 35 1

India. In Bangalore the peak flowering months of July, August and Sep-
tember contributed 50% of total flower yield; October, November, De-
cember 40%. In Egypt, August contributes one-third, July and September
another third, and June, October and November the remainder. In Turkey,
August and September contributed two thirds, July and October one third.
Growth regulators can affect the onset of flowering as noted, but have little
effect on duration. Pruning at various dates also had little effect on either
onset or duration of flowering in India, which remained June-July (Mu-
thuswami and Rao, 1980).
Annual pruning is necessary to ensure flowers are within reach of pickers,
to provide new growth, and to remove dead or diseased shoots. The degree
and extent of pruning depends on the cultivar and local experience, as the
rate of regrowth varies substantially. Since pruning is so important, its
relationship to flower and concrete production has been widely studied. In
India the effect on bud initiation in local cultivars has been investigated in
detail, but may not necessarily be relevant elsewhere (Subramanian et al.,
1985; Siddagangaiah, 1990). The majority of growers cut back plants to
around half their size after flowering, usually 90 cm, and some smallholders
also strip leaves to reduce disease carry-over. Early pruning in the first week
of December in Egypt gave higher yield of flowers than late pruning in the
last week of January (Table 9.2), but February is favoured in Turkey (Anac,
1986). Similar results have been reported in other countries, although the
differences in total annual yield were sometimes greater. Prunings must be
burnt to reduce the incidence of disease in the following season, and the ash
is used as fertilizer. After pruning, a thorough weeding should remove all
persistent weeds and grasses.

Harvesting
Flowers open in the early morning and there is a rapid and significant loss of
volatiles once buds have opened; for instance the important odoriferous
constituent indole fell by 0.6-0.8 mg/100 mg flowers in the first hours after
buds opened in India. There is also a substantial difference between volatiles
contained in living and harvested flowers; benzyl acetate fell from 60% to

Table 9.2. Effect on pruning on flower yielda of jasmineb in Egypt.

Pruned June July August September October November Total


5 December 9.0 12.7 20.5 12.4 8.1 5.6 68.3
1 January 7.5 11.1 18.0 11.4 7.5 5.1 60.6
25 January 5.7 9.5 18.8 12.3 7.8 5.1 59.2
22.2 33.3 57.3 36.1 23.4 15.8 188.1
akg per plot (size not stated): Jasminum grandiflorum cultivar
Source: Nofal and Marwan (1983).
352 Chapter 9

40%, but linalool rose from 3% to 30% of total volatiles respectively


(Mookerjee et al., 1990). There can also be variation in the quality of
concrete obtained, although this is more obvious in flowers picked in
succeeding months. If ester value (as benzyl acetate) is considered, absolute
produced from concrete obtained from November flowers in Italy had an
ester value of 18, compared to 40 in August. In Egypt, the total volatiles
content in absolute was higher from September flowers at 48.9% than in the
preceding 3 months at 40.7%, and October 36.2%; however the highest
concrete yield was August, 0.18%, compared with 0.13% in September.
The variation in composition of concretes from different countries is
reflected in that of the absolute obtained. When related to the proportion of
certain constituents, it may be used to distinguish country of origin (Table
9.3). The interval between picking and extraction also directly affects
concrete yield; by increasing the interval by half-hourly increments from 30
minutes to 5 hours in India, concrete yield fell from 0.34% to 0.27%. A
similar fall was recorded in concrete recovery from flowers picked at hourly
intervals between 4 a.m. and 1 p.m., from 0.35% to 0.26% (Nedumaran and
Shanmugavelu, 1978). Packing freshly picked flowers in polyethylene bags
and freezing at -15°C in Egypt allowed storage without loss of yield, quality
or odour of the extracted concrete and absolute. The levels of benzyl acetate,
benzyl benzoate, indole, isophytol and phytol were virtually unchanged
(Atawia et al., 1988).
Flowers are usually picked manually but, to reduce the labour required or
as an alternative where none is easily available, prototype suction or mechan-
ical pluckers have been tested; none are commercially available. Pickers are
usually young women or children who are expected to pick 2 kg flowers in
4-5 hours, a highly skilled picker 3 kg in 6 hours. Flowers must be quickly
processed since delay substantially reduces volatiles and thus odour. Flow-
ers should be kept shaded and cool between picking and processing, and the
processing facility located close to the plantation. Close supervision of
harvesting and factory operations is essential to ensure a constant, even flow
of material and equipment usage as it is at this period the greatest potential
for loss exists. While there is no theoretical limit to the size of a jasmine
plantation and its processing plant, the necessity to pick flowers manually
imposes a very definite constraint. The number of persons required may not
be available early in the morning when picking must begin, and the best-
documented instance of a labour-imposed limit was on the large Pierre
Chaivet plantation at Berkane, Morocco, which reached its maximum at 60
ha.
Flowers are normally picked between dawn and 9.30-10.00 a.m. but in
Thailand from a local cultivar, between 3.30 and 6.00 p.m. attaining full
bloom at 9 p.m. (Lekskul, 1975). Opening buds ofJ. odoratissimum are also
collected in the evening on Taiwan, and extracted when fully opened
(Cheng and Chao, 1977), a system occasionally used in India. In general,
Oleaceae 353

half-opened and fresh fully opened white flowers only must be picked, not
buds, or flowers which have turned yellow as these will affect quality of the
absolute. Rain in the flowering period must be ignored as, although wet
flowers are of little value, to let them remain tends to suppress further
flowering.
Flower yield varies from 5500-1 0,500 kgiha, average 5000-8000 kgiha,
but a modern commercial plantation should aim at 8000-10,000 kg/ha, a
not unrealistic target since selections within local cultivars at local Indian
experimental stations gave flower yields of 12,500 kgiha with a concrete
yield of 0.35%-0.40%. A breeding programme can be expected quickly and
substantially to increase potential yield in a specific region. As an approx-
imate guide, 1000 kg flowers when solvent extracted yield 2.5-3.5 kg
concrete and half this amount as absolute.
The most important factors affecting total concrete yield are number of
flowers harvested per hectare and their concrete content. Unless the cultivar
chosen has a high potential yield of both, it is almost impossible to profitably
offset the loss by other methods; agronomic, administrative or processing.
The concrete yield of nine Indian cultivars ofJ. sambac for instance, varied
from 1.2 to 12 kgiha when grown under similar conditions; with average
concrete yield from J. grandzjlorum of 0.33% (double extraction gave

Table 9.3. Main characteristics of jasmine concrete

Egypt France India


Specific gravity (“C) 0.8900 (25) 0.886 (15) 0.9002 (50)
0.988
Refractive index (“C) 1.4706 (26) 1.464 (20) 1.475 (50)
1.466
Acid value 9.3771 9-1 5 ng
Ester value 109.86 70-1 10 ng
Iodine value 112.37 ng ng
Melting-point (“C) ng 47-52 51
Main characteristics of jasmine absolute.

Egypt France Italy


Specific gravity (“C) 0.950 (15) 0.929 (20) 0.935 (20)
0.990 0.955 0.948
Refractive index (“C) 1.485 (20) 1.482 (20) 1.485 (20)
1.505 1.493 1.491
Acid value 5-20 4-1 7 11-15
Ester value 110-1 60 96-1 47 115-142
lndole content (%) ng 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
Solubility 1:5 (96%) ng ng
ng, not given. All figures in columns are ranges.
354 Chapter 9

0.55%), J. auriculatum 0.32%, J. $exile 0.21% and J. sambac 0.17%.


Characteristics of the concrete also differed; J. grandijlorum had a slip point
of 50°C, melting-point 5 l 0 C , refractive index 1.4750, specific gravity
(30°C) 0.9002; for J. sambac 45"C, 46"C, 1.4665 and 0.8794 respectively;
for J. auriculatum refractive index 1.4680, specific gravity 0.9002 (Ra-
machandraiah, 1984).
Similarly to flower yield concrete also has a peak; in Egypt 0.18% in
August, 0.12% in September and October; in India 0.31% in July, 0.26% in
February and November. Examination of unpublished data indicated
monthly variation in concrete yield per kilogram of flowers is usually less
extreme than flower yield per plant, but affected by the same external
factors, i.e. temperature, humidity, hours of sunshine, etc. Agronomic
factors which increase total flower yield per hectare thus increase total
concrete yield, but it appears more difficult to significantly increase concrete
yield of individual flowers. In India, five J. grandiflorum selections varied in
flower yield from 4329-10,144 kg/ha (average 7 174), concrete recovery
0.29-0.32% (average 0.286%), while six J. sambac selections yielded
739-6935 kg/ha flowers (average 3782), concrete recovery 0.12-0.19%
(average 0.15%) (Anon., 1978).
T o summarize, the most important factors influencing yield of concrete
per kilogram of flowers harvested are the type of flowers picked, time of
picking and interval between picking and processing. Thus training of
pickers to select only the required flower type is essential, as concrete yield
can be halved when unsuitable flowers are processed.

Distillation
Jasmine oil can be obtained directly from flowers by steam distillation, but
the yield is so low that the process is not viable. The main constituent is
benzyl acetate to 80%. Liquid jasmine absolutes are sometimes referred to as
jasmine oil and a number of analyses have been published on this basis. An
Indian jasmine oil obtained by liquid carbon dioxide extraction was golden
yellow, free from artefacts and solvent residue, and stated to have a good
shelf life. T h e benzyl acetate cQntent averaged 16%, benzyl benzoate 19%,
and phytol + methyl linoleate 14% (Gopalakrishnan and Narayanan,
1991).
Jasmine concrete is obtained from flowers by enfleurage or solvent extrac-
tion, most recently using liquid carbon dioxide. Enfleurage entails pressing
jasmine flowers between two plates (chassis) containing a fatty base (Fig.
9.2). Each batch ofblooms is pressed for 24-48 hours, then spent flowers are
replaced by freshly picked. This operation is repeated until the fat becomes
saturated with flower oil, which takes several months. The oil is then
extracted with alcohol to yield jasmine de pomade. A yield 2.5 times that of
direct solvent extraction of flowers has been recorded. Pommade is used
exclusively as the precursor to absolute. Exhausted flowers from enfleurage
Oieaceae 355

can be extracted to produce an inferior absolute. Enfleurage is highly labour


intensive and has been virtually abandoned. Despite its high price, jasmine
extract produced by cold enfleurage is still considered by formulators of very
high quality cosmetics and perfumes to be superior to all others, described
by a Pfizer parfumeuse as having ‘a light and powerful floral note tinged with
cassis and orange, without being dominated by indole or anthranilate.’
In solvent extraction, flowers are washed up to three times usually with
petroleum ether but preferably hydrocarbon-free, food-grade hexane which
is considered to produce concrete with the finest odour; the extract is then
distilled to remove the solvent. Concrete yields of 0.05-1.50% have been
reported using hexane, around 0.60% is most common. Direct comparison
of quoted concrete yields is of little value unless full details of cultivar,
country and method of extraction are given. An absolute is produced by

Fig. 9.2. Jasmine enfleurge, France.


356 Chapter 9

treating concrete with alcohol. Concrete is normally produced as close as


possible to the plantations, but absolute where convenient, often in another
country. Treatment of flowers prior to extraction can increase yield of
concrete; grinding, crushing or pressing have all been successful in the
laboratory, as has freezing, but these techniques are apparently not used
commercially. A method of processing jasmine flowers by dynamic absorp-
tion on activated carbon was developed in Russia; the essential oil was
evaporated from flowers in a moist airflow, deposited in the carbon, then
extracted with ethyl ether. Exhausted flowers were subsequently treated
with petroleum ether to produce concrete (Kotliarova, 1964).

Pests and diseases


Jasmine can be attacked by many species of insects, but few are apparently of
economic importance or cause major damage except in specific years or on
a particular crop. Insecticides are little used during the flowering season
when the often very strong and offensive odours may be absorbed by flowers;
their main use is after pruning or prior to flowering. Roots and lower stems
are frequently attacked by various beetles and their larvae, small stem-borers
and occasionally termites in very dry years. T h e most commonly recorded
are various cockchafers, in Europe and the Middle East usually Melolontha
melolontha, in warmer areas Cetonia aurata; cutworms, especially local Agro-
tis spp., damage young plants. Caterpillars of moths and butterflies damage
foliage; frequently reported are various sphingids including Acherontia atro-
pos in most jasmine-growing areas of Europe and the Middle East, less often
A. styx; in warmer regions of Asia Spodoptera spp., particularly S. exempta
and S. littoralis, commonly known as army worm or budworm. Several
pentatomids, stink bugs, often cause minor damage to new shoots and die-
back of terminal shoots.
Mites, especially spider mites Tetranychus spp. can often be found on
jasmine and may cause severe defoliation of specific plants. Aphids, earwigs
and thrips are usually present and can become numerous enough to require
control, but damage is normally small. Buds can be attacked by several plant
bugs including Lygus spp., midges especially Contarinia spp. and occasion-
ally weevils, but flower-eating beetles are of little importance since unpicked
flowers are virtually worthless.
Nematodes have often been reported as present on jasmine roots, but are
seldom accurately identified or degree of damage noted.
The most common root and stem rots are caused by Phytophthora spp.,
Pythium spp. and Fusarium spp., less often by Corticium spp., Verticillium
spp. or Botytis spp. Leaf spots are common on cultivated jasmine, the most
important being due to various species of Puccinia, Cercospora, Alternaria and
Septoria; Uromyces hobsoni has been specifically mentioned in India. Mildews
are important only where a major outbreak occurs when buds and develop-
ing flowers can be severely damaged. Bud rot caused by Botytis spp. only
Oleaceae 357

occurs in excessively damp or humid conditions and can then be extremely


damaging. The incidence of foliar diseases can be greatly reduced by
burning prunings followed by prophylactic spraying, since the relatively bare
bushes allow almost complete coverage.

Products and sflecifications


Concrete is normally a yellowish orange to reddish orange or yellowish
brown waxy solid, only partially soluble in 95% alcohol; the main character-
istics of concrete from selected origins are shown in Table 9.3. Wide
variation in composition and level of different components is common; for
example benzyl acetate has been reported as 14.7% in Egyptian concrete,
10.7% in French, 4.4% in Italian and 8.8% from Comoros. Concrete odour
is typically jasmine (see under absolutes), and may vary in intensity and type
according to origin and extraction method. Concrete composition also
varies widely and most end-users favour a particular origin. Concretes from
China are quite different from all others, and may not be produced wholly
from jasmine flowers. A detailed comparison of Chinese, Egyptian and
Moroccan absolutes has been published (Toyoda et al., 1977). Concrete is
used primarily to produce absolute, but also in inexpensive soap and similar
products to modify the synthetics used.
Jasmine absolute is usually obtained by solvent extracting concrete (but
see Chapter 1 9 , and is a dark orangy-brown darkening with age to reddish-
brown sometimes deep red, viscous liquid. A greyish sediment may be
deposited following prolonged storage. Sunlight or powerful artificial light
can cause changes, darkening the colour and reducing its quality; in partic-
ular, benzyl acetate and benzyl benzoate are degraded. The main character-
istics of absolute from selected countries are shown in Table 9.3 and a
comparison of main components of absolutes from selected origins in Table
9.4. Absolutes from different origins vary substantially in the ratio and
proportions of constituents; Turkish absolute for instance contains no linalyl
acetate (Anac, 1986).
Yield of absolute from concrete is very variable, depending mainly on
origin and normally less than 0.3%. The odour is described as typically
jasmine, but perfumers often become lyrical when describing it in speech or
print, and there is a traditional belief among perfumers that there is ‘No
perfume without jasmine’! Arctander has it thus; ‘An intense floral, warm,
rich, highly diffusive odour, with a peculiar waxy-herbaceous oily-fruity and
tea-like undertone’. So powerful and tenacious is the odour that the absolute
normally comprises a minute proportion of a product formula. Its main use
is therefore in perfumes of all kinds, from grande perj%rnes to cheap scents.
The increasing demand for jasmine absolute has encouraged international
companies to introduce many specialized products, either by reprocessing or
changing flower odour as previously noted. Jasmine absolute from pomade
is considered by perfumers to have an odour less true than absolute from
358 Chapter 9

Table 9.4. Comparative chemical composition of jasmine absolutes

Compound Algerian Egyptian French Italian


Ethyl alcohol 1.62 2.59 1.79 ng
Linalool 5.74 6.1 1 6.44 6.54
Benzyl acetate 27.13 26.25 22.09 26.84
Farnesene 2.00 2.46 1.86 1.37
Benzyl alcohol 1.22 0.92 1.56 1.79
cis(A9)Jasmone 2.95 2.23 2.60 2.93
Nerolidol 0.16 0.18 0.11 0.16
(2)(A9)3(A9)hexenyl benzoate 2.49 2.40 2.64 2.76
Eugenol 2.27 2.38 1.66 1.86
Methyl anthranilate 2.60 1.93 2.04 2.86
Isophytola 8.37 9.27 9.77 7.41
Methyl jasmonate 3.18 3.88 2.99 3.07
lndole 2.55 2.71 2.48 1.39
Phytol acetate 7.90 9.00 10.25 7.98
Methyl linoleate 3.18 3.26 2.63 2.08
Phytol’ 20.77 9.17 24.55 24.76
Benzyl benzoate ng 116 8 ng ng
a lsophytol t jasmine lactone; phytol t benzyl benzoate; ng, not given.

Source: Adapted from Srinivas (1986).

concrete; it is not normally available commercially. Absolute is frequently


adulterated with synthetics, lower quality absolutes and non-jasmine mate-
rial. The true product is determined almost wholly by the experienced nose
of the perfumer, one of whom stated ‘a jasmine absolute was of good quality
if it was characterised by a volatile yet clearly perceived cassis note’. Absolute
is expensive and a range of synthetic substitutes are available, but none are
able to duplicate the original accurately, and jasmine absolute has usually to
be added to produce the authentic odour. There is an extensive literature on
this subject.
Wax remaining after petroleum ether extracting concrete retains the
characteristic but much attenuated odour of jasmine, can be used in soaps,
and is an excellent perfume fixative. A number of local products are available
in India using jasmine flowers. Attar (otto) of jasmine, East Indian jasmine
oil, is prepared by hydro-distilling flowers and collecting the distillate on
sandalwood oil; approximately 500 kg flowers are required to produce 1 kg
oil. Perfumed oils, churneli ku tel, are produced by extracting flowers with hot
sesame or groundnut oil; similar to enfleurage, relays of flowers are kept in
contact with the oil until it is saturated. Jasmine-scented sesame seed oil is
produced by spreading alternate layers of seed and flowers. Exhausted
flowers are removed every 10-1 2 hours and the process repeated sufficient
times to impregnate the seed with jasmine perfume; the seed is then crushed.
Three oil grades are recognized; high grade siru, medium grade buju, and low
Oleaceae 359

grade raddi, and the last two are prepared from exhausted flowers used to
produce sira.

Osmanthus

The genus Osrnanthus contains mainly evergreen shrubs and generally small
trees native to South East Asia through Polynesia to North America; some
produce a locally utilized timber, Osrnanthus arnericanus in the eastern USA
and 0. sandwicensis in Hawaii, but 0. fragrans native to the Himalayas,
China and Japan is the only essential oil producer. It is frequently planted
around temples and shrines.
Osrnanthusfragrans Lour. (syn. Olea fragrans Thunb.), sweet osmanthus,
is an evergreen dioecious shrub to 5-10 m. The stem is erect and branching;
the timber white, hard, close and even grained. The leaves are glossy green,
leathery, to 6-12 cm, elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, with the tip acute or
acuminate, the base cuneate, and the margins entire or finely and sharply
toothed, sometimes undulating, reticulate beneath. The flowers are creamy
white to 6 mm, borne in clusters on slender pedicels to 8 mm in leaf axils, the
corolla divided almost to the base. Main flowering is March-April in China,
although flowering can be prolonged in warmer regions. Osrnanthus flowers
are considered to have one of the most powerful scents of any plant, and are
used in China to perfume tea. The fruit is a purple ovoid drupe to 10-12
mm.
The tree prefers an open sunny situation, and will grow on a wide range of
free-draining soils, but is intolerant of water-logging. It is considered frost
resistant but drought-tender, and flourishes under intermittent shade. Prop-
agation is by cuttings from the current year’s growth taken in late summer,
and planted in pots or seedbeds for planting out the following spring. With
proper care, the strike rate is high. Plants can be raised from seed but
germination is often slow and erratic. Harvesting and treatment of flowers as
for jasmine.
Flowers are solvent extracted to produce an absolute whose main con-
stituents are: beta-ionone, geraniol, trans-and cis-linalool oxide and linalool.
A Chinese absolute included the following main components, in per cent:
beta-ionone 34, dihydro-beta-ionone 16, gamma-declactone 13, trans-
linalool oxide 6, cis- linalool oxide 6, and linool 4 (Lawrence, 1986). There
is very wide variation in published analyses, particularly between Chinese
and Japanese absolutes, with the latter considered to be closer to the scent of
fresh flowers. Fresh absolute readily oxidizes on exposure to light and air.
Most absolute produced in China is for the domestic market, but exports
have recently increased. The main use elsewhere is in high quality fragrances
and cosmetics.
360 Chapter 9

References
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237-247 ~

Bai, P.Y. (1992) A new species of the genus Jasminum. Acta Bot.Yunnan. 14(4),
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Boros, C.A. and Stermitz, F.R. (1991) Flower oil ofJasminum sambac. J . Nut. Prod.
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Piperaceae 10-
The Piperales consist of three families, Piperaceae, Saururaceae and Chlor-
anthaceae, and the order has strong affinities with the Magnoliales. Piper-
aceae includes ten to twelve genera with Piper and Peperomia accounting for
most species. The genus Piper L. probably contains about 1000 species, and
many are tropical shrubs or woody climbers. Piper nigrum L., the pepper
vine, is corr.mercially the most important yielding the almost essential
culinary spice, pepper; less significant are P. cubeba L. and P.betle, L. The
fruits of other pepper species used as a substitute or alternative to pepper are
mentioned later.
Leaves of P. pinnatum Lour. are used to scent clothes in Indo-China, and
P.bantamense Blume. similarly in Malaysia. Leaves, roots and fruit of P.
excelsum Forst. have a variety of medicinal uses in the south Pacific region
and Australasia. The pounded roots of P.methysticum Forst. blended with
coconut milk make the mildly intoxicating Polynesian drink kava-kava, and
roots of P. medium Jacq. are similarly used in central America. P. porphyr-
ophyllum N.E.Br. with its attractive purple and silver leaves is now cultivated
as an ornamental.
Fruits known or used as alternatives to pepper are obtained from the
pepper tree, Schinus molle L. whose pungent red berries are a poor substitute
for true peppercorns; red or chilli pepper is the ground fruit of various
Capsicum spp. principally C. annuum L. and C. fmtescens L.; Japanese pepper
is obtained from Zanthoxylum piperitum D C .; Jamaican pepper from Pimenta
dioica (L.) Merr., and melegueta or alligator pepper from Aframomum
melegueta (Rosc.) K.Schum. of West Africa. Xylopia aethiopica A.F&ch., also
of West Africa and a pepper substitute, is considered to be the Piper
aethiopium of seventeenth century Europe.

362
Piperaceae 363

Pepper

The pepper vine (Piper nigrum) is native to the hills of western India,
esteemed as a spice in India since time immemorial, and dispersed in trade
throughout the world (Watt, 1908). So important was pepper that the search
for the source of the spice and thus control of the trade was a significant
factor influencing world exploration and history. The long pepper, P. Zongum
L. is the pippali of Sanskrit from which the Greek, Latin and most European
names are derived. It was probably the first pepper to reach the Medi-
terranean and was originally more highly regarded in the classical world than
P. nigrum. Two peppers were recognized by the Greek Theophrastus
(372-287 BC), black pepper and long pepper. Dioscorides mentions black
and white pepper which he believed were produced on different plants. In
the Roman Empire, pepper was well established as an article of commerce,
shipped to Red Sea ports by Arabs using the Arabian Sea monsoons.
Cosmos Indicopleustes visited India and Ceylon and describes accurately
the harvesting and preparation of pepper on the Malabar coast in Topo-
graphia Christiana (circa 545 AD). By the Middle Ages pepper was of great
importance in Europe to season or preserve meats, and overcome the odours
of rancid food. Peppercorns were very expensive and accepted as currency,
which survives in the term peppercorn rent. The statutes of Ethelred in
tenth-century England required early German spice traders to pay tribute,
including 10 pounds of pepper, for the privilege of trading with London
merchants. A pepperers’ guild of wholesale merchants founded in London
in 1180 was subsequently incorporated into a spicers’ guild, succeeded in
1429 by the present Grocers’ Company. The original pepperers and spicers
were the forerunners of apothecaries, emphasizing the role spices formerly
occupied in the medical treatment of patients. Pepper was no exception, and
concurrently with its use as a spice, pepper and later pepper oil had an
important place, and most early European herbal and medical treatises
attributed a range of beneficial effects to its use as a drink or external
emollient.
Pepper probably arrived in Java with early Hindu colonists and its wide-
spread cultivation dates from at least AD 500. Marco Polo describes pepper
cultivation in Java which he visited in 1280, of Chinese sailing vessels
loading up to 6000 baskets, and the abundance of pepper on the Malabar
coast of India (Description of the World, 1298). T h e great wealth of Venice
and Genoa in the thirteenth century was due largely to the spice trade.
Portugal’s desire to obtain part of this lucrative business was mainly respon-
sible for Vasco da Gama circumnavigating Africa and arriving at Calicut on
the Malabar coast of western India on 20 May 1498. This enabled Portugal
to secure a monopoly of the spice trade, which it maintained for a century.
Lisbon became the most important European trading centre for oriental
364 Chapter 10

spices, with entrep6ts in Goa and Malacca, which also exported pepper to
China. Varthema in his Travels gave a vivid picture of the Calicut plantations
in the sixteenth century:
It is like a vine climbing on trees: from each of the branches are produced five
to eight clusters of berries, a little longer than a man’s finger; they are like
raisins but more regularly arranged, and are as green as unripe grapes; they
gather them in October and November, and lay them in the sun on mats,
when they turn black as they are seen among us, without doing anything else
to them. And you must know that these people neither prune nor hoe this tree
which produces the pepper.

Also, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Barbosa in his Coasts of East
Africa and Malabar gives a detailed account of the plant and of the trade in
pepper from Calicut shortly after the arrival of the Portuguese. Early in the
seventeenth century the Dutch acquired pepper-producing areas near Ban-
tam in Java and Lampong, Sumatra. Although the Dutch subsequently
controlled much of the pepper trade, they never succeeded in maintaining a
complete monopoly as they did with clove and nutmeg (Boxer, 1965). The
demise of Dutch dominance coincided with the entry of the USA into the
Far Eastern spice trade, and in 1797 Captain Jonathan Carnes of Salem,
Massachusetts, sailed the schooner Rajah into New York harbour carrying
pepper worth $100,000 from Sumatra. During the next 50 years ships from
Salem and Boston played an important role in world pepper trade, and in the
first half of the nineteenth century this trade reputedly produced in Salem
some of America’s first millionaires (Putnam, 1924; Rosengarten, 1969).
Early in the nineteenth century the British organized pepper planting in
Malaysia and later Sarawak.
The main pepper producers are India at around 50,000 t annually with
exports of two thirds, Indonesia which exported an average of 35,000 t i n the
years 1993-1995; Sarawak, Malaysia, which produced an average 30,000 t
in 1990-1 994, mainly exported; and Brazil which rapidly increased produc-
tion in the last decade to 40,000 t, mainly exported. These four countries
were the founder members of the International Pepper Community, now
including other producers. Countries producing small quantities for export
are Costa Rica, Madagascar, Kampuchea, Sri Lanka and Vietnam, while
others including the Philippines consume their production domestically.
Total pepper available on the world market in the crop years 1992-1993,
1993-1994 and 1994-1995 was, in tonnes, 163,000,109,000 and 117,000,
indicating the major effect of inclement weather on the crop; Indonesia for
example lost two thirds of total production in one year due to drought.
Other Piper species and the parts used are shown in Table 10.1.
Pepper spice is the dried berries of P. nigrunz, black pepper from the whole
berry, white pepper from grinding mature berries after removal of the
mesocarp. Production and preparation of the spice has been described
Piperaceae 365

Table 10.1. Less important Piper species and the parts used,

Species Common name Location Part used


P. cubeba L. Tailed pepper South East Asia OF
P. clusii DC. Wild pepper West Africa F
P. guineense Schum. Ashanti pepper West Africa F
P. longifohm R. & P. Wild pepper South America F
P. longum L. Indian long pepper India OF
P. retrofractum Vahl. Java long pepper Indonesia F
P. saigonense C.DC. Vietnam pepper Indo-China F
F, fruits: 0, oil.

(Purseglove et al., 1981) and of green pepper (Mathew, 1993). The uses and
derivatives of a number of species have been described: P. guineense (Ekun-
day0 et al., 1988), P. aduncum L. (Orjala et al., 1993); and Pimenta spp. from
the Caribbean in a series of papers by D r A.O. Tucker and colleagues in the
Journal of Essential Oil Research from 1991 on. All references to pepper in this
text refer to I? nigrum and its derivatives.

Botany
Piper nigrum L.: in English pepper; Dutch peper; Spanish pimienta negra;
Portuguese pimenta; Arabic jZj?l; India, Hindi kalimirch, Tamil milagu, and
many others; the Philippines paminta; Malaysia lada; Indonesia generally
lada, black pepper lada hitam.
The cytology of the genus Piper is confused; Darlington and Wylie (1955)
give the basic chromosome number of the genus Piper as x = 12, 14, 16, and
somatic number of P. nigrum as 2n = 128. Mathew (1974) gives 2n = 52 for
six cultivars and four wild types, and 2n= 104 for two other wild types.
Samuel and Bavappa (1 98 1) reported chromosome numbers from nine
Piper spp. including 2n = 26 for P. longum and 2n = 52 for P. betle. Jose and
Sharma (1 984) state three P. nigrum cultivars P. attenuatum, P. boehmer-
iaefolium and P. longum had 2n = 52, one P. nigrum cultivar and P. chaba
2n = 104, l? peepuloides 2n = 156; P. cubeba 2n = 24 with large chromosomes,
high total chromatin length, was regarded as primitive. Chemotaxonomy
has established the relationships between south Indian peppers (Ravindran
and Babu, 1994).
Piper nigrum is a perennial, glabrous woody climber to 10 m, sometimes
taller, very variable in physical characteristics, and virtually dioecious.
Cultivars are generally hermaphrodite. The root system is extensive but
shallow with a few large roots to 4 m, the major portion remaining within 1
m of the surface (often the first 40 cm), in a circle round the stem. There is
initially one main climbing stem but others are rapidly produced which
branch profusely and, under cultivation, mature vines have a bushy, colum-
nar shape (Fig. 10.1). Climbing stems are green tinged with purple when
366 Chapter 10

Fig. 10.1. Pepper plantation, Sarawak.

young, dark green with age; mature stems are 4-6 cm in diameter, woody,
with thick, flake-like bark; fruiting branches are produced from these stems.
The pungent principle ofpepper fruit, piperine, is present at 0.2% in mature
fully differentiated shoots, but a trace only in leaves and young shoots
(Semler and Gross, 1988).
Leaves are alternate, single, 8-20 X 4-12 cm depending mainly on
cultivar, petiole 2-5 cm. The lamina is ovate, entire, coriaceous, with five to
seven main veins; the base oblique, obtuse or rounded; the tip acuminate.
The leaves are usually dark shiny green above, paler and glandular below.
Since there is a direct relationship between leaves produced and fruiting
spikes, cultural techniques in commercial plantations aim for healthy, well-
foliaged vines. The leaves also contain an essential oil which differs from
berry oil, with a scent resembling lime.
The inflorescence is a pendant spike on lateral branches, 3-1 5 cm, bearing
50-1 50 very small yellowish-green to whitish-yellow flowers. The flowers
may be unisexual, but are frequently bisexual in cultivars and in general the
higher the percentage of bisexual flowers in a particular cultivar the higher
the berry yield. The flowers lack a perianth, the two to four minute stamens
being borne laterally on the ovate sessile ovary surmounted by three to five
somewhat fleshy stigmas. Cross-fertilization is usual in the wild and wind the
main agent, but self-pollination appears to be general in hermaphrodite
flowers. Main flowering is normally at the onset of the monsoon; in Kerala it
is May-August with a July peak.
The fruit is a single-seeded, sessile, indehiscent, globose drupe (the
berry), 3-6 mm in diameter, the pericarp is pulpy, with 50-60 fruits per
spike. Unripe fruit is green, becoming red when ripe and black after drying.
When dry the black wrinkled skin encloses a single whitish seed, known as a
Piperaceae 367

peppercorn. The morphology and histology of pepper seeds has been


described (Parry, 1962). Peppercorns normally average 4.5 gi100, and in
India where litre cans are often used as a measure in markets, weight varied
from 426 to 850 g per can. Seed contains mainly starchy perisperm, a small
endosperm and minute embryo. Numerous cultivars of P. nigrum are
known, especially in India, where at least 75 have been described and each
region has its favourite (Ravindran and Nair, 1984). These cultivars produce
a wide range of berry types, varying in physical characteristics and con-
stituents (Sumathikutty et al. , 1989; Gopalkrishnan et al. , 1993). A method
of identifying pepper varieties grown in Kerala, the major producing state,
has been developed (Kanakamany et al., 1985).
The period to full fruit maturity following flowering is a cultivar character-
istic; in Sri Lanka it is 7-10 months, India 4-5 months, Sarawak 5-6
months. Fruit development can also be affected by growth stimulants (Salvi
and Desai, 1989), but whether this is profitable or indeed desirable is
debatable. A review of the use of growth regulators on pepper has been
published (Kandiannan et al., 1994). The natural variation in time to
maturity is also reflected in berry composition and volatile oil constituents.
Sri Lankan berries generally have maximum oil content at 5-5.5 months,
with highest piperine content at 4.5 months; Indian cultivars often continue
to increase their piperine content to maturity, but as frequently have a final
piperine content less than half that of Sri Lankan berries. The effect of time
of picking (maturity) on physical characteristics and constituents of Sri
Lankan berries is shown in Table 10.2, which also indicates the difference in
piperine levels recorded by the various analytical methods. Similar data for
India has been published (Sumathikutty, et al. , 1979).
Fruits on a spike do not mature together, and when a few fruits are ripe a
spike is harvested. Ripe fruits are removed, heaped and allowed to ferment,
or soaked in running water and the pericarps removed. Dried seeds are

Table 10.2. Berry composition during maturation in Sri Lanka.

Age Mean dry wt Starch Volatile oil Total


(months) (mg) (gi100 g) (m1/100 g) extractables Piperinea gil00 gb
3 9.0 1.o 3.5 16.0 12.5 12.5
4 12.8 13.0 5.0 17.7 14.1 13.9
4.5 13.2 18.0 5.5 17.9 14.2 14.1
5.25 16.2 29.3 8.6 15.8 11.5 11.0
6 18.5 30.6 8.0 16.7 9.7 9.4
6.75 25.3 42.1 4.9 14.3 8.7 9.0
7.5 28.5 53.8 6.3 14.0 7.5 7.1
atlc-uv; tlc-densitometry.
Source: Jansz et al. (1984),
368 Chapter 10

powdered to form the white pepper of commerce. Discarded hulls, approx-


imately 25% of dry berry weight, consisting mainly of fibre, can be distilled
since they contain a proportion of total oil. Black pepper is the more pungent
spice and is produced from unripe fruits on harvested spikes; these are sun-
dried usually after soaking in hot water, but may also be smoke-dried.
Pungency is due to the presence of various resins and a yellow crystalline
alkaloid, piperine (the truns-truns form of N-piperoylpiperidine) .
The berry contains a steam-volatile oil, a fixed (fatty) oil, alkaloids, resins,
proteins, cellulose, pentosans, starch and minerals. Extracts of ground fruits
have considerable insecticidal activity, have proved toxic to the common
housefly and a number of crop pests, and are considered worth further
investigation in India. Commercial consignments of black pepper usually
contain 0.6-2.6% oil; white pepper 0.5-1 .O%. The piperine content of both
is usually 4-7%' and a quoted higher level is suspect. Pungency level, aroma
and flavour of volatile oil are cultivar characteristics, although these attri-
butes can be improved by selection. The most important non-genetic factor
is maturity at harvest, as the oil content of immature berries reaches a
maximum relatively early and then diminishes while piperine content con-
tinues to increase. Thus suitability of the final product for a particular end
use is largely governed by berry maturity at harvest.
Pepper oil is produced only from black berries mainly in importing
countries and commercial oils conform to the specifications in Table 10.3,
but optical rotation has been reported as + 4 O to -34". Over 100 con-
stituents have been identified with monoterpene hydrocarbons accounting
for 70-80%, predominantly pinene, beta-pinene and limonene; with the
major sesquiterpene hydrocarbon as beta-caryophyllene. Additional analy-
ses are given in the section on products. The fatty oil which constitutes 2-9%
of the berry contains 19-38% saturated and 51-83% unsaturated acids; the
major components are, in per cent: palmitic 16-23; oleic 18-31; linoleic
25-35; linolenic 5-19. Together with other data quoted, this indicates the
very wide difference in berry composition, and thus tables and analyses
quoted herein are only generally applicable. Although considerable data on
berry composition from specific cultivars has been published, composition
can be significantly affected by seasonal influences and growers methods of
harvesting and storage, as noted later. New genotypes also produce oil with
differing or unusual component ratios, and thus vary in their taste and odour
(Gopolakrishnan et al., 1993).

Ecology
Pepper is native to wet tropical forests with its centre of origin and diversity
the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu State, India, formerly known as the
Malabar Coast, which remains India's main pepper growing region. Pepper
is also wild in Assam and Borneo, most likely an escape from early cultiva-
tion. It has since been introduced wherever there was the slightest possibility
Piperaceae 369

Table 10.3. Published standards for black pepper oil.

IS0 3061 BS 2999112 EOAa AMC-E0


Apparent density [20%) 0.870 0.868 0.864b 0.872
0.890 0.907 0.884
Refractive index (20°C) 1.480 1.480 1.4795 1.4835
1.492 1,492 1.4880
Optical rotation (20°C) -16O -15" - 23" -7.2"
t4" t4 O -I0
Ester value: max 11 11 ng 4
Solubility (viv 95% 1:3 1:3 1 :3 1:2.8
ethanol) (2O'C)
aMainly Indonesian berries: 25"; ng, not given; ISO, International Standards Organisation; BS, British
Standard Specification: EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA; AMC-EO, Analytical Methods
Committee-Essential Oils.
Figures in columns are ranges.

it would grow, so popular is the spice! A pepper vine is easily grown in a large
pot, and if trained up a suitable support will provide a plentiful supply of
fresh berries for over a decade. The adaptability of P. nigrum is demonstrated
by the large number of cultivars existing in particular countries; there are
nearly 100 in India alone. This wide range also provides plant breeders with
a choice of material when selecting a specific plant characteristic.
Pepper is basically limited to a band from 20"N to 20"s of the Equator;
commercial pepper production in Indonesia is within a few degrees of the
Equator, in Sri Lanka and Malaysia about 10"N, in southern India
12-15"N, Madagascar 15"s and Brazil to 15"s. Pepper flourishes and
produces the highest berry yield from sea-level to 500 m, but can be grown
to 1500 m provided temperature and rainfall are suitable. There is often a
decrease in berry yield or quality at the higher limit, but no comparative data
for a specific cultivar are available on the effect of altitude on growth or berry
composition.
A rainfall of 2500-3500 mm annually, well distributed over the year is the
optimum, but good berry yields can be obtained with 1500 mm provided
this falls mainly in the growing and flowering season, and soil moisture is
conserved. Warm, humid and cloudy conditions promote growth, with an
average day temperature of 2 5 3 5 ° C . Long periods of strong sunlight will
scorch unshaded plants, and the north slopes of hills are preferred for pepper
plantations in India and Sri Lanka.
Light intensity is important in determining growth and thus berry yield,
and there is not only a general reaction to this factor but also cultivar
differences (Mathai, 1986). Vines, especially seedlings, benefit from inter-
mittent or partial shade but heavy shade adversely affects flowering and fruit
370 Chapter 10

setting. Prolonged very cloudy or misty periods also have a similar but less
damaging effect.
The minimum temperature in main growing regions seldom falls below
15-1 8"C, and low temperatures depress reproductive more than vegetative
growth. Very hot dry wind inhibits growth, may kill young plants and
adversely affect pollination. Windbreaks are recommended in exposed situa-
tions, particularly when vines are not grown on living supports which
provide partial protection in addition to shade.

Soils and fertilizers


Pepper prefers a humus-rich loam similar to old-established forest soils
where the upper 50 cm contains a wealth of plant nutrients. Since this soil
type is becoming increasingly scarce following destruction of tropical forests,
other well-managed soils are equally suitable: in India loams, tropical red
earths and laterite; in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Sarawak
loams are the first choice; in Brazil the red soils, terru m u , are frequently
utilized (Milanez et al., 1987). In general, plantations are established on
preferred soil types, but small farmers grow their plants where they can. The
intensive treatment given to the latter frequently compensates for the
disadvantages of an unsuitable soil, but does not indicate larger plantings
will be successful.
In the Philippines, forest soils of p H 5 . 5 grow excellent crops, in India p H
6.5, but there are few data on the effect of soil reaction on plant growth or
berry yield. Peat soils, saline or alkaline soils are unsuitable, as also are very
acid soils. Although pepper roots should be kept moist, poorly drained or
waterlogged soils are unsuitable as pepper is very susceptible to waterlogging
even for relatively short periods, and 7-10 days can cause death of young
plants. Valley alluvia and river banks are quite suitable provided they are not
subject to flooding. A plantation must be kept weed-free, thus adequate soil
conservation measures should be routine on soils subject to erosion.
T o obtain a high annual berry yield it is essential that vines have sufficient
available nutrients, as mature vines can remove annually (kg/ha), N 233, P
17, K 172, Mg 18 and Ca 75, contained in 11,500 kgiha dry material (Sim,
1971), while a healthy stand of 700 vines removed the following annually
(kg): N 102; P 13; K 91; Ca 27; Mg 9 (Waard, 1964; Geus, 1973). Leaf
sampling indicated the following percentage of dry matter below which
deficiency symptoms will occur in Indonesia: N 2.70, P 0.10, K 2.0, Ca
1.00, Mg 0.20, and in India Ca 1.51, Mg 0.913, and S 0.121 (Nybe and
Nair, 1987).
The earliest plantations were fertilized mainly by mulching with available
plant and animal wastes, or burnt earth and broken-up termite mounds.
While all these materials are still used, their availability has decreased with
the diminished area of forest available. It has been calculated approximately
2 ha of jungle was necessary to provide fuel and topsoil to support 1 ha
Piperaceae 371

pepper. The effectiveness of mulching to increase yield has frequently been


demonstrated; green berry yield rose from 4.5 to 7.3 kg per vine over 3 years
in Indonesia when mulch was applied directly after planting. The incidence
of disease is also often lower on mulched plots.
Organic manures were formerly extensively used including animal and
human wastes. In Kampuchea berry yield tripled following application of
shrimp waste at 10-1 2 kg per vine, but such material must now be easily and
cheaply available and application cost low to be profitable. The Indian
Department of Agriculture recommends an annual application of 10 kg
cattle manure or compost, 500 g ammonium sulphate, 1 kg superphosphate
and 100 g potassium chloride applied in a trench round each vine. Fertilizer
is normally applied at the end of the monsoon, although organic manure
may be applied separately when the rains begin.
In the major pepper-growing region of Kerala, an annual application per
vine of 50 g N, 80 g P and 110 g K, raised average berry yield from 1340 to
2000 kg/ha, with over half the increase due to potassium. Indian fertilizer
companies supply specially formulated pepper mixtures containing the
correct local balance of NPK and microelements. Pepper is mainly a small
farmer crop in Sri Lanka, usually an intercrop, and seldom manured
separately to the main crop. In Sarawak, a special pepper mixture contains
12:3:4:1.5NPK and Mg, plus a compound containing (approximate %) Fe
20, Cu 3, Zn 5.5, Mn 9, B 7, and M O0.22. Mounding soil around plants and
mulching with Imperata cylindrica increased average green berry yield from
15,500 to 18,250 kgiha, providing a substantially increased return to grow-
ers from additional labour only.
Local NPK mixtures are used in Brazil, frequently high in phosphate,
moderate in potash and moderate to low in nitrogen with a recommended
rate of 2.5-3.0 kg per mature vine annually, but micronutrients are essential
on many regional soils. Castor or coffee processing residue is also used as a
mulch around individual vines, especially in the north-eastern regions.
Inorganic fertilizers generally increase berry yield, but other factors prob-
ably have greater influence on berry quality, i.e. time of picking and drying
method. There can also be an interaction between uptake of fertilizers and
the type of support as will be noted later. Thus a relatively small improve-
ment in plantation management will probably result in greater return than
purchasing the usually expensive compound fertilizers. The effect of ferti-
lizers on berry composition and oil content has been little investigated, and
where a particular type of berry is required this is often obtained by
introducing a suitable pepper variety.
Deficiency symptoms induced in greenhouse grown vines in India have
been described: calcium, small brown necrotic spots or chlorotic areas near
leaf margins, which later enlarge to form necrotic areas; magnesium, oval
interveinal chlorotic areas which become black necrotic areas; sulphur,
uniform yellowing with brown necrotic spots (Nybe and Nair, 1987). Major
372 Chapter 10

nutrient deficiency symptoms noted in Indonesia are: nitrogen, uniform


yellowing of leaves, becoming orange-yellow; and potassium, distal end of
mature leaves become necrotic, brittle and light grey. The ‘yellow disease’ in
Indonesia is mainly a nutrient deficiency, and effectively controlled by
application of a balanced fertilizer.

Cultivation
As a small farmer crop, pepper vines are normally interplanted or trained up
existing trees, and little cultivation is necessary other than maintenance of a
weed-free area round the base of the vine. In Bangladesh and the Phil-
ippines, vines are sometimes grown up existing forest trees, and the adjacent
area kept clear of undergrowth. Intercropping pepper vines in commercial
plantations of other crops is not usually successful except in specific circum-
stances, e.g. coffee in India (Korikanthimath, 1994), since there is fre-
quently a conflict between management techniques. Cocoa, for example,
requires a fairly heavy shade which is inimical to pepper, while mango is host
to insects which can devastate pepper vines (Korikanthimath, 1994).
T o establish a plantation the land must be cleared and all debris burnt and
the ash spread. Topsoil disturbance must be minimized, since the bulk of
pepper roots remain near the surface. A major decision must be whether
vines are to be grown up living or dead supports. Factors affecting this
decision are whether the plantation is on an exposed or protected site, the
extent to which shading will be required, the rainfall and the availability of
quick-growing suitable trees, or timber for supports. In Sri Lanka, supports
made from eucalyptus timber gave higher berry yield than vines trained up
living trees (Bavappa et al., 1981), but living trees as supports are becoming
more common in Indonesia (Seibert, 1988). Concrete posts or circular
frames made from stone blocks are used in addition to timber supports in
Vietnam (Pohlan and Heynoldt, 1986), and also in India (Reddy et al.,
1991). Suitable trees for live supports, in addition to existing coconut, cola
nut, kapok or rubber plantations, are Eythrina spp., Leucaena spp., Grevillea
robusta, and Gliricidia spp.; in Madagascar, vines are often trained up shade
trees in coffee plantations.
The type of support also influences fertilizer uptake, as vines on living or
dead supports differed in their uptake of phosphate at the same rate and
method of application (Geetha et al. , 1993). The height of the stakes is also
important; in Brazil 2.5 m gave a higher average berry yield than 1.5 m at
3760 and 2890 kgiha respectively (Kato and Albuquerque, 1980), but in
India and Sarawak stakes are usually much higher at 4-6 m. Spacing
between supports depends on the method of weed control, and if this is
mechanical then 3-5 m must be left between rows to allow passage of a small
tractor with implements. Spacing on non-mechanized estates is usually 2-3
m on the square, with timber supports to 4 m in Sarawak, to 9 m in India,
while living supports are pruned of branches to this height. The cost of
Piperaceae 373

providing supports is steadily increasing and in 1995 the Malaysian Agricul-


tural Research and Development Corporation reported the expense was
uneconomic for small farmers with less than 2 ha of vines.
On sloping land, rows should be aligned on the contour to reduce danger
of soil erosion. On steep slopes, contour bunding is essential, since most
plantations are clean weeded and thus very susceptible to erosion. On loam
soils with a high plant nutrient status, the preparation of planting pits is
usually unnecessary and surrounding topsoil mixed with compost or manure
is drawn up into a mound around the support base. On heavier clays or
lateritic soils, two or three pits filled with a similar mixture are prepared
around the support. No pit is prepared on the south side north of the
Equator and on the north side south of the Equator, to reduce seedling loss
from sun-scorch. Six or more unrooted or two well-rooted cuttings are
planted per support, except when using large existing trees when the number
should be doubled.
Large cuttings are the simplest and cheapest method of propagation, but
pepper can also be grafted, marcotted, or plantlets grown from single leaf
cuttings. One requirement is shade, and the amount and duration supplied
in a nursery are important. In Sri Lanka, plantlets grown under 50-75%
shade for 12 weeks were larger and healthier than under no or complete
shade (Seneviratne et al., 1985). Plants raised from very small cuttings
require skilled and specialized treatment, but the method allows large
numbers to be raised from a selected parent.
The type of cutting is important; in India, stoloniferous shoots or cuttings
are chosen, in Indonesia and Sarawak, cuttings from fruiting shoots, and in
Brazil, both methods are used but aerial-shoot cuttings preferred. A system
of rapidly producing a large number of cuttings has been developed in Sri
Lanka. Rooted cuttings are tied to bamboo supports, and when vines reach
the top the growing point is excised. Two weeks later the vine is severed near
the base, and divided into single node cuttings; one vine can supply 50
cuttings per year, and a 1 ha nursery can produce up to 2.5 million cuttings
annually (Bavappa and Gurusingh, 198 1). A similar number of cuttings per
vine per year was obtained in Brazil (Milanez and Ventura, 1987).
In India, runners are taken from base of the vine, often when vines are in
full bearing so some selection for yield is possible, and may be coiled round
a forked stick to prevent premature rooting. Runners, or stolons, are later
separated from the parent vine, cut into lengths of four or five nodes and
planted in nurseries, or directly into the field. Government farms in the main
pepper-growing areas of Panniyur and Kerala maintain nurseries and supply
rooted pepper cuttings to growers at a subsidized price. In Sarawak and
Indonesia, 60 cm cuttings with five to seven nodes are normally taken from
terminal shoots of vines less than 2 years old. The terminal bud of the
selected shoot, leaves and small branches between the third and seventh
374 Chapter 10

node from the apex are removed, and when the terminal bud has re-
generated, the shoot is carefully cut below the seventh node. Greenhouse
trials in Indonesia indicated topping or ring-barking of parent vines before
taking cuttings increased extent and rooting ability (Yufdi, 1986).
Cuttings should preferably be rooted in containers or a nursery and
treatment with a rooting compound usually results in more rapid root
growth; pre-rooting also ensures quick growth in the field and reduces
expensive infilling. Cuttings should be planted in the nursery at least 4-5
months before planting out. Alternatively, cuttings can be planted directly
into mounds, but large numbers are required which may not be available and
losses are usually high. Cuttings are usually planted at 45" with three or four
nodes below the surface and not deeper than 10-1 5 cm. If planted direct into
mounds, leaves and branches of the top three nodes are left and trained up
a temporary stake; however in Indonesia, cuttings treated with a rooting
compound and placed horizontally in the soil produced more roots more
quickly than obliquely planted cuttings (Nuryani, 1984). Cuttings should be
planted out at the beginning of the rainy season; in India July-September; in
Sarawak, September; in Sri Lanka, October-November; and in north-east
Brazil, January-February. When plants have made sufficient growth they are
tied to supports, three climbing stems retained, and regularly pruned to
encourage development of lateral fruiting branches.
Stems are pruned to 15-22.5 cm when 8-10 nodes have developed, and
the leaves removed. When a further 9-10 nodes have developed, stems are
cut back to within 3-4 nodes of the previous cut. Vines are thus pruned
seven to eight times until they reach the top of support posts at about 3 m.
The terminal growth is pinched out periodically to prevent further growth,
and low side branches and stolons removed. The main object ofpruning is to
remove unproductive nodes without lateral branches, leaving only stems
with nodes each bearing a branch. Thus a mature vine will have the
maximum number of fruiting branches with profuse leaf development, as a
flower spike can only develop in a leaf axil. During the first 2 years, flower
spikes are stripped combined with selective leaf removal to encourage
branching.
Weed control in pepper plantations is essential as the shallow roots will be
in direct competition with weeds for plant nutrients. Although mechanical
weed control is possible, pepper roots are easily damaged by too-deep
cultivation; where a ground cover is desirable, mowing or slashing is effec-
tive. In most pepper plantations, hand weeding is normal and this too must
be shallow; deep-rooted grasses such as Imperata cylindrica are easily and
cheaply eliminated with a herbicide wand or spot spraying. Mulching can
also greatly reduce weed growth in addition to conserving moisture, and
significantly increase berry yield. Mulching with rice husks, hay or sawdust
at 3 t/ha in Brazil proved sawdust to be the most effective, with a seed yield
of 3600-7800 kgiha compared to rice, second at 3500-7300 kgiha (Kato et
Piperaceae 375

al., 1980). Herbicides are little used but, as pepper is very shallow rooted,
soil inactivated compounds are to be preferred.

Harvesting
Pepper vines are normally harvested 18-20 months after planting out.
Picking in India is in January-March in the hills, November-January on the
plains; in Sarawak, May-August with the heaviest yield in July-August; in
Indonesia, August-November. The main harvest in Sri Lanka is October-
January with a minor crop in June-July, and in peninsular Malaysia, in
August-September and March-April. Small farmer vines are usually har-
vested year-round, and other factors may locally affect time of harvest; in Sri
Lanka for instance berries are often picked earlier than the optimum time to
reduce loss through theft. Time of picking (i.e. maturity of berry) affects
berry composition (Tables 10.2) and berry oil (Table 10.4). Picking for
white pepper begins when one to three berries on a fruiting spike turn red,
and for black when berries are still green, and picking continues every 2-3
weeks until end of harvest. Tripod ladders are used to reach higher branches
and avoid damage to vines. On intensively managed plantations, branches
are stripped of leaves except for one or two terminal leaves when all fruiting
branches have been removed. Damaged and diseased branches are also
removed.
The yield of green berries per vine varies widely, from a few grams to a very
high 10 kg from specially selected and treated plants. This range indicates the
potential yield possible and, in general, any improvement in cultural tech-
niques by small producers quickly increases yield. Green berry yield from
well managed plantations in Sarawak averages 8000-9000 kgiha from the
first picking rising to 18,000 kg/ha at the sixth to seventh harvest; maintained
to the tenth year. In India, yield is generally lower at 100-400 kgiha since

Table 10.4. Effect of maturity on some selected oil constituents in Sri Lanka.

Time of harvest (weeks)


Constituent 13 17 18 22.5 26 29.5 33
Alpha-pinene 9.3 9.8 7.5 11.1 10.1 10.1 12.5
Beta-pinene 11.1 12.2 10.1 12.1 10.3 10.7 11.1
Sabinene 17.1 15.1 14.0 19.2 18.4 18.5 23.6
Alpha-phellandrene t carene 6.4 5.3 5.0 4.8 5.1 5.4 3.9
Limonene 19.0 20.0 18.0 19.5 14.5 17.1 17.0
Terpinen-4-01 2.1 2.1 3.4 1.5 1.2 1.7 0.8
Beta-caryophyllene 11.2 10.6 10.4 12.5 18.5 14.3 15.3
Beta-bisabolene 3.2 1.8 2.6 2.2 3.6 3.2 2.0
Unidentified 4.2 5.9 8.3 3.7 1.9 2.3 0.5
Note: Figures in table are percentage of total volatile oil.
Source: Jansz et al. (1984).
376 Chapter 10

pepper is a smallholder crop, with a vine life of 25 years; efficiently managed


plantations however, produce 900-1000 kg dried berries per 1000 mature
vines (approx 1 ha). Average yield from generally small farmer production in
the region is, in kgiha: Kampuchea 1450; Sumatra 1350; Sri Lanka
1350-2500; Malaysia 1200-1500 from mature vines in full bearing; Brazil
600-4000 depending on variety, location and standard of management
(Milanez et al., 1987); and the Philippines 3000 from well-managed mature
vines (Malijan, 1982).
The proportion of the Sarawak crop made into white or black pepper
depends upon the price differential at the time the majority of the Indian
crop becomes black pepper. Since only black pepper is used to produce
pepper oil and oleoresin, methods of preparing white pepper will not be
described, but see Purseglove et al. (1981). Most black pepper is still sun
dried, the harvested spikes left in heaps for several hours to initiate slight
fermentation which browns the berries, then spread to dry on bamboo or
grass mats and raked regularly to ensure uniform colouring and to prevent
mould. In Indonesia, berries are usually left attached to spikes for the first
few days of sun-drying, then detached by trampling or beating with sticks,
but in India the berries are detached immediately. Sun-drying requires 7-14
days to reduce moisture content to 10-1 5%. There is also a loss of volatile oil
during drying, and in Sri Lanka this loss can be 10-20% by weight, mainly
monoterpenes (Jansz et al., 1983a,b). About 25-28 kg ofwhite or 33-37 kg
black pepper are produced from 100 kg of newly picked green pepper.
Blanching of berry clusters in boiling water for about 10 minutes prior to
sun-drying is common in Indonesia and Sri Lanka and accelerates both
browning and drying, but prolonged blanching should be avoided since this
can deactivate the enzymes responsible for browning. Through-flow hot-air
driers have been tested in India, but Brazil appears to be the only major
producing country which routinely uses modern drying equipment, in-
troduced because the end of harvesting coincides with the start of the wet
season, Drum driers of 9 t capacity fresh green berries are heated by hot air
at about 80°C for two periods of 4.5 hours with a 6 hour interval. These
temperatures are very high in comparison to those recommended for most
other spices. Solar energy is a simple and cost-effective method of replacing
open-air sun-drying of pepper and eliminates many of its problems. Con-
siderable research on methods and suitable equipment is in progress (Kam-
ruddin and Wenur, 1994).
In India, Indonesia and Sarawak pepper production is predominantly a
small farmer crop and final cleaning, grading and bagging the dried spice is
carried out by exporting firms. If black pepper is noticeably contaminated by
mould andior insects it may be washed and redried without damage. Large
evenly coloured black berries realize the highest price as spice, and there are
a number of grades. These grades also vary in berry constituents and thus the
type of oil produced (Table 10.5). In producing countries bagged pepper is
Piperaceae 377

usually stored in go-downs prior to shipment, and prolonged storage under


these conditions can cause significant deterioration in quality; up to 20% of
volatile oil can be lost after six months thus reducing pungency of the
spice.
There is little published information on the establishment cost of a
commercial pepper plantation. In Brazil, one hectare at a spacing of 2 X 2 m
cost US $12,700 and returned US $15,867 over a 16-year period. Costs
were recovered in the tenth year at 2 X 2 m spacing, in the eleventh at 2 X
2.5 m, in the ninth at 2.5 X 2.5 m, and in the eighth at 3 X 3 m (Brandao et
al., 1978). In Indonesia, a dwarf vine planted at a close spacing and
producing berries in its second year is considered to be potentially more
profitable than normal vine plantations (Wahid and Zaubin, 1993). The life
of a commercial plantation depends directly on the standard of management
but at least 15 years from planting out should be the objective, with yield
declining from the ninth to the twelfth year. It is recommended that one,
preferably two, years of alternative crops should be grown before replanting
vines, which will greatly reduce the incidence of soil-borne diseases and
pests.

Distillation
Distillation is uncomplicated and no special equipment or technique neces-
sary. Pepper berries are reduced to a coarse powder and on steam distillation
yield 1.O-4.0% oil, but specific varieties or grades to 9%. Whole berries can

Table 10.5. Composition of pepper grades from India

Average Bulk Crude


berry density Density Moisture Oil Piperine NVEE Starch fibre
Grades wt (g) (gill (giml) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Pin heads 0.004 280 0.571 13.0 0.6 0.8 7.1 11.5 27.4
Light pepper 0.010 240 0.476 13.0 2.9 4.1 13.5 14.6 27.8
Malabar garbled 1 0.042 540 0.952 13.0 3.7 5.0 12.3 39.7 11.8
Tellicherrygarbled 0.057 544 1,000 13.0 2.2 4.4 9.1 39.7 10.8
extra bold
Tellicherry garbled 0.061 592 1.053 10.0 3.2 4.9 10.3 40.9 9.2
special extra
bold
Malabar ungarbled 0.039 540 0.952 12.0 2.8 5.0 11.4 41.8 12.5
Tellicherry 0.034 528 0.952 12.0 4.0 6.3 13.5 39.3 11.0
ungarbled
High range 0.040 600 1.053 12.0 2.6 4.0 11.1 41.8 10.5
ungarbled
Note: All figures are on a dry weight basis. NVEE: non-volatile ether extract
Source: Sumathikutty et al. (1979).
378 Chapter 10

be distilled but the process is time-consuming. An advantage of this method


to the unscrupulous is that spent berries can be redried and sold to the
unsuspecting as spice! Pepper oil can also be obtained by vacuum distilling
oleoresin, and is closer in composition, aroma and flavour to the natural oil
present in the spice, and thus superior to steam-distilled berry oils. Oil and
oleoresin can also be obtained by super-critical fluid extraction using carbon
dioxide as the solvent (Pruthy, 1993).

Pests and diseases


Insects attacking flowers, flowering shoots and berries are the most damag-
ing; foliage eaters and insects damaging roots are of lesser importance,
except in specific locations in a particular season. In Asia generally but
particularly in India where it is known as the pollen beetle, the pepper flea
beetle Longitarsus nigrzpennis is a major pest. The small shiny blue and yellow
adults bore into fruits and deposit eggs which hatch in 5-8 days. The pale
yellow larvae eat their way out and then bore into and eat-out other fruits
leaving a hollow shell. A single larva can damage a number of fruits before
dropping to the ground to pupate below the surface. Damage can reach
30-40% of a specific crop. In India, the pest is most damaging during
periods of heavy rain which hamper control measures. Heavy shade also
increases the rate of infestation and total berry damage. Fruits of high-
yielding cultivars are reportedly more susceptible. Altitude affects the degree
of infestation in India, but this factor has not been mentioned elsewhere. In
India, plantations at or near sea-level were severely attacked, damage
becoming less with altitude until at 900 m it was virtually nil (Kumar and
Nair, 1987).
Pepper weevils, Lophobaris spp., are serious pests in the Indonesian-
Sarawak region, but less so in other countries; most damaging are L. serritipes
and L. piperis, eating holes in developing fruits and causing premature
shedding. A severe, uncontrolled infestation can result in massive berry loss.
The top-shoot borer Laspeyresia hemidoxa, is an important pest in India,
where larvae of this tiny crimson and yellow moth bore terminal and other
shoots, causing die-back. The pest is most common in August-September
when new shoots appear, and control measures are then essential as damage
to 50% of shoots has occurred in India. Another insect which causes
malformation and death of shoots, stems and leaves in India and Sri Lanka
is the slender dark brown mirid, Disphinctus maesarum, whose numbers can
increase very rapidly since the development period is 4-5 weeks.
Other bugs are Dasynus piperii and Diplogomphus hewitti which commonly
attack fruits in Indonesia, Sri Lanka and India. The first named is con-
sidered the most damaging pest of pepper in the Indo-China region, espe-
cially Kampuchea. Of minor importance are the beetle Pelargoderus bipuncta-
tus; Helopeltis antonii in Sarawak; gall-producing thrips, Gynaikothrzps
chavicae generally, and Liothrzps karnyi in India. An advantage of pruning
Piperaceae 3 79

vines is that the flowering and fruiting period is condensed. Thus the time
spikes are exposed to insect attack is also reduced and the opportunity for
effective control enhanced.
Stem borers may cause considerable damage where they occur, but are
seldom of major importance; most often reported in India are Pterolophia
annulata and Diboma procera. The greyish-green larva of the small brown
moth, Thosea sinensis can cause serious damage to foliage, and has been
reported on pepper from India through Indonesia, South East Asia to China.
Larvae of another moth Cricula trifenestrata, the mango hairy caterpillar, can
become a major pest in India especially where mango trees are used to
support or shade vines; vines can be completely defoliated. Caterpillars of
both these moths bear urticating hairs, and when present in numbers make
berry picking almost impossible. Scale insects and mealy bugs debilitate
vines and can cause severe damage if not controlled. Most often mentioned
are the cosmopolitan Fem'sia virgata and Saissetia coffeae; the pepperscale
Lepidosaphes piperis in India and Sri Lanka; and Planococcus citri in Indo-
China, especially Kampuchea.
Roots are host to various nematode species including the root-knot
nematodes, Meloidogyne javanica and M . incognita, and the burrowing
nematode Radopholus similis. The extent of damage has not always been
accurately determined, nor the exact relationship between root disease and
local nematode species. An association between R. similis and incidence of
vine wilt was established in India, and control of the nematode reduced
damage to vines (CPCRI, 1985). A relationship between nematodes and
incidence of pepper yellows caused by Fusarium oxysporum has also been
observed in Indonesia (Sitepu, 1993). In Brazil, treatment of cuttings with a
nematicide significantly increased growth, and different mulches had vary-
ing effects on growth of vines and soil nematode populations; a combination
of both is recommended (Ichinohe, 1985). Nematicides also control soil
nematodes in India (Mohandas and Ramana, 1987) and in Indonesia, but
some were toxic to vines.
Stored berries are often attacked, most commonly by Sitodrepa panicea,
Pyralis fannalis and Lasioderma sem'corne. Application of berry oil to pepper
and other whole spices slows the rate of population growth and inhibits
larval development. Washing and redrying to reduce microbiological con-
tamination is also effective in removing most surface insect contamination,
but fumigation may be necessary in serious infestations.
A number of pathogenic fungi have been reported from P. nigrum, but
only two or three are of major importance and generally only one locally.
Probably the most economically important is a root rot caused by Phyto-
phthorapalmivora, known as quick wilt in India and sudden death in Sarawak
and Indonesia because of its effect on vines. Initial infection in the field
begins in minor roots a few centimetres below soil level, then spreads to
major roots and the stem. When an appreciable portion of the underground
380 Chapter 10

stem has been attacked wilt symptoms appear, usually 50-60 days after
infection. The first above-ground symptom is a slight droop over the whole
vine, followed by yellowing of leaves which usually fall within 7-14 days
leaving the branches bare, and the vine dies. In wet weather, leaves may be
directly attacked causing brown circular lesions with a fimbriate edge;
abscission occurs before infection can spread to the stem. Artificial inocula-
tion of root cuttings produced typical symptoms after 6-9 days, indicating
the ease and rapidity with which the pathogen can spread. Giant African
snails and nematodes are disease vectors, and control measures are effective
(Sadanandan, 1989).
Resistance to Phytophthora palmivora varies substantially, with Piper spp.
from South East Asia generally highly susceptible, but American spp.
resistant or slightly to moderately susceptible; Peperomia spp. are considered
resistant. The damage caused by quick wilt in India is substantial; about 120
t of pepper is lost annually in one district of Kerala State (Balakrishnan et al.,
1986; Nair and Sasikumaran, 199 1). In Brazil, the disease can be devastat-
ing on susceptible varieties; in Bahia Province plantings were reduced by half
prior to the routine application of fungicides (Tsuda, 1989). Another local
species, P. colubrinum, was resistant to Phytophthora palmivora and Fusarium
solani f.sp. piperis and used as rootstock for susceptible P. nigrum, but grafts
deteriorated after the fourth year. In Brazil and Puerto Rico, root-rot
epidemics caused by Phytophthora palmivora usually occurred when vines
began fruiting, but the incidence was low in new areas. Research into control
of P. palmivora is a major project at the Malaysian Agricultural Research and
Development Institute (MARDI) Biotechnology Centre which is also pro-
ducing pathogen-free plants by in vitro culture.
Phytophthora capsici is the most important pathogen in Indonesia where it
causes sudden death disease, now the major constraint on expansion of
pepper production, The disease is difficult to control or its spread limited
because most pepper is grown by small farmers few of whom apply either
pesticides or fungicides. Resistance at various levels may exist in some
cultivars (Mozzetti et al., 1995), and a biological control programme has
proved of value in India (Anandaraj and Sarma, 1994). Root rots or wilts
caused by the following are locally damaging: Fusarium spp., Diplodia spp.,
Rosellinia bunodes and Sclerotium rolfii in various regions of India; Fomes
lignosus, Ganoderma lucidum and Rhizoctonia solani in Sarawak, and various
Pythium spp. in Indo-China. The importance of root nematodes in spread-
ing root and other diseases has still to be determined.
Diseases which can originate in the canopy are often due to Cortzcium
salmonicolor, pink disease, or Marasmius scandens, thread blight, and both
may cause almost complete necrosis of leaves and branches. They can be
distinguished from root rot as the symptoms differ. In pink disease, white
pustules occur on the bark or lateral branches, followed by the pink encrust-
ing mass of the fungus. In thread blight, cobweb-like strands grow over the
fiperaceae 38 1

leaves, petioles and stems. A parasitic alga Cephaleuros parasiticus, black


berry disease, may cause serious loss in Sarawak and to a lesser extent in
western Malaysia. The alga attacks young fruits, whose skin turns black and
the fruit falls prematurely. Leaf anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum spp. is
very damaging in India, to a lesser extent in Malaysia and China, and
apparently of little importance elsewhere. A severe infection causes defolia-
tion; a lesser infection results in some leaf drop, and hollow or shrivelled
berries. Varietal resistance to the disease may exist (Radhakrishnan and
Naik, 1983). Cochliobolus geniculatus and Nectria haematococca commonly
infect berries in Malaysia. The potential damage from fungal diseases can be
reduced by good plantation management as was demonstrated in Brazil
(Une, 19S8), and some are readily controlled by fungicides.
An unnamed virus attacks vines in Indonesia and Sarawak, and a
mycoplasma-like organism or virus has been noted from Brazil and India.
The pepper yellow disease in Indonesia is, however, due not to disease but a
nutrient deficiency. Fungal contamination commonly due to Aspergillus spp.
and Penicillium spp. can be a considerable problem during berry drying and
storage. It is imperative to dry berries as quickly as possible to less than 1 1%
moisture, and to maintain this level during storage. Mould contamination is
essentially restricted to the berry surface, and washing is normally effective
and inexpensive. Chemical treatment may cause residue problems and
ionizing radiation affects spice quality by reducing the pungent principle
piperine; however, ozone treatment oxidized some oil constituents but did
not affect oil in whole berries (Zhao and Cranston, 1995).

Products and specijications


The chemistry of P. nigrum berries, oil and other extracts has been ex-
tensively investigated, and for comprehensive details and methods employed
the relevant literature should be consulted since it is outside the scope of this
book. Briefly, the aroma and flavour of steam-distilled oil is determined
mainly by monoterpene hydrocarbons plus smaller amounts of sesqui-
terpene hydrocarbons; oxygenated compounds are relatively minor con-
stituents but important in determining organoleptic properties; pungency is
due to non-steam volatile alkaloids, principally piperine. Over 100 com-
pounds have been detected in pepper oil and oleoresin, not all found in a
particular sample. Constituents include 15 monoterpene hydrocarbons, 2 1
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, 32 oxygenated monoterpenes, 4 phenyl esters,
12 oxygenated sesquiterpenes and 20 miscellaneous compounds (Pino et al.,
1990). The composition of black pepper oil can vary considerably according
to origin and method of preparation (i.e. harvesting and drying). The
greatest variation is within the monoterpene hydrocarbon group as follows
(per cent): limonene (0-40), beta-pinene (5-359, alpha-pinene (1-19),
alpha-phellandrene (1-27), beta-phellandrene (0-1 9), sabinene (0-20),
delta-3-carene (trace to 15), myrcene (trace to 10). Minor differences in
382 Chapter 10

sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds are (per cent);


beta-caryophyllene (9-33), alpha-humulene (2-6), alpha-bergamotene
(1-4). The effect of berry-picking date (maturity) on berry composition has
already been noted, but there is also a more direct effect on oil composition,
with substantial changes in the level of individual constituents over time (see
Table 10.4).
Pepper oil and oleoresin are produced mainly in Western Europe and
North America from imported black pepper berries, but there is substantial
production of oleoresin and smaller amounts of oil in India. The most
important pepper types for processing are Indonesian (Lampong) and
Indian (Malabar); the latter usually has a slightly higher oil content. Small
amounts of oil are also produced in Madagascar, Sri Lanka and Brazil. In
Comoro, on Nossi-Be and the district of Sambirame, Madagascar, good
quality oil is distilled from siftings and low grade berries. Two other grades
are produced on Madagascar by fractionation; light oil or forerun and a
heavy oil consisting of higher fractions. Oils are obtained from various types
of raw material in Indonesia by distilling or solvent extraction (Rusli and
Nurdjannah, 1993).
Pepper oil is a colourless to pale green free-flowing liquid becoming
viscous with age. It was widely believed that greenish oils were of higher
quality, but this is not so, the green colour being due to presence of azulenes.
Addition (or accidental inclusion) of pepper dust also increases the azulene
content and affects oil colour. Oil odour is similar to freshly prepared spice,
i.e. fresh, dry-woody, warm-spicy; the flavour is rather flat and lacking
pungency of the spice, since the alkaloids concerned are not soluble. Several
types (grades) of pepper oil are commercially available basically differ-
entiated by the method of distillation. Most common are the so-called light
and heavy oils, respectively the foreruns and high-boiling components
obtained when distilling pepper berries or berry debris. The light grade is
similar in odour and flavour to pepper but lacks persistency; the heavy grade
is less like freshly ground spice, but is more stable in store. Standards for
pepper oil are shown in Table 10.3 and the major components of a Sarawak
oil in Table 10.6.
The main use for pepper oil is in flavourings where pungency is un-
necessary, but it is being increasingly replaced by oleoresin. Pepper oil is
often adulterated with other oils or synthetics, including phellandrene,
limonene, Schinus molle oil, or sesquiterpenes from clove or Eucalyptus dives
oils. Poor quality is frequently confused with adulteration, and is due to
distilling low-grade material.
Oleoresin prepared by extracting black pepper berries with organic sol-
vents possesses the odour, flavour and pungent principle of the original
material. Thus Indian Malabar and Tellicherry pepper, Lampong black
pepper, and Sri Lankan pepper have high volatile oil and non-volatile
solvent extracts, and are favoured over Sarawak or Brazilian black pepper,
Piperaceae 383

Table 10.6. Analysis of black pepper oil from Sarawak.

Component %

Alpha-pinene 5.8
Camphene 0.1
Beta-pinene 10.4
Delta-3-carene 20.2
Limonene 17.1
Gamma-terpinene 0.2
p-Cymene 0.8
Terpinolene 1.o
Delta-elemene 2.5
Alpha-copaene 2.3
Beta-elemene 0.4
Beta-caryophyllene 27.8
Alpha-humulene 1.4
Delta-cadinene 0.8
Caryophyllene oxide 0.6
Source: Analyst 109, 1359.

which are usually lower in extractives. A comparison of oleoresins is shown


in Table 10.7.
Oleoresin yields of 10-13 are obtained from Indian Malabar pepper, the
highest using Malabar Light (Mathew, 1990). Pepper for processing may be
comminuted to flakes 0.05 mm thick or coarse powder 0.2-0.3 mm in
diameter and solvent extracted, usually with acetone, ethanol or dichloro-
ethane. Oleoresins can also be obtained by solvent extracting pepper oil or
distilling residues (Verghese, 1989). Fresh oleoresin is a dark green or dark
brownish-green viscous liquid, containing piperine, several other minor
alkaloids and may contain caryophyllene. Crystals of piperine appear on
standing and oleoresin requires mixing before use to ensure uniformity.
Commercial products contain 15520% volatile oil and 3 5 4 5 % piperine.
However, while specifications for volatile oil content are accurate, those for
piperine as a measure of available pungency may be unreliable, and it is

Table 10.7. Comparison of oleoresins from pepper of selected origins,

Volatile oil Piperine


Origin (% wlw) (% wlw)
Brazilian 29-33 35-46
Lampong 29-34 43-48
Malabar 32-44 42-53
Sarawak 31-37 43-47
384 Chapter 10

essential to ascertain the method used (Weaver et al., 1988; Wood et al.,
1988). The isomers of piperine and relative pungency have been stated as:
piperine (tram-tram) 5 ; isopiperine (cis-tram) 1; isochavicine (tram-cis) 1;
chavicine (cis-cis) 2 . Interestingly the pungency of piperine is only 200,000
Scoville units (SU), compared to 30 million SU for capsaicin from Capsicum
species.
The oleoresin is available as a liquid, dissolved in an edible solvent (e.g.
polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters), emulsified with gum arabic and
dispersed on an edible dry powder carrier (salt or sugar), encapsulated in
gum arabic or gelatine. One kg of oleoresin obtained from 8 kg of black
pepper and dispersed on an inert base can replace up to 25 kg of the spice for
flavouring purposes. The EOA specification for oleoresin is shown in Table
10.8, and adopted by many countries. Hazardous solvent residues some-
times occur as contaminants and prohibit use of the oleoresin in foods.
The principal use for oleoresin is in processed and canned meats, pickles,
dressings of all kinds and a variety of other food products where the spice
enhances their flavour. A decolorized oleoresin is available for special use.
An extract of black pepper, ultrasonic, is normally free of harmful solvent
residues and commercially available for use in processed foods. White
pepper oil is occasionally produced using the same methods as for black, but
is normally more expensive due to the higher cost of raw material and lower
yield. There is apparently no basic difference between the two oils when
produced from similar quality material.

Cubeb pepper
Piper cubeba is indigenous to Malaysia and Indonesia and as tailed pepper
was one of the first peppers to reach Europe. The fruits have long been used
in their native home by local peoples as a condiment and in herbal medi-
cines, and powdered dry fruits widely used to treat amoebic dysentery
(Burkhill, 1966). These uses were maintained by Arabs who traded with the
region and named the fruit kabab. Used mainly as a spice in Classical
Europe, it later became more widely used in medicine, but by the end of the

Table 10.8. EOA specification for pepper oleoresin

Refractive index (20°C) 1.4790 Total N (as piperine) Min 55%


1.4890
Optical rotation (20°C) -1" to -23" Residual solvent As per Federal Food,
Drug, Cosmetic
Regulations
Volatile oil (mlilOOg) 15-35
EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA.
fiperaceae 385

seventeenth century was both uncommon and expensive. Piper cubeba


enjoyed a brief revival in the nineteenth century as a medicine, but has since
almost disappeared. Ground berries steeped in wine or whisky produced a
drink believed to be an aphrodisiac. Dried fruits are still used in herbal
medicines and are stated to be antiseptic, diuretic, stimulant, expectorant
and carminative; they were formerly used in the production of asthma-
alleviating cigarettes in the USA. A number of related species are locally
substituted for P. cubeba or used to adulterate dried fruits; most common are
P. crassipes K. and P. molissimum B. frequently known as false cubeba, and
the unrelated Litsea cubeba (see p. 207).

Botany
Piper cubeba L. is commonly cubeb or tailed pepper in English; Arabic
kababa; usually kemukus in Malaysia and Indonesia; and in Hindi kabab
chini. It is generally a perennial climber, occasionally a shrub, of tropical
forests. The stem is greyish, smooth and flexuous. The leaves are glabrous,
entire, petiolated, acuminate, oblong to ovate-oblong, coriaceous and ob-
liquely cordate. The inflorescence is a spike bearing clusters of sometimes 50
or more dioecious flowers. The fruit is a small to 6 mm diameter, reddish-
yellow drupe, drying to black, with a coarsely reticulated surface. The base
of the pericarp extends into a pedicel-like formation and seed is usually free
from the pericarp. The histology of fruit and seed has been discussed (Parry,
1962).
For use as a spice the fruit is harvested when mature but unripe together
with a portion of stem, hence the common name of tailed pepper. Dried
fruits resemble peppercorns, and good quality fruit has a pleasant aromatic
odour and a bitter, pungent taste resembling allspice. The fruit yields 4-30%
essential oil and this very wide range indicates not only differing distilling
methods but considerable regional variation in fruit oil content. Indonesian
fruit locally distilled seldom yields above 10% oil, but the yield can be up to
20% from Malaysian and Sri Lankan fruits distilled in Europe. The main
constituents of cubeb oil are the sesquiterpenes cadinene and dipentene,
plus small amounts of starch, calcium and magnesium malate; the main
characteristics of steam-distilled oil are shown in Table 10.9.

Cultivation
Cubeb is wholly a small farmer crop and unlikely to be grown on a plantation
scale, but methods successful for black pepper would be equally suitable.
Pests, diseases and control methods are also similar, with some small
regional variation to suit particular conditions. Preparation of dried spice
and distillation for oil is similar to black pepper. Distilling time affects not
only yield but specific gravity, optical rotation and acid value; prolonged
distillation in Indonesia increased oil yield and raised values of the three
386 Chapter 10

Table 10.9. Main characteristics of cubeb oil.

A B C
Specific gravity (25°C) 0.905 0.9167 0.8994
0.924 (15°C)
Optical rotation (25%) -25O -29.9O - 10.7'
-40°
Refractive index (20°C) 1.490 1.4894 1.4885
1.496 (25°C) (25%)
Acid value ng ng 0.3
Ester value ng ng 15.2
Saponification number ng 0.5 ng
Solubility (alcohol 90%) up to 10 1:5 nQ
A, Good quality commercial oil; B, C, commercial Indian oils; ng, not given. Figures in columns are
range.

characteristics mentioned. Weight of charge can also affect acid and saponi-
fication values (Rusli and Soepandi, 198 1).

Products and specijkations


Cubeb oil is a viscous, pale-greenish to bluish-yellow occasionally colourless
liquid, depending to a considerable extent on distilling time and tem-
perature; blue indicates a very high temperature. The oil has a camphora-
ceous, dry-woody, spicy but not peppery odour, with a bitter but not
pungent or peppery taste. Oil is distilled mainly in Europe and North
America from imported dried fruit. Small amounts are also distilled in
Indonesia and India, frequently adulterated with similar but cheaper oils,
most commonly clove leaf oil (especially in Indonesia), Schinus molle seed
oil, and oil of false cubeb P. crussipes, Korth.
The main use of cubeb oil is in perfumery and soaps, and in certain
medicines, but little in flavourings. Cubeb oleoresin is produced in small
quantities almost wholly in user countries, with a very small amount in India.
The dried fruits are coarsely ground and extracted with a hydrocarbon
solvent or ethyl alcohol; technically the product is a resin absolute. Oleoresin
is a clear viscous liquid, free of bitter cubebin, wax and other extracted
material, with a warm-spicy, peppery somewhat camphoraceous odour and
a spicy rather peppery but not pungent taste. Its main use is in flavouring,
especially sauces and pickles, and in certain pipe tobaccos.

Betel Pepper

Piper betle is native to Malaysia, Sumatra and probably also Java, but was
introduced into many countries of Asia, South East Asia and Africa for its
Piperaceae 387

leaves, an essential component of pan. This is prepared by spreading on the


upper surface of a fresh betel leaf a thin layer of slaked lime paste, a sliver of
areca nut (Areca catechu L.) and a variety of other seasonings according to
local taste (Fig. 10.2). This quid is then chewed and the liquid discolours
teeth and stains saliva, mouth and lips red. The addictive taste is a combina-
tion of the essential oil contained in the fresh betel leaf and the alkaloid,
arecoline, from the nut. Chewing pan is ancient in Asia and, although the
copious saliva generated results in continual spitting which is a menace to
health, the arecoline swallowed reduces the incidence of internal parasites.
This slight benefit is far outweighed by the adverse effects of habitual use,
including tooth loss, serious disorders of the digestive system, and mouth
cancer. Many countries have banned chewing betel in public. The leaves of
P. caninum Blume., known as sireh hutan or woodland betel in Malaysia, are
used as a betel sustitute.
The seed ofA. catechu is widely known as betel nut, but is not related to P.
betle which yields only the leaf used. The modern geographical distribution
of P. betle and A. catechu is identical, since the presence of one led to the
introduction of the other, or both where neither occurred naturally as on
Zanzibar. The demand for A. catechu is so great that in Taiwan the area
under areca palms rose from 6000 ha in 1983 to 42,000 ha in 1993 and
replaced sugarcane as the country’s second largest crop area. The Council of
Agriculture stated that in 1995 betel nut as a commercial crop was valued at
nearly US$ 2 billion with a high proportion exported.
Piper betle L. (syn. Chavica betle Miq.) is commonly known as betel vine in
English; sireh in Malaysia and Indonesia; in India tambuli in Hindi; in Arabic
tambula. Betel is a perennial dioecious climbing vine, with angled stems
bearing large cordate, alternate, shining green leaves; flowers are borne on
lax panicles. It is cultivated only for its leaves by small farmers who may own

Fig. 10.2. Areca nut section on betel leaf, India.


388 Chapter 10

from one to several hundred vines, but there are no large commercial
plantations. Successful cultivation of vines requires close and constant
attention and this is only possible because of the strong and sustained
demand for fresh leaves. It is most unlikely that the vine will ever be
cultivated to produce essential oil, and for this reason will not be discussed,
although it is fully described elsewhere (Balasubrahmanyam et al., 1994).
The essential oil is obtained by steam distilling fresh, sometimes partially
dried leaves with a yield of 0.5- 2.0%; young leaves give a higher yield than
those fully mature. There are substantial regional differences in leaf oil
content and oil composition from local cultivars. Those from India have a
higher leaf oil content and more pungent taste, and for these reasons have
been introduced to many countries in preference to Malaysian or Javan
cultivars.
Betel oil is produced on a very small scale from fresh leaves and is seldom
used by European or North American manufacturers. The main use is in

Table 10.10. Characteristics and composition of Indian betel oils.

Characteristic Calcutta Gotakhpur Saugor Ramtek (bleached)


Yield (%) 1.2 0.7 0.7 2.6
Specific gravity 0.9408 0.9452 0.9691 1.0482
Refractive index 1.5048 1.5066 1.5073 1.5088
Optical rotation t0.9O t1.8" t9.3O t2.5"
Saponification value 8.4 7.8 163.2 5.8
(after acetylation) 134.2 128.4 332.6 158.6
Acid value 4.2 4.6 5.5 14.8
Phenol content (%) 58.8 41.6 54.6 76.8
Solubility in 80% alcohol Soluble Soluble Soluble Soluble
Composition (%)
Eugenol 42.5 26.8 40.5 38.5
Carvacrol 4.8 2.2 4.4 5.6
Chavicol 7.2 8.2 5.1 16.7
Ally1 catechol 2.7 4.6 3.5 6.2
Chavibetol 1.2 nil nil 9.6
Cineole 4.8 3.6 6.2 2.4
Estragol 7.6 14.6 7.5 nil
Eugenol methyl ether 8.2 15.8 ng 4.2
p-Cymene 1.2 1.2 ng 2.5
Caryophyllene 6.2 9.8 11.9 3.0
Cadinene 8.8 6.7 9.1 2.4
Unidentified 4.5 5.8 ng 6.8
sesquiterpenes
ng, not given.
Source: Abstracted from published data.
Piperaceae 389

Asia and supplies the betel taste and flavour where leaves are not easily
obtained. Betel oil is usually a light to medium brown, occasionally bright
yellow, depending on the type of leaf used, i.e. young or old, fresh or dried.
The odour is sharp, distinctly phenolic and reminiscent of creosote or strong
tea, the taste acrid, bitter and burning. The specific gravity of an Indonesian
oil was 1.02-1.04 (15"C), a Malaysian 0.9-1.02 and an Indian 1.00-1.06,
temperature not specified. The major constituents are phenols to SO%,
mainly eugenol, and the main characteristics and constituents of Indian
betel oils are shown in Table 10.10, which indicates the wide regional
variation. The oil has significant fungicidal and nematicidal activity (Evans
et al., 1984).

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Rosaceae 11 -

The Rosaceae is a large family of some 115 genera and about 3200 species,
with the genus Rosa L. containing approximately 150 species, naturally
distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere except the tropics. Roses
can now be found virtually worldwide so popular are they with gardeners,
and for their medicinal value and religious significance (Touw, 1982,
Ueyama et al., 1990, Phillips and Rix, 1993). The Mediterranean R. gallica
L., one of the many species from which modern cultivars are derived, has
been cultivated since antiquity and reached Central Europe in the early
Middle Ages. The double-flowered Provence rose was developed in medie-
val times via R. centifolia L. from the Caucasus. The inaccurately named
Chinese rose, R. indica L. reached Europe in a cultivated form and its
introduction to France is credited to a Mr Parsons who brought four plants
with him from an eastern voyage at the end of the eighteenth century; R.
chinensis Jacq. arrived in London in 1789. A type of R. damascena Mill.
reached Europe via Asia Minor in ancient times, and its modern descen-
dants are the most important essential oil producers. Rosa indica and R.
damascena crosses produced the Bourbon rose on the Indian Ocean island of
Bourbon, now Reunion. Later crosses with the Bourbon rose resulted in the
so-called perpetual varieties with greatly extended flowering. Rosa multiflora
Thunb. was brought to Europe from Japan, and crosses with R. chinensis
produced the polyantha roses. The European name for the Damascus rose
apparently dates from the Crusades, but is now incorporated in its botanical
name. The first use of R. damascena in literature was in the sixteenth century
(Shepherd, 1954), and its history and utilization have been reviewed (Widr-
lechner, 1981; TOUW, 1982).
Today there are thousands of rose varieties with very different types of
growth, degree of thorniness and scent, but with the basic flower colours of
white, yellow and red. Commercial rose breeders, especially in France, have
produced flowers with very different scents to those of traditional cultivars,
including anise, lemon and other citrus, and more musky notes, aimed
directly at the fragrance industry (cf. jasmine).

393
394 Chapter 11

Rose

The history of roses began in the fossil record, expanded with the introduc-
tion of writing and development of printing, and there is a mass of published
material including beautifully illustrated books and informative video
tapes.
Fossils in Oligocene Period rocks from Oregon and Colorado, USA,
indicate that roses occurred in that region 35 million years ago. Roses were
popular among the ruling classes of Mesopotamia, as a cuniform tablet in
the British Museum apparently refers to a rose and rose-water. T o the
Medes and Persians the rose was a religious symbol, in the same region
modern followers of the Sufi sect consider the rose denotes perfection. The
plants and their derivatives were widely admired and used by the Greeks and
Romans. In the 9th century BC, Homer in his Iliad wrote of the body of
Hector being anointed with rose oil before burial. Ovid and Virgil cultivated
roses, Pliny claimed to have ‘improved’ them, and noted bushes should be
pruned before March and hot water applied to induce flowering; he also
described a hundred-petalled rose. Plutarch recommended interplanting
rose plants with garlic to improve their scent! Theophrastus (372-287 BC)
described two types in his Enquiry into Plants, the kynosbaton (dog rose) and
rhodon (cultivated rose), and also noted that ‘sesame oil receives rose
perfume better than other oils’. Herodotus (490-420 BC),gave details of a
60-petalled, strongly scented rose brought to Greece by the exiled King
Midas of Phrygia. The Roman emperor Nero showered his guests with rose
petals, and vast rose gardens were established at Peastum, south of Naples,
to supply the ever-growing demand.
The famous 3500-year-old Blue Bird fresco at Knossos, Crete, showes a
light pink, five petalled rose with three leaflets. The very earliest preserved
rose specimen dating from the beginning of the present era and believed to
be R. sancta (syn R. richardiz] is in the Petrie Museum London, and is from
a tomb he excavated at the Hawara cemetery in the Faiyum. According to
the Islamic prophet Muhammad’s somewhat immodest account ‘When I
was taken up to heaven some of my sweat fell to earth and from it sprang the
rose; who smells the scent of the rose smells Muhammad!’ These are a few
examples from a multiplicity of historical references.
The first modern book on roses was by Mary Lawrence, A Collection of
Roses from Nature, 1799. Probably the most famous illustrations are those in
Pierre-Joseph Redoute’s three volume Les Roses (1 8 17-1 924), which depicts
roses in the collection of the Empress Josephine of France. Many plants
unrelated to the Rosaceae have rose added to their name, including Guelder
rose (a virburnum), Rose apple (a eugenia), Rose Box (cotoneaster), Christ-
mas and Lenten roses (hellebores) etc.
Rosaceae 395

When rose petals were first extracted is unknown, but the earliest written
reference is in the ninth century when production was well established, for
30,000 bottles of attar of rose were delivered annually between AD 810 and
817 as tribute from the Iranian province of Faristan to Maman, the then
Caliph of Baghdad. Rose-water was also traded along the Silk Road to
China, Distillation probably began independently in Europe, the Middle
and Far East. An Italian, Geronimo Rossi of Ravenna is credited as the first
European to do so in 1574, describing his methods and oils produced in De
Distillatione Liber, 1582.
The Chinese Li Shih-Chin in his work the Pen T’sao (1578) noted that
essence of rose is made by distilling the flowers of R. rugosa and he also
mentions essence of R. indica. Distillation began in Persia in 1612 and
production of rose oil quickly became a major industry, with local cultivars
and their processing spreading eastwards and westwards along the Silk
Road. This distribution can be followed in the name for rose oil, attar of
roses; attar from the Turkish is derived from the Farsi, aettr, which then
meant a fat. In Hindi itr described a liquid produced by absorbing in
sandalwood oil a distillate of rose flowers. In modern Turkish the attar is
known as gulyagi from the Farsi gul for rose flower.
Cultivation of R. damascena and production of rose oil began in what was
then the Turkish province of Eastern Roumelia (now Kazanlik) in the
fifteenth century. It was not until 1894 that R. damascena was re-introduced
to Turkey from Kazanlik, and large-scale production recommenced in the
south-western provinces of Burdur and Isparta. The first modern export
record is 1110 kg attar from the then Turkish Empire to England and France
in 1860. Turkey is now the world’s second largest producer of rose oil.
Commercial rose growing to produce oil was well established in what is
now the Kazanlik region of Bulgaria by the end of the seventeenth century,
although the plant had been grown for many centuries prior to its commer-
cial exploitation. So dominant did Bulgarian attar become on world markets
that rose cultivars originating there became universally known as Kazanlik
roses. On-going selection and breeding produced higher oil-yielding culti-
vars with more flowers blooming over a longer period and Bulgaria remains
the leading producer of rose oil (Staikov et al., 1975; Irintchev and Oghnen-
ski, undated). Bulgaria collectivized all rose plantations after the Second
World War, and nationalized the distilling and marketing sectors. Between
1938 and 1948 the area under roses fell from 6300 ha to 2000 ha, and later
ranged between 2000 and 2500 ha, with annual exports of attar and concrete
around 2000 kg each. Since the fall of communism, the Bulgarian rose
plantations have been returned to private ownership. Despite the disruption
this caused, reliable reports estimated total annual production in 1994 and
1995 as the equivalent of 750-1000 kg rose oil.
The Kazanlik cultivars have also been introduced to southern Russia, but
the author was told on a visit that an important local Crimean rose was
396 Chapter 11

developed from R. gallica. T h e area under various local cultivars in China


has steadily expanded since 1970, with Gansu province now the country’s
largest producer of rose oil and absolute, including a 2000 t annual capacity
processing plant.
T h e most important commercial essential oil producers are R. damascena,
R. gallica, R. centifolia and their cultivars, although other species may be
grown locally to produce an oil or rose extract. Rosa alba L. (the white rose),
whose yield was generally less than half that of R. damascena, is now little
cultivated for its oil. Selection for high oil yield has been extensive, with
crosses between R. damascena, R. alba, R. gallica, R. pannonica and other
oleiferous species and cultivars; the greatest increase in oil content of flowers
in Bulgaria occurred with R. damascena as the pollen parent (Staikov et al.,
1975). Tea-rose cultivars have been developed in Japan, whose oil has
different odour characteristics (Nakamura, 1987).
There was, and remains, considerable misidentification in the literature of
roses grown for their oil, and the author has therefore retained the com-
monly accepted name for the local rose species; for Egypt R. gallica var.
aegyptiaca; for Morocco R. centifolia cultivars, etc. Since all respond very
similarly to an agronomic or distillation technique, pest and disease control,
only R. damascena will be described in detail. Thus use of rose in the text
without qualification refers to this species and its cultivars and, unless
specifically qualified, it can be assumed the other species behave similarly.

Botany
T h e Caninea group are native to Europe, western Asia and North Africa,
and characteristically have an erect, arching habit, medium sized often
greyish-green leaves, stems with numerous hooked thorns and flowers in
small clusters. Garden types include the albas, dog roses, and sweet briars.
Rosa canina L., the common European wild dog rose, is a vigorous shrub to
3 m, with extremely prickly stems. T h e scented, usually pale pink flowers are
solitary or in clusters of two to three, and produce abundant fruit. Also in
this group is R. centifolia L. the cabbage or Provence rose, considered to be
a complex hybrid. It is a medium lax shrub to 2 m, with abundant grey-
green, coarsely-toothed leaves, and stems with several types of thorns. T h e
rich pink, strongly scented flowers are cabbage-shaped, double, singly or in
clusters; summer flowering. It produces no fruit.
The Chinensis group is based on two wild roses from China, R. chinensis
and R. gigantea Coll. Growth is variable but usually upright, the flowers are
borne in small clusters, and flowering is recurrent. Garden types include the
tea roses, noisettes, bourbons, hybrid perpetuals, and hybrid climbing tea
roses.
T h e Gallicanae group is native to Europe, Turkey and Iraq and character-
istically have large leaves composed of five leaflets and flowers solitary or in
threes and fours on long stems. Garden types include cabbage roses,
Rosaceae 397

damasks, mosses and Portlands. R. gallica L. is the group’s major wild rose,
and its widespread occurrence is partially due to its ability to grow on soils of
low fertility. R. gallica is a vigorous spreading shrub to 1.5 my with dense
foliage and few thorns. The fragrant, semi-double flowers are light red with
prominent yellow stamens, and major flowering is in late summer. It is
considered to be the oldest Gallica species in cultivation.
Rosa damascena Mill. (main syn. R. bifera Pers.; R. calendarum Borkh) is
commonly known as rose in English and many other languages. The
evolution of R. damascena is obscure and one of the first major rose
taxonomists (Lindley, 1820) stated ‘Our knowledge of European roses has
become by the extraordinary attention they have received, so extensive that
it is impossible to doubt that limits between what are called species do not
exist.’ A situation somewhat less confused today but still unresolved. The
basic chromosome number of the Rosaceae is x = 7 , for Rosa 2n = 14, but
most members of the Rosa are tetraploids with some interesting exceptions;
a diploid R. damascena and a triploid R. centifolia,while a pentaploid from an
Iranian cultivar has been found (2n = 3 5 ) .
It is generally agreed that R. damascena should be included in the genus
Rosa (Gallicanea), together with the polymorphic species R. gallica and its
closely related forms which may be allied species or hybrids; the relationship
between R. damascena and R. gallica is extremely involved. It is probable that
R. damascena cultivars have a major input from R. gallica, R. phoenicia Boiss.
and other species now lost.
The emergence of modern R. damascena cultivars resulted initially from
selection over a very long period, plus cross-breeding with locally available
species. In Turkey, for example, there are 30-40 Rosa spp. and the Anatolian
region is postulated as the centre of origin of R. damascena, although it has
not been collected as a truly wild plant (Nilsson, 1972). A proposed
genealogy of the various major Rosa spp. is shown in Fig. 11.1. The modern
essential oil cultivars, the Kazanlik roses, were subjected to an extensive
breeding programme and designated R. damascena forma trigintipetala
Dieck. Similarities between the composition of their flower wax and wax
from R. gallica and R. centifolia suggest these could be closely involved in
development of the Kazanlik rose.
Commercially cultivated R. damascena is a perennial bush rose, much
branched, thorny, with large, highly scented, roseate flowers. Although
other plant parts are aromatic, only the flowers are normally used to produce
an essential oil. Mature plants have well-developed and extensive roots, and
rate of root growth and extent is governed mainly by soil type or depth of
cultivation. Alluvial meadow soils in Kazanlik, for instance, allow plants to
produce a root system twice as extensive as on plants growing in adjacent
alkaline brown forest soils. Multiple stems arise from the root crown, and in
Bulgaria are topped when four to six leaves have developed to ensure
maximum branching. Such plants become very bushy, 1.2-2.0 m, and form
398 Chapter 11

( 1 600 BC)

R. damascena
R. damascena R. centifolia
R. alba
R. canine

(600 BC) -
R. chinensis
Bourbon rose
I
(1700AD)
7

R. moschata -+rose

Modern rose

Fig. 11.1. Genealogy of roses. (Nakumura, 1987.)

hedges. The shoots are grey-green, thickly covered with reddish-brown,


straight or downward-pointing thorns; becoming woody with age and
brown, with stout grey thorns. The degree of thorniness, shape and size of
thorns varies and near-thornless cultivars exist. A relationship may exist
between the number of thorns and more desirable plant characteristics such
as branching and longevity, but this remains to be fully investigated.
The leaves are waxy, alternate, compound pinnate, with 5-7 leaflets,
elongated, elliptical and serrate. The petiole is covered with fine reddish-
brown hairs; the lower surface with recurved prickles, the base with elon-
gated coalescent stipules. The leaves are dark green on the upper, light grey-
green on the lower surface; venation is netted and recessed on the upper
surface. Leaf-life varies from 1-4 months, and those produced at the
beginning and end of the growing season having the shortest average life. A
concrete and absolute are produced by solvent extracting fresh, healthy
leaves.
The inflorescence is corymbose with 3-9 flowers, sometimes many more
depending partly on the season but mainly on the cultivar. Flowers on a
single panicle bloom consecutively with main flowering in Europe in June-
July; in India, March-April and September-October. The flowering period
can be affected by growth regulators; ethephon pre-flowering increased
flower yield in China by nearly 50% and prolonged the blooming period by
a week; GA reduced the flowering period (Ma et al., 1985); in India,
Rosaceae 399

ethephon increased flowering and also flower oil content (Farooqi and
Sharma, 1990). Reports of trials elsewhere with these chemicals and also
maleic hydrazide produced conflicting data and there may be a cultivar
interaction. Gamma irradiating R. damascena stem cuttings in India did not
stimulate increased flowering or oil content, although both improved in a R.
borboniana cultivar (Lata and Gupta, 1971).
Flower-bearing stems form in spring from adventitious buds in the crown
of annual branches. Weather conditions at this time are very important for
bud formation, with the optimum nightiday temperatures 3-4°C and 15-
16°C respectively; colder nights or warmer days adversely affect bud forma-
tion (Topalov, 1964); the author also discusses bud organogenesis in detail.
A period of winter dormancy is essential to induce bud development, as was
demonstrated at the Kazanlik Research Institute. Plants kept in a green-
house continued to make vegetative growth throughout the winter, but
failed to flower the following year. Flowers of the most favoured cultivars are
large, rosy pink to rosy red, possessing 20-30 normal, 5-10 deformed petals,
and 100-120 stamens. Flowers are very fragrant and the scent varies in
strength and odour characteristics between cultivars. An attempt to differ-
entiate and thus typify the various flower scents has been proposed (Naka-
mura, 1987), and the seven types chosen are shown in Table 11.1.
Anthesis is normally completed in 20-25 days, and is directly affected by
climatic conditions immediately prior to and during flowering, with an
optimum air temperature of 1 5 2 0 ° C and relative humidity above 60%.
High temperature or hot dry wind can induce premature bud opening, and
reduce the flowering period and essential oil content of flowers. Irradiating
pollen from Rosa spp. produced a general increase in fertility, but the dosage
at which this occurred and the level of increase varied between species
(Tsvetkov, 1978). All flower parts contain essential oil which generally
reaches its maximum when the petals become cup-shaped and the stamens
bright yellow; designated stage five of the six flower development stages (Fig.
11.2). The rate of oil synthesis varies and is highest in crown petals. Whole

Table 11.1 Rose scent types.

Scent type Species or cultivar


Damask (classic) R. damascena, R. cenfifolia.
Damask (modern) 'Papa Meilland'
Tea 'Lady Hillingdon'
Fruity 'Harmonie', 'Double Delight'
Blue 'Blue Perfume', 'Blue Moon'
Spicy R. moschata, R. rugosa
Miscellaneous R. multiflora, 'Diana'
Source: Nakamura (1987).
400 Chapter 11

1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 11.2. Stages in rose flower development.

flowers are normally picked at stage five for rose oil, but young buds are
selected for highest yield of concrete.
The essential oil content of flowers varies with the cultivar, as does the
weight of flowers harvested per hectare. Flower yield ranges from
1000-3500 kgiha, and 2000-4000 kg are required to produce 1 kg oil. The
main oil constituent is geraniol to 80%, but the ratio of three main terpene
alcohols, citronellol to geraniol and nerol (the C:GN ratio), is of major
importance in determining rose oil quality. The effect of various growth
stimulants on flower production has been noted; their effect on oil content
and characteristics has produced conflicting results, with a particular culti-
var grown in different countries reacting differently to the same chemical or
level of application. While the small amount of data indicates that most
chemicals adversely affect oil content, the overall level is not significant and
their use is of little practical value (Farooqui et aZ., 1993). The main
characteristics of rose oil are shown in Table 11.2.
The fruit is light to dark red, fleshy, elongated, ovoid, (commonly rose-
hips in English), which originates from the cup-like receptacle bearing the

Table 11 -2. Main characteristics of rose oil.

Bulgarian (standard) USA (standard)


Specific gravity (30°C) 0.848 0.845
0.861 0.865
Refractive index ("C) 1.4530 1.457
1.4640 (25) 1.463 (30)
Optical rotation (25°C) -2.2" -1"
-4.6O -4"
Acid number 0.92-3.75 0 5-3 .O
I

Ester number 7.3-17.1 ng


Acetyl number 202.6-244.6 ng
Saponification number 8.0-21 .O 10.0-1 7.0
Solidifying point ("C) 16-24 18-37
Total geraniol (%) 65-79 65-75
Stearoptene (%) 15-25 ng
Source: Staikovetab (1975).
Rosaceae 401

sepals, petals and stamens on its rim, and enclosing the carpels. Carpels are
attached to the base but otherwise free. The majority of fruit is shed before
ripening. The fruit can be processed to make a syrup, and fruit in some rose
species has a very high vitamin C content, particularly R. rugosa cultivars. A
tonic is made by steeping fruit in boiling water for 5 minutes, and drunk hot
to alleviate the effects of a cold. The fruit contains one to three brownish
seeds (nutlets), rounded-triangular, 3-5 mm depending on cultivar. Seeds
are viable, but seldom used for propagation.

Ecology
Rosa damascena is adaptable to a wide range of environments and it is
basically non-climatic factors which have limited its commercial cultivation
for oil to very specific regions, as discussed later. A mild climate with no
extremes of temperature, long periods of warm, sunny weather and a regular
well-distributed rainfall is preferred. Within a region there may be consider-
able annual variation in the weather pattern and this directly affects the
flower yield; over 8 years in the Kazanlik region the average annual flower
yield was 1130-2700 kg/ha, with an overall average of 1700 kgiha (Lozzi,
1970).
The most important rose-growing areas are in Bulgaria, southern Russia,
Turkey and Morocco, where the environment is similar. Since Bulgaria is
the most successful, a description of the climate in the Kazanlik region gives
an excellent guide to the requirements necessary for commercial rose
growing, with temperature and humidity the most important factors influ-
encing flowering. It is locally considered that the lengthy period in spring
when mean temperature is 5 1 5 ° C has a decisive effect on flower produc-
tion, ensuring large numbers of high oil content flowers per plant. A low
night temperature of 10-12°C during flowering inhibits, but up to 2OoC
increases oil synthesis. Regular rainfall also ensures plants do not suffer
moisture stress, especially in spring and early summer when the oil content
of flowers is determined. During this period, May- June, the daily humidity
averages 70% which also contributes to oil accumulation; however, rain
during main blooming damages flowers and reduces oil content.
Long sunny periods encourage flowering and over 20 years in the Ka-
zanlik region sunshine averaged 2300 hours annually, but hot dry periods
during flowering rapidly reduce oil content. Shade is inimical to flowering
and the Kazanlik plantations are free of trees but in India, where the
temperature in direct sun is much higher, shade is necessary. At Kanpur,
Uttar Pradesh, oil yield from flowers grown in direct sunlight was half that of
flowers grown in light shade or with artificially increased humidity. Strong
winds are physically destructive to flowers, and hot, dry or cold winds
adversely affect oil content. These winds are absent from the Kazanlik
Valley, naturally protected from the very cold northern winds by the Balkan
hills. Rose flourishes below 1000 m and most commercial plantations are
402 Chapter 11

below 500 m. Increasing altitude normally retards growth, shortens the


flowering period and may also affect flower oil content. Thus growing roses
for oil at higher elevations in the semi-tropics has been only partially
successful. Other Rosa spp. including R. moschata Herrm. and R. borboniana
are grown in the Indian hills mainly to produce rose-water.
Rose plants are frost sensitive and a frost during early vegetative growth or
bud formation causes extensive damage. Mature plant parts are resistant,
but pruned plants may require earthing-up in areas of heavy winter frosts.
Bushes damaged by a severe winter or late spring frost seldom recover
sufficiently to flower the same year. Bushes which suffer only slight damage
from a late frost usually recover and flower the same year, but the rate of
recovery varies between species and cultivars. In the Ukraine, a Kazanlik
cultivar produced few new shoots compared with local cultivars when the
central bud was damaged (Nazarenko, 1982). Frost-resistance introduced
into Crimean cultivars was initially linked to a lower flower-oil content.
Factors which may increase frost resistance include sugar and ascorbic acid
levels in dormant shoots.

Soils and fertilizers


A deep, fertile loam is the most suitable for commercial rose growing but, in
general, climate is more important than soil type. With efficient manage-
ment good flower yields can be obtained on a very wide range of soils. Soils
of p H 6.0-7.5 are preferred, but acid soils with p H 4.0-5.0 in the Kazanlik
valley are made productive by applying quicklime or sugar-factory lime in
the autumn. One application every three years increased flower yield by 20%
over non-limed fields. Calcareous soils are generally unsuitable especially
where irrigation water may be alkaline, but on the Gangetic alluvial soils of
northern India, p H 9.5, roses have been successfully cultivated under
irrigation. Drainage is important to avoid waterlogging especially during fast
spring growth. Conversely porous soils are usually unsuitable except in areas
of high rainfall, since it may be necessary to use irrigation to raise humidity
during flowering and this may be impossible on such soils.
Roses require an adequate supply of plant nutrients as plantations can
remain productive for a decade or more, and a long-term programme is
necessary. It was calculated that in Bulgaria harvested roses contained
annually per ha 64 kg N, 8.7 kg P and 36 kg K, and 100 kg flowers contained
approximately 3 kg N, 0.34 kg P and 1 kg K (Koseva et al., 1978). Leaf
analysis is the preferred method of determining available nutrients, as there
is generally a close correlation between data obtained. In Russia, high flower
and thus oil yield per hectare was correlated with NPK levels in leaves at bud
development (Orlova, 1984). Interestingly, leaf analyses also established a
decrease of 35% N, 67% P, and 25% K between bud development and main
flowering.
Rosaceae 403

An interaction sometimes occurs between cultivar, a particular level of


fertilizer (usually high), and flower oil content or composition. The introduc-
tion of cultivars with higher flower and thus higher oil yield per hectare will
inevitably require a higher level of plant nutrients to attain their full potential.
Minor deficiencies now of little importance could also become more sig-
nificant. Farmyard or similar organic manure should be applied prior to
plantation establishment or replanting and ploughed in; up to 50 tiha in
Bulgaria and Russia; in India to 10 tiha animal manure is applied annually
after pruning, but in Egypt whatever is available. Phosphate is usually applied
as triple-superphosphate, and up to 400 kgiha may be required annually. The
amount of potassium applied should be carefully determined, since an excess
can induce a deficiency in other nutrients, or be taken up in luxury amounts
with no added benefit in terms of increased flower or oil production.
Sulphate of potash is the preferred type for rose cultivation, since it contains
no chloride.
Nitrogen is normally supplied as a top-dressing in one or more applica-
tions once growth has commenced. The optimum rate and time of applica-
tions should be determined by local trials, with the main objective a
profitable increase in flower production and thus oil yield per hectare.
Ammonium nitrate at 300 kgiha is applied annually in March to established
Bulgarian plantations to promote growth and early flowering, but in new
plantations two applications are usual, half in April-May and half in mid-
June. Calcium ammonium nitrate at 200 kgiha was favoured in India. In
Russia, Bulgaria and Turkey nitrogen has generally increased flower yield
but the optimum amount varied considerably; there was no effect on oil
content of flowers at the levels normally applied.
Magnesium is frequently deficient in soils suitable for rose growing, and a
shortage can be exacerbated by high potassium applications. Where there is
a known magnesium deficiency, a potassium-magnesium mixture is recom-
mended, or magnesium sulphate can be mixed with other fertilizers at the
required rate. Boron may become deficient when large amounts of lime are
applied, but there are no data of the effects of a boron deficiency (or toxicity)
on flower and oil yield. Iron-deficiency symptoms can occur in mature rose
plants, especially towards the end of a plantation’s life. Although foliar
sprays are a common method of correcting a shortage, application of
chelated iron is a more efficient and simpler method. A spray containing
0.1-2.0% ferric chloride alleviated the problem on iron-deficient soils in
Uttar Pradesh, India (Sharma, 1982).

Cultivation
The main operation prior to establishing a rose plantation is deep ploughing,
not only to fracture a pan or compacted layer which would restrict root
growth, but to expose plant debris and similar material, which must be
collected and burnt. Plantations are normally established using cuttings or
404 Chapter 11

splits obtained from mature rose plants, but grafting or budding are simple
procedures widely practised whenever roses are grown. Micropropagation to
produce large numbers of plants from a specific parent has yet to be
introduced on a commercial scale. Research on suitable methods and
techniques continues (Kirichenko et al., 1993: Kornova and Michailova,
1994).
Splits are obtained by dividing mature rose plants, often from exhausted
plantations, leaving each split with a section of root attached; in Bulgaria 1
ha produces sufficient splits to plant 2 ha, often placed directly in prepared
trenches where they are to grow. Suitable cuttings from mature plants taken
in the autumn in Bulgaria are also laid in trenches in a special nursery and
covered. Shoots appear the following spring and plants remain in the nursery
for 18-24 months. Cuttings can also be directly rooted in nursery beds,
which must be specially prepared, fertilized and preferably fumigated.
Cuttings 20-30 cm long are obtained from mature plants during pruning
but, for more intensive production in special nurseries or greenhouses, two-
node cuttings taken when shoots begin to lignify are most suitable, and only
lower leaves removed (Ivanova and Gladun, 1986; Decheva et al., 1989).
Cuttings should be treated with a rooting compound, then inserted in the
bed up to half their length and under good management can be planted out
after 12 months; in India, a bed 20 X 5 m will accommodate 10,000 cuttings
sufficient for 1 ha.
Transplanting can be either manual or mechanical, and the method and
equipment depend on the type of planting material. Planting can be fully
automated, with cuttings prepared to suit the transplanter used. Splits or
divided plants are more difficult and this material is usually planted by semi-
manual equipment; but where labour is freely available or cheap, manual
planting remains common. Pre-trenching or digging individual planting
holes to receive cuttings or splits is still practised, but full automation is
inevitable on large scale commercial plantations, and may then require a
complete revision of the local system of preparing planting material. Hedge
planting remains the most popular, with rows 2.0-2.5 m apart, 1.O-1.5 m
between plants. Spacing basically varies according to soil type and cultivar
and closer rather than wider in-row spacing is preferred to ensure an
unbroken hedge to achieve maximum flower production.
Young bushes are pruned annually in early summer to promote uniform
branching, and in the first and sometimes the second year all flower buds are
removed. In the third year plants are allowed to flower and regular picking
commences. Weed control is essential and may be manual or mechanical,
but should be as shallow as possible to reduce root damage. Black plastic
sheets may also be used in new plantations to retain soil moisture and inhibit
weed growth. Herbicides can be used and the following compounds have
been applied in rose plantations, usually with no effect on flowers or oil:
atrazine, dalapon, glyphosate, propanil, and simazine. Some herbicides may
Rosaceae 405

adversely affect oil yield and composition but, as many factors are in-
volved, only local testing can determine whether a particular chemical, or
combination, is suitable.
Irrigation may be required to ensure sufficient soil moisture and thus
growth in the important bud formation and early flowering period, and to
maintain humidity. Over-watering should be avoided especially when plants
are surface irrigated. Maintaining soil moisture at 85% capacity during the
growing period produced highest flower yield in Russia, 5360 kglha com-
pared to 3750 kg/ha without irrigation (Korshunov and Umanets, 1984).
Sprinklers were more efficient in water use, gave a higher flower yield per
unit of water applied and did not increase pest and disease damage in both
Russia and Bulgaria. Regular irrigation is necessary in January-March in
northern India and considered essential after pruning. In Tunisia and
Morocco, where rain may be sufficient in total but erratic in timing,
irrigation is usually essential; in Egypt, roses are grown in the Delta wholly
under surface irrigation. A nitrogenous top-dressing should precede irriga-
tion or coincide with rainfall. A more general interaction between fertilizer
application and irrigation may occur; over several years in Bulgaria irrigation
increased flower yield by 4-5 t/ha (40%) at the same level of fertilizer
compared with no irrigation (Staikov et al., 1975).
Annual pruning is essential to keep bushes in shape and promote branch-
ing, and seasonal pruning to remove dead or diseased shoots. Older plants
may be cut-back severely to promote new and vigorous growth; this opera-
tion rejuvenates bushes, ensures continued high flower production and is
normally necessary once in a plantation’s life. Selective pruning is usually
manual, but overall annual or rejuvenation pruning is more often mechanical
and a range of suitable machines is available. The extent of pruning depends
on the system of management, region and cultivar. Pruning to 15 cm from
ground level in India gave higher flower yield than moderate or light pruning
(Singh and Ram, 1987). Light to moderate pruning in the Bulgarian spring
(early March) before growth commenced increased flower yield and flower
oil content, but heavy pruning reduced both; pruning once every three years
was acceptable in terms of cost and flower yield (Aztadzhov et al. , 1986).
Prunings should be burnt and the ash spread as fertilizer, or used as distillery
fuel. Roses are seldom underplanted or intercropped, since few crops are
compatible with commercial rose oil production (Tajuddin et al. , 1993). The
economic life of a plantation is 10-12 years, with flower yields per hectare
normally increasing in the first 5-7 years, then falling gradually until the
plantation becomes unprofitable. Judicious pruning and fertilizing can thus
maintain flower production and extend plantation life.
The wide variation in flower oil content between cultivars is reflected in
the average oil yield per hectare from different regions. Considerable varia-
tion in oil content and composition between individual bushes within a
cultivar can occur, although this may not be very obvious in areas where
406 Chapter 11

plantations have been established over generations by vegetative propaga-


tion, since certain characteristics will naturally predominate. T o obtain any
large increase in oil yield a selection and breeding programme based on
individual plants is essential, since in the main producing regions trials have
shown there exist strains whose flower yield is nearly double the local
average. When standard methods of vegetative propagation are used to bulk-
up progeny the period to commercial production is extended, but modern
micropropagation techniques for mass-producing plants have substantially
cut this period. Thus a breeding programme combined with modern propa-
gation methods should increase flower oil yield, or produce oil with specific
characteristics.

Harvesting
Flowers are generally picked manually and it was this operation which
determined the feasibility of establishing new rose plantations; if there was
insufficient labour available at this season the project was non-viable (Fig.
11.3). Hand-held mechanical pickers could be more widely used since the
slight damage to flowers is unimportant provided they are promptly distilled.
Any loss of oil would be offset by the substantial reduction in harvesting cost.
Picking should be between 5 and 10 a.m. as it is during this period that the
flowers open and the oil content is highest; in Italy the optimum time was
8.30-9.00 a.m. and oil content declined thereafter. It was also highest in the
middle of the picking season at 1 kg oil per 3000 kg flowers, compared to 1
kg from 4000 kg at beginning of the season (Garner0 and Buil, 1976).
Whole, fully open flowers should be selected, not buds or the previous day’s
flowers, i.e. only those flowers in stage five (Fig.11.2). An experienced
worker can pick 25 kg flowers in 4 hours.
Flower yield varies widely and generally indicates the standard of manage-
ment as there is a direct correlation between the two; a high level of
husbandry producing high flower and oil yield. Flower yield in Bulgaria is
2000-3000 kg/ha; in Turkey, 2000-2500 kgiha; in Russia, 1500-2000 kgiha;
in India, 1000-1500 kgiha. Yields however may not be directly comparable
since different cultivars are involved; in Morocco, R. centifolia averages 2500
kg/ha; in Egypt, 2500-4000 kg/ha from R. gallica.
Oil composition varies substantially over the flower stages shown in Fig.
11.2 due to differences in rate of synthesis of the various components. In the
first three stages, flowers contain more stearoptene, alpha-pinene, myrcene
and less of the important alcohols citronellol, geraniol and nerol. In sub-
sequent stages, the alcohol content rapidly increases to around 60%; oil
content increases to stage five and then rapidly decreases. Pathways involved
in essential oil production during flower development have been discussed
(Pogorel’skaya et al., 1980). The oil content and ratio of constituents in the
various flower parts differs; in Kazanlik cultivars it is highest in stamens and
internal petals. The ratio between oil components is shown in Table 11.3.
Rosaceae 407

Fig. 11.3. Picking roses, Bulgaria.

Considerable variation exists between the amount of three main terpene


alcohols in petals; in external, medium and inner petals, citronellol content
rose from 39 to 49 to 6 0 % , nerol fell from 24 to 23 to 21% and geraniol from
38 to 29 to 27% respectively (Mihailova et al., 1977). Petal oil constituents
have been examined in detail (Velioglu and Mazza, 199 1).
Flower oil composition differs over the harvesting period; in Italy the C-
GN ratio (previously defined) was 4.0 at the beginning, 1.2-1.5 in the
middle and rose to 2.1 at end of harvesting. Conversely, the stearoptene
content was highest at the end, when the beta-phenylethyl content generally
diminished, but eugenol was constant at 3-4%. T h e C-GN ratio in concrete
differed from that in the oil; 2.2-2.5 to 1.7-1.8 over the harvesting period

Table 11-3.Oil constituents in rose flower parts from Bulgaria.

Citronellol Nerol Geraniol Stearoptene Phenylethyl


(%I ("/I ("/I ("/I alcohol (%)
Petals
Outer 10.1 6.3 9.9 9.9 63.8
Middle 16.9 8.2 9.8 8.4 56.7
Centre 18.9 8.0 9.7 12.8 50.6
Stamens 17.4 7.6 5.7 9.0 60.3
Ovules and stigmas 14.5 8.3 10.5 23.0 43.7
Carpels 17.1 9.2 17.1 21.2 34.8
Chalice leavesB 27.1 10.8 10.9 10.4 40.8
aAs stated in original.
Source: Mihailova et al. (1977).
408 Chapter 11

(Garner0 and Buill, 1976). Thus the stage at which flowers are picked has a
major influence not only on oil yield but also oil characteristics. Since flower
petals of R. damascena var. sempe$orens have similar characteristics, these
data are probably relevant to all oil cultivars.
Flowers should be transported to the distillery without delay, but storing
bagged flowers in clean cold water retains oil content and quality for up to 3
days. Spreading flowers for short periods in layers in cool shade retains most
of the oil without loss of quality, but storage beyond 24 hours causes
significant loss. Temperature above 25°C during storage can decrease
flower oil content by half, increase citronellol and stearoptene but decrease
nerol and geraniol content; temperatures of 4-1 0°C increased oil content,
stearoptene decreased, but nerol and geraniol increased (Staikov et al.,
1974).Petal oil content increases after picking due to enzymatic activity, and
also during storage under anaerobic conditions using various gases (Tyu-
tyunnik and Ponamaryava, 1977).

Distillation
Rose oil is produced by a two-stage distillation of whole flowers; the initial
stage producing decant or first oil, then redistilling the water to obtain the
second oil. Stills vary in construction and method of operation, and their
products differ considerably in composition, quality and yield of oil from the
same weight of flowers. Thus 1 kg oil is obtained from approximately 300 kg
of flowers in Bulgaria, 380 kg in Russia, 350 kg in India, 300-350 kg in
Turkey. From R. gallica in Egypt, 1000 kg flowers yield 2.2 kg concrete and
52% absolute; from R. centijolia in Morocco 1000 kg flowers yielded 1.8 kg
concrete and 50% absolute, while extraction of a Bulgarian R. canina
cultivar gave a concrete yield from flowers of 0.51% with a 50% absolute
content. Much higher oil yields are obtained in the laboratory from selected
bushes, indicating the potential for a considerably higher oil yield when
modern processing plants are used and high-yielding cultivars planted.
Following distillation, the oil should be placed in full, tightly closed,
opaque containers and kept in cool storage. Oil exposed to air and light
quickly deteriorates. Rose-water is more important than rose oil in India,
and distillate is not returned to the still but sold directly as rose-water.
Depending on the ratio between weight of flowers and water, distillate is sold
as 20140 or 20/80, i.e. 20 litres of distillate from 40 kg flowers, or 20 litres
from 80 kg. Spent flowers can be solvent extracted, dried and used as an
ingredient in incense, confectionery, or returned to plantations as mulch,
but are often discarded.
The gross factors affecting yield of flowers and thus oil have already been
discussed. Improved methods of distillation can also substantially increase
oil yield, and are described in the relevant literature. Probably the most
important agronomic factor which directly influences yield and oil type is the
stage of flower development at picking, and the various stages of flower
Rosaceae 409

development are shown in Fig. 1 1.2.The type of oil produced by different R.


damascena cultivars varies and the difference is greatest between widely
separated geographical regions. These oils are accepted as a regional type.
Oil composition can also vary between neighbouring districts in a particular
region, for instance Kazanlik, where the small variation in major odour
constituents is directly related to where the oil was produced, and these
differences are constant (Nikolov et al., 1977). The variation in Turkey
however was due mainly to different harvesting and distilling techniques
(Bayrak and Akgul, 1994).

Pests and diseases


The range of insects and other pests which damage rose plants is varied
indeed, and most gardeners firmly believe their rose bushes are favourite
host to the insect world in general! While this is a natural reaction by the
home grower, it underlines the necessity for a systematic programme of pest
control in commercial rose plantations. In a particular region there are
usually a small number of pests more important than others, and these must
be identified to ensure effective control. Other pests can then be assessed for
degree of importance in respect of damage caused in relation to the cost of
protection. Ground-based equipment has traditionally been used to apply
pesticides in rose-growing regions, but aerial spraying is becoming more
common. The substantial reduction in the cost of operating agricultural
aircraft including helicopters, combined with ultra-low-volume spraying
techniques now make their use competitive. Since commercial cultivation of
roses for oil production is limited to a few specific regions, the most
damaging pests are listed in Table 11.4. Many are polyphagous and, if
uncontrolled on other common host plants, will be very difficult to control
on rose. A review of nematodes associated with roses has been published
(Sudha and Koshy, 1987).
A range of diseases attack rose, but the most economically important vary
regionally and seasonally. Similarly to insect pests, the most damaging local
diseases may also have a number of alternative hosts, and the extent that
control is possible or profitable must be determined. A healthy plant
produces an abundance of flowers, thus a systematic disease control pro-
gramme which can be modified to suit seasonal variation is essential. Since
roses are grown for their flowers, diseases damaging this plant part are of
major importance, followed by those attacking leaves and roots. Rose rust
caused by Phragmidium spp. attacks all above-ground parts including flow-
ers. A severe infestation almost defoliates plants, which are so weakened that
they become more susceptible to frost. Symptoms are orange-coloured
pustules on leaves in summer, darker spots in autumn. Flowers are dis-
coloured and wither. Individual plants and some cultivars have considerable
resistance to rust and powdery mildew. Black spot, Marssonina rosae, attacks
mainly leaves and young shoots. Symptoms are circular black spots on leaves
410 Chapter 11

Table 11.4. Major rose pests.

Root Rhizococcus spp., root mealy bugs; Maculolachnus spp., root apids;
Diplolepsis spp., root gall wasps; Paria spp., rootworms; Cicadidae, cicadas;
Pratylenchus spp., nematodes; Pantomorus spp., beetles.
Stems and branches Agrilus spp. and Oberea spp., stem borers and girders; Stictocephala spp.,
treehoppers; Paris spp. (adults);Aulacaspis spp., scales; Syrista spp., stem
sawflies.
Leaves Argyrotaenia spp,, Macrodactylus spp., Sibine spp., Parasa spp. Archips spp.
and Orgyia spp., larvae feed on leaves; Endelomyia spp., rose slugs;
Edwardsiana spp. and Typhlocyba spp., leaf hoppers; Maculolachnus spp.
and Macrosiphum spp., aphids; Dasineura spp. and Wachtliella spp.,
midges: Bulgarialeurodes spp. and Trialeurodes spp., whiteflies;
Blennocampa spp. and Arge spp., sawflies; Tetranychus spp., spider mites.
Flowers Rhynchites spp., cerculios; Macrodactyius spp.and Cetonia spp., chafer
beetles: Nodonota spp., rose beetles; Forficula spp., earwigs; Dasineura
spp., midges; Thrips spp., thrips; Arge spp., sawflies.

or scabby patches on shoots. Powdery mildew, Sphaerotheca spp. and


Uncinula spp., attack mainly leaves and young shoots, occasionally flowers
and buds. The main symptom is a white powdery coating on affected parts,
which spreads very rapidly unless controlled. Damping off and root rots due
to Pythiurn spp. and Phytophthora spp. occur on rooted cuttings or splits and,
where these diseases are prevalent, both should be dipped in a fungicide.

Products and specifications


Three main products are obtained from rose plants: oil, concrete and
absolute, which vary in their characteristics according to origin. T h e oil is
usually obtained by steam distilling whole flowers, concrete by solvent
extracting leaves or whole flowers, and absolute by further extracting con-
crete. The three products from different cultivars or different rose species
also vary, and as noted previously, products from the same cultivar or species
grown in geographically separate areas also differ. For this reason those
countries, Bulgaria for example, which have what is virtually a national
industry, blend or guarantee their products to ensure uniformity. Perfumers,
however, often prefer to use a product from a specific region in formulations
to preserve exclusivity. A method developed in Bulgaria of determining
genuine, blended or oil from a particular region, is claimed to be very
accurate (Dimov and Tsoutsoulova, 1987).
Rose oil is commercially the most important product, also known as rose
otto or rose attar. Rose otto, or otto of roses, is generally accepted as
applying to oil obtained from R. darnascena and is usually prefixed by the
country of origin, Bulgarian, Turkish etc.; Russian oil is wholly consumed
domestically. Rose otto from R. darnascena produced elsewhere, including
Rosaceae 41 1

India, China, Morocco and previously France, differs from Bulgarian and
Turkish otto, and is normally sold as rose oil followed by the country of
origin, i.e. rose oil Morocco. Rose oil is also produced in Morocco and
France from R. centifolia, in Egypt from R. gallica var. aegyptiaca, in China
from R. rugosa and other Rosa spp. These oils are also sold as rose otto, but
experienced perfumers can readily identify them. Only Moroccan oil is
normally available on the world market in commercial quantities, although
Chinese oil is becoming more frequently available, is cheap, and will
probably increase to meet a growing demand. A comparison of a Chinese
rose oil with oils from other origins has been published (Ohno and Tanaka,
1977).
Because of its importance to formulators and its relatively high price, rose
oil has been exhaustively studied. There is thus an extensive literature on its
use, characteristics and composition. A review of the oil and absolutes to
1976 has been published (Garnero, 1976). Analyses have identified some
150 constituents, many in minute proportions. T o the perfumer, most
important are the aromatic terpene alcohols, citronellol, geraniol and nerol,
but other minor constituents are important modifiers (Omata et al., 1991),
and a reason why synthetic otto is seldom equal to the natural product. An
interesting discussion on which constituents contribute to the characteristic
rose odour has been published (Buccellato, 1980).
The oil is expensive and commercial samples are frequently adulterated
with an extensive range of similar natural compounds or synthetics. Most
alter either the oil’s natural odour or persistence. Rose oil is virtually
indispensable in perfumery, cosmetics and similar products either as a
primary scent or modifier, since it blends with most other floral oils and can
be used in extreme dilution. The oil has a slightly bitter, very sharp taste,
most pleasant when diluted. Its main use in flavourings is to modify a
primary taste, and for this reason it is used in a very wide range of sweets,
confectionery and tobacco products. The oil has a minor use in medicine
and has insecticidal and fungicidal properties.
Rose oil (otto of rose) Bulgarian is a pale yellow to yellowish green; fresh
oil is often more green due to the presence of azulenes which gradually
decompose over time; when cooled below 20°C white or colourless crystals,
stearoptene, are deposited; the liquid is elaeoptene. Stearoptene is odourless
and constitutes 15-25% of the oil. On cooling below 16°C the oil may
solidify into a translucent mass with surface crystals. The odour is warm,
deep-floral, slightly spicy, very rich with traces of honey, tenacious and
intense. Oil from Japanese tea roses is humid, fresh green, flowery, slightly
phenolic and spicy, soft and refreshing rather than sweet. Rose oil is
considered not to reflect the true scent of rose flowers since certain aroma
components, in particular phenylethyl alcohol, are lost during distillation.
T o correct this loss it has been suggested that rose flowers should be distilled
in water saturated with the alcohol.
412 Chapter 11

High quality oil should have a specific gravity approaching 0.86, refractive
index 1.46, optical rotation -3" to -4O, congealing point 18-22 " C , and
total alcohol content of 66-70%. Rose oil is very slightly soluble in water,
sparingly so in alcohol, but soluble in fatty oil and chloroform. Turkish otto,
Anatolian rose oil, is similar in characteristics and odour to Bulgarian oil, for
which it is generally a direct substitute (Anac, 1984). A comparison of the
main constituents of Bulgaria and Turkish rose oils is shown in Table
11.5.
Rose oil (otto of rose) Morocco obtained from R. centifolia is colourless to
pale yellow, sometimes with a greenish tinge when fresh; odour deep, sweet,
warm, rich, but less spicy than Bulgarian or Turkish oils, tenacious. The
main uses are similar to these oils to which it is often added as an extender,

Table 11 -5. Comparison of main constituents of rose oils.

Compound Bulgarian Turkish


Ethanol 1.43 5.14
Pentanal 0.07 0.05
3-Hexenal 0.26 0.16
Alpha-pinene 0.73 0.50
Camphene and heptanal 0.14 0.07
Beta-pinene 0.03 0.02
Myrcene and hexanol 0.50 0.30
Heptanol 0.02 0.01
Hexyl acetate 0.01 0.01
Methyl heptenone 0.04 0.02
Octanol 0.07 0.01
Linalool 2.18 0.54
cis-Rose oxide and nonanal 0.43 0.33
trans-Rose oxide 0.17 0.18
Nonanol 0.09 0.07
Phenylethyl alcohol, decanal and terpinen-4-01 1.45 1.88
Citronellol 33.40 45.04
Nerol 5.90 3.60
Geraniol and neral 18.47 11.87
Geranial and carvone 0.72 0.57
Citronellyl acetate 0.53 0.72
Neryl acetate 0.06 0.04
Cinnamaldehyde and C,j paraffin 0.21 0.30
Geranyl acetate 1.60 1.23
Eugenol and trans-beta-damascenone 1.20 1.19
Methyl eugenol and C,, paraffin 2.37 3.26
Octanal 0.05 0.02
Benzaldehyde 0.10 0.03
Source: Buccellato (1980)
Rosaceae 413

but it is not a substitute. Rosa centifolia oils from France and Spain resemble
the Moroccan oil, but that from India differs. None are regularly available.
Rose concretes are generally similar in appearance, but differ in their
odour to reflect the scent of the original flowers, and approach more closely
the true flower scent than oil. The method of extraction also affects the
important odour constituents (Moates and Roverts, 1991). T o avoid un-
necessary descriptions, concretes and their absolutes will be discussed in
general. Rose concretes are waxy solids, dark yellow to dark brownish
orange, melting point 45-55"C, and are used in similar products to oils, but
mainly extracted to produce absolutes. The most easily obtainable are rose
concrete centifolia, rose concrete damascena from various origins but
mainly from Morocco, Bulgaria and Turkey (Anac, 1984), and rose con-
crete gallica from Egypt (Nofal et al., 1982).
Rose absolutes are orange-yellow to orange-brown, sometimes with a
reddish or greenish tinge, viscous liquids, and tend to have a richer odour
than concretes (Tables 11.6 and 11.7). Because absolutes are so concen-
trated they are normally used at very high dilution rates in end-products;
main uses are the same as for concretes and oils. Absolutes are becoming
increasingly important since their production in the country of origin adds
value to the local rose industry, and usage is expected to continue to rise as
manufacturers adopt the material. Similarly to concretes, absolutes are
identified as rose absolute centifolia, etc. However, absolute from Morocco

Table 11.6. Main constituents of rose absolute.

Moroccoa Turkeyb
Ethanol 0.38 ng
Camphene t heptanal 0.01 0.02(camphene only)
Beta-pinene 0.03 ng
Linalool 0.40 0.28(t rose oxides)
Phenylethyl alcohol t decanal
t terpinen-4-01 74.06 72.28
Citronellol 8.77
Nerol 2.52
Citronellol t nerol 14.04
Geraniol t neral 5.18 4.21
Citronellyl acetate 0.23 0.10
Neryl acetate 0.10 0.17(t cinnamaldehyde)
Geranyl acetate 0.38 0.15
Eugenal t trans-beta-damascenone 0.89 0.53
trans-trans-Farnesol 1.30 0.20
Unidentified 5.70 ng
ng, not identified under compound name.
',
Source: ', Buccellato 1980; Anac (1984).
414 Chapter 11

Table 11-7.Main characteristics of certain rose absolutes.

French Bulgarian
(R. centifoliai (R. darnascena)
Colour Orange-brown Greenish-brown
Specific gravity (15°C) 0.960-0.990 0.970-0.990
Refractive index (20") 1.490-1.520 1.500-1.515
Acid index < 20 5-1 1
Ester index 15-20 20-30
Source: Commercial Standard Specifications.

and France is also known as rose de mai absolute. The composition of


absolutes has also been extensively studied and many analyses published.
Rose leaf concrete is obtained by solvent extracting fresh leaves of R.
centijolia, and the absolute by further extracting the concrete. Leaf absolute
is a dark green semi-liquid mass with an intense crushed leaf odour, sweet
but somewhat woody. It is used almost exclusively in perfumes and similar
toiletries. Scarcity of the absolute currently precludes its wider use, but as it
can easily be produced where oil is also obtained, demand would quickly
increase supply.
Rose petals can be crystallized with sugar to make a sweetmeat; dried and
added as a flavouring to drinks; extracted with boiling water and the residue
used to flavour confectionery and foods especially in the Middle East and
India; while petals macerated with sesame oil makes gul-roghan (hair oil) in
India.

References

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Rutaceae 12-
The Rutaceae is a large family containing 130 genera in seven subfamilies,
with the Aurantioideae important fruit and oil producers. Within the Aur-
antioideae, the Citreae contains Citrus (1 6 spp.), Fortunella (four spp.) and
Poncirus (one sp.). Fortunella spp. are native to southern China and have
prolonged cold-weather dormancy to which they probably owe their exist-
ence, and are classified on essential oil composition (Katayama et al., 1994).
Poncirus trifoliata L., native to north and central China, is cold resistant and
deciduous, The remaining genera are Microcitrus, Eremocitrus and Clymenia,
the last considered the most primitive. Citrus, derived from Latin, was
originally applied to Cedrus and apparently transferred to citron probably in
the first century AD, reportedly owing to confusion between the woods
known as lignurn citreunt and lignum cedreum. Citrus consists o f two sub-
genera, Papeda, containing six spp. whose very acid fruit is unpalatable, and
Eucitrus of ten spp., eight cultivated, several on so large a commercial scale as
to be industries in their own right (Jatosti and Spina, 1992). Certain
members of the Rutaceae produce oil similar to sandalwood, and are
included in the chapter santalaceae for convenience.
The taxonomy of Citrus L. is confused, exacerbated by the proliferation of
hybrids and numberless cultivars, but chemotaxonomy could assist classifi-
cation and result in further reorganization (Ulubelde and Mendilicioglu,
1985; Ortiz and Marcide, 1986; Mizuno et al., 1991; Zhong and Ye, 1993;
Fang et al., 1993; Sawamura et al., 1994). The basic chromosome number is
x = 9 (Swingle, 1967; Simmonds, 1976). Most species are diploid, although
a few tetraploids occur naturally and many others produced experimentally.
Interspecific hybrids are common, including tangor, a mandarin-sweet
orange cross; intergeneric hybrids can be induced, while mutation has
produced valuable cultivars including Washington navel orange, Shamouti
orange and Marsh grapefruit. Periclinal chimaeras occur; one of the most
interesting is the grapefruit cultivar Thompson pink. Many citrus species are
rare or little known, and it is possible there exists in these species genes or

417
418 Chapter 12

characteristics of value to plant breeders; in particular disease and virus


resistance and salt tolerance.
The genus Citrus is very variable; some members are small, others large
trees; some have small, others very large fruit; and there is similar variability
in the essential oils obtained. Most produce an edible fruit, and some have
been extensively cultivated, including orange, lemon and grapefruit, while
others such as bergamot and bitter orange have specialized use. The original
distribution of the Aurantioideae was the Old World; Citrus and its relatives
in tropical South East Asia, the main centre probably eastern India. Rela-
tionships have been established through Indonesia to central China, Japan,
Australia, and Africa where four genera are endemic. Only one, grapefruit,
originated in the New World.
It is impossible to say when citrus was first domesticated since no truly
wild ancestors have been positively identified. Citrus fruits have been eaten
by Asian peoples for thousands of years, and later became equally popular in
European countries and the Americas. Although the genus is tropical in
origin and species can be found in all tropical countries, the main areas of
commercial production are generally in subtropical regions. Citrus fruits are
popular throughout the world, and orange and grapefruit in particular are
among the few tropical fruits which have become easily and regularly
available on a large scale to temperate world consumers.
While commercial production of citrus fruit is of major importance, a
huge volume of fruit is also harvested from smallholder trees and consumed
locally. Introduction of cooperatively owned, well-managed small process-
ing plants could well increase the income of such small producers. This
system has been successfully introduced by the author to process oilseeds,
and a similar system would enable smallholders to profitably produce
speciality oils, high-quality oils or oils for a particular market in amounts too
small for larger enterprises. Such cooperatives initially encourage higher
fruit production through better tree or orchard management, but later by
planting higher-yielding or more suitable varieties. It is thus possible to
establish a viable local industry without major capital investment, since
expansion can be funded from profits.
The massive scale on which some Citrus spp. are cultivated has produced
a huge volume of readily available material, covering in detail almost every
aspect of cultivation, management, processing and marketing. This chapter
will concentrate on factors which directly affect oil production, oil content or
oil composition, The selected Citrus spp. are treated in alphabetical order of
botanic name, and listed in Table 12.1. The most commercially important
citrus oil is orange closely followed by lemon, then lime, grapefruit and
mandarin, Most Citrus spp. secrete an essential oil which may have been
obtained on a very small scale or in laboratories, with details or analyses
published in the relevant literature. T o simplify the text, descriptions of
plant parts will use common names rather than botanical nomenclature, i.e.
Rutaceae 419

Table 12.1. Selected Citrus species and their common names

Botanical name English name


C. aurantifolia Swing. Lime
C. aurantium Swing. Bitter orange
subsp. bigaradia Bergamot
subsp. amara Petitgrain
C. limon (L.) Burm. Lemon
C. paradisi Macf. Grapefruit
C. reticulata Blanco. Mandarin
C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck Sweet orange

peel, pulp etc.; additionally the major named cultivars are so well known it is
considered unnecessary to place them in inverted commas.

Botany
All the citrus species discussed are evergreen shrubs or small trees, with
extensive but frequently shallow roots, normally a single stem, very hard
wood, and extensive branching. The flowers are fragrant, the leaves aro-
matic and the fruit frequently palatable. The leaves are alternate, apparently
simple but derived from an original pinnate leaf by reduction to a single
leaflet. The petioles are large-winged, usually articulated with the leaf blade.
Single spines occur in the leaf axils on younger branches and twiglets. The
leaves are gland dotted, and from some species an essential oil is obtained.
Leaves may remain on the tree for 2-3 years, and a healthy full-grown tree
has 150,000-200,000 leaves, with a total area of about 200 mZ;a typical leaf
is shown in Fig. 12.1.
The usually white, sometimes pink or purple-tinged, fragrant flowers are
carried singly in leaf axils or in small clusters on short racemes. The flowers
are generally bisexual and insect pollinated. A typical flower is shown in Fig.
12.1. The flowers usually have five petals, subtended by five small greenish-
coloured sepals. The perianth segments are variable in number. The sta-
mens always more than four times the number of petals and collected into
five groups, the filaments of each group being partially united at the base.
The ovary is superior, composed of eight to 15 united carpels, each loculus
containing several ovules carried in two rows in axil placentation. The ovary
is surmounted by a short deciduous style.
Citrus and other subtropical evergreen trees differ from deciduous trees in
the time of flower induction and period to complete flower differentiation
and development, with temperature being the main factor. In the subtropics,
where the temperature may fall below 15°C for a period (winter), citrus
tends to flower profusely in the local spring and set only one major crop. In
tropical climates with no cool season, flowering may be induced by a
420 Chapter 12

/ Y W E J-- -Articulation
Winged petiole’
\w
Spine

- Petals

Flavedo , Albedo

Flesh

Fig. 12.1. Citrus. (a) Grapefruit leaves and flower; (b) sections of flower; (c) cross section of fruit.
Rutaceae 42 1

moisture stress but where there is ample soil moisture trees flower through-
out the year. Approximately 30% of flower buds drop before reaching full
bloom, of those remaining only 1-4% set fruit which will reach full maturity.
Although most citrus cultivars are self pollinated, some mandarin and
mandarin hybrids set more and larger fruit when cross-pollinated. A critical
review of the factors affecting flower development and flowering has been
published (Krajewski and Rabe, 1995).
Chemicals, including antimetabolites, growth retardants, abscissants and
white oils, can inhibit or induce flower induction, depending on concentra-
tion and time of application. Harvesting also affects time of flower induction
in the following year; early picking has no effect but late picking inhibits to
some degree, A comprehensive review of many aspects of citrus flower
development has been published (Davenport, 1990). Chemicals applied to
citrus to influence growth, flower or fruit production have been studied for
their effect on the plant part under test, but little has been noted of their
effect on oil yield or composition.
The fruit is a special kind of berry, a hesperidium, having a tough epicarp
protecting fluid-filled trichomes which fill the locule of each carpel to form
the characteristic segments. Since the fruit, mainly the peel, contains an
essential oil it is discussed in detail. A diagrammatic section of a typical
citrus fruit is shown in Fig. 12.1. Since the rate of fruit development is
important to essential oil producers, a summary of the main stages is
apposite. Cell division begins at full bloom and continues to maturity; peel
develops from the ovary wall and juice sacs form in pulp segments. Cell
elongation also begins at full bloom, and fruit size increases as juice sacs
enlarge and contents increase. The peel changes colour. Maturation varies
with species, but fruit colour usually continues to change, soluble solids
increase and acidity decreases. There may also be changes in peel oil
composition between early and late maturing fruits.
Flavedo (peel) has an outer layer consisting of a thick cuticle, and stomata
in varying numbers occur in the epidermal layer of cells. The exocarp is a
thicker layer of irregular parenchymatous cells rich in chloroplasts and
photosynthetic in ripening fruit. Completely enclosed in this tissue are
numerous glands (oil sacs) which fill with essential oil under considerable
pressure (turgor pressure) which develops in surrounding cells. Albedo
(mesocarp) is a thicker, spongy white mass of tissue surrounding the fleshy,
juicy interior of the fruit; it is rich in vitamin C, sugars, cellulose, and pectins
which are commercially extracted in large citrus-processing plants. The fruit
centre consists of the developed carpels of the ovary, arranged around the
central pithy axis as a number of closely packed fleshy segments, developing
from a single carpel and surrounded by a thin transparent membrane.
Segments are filled with a mass of multicellular hairs which grow out from
the carpel wall, in which juice is produced as the fruit develops.
422 Chapter 12

Seeds in axil placentation are embedded in juice sacs close to the central
axis. As the fruits ripen, chlorophyll contained in the plastids of the exocarp
breaks down; the colour thus changes during ripening from green to yellow-
orange as carotenoid pigments, xanthophyll and carotene, present in the
plastids gradually become dominant.
The average composition of various citrus fruit is shown in Table 12.2, but
there can be wide variation in size, and between proportions of the various
components within a species, indeed between individual trees. Because of this
variation, it is essential to ensure samples taken from plantations to determine
fruit composition are truly representative. Not only must a minimum number
of trees be sampled, but fruits must be taken from different tree levels and
aspects, as there are significant differences in fruit composition, oil content
and oil characteristics from fruit growing in different positions. With certain
exceptions which will be noted later, essential oil production from citrus fruits
is generally a by-product of large-scale canned fruit and juice production by
utilizing its wa.ste products. About 45% by weight of fruit remains as cannery
waste after juice extraction, consisting of peel, pulp, rag (internal membranes
and core tissue) and seeds. Where oil is not extracted prior to juicing, it is this
material that is further processed to obtain the oil.
Solid residues remaining after juice and oil extraction are normally con-
sidered waste products, but can be treated to extract individual constituents or
processed into stockfeed or fertilizer. About 10 t of waste produces 1 t of dried
material for processing and may contain, in per cent: protein 6, crude fat 6,
crude fibre 14, N-free extract 60. Analyses ofvarious citrus seed and cakes are
shown in Table 12.3. Aged or unwanted citrus trees are usually burnt in situ
but can be used to fuel stills or for gas production (Churchill et al., 1984).

Ecology
The majority of cultivated citrus are probably indigenous to the humid
tropics or subtropics, and this origin is supported by a general mesophytic

Table 12.2. Approximate composition of some citrus fruit a

Sweet orange Lemon Mandarin


(Valencia) (Eureka) (Darcy)
Peel 25 40 28
Pulp 30 20 19
Seed 1 3 1
Juice 45 35 52
Water 84 82 ng
Citric acid 1.5 6 ng
Oil (total)b 0.80 0.90 0.80
aAverage figures (%): there is very wide variation; Oil recovery by cold-
pressing approximately 75%, seed oil not included; ng, not given.
Rutaceae 423

Table 12.3. Analyses of citrus seeds and cakes

Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fibre Ash


Grapefruit S 12 16 30 ng 9 2
C 3 22 14 ng 7 4
Lime S 11 21 40 12 14 2
C 15 31 14 17 20 3
Mandarin S 61 12 1 ng ng 1
Orange
bitter S Dry 17 43 ng ng 3
sweet S basis 15 31 ng ng 4
S, Seed; C, cake; ng, not given. Figures in table are per cent.
Source: Abstracted from published data.

character. The trees normally have extensive shallow root systems very
susceptible to a soil moisture shortage, while the flat evergreen leaves and
succulent bark on young shoots are also unsuited to moisture stress. Citrus
is today cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics mainly between
40"N and S latitudes; the specific geographical limit is formed by the 15°C
isotherm for the coldest month. Main commercial production areas are in
subtropical regions between 20"N and 20"s with approximately 80% in the
southern USA, Central America and the Mediterranean, 10% in South
America, the remainder in Australia and East Asia. Brazil is probably the
world's largest producer of tropical citrus.
Citrus can be grown from sea-level to about 2000 m near the equator and,
at the higher level, average temperature is approximately 10°C lower at
around 17°C than at sea-level. Lower temperature at higher altitude has
other effects; in Kenya for instance, a most serious disease of citrus,
greening, is severe above 700 m but absent at sea-level as the insect vector is
intolerant of high temperature. Degree of cold hardiness in citrus and
methods of selecting strains with greater frost tolerance are important in
countries when summer temperatures are suitable for citrus production, but
very low winter temperatures kill trees (Goncharova, 1989; Guei et al., 1992;
Zhong and Chen, 1993; Roose and Kupper, 1994). A comprehensive review
with an extensive bibliography of cold hardiness in citrus has been published
(Yelenosky et al., 1987). Citrus species in order of decreasing cold resistance
were rated as follows: Poncirus trifoliata, Fortunella spp., Citrus aurantium, C.
reticulata, C. sinensis, C. paradisi, C. limon and, least resistant, C. medica.
Techniques including retention of snow cover and materials used to protect
citrus trees from low or freezing temperatures have been investigated (Rarn-
ishvili et al., 1988; Rieger et al., 1988).
The following is a general review of climatic factors affecting citrus growth
and development. The optimum temperature is 25-30°C, above and below
this growth diminishes and virtually stops at 38OC and 13°C. Citrus may
424 Chapter 12

withstand more extreme temperatures for short periods, up to 50°C and


down to freezing or slightly below. High temperature especially at night, is
harmful as respiration and transpiration continue at a high rate while
photosynthesis decreases sharply; pigmentation of fruit stops and coloured
fruit may regreen. A striking effect of high temperature was in southein Iran,
where flowering and fruit set occurred only in the tree centre protected by
the leaf canopy (Samadi and Cochran, 1975).
Temperature can affect peel and flesh colour; for example the red car-
otenoid pigment lycopene, occurring in some grapefruit and pummel0
cultivars, produces highly pigmented fruit in the tropics but only pink-tinged
flesh in cooler regions; blood oranges, which contain anthocyanin, develop
the distinctive red flesh only in cooler areas. Seedling growth in particular is
directly related to temperature, and is significantly slower in cool compared
with warm areas. Less time is required for fruit growth and maturation
generally in the tropics, and the distinction between early and late varieties
tends to disappear.
Air temperature is but one of many factors including radiation, air velocity
and relative humidity which together determine temperature of specific
plant cells, tissues or organs in relation to time and position. A factor which
can become important is insolation, as in direct strong sunlight the tem-
perature on the surface or interior of fruit can be considerably higher than
the ambient temperature. Thus there can be changes in peel, peel-oil
content and composition in fruit on the side of a tree receiving most sunlight,
indeed on a portion of the fruit, compared with fruit from more shaded
positions. A similar effect has been noted on citrus leaves. Light intensity
and number of hours of sunshine are generally much lower in humid than
arid regions, but do not appear to limit citrus growth. Some minor effects of
daylength on citrus have been recorded, but can generally be ignored since
other factors have greater impact.
An annual rainfall averaging 900 mm is considered necessary for rain-
grown citrus, but between 1000 and 1500 mm is probably the lower limit for
large-scale commercial production where a high annual yield is essential.
Irrigation water should be of good quality, and above 150 ppm chloride is
undesirable. A major contaminant is boron, and over 0.5 ppm will endanger
a plantation. However, the amount and quality of available water is declining
generally and it is increasingly important to maximize efficiency of use or
utilize alternative sources (Goell, 1988; Lev, 1994). Where irrigation water
is available, rainfall is less important, and the potential evapotranspiration
(Eo) index governs feasibility of a project. The Eo figure for certain locations
which successfully grow commercial citrus has been determined as: Cal-
ifornia coast 760 mm, inland 1200 mm; Trinidad 1425 mm; Burkino Faso
(West Africa) 1650 mm; arid Iran 2000 mm. Drought tolerance can be an
important characteristic for a local cultivar and trials in a number of
Rutaceae 425

countries have shown considerable variation in degree of resistance to


moisture stress (Rao et al., 1987).
While certain components of climate can restrict commercial production
of a particular citrus species or cultivar in a specific area, the yield potential
of some grapefruit and orange cultivars, for instance, may be as great or
greater in some humid tropical regions than in currently dominant regions
such as Florida or California. Proximity to, or ability to profitably service
markets remains the most important factor. A review of the main environ-
mental factors affecting citrus on a global scale concluded that genetic
improvement could provide the long term solution to many environmental
problems (Yelenosky, 1991).

Soils and fertilizers


Citrus grows well on a wide variety of soils provided they do not become
waterlogged. There are exceptions as in coastal areas of Thailand and
Indonesia, where shallow rooted, air-layered mandarin and pummel0 are
not harmed by a high water-table. In Surinam, citrus is grown on cambered
beds with an intricate system of drainage and irrigation canals. Climatic
factors also interact with soil characteristics, and this relationship has been
used in Russia to select suitable citrus species and cultivars for a specific
region (Chanukvadze, 1989). Preferred citrus soils have p H 5.5-6.5 and
very acid soils are unsuitable. The increasing global problem of soil salinity
makes the degree of salt tolerance of citrus cultivars an important factor in
local selection and breeding programmes (Syvertsen et al., 1990; Maas,
1993; Banuls and Primo-Millo, 1995). Where salinity is a problem, either in
soil or irrigation water, resistant rootstocks should be selected; in Australia,
Cleopatra mandarin and Rangpur lime rootstocks are considered more salt
tolerant than cv. Citronelle, sweet orange, Troyer and Carrizo citrange in
that order (Gallasch and Dalton, 1989). The Iranian mandarin cultivar
Bakraie has a high salt tolerance, and is widely grown for this reason.
T o maintain healthy growth, trees require a balanced fertilizer pro-
gramme, and the approximate uptake of nutrients of certain citrus species is
shown in Table 12.4. Most growers prefer to apply nutrients separately,
timed to suit seasonal requirements. Nitrogen is usually applied as ammon-
ium sulphate, ammonium nitrate or urea and is easily leached, thus on light
sandy soils split application is recommended. Nitrogen can be broadcast
over the whole area between mature trees, but should be immediately
watered or worked-in to avoid loss. Where nitrogen is applied via metered
irrigation systems, urea is generally the cheapest and most convenient. For
young trees, fertilizer is best applied in monthly doses. Double-planted trees
make more efficient use of fertilizers, since to maintain fruit size, fruit quality
and yield, only 10% more nitrogen fertilizer per hectare is required than for
single-planted trees. Excess nitrogen generally promotes vegetative growth,
426 Chapter 12

Table 12.4. Approximate uptake of nutrients by citrus species (kgiha).

Nitrogen Phosphate Potassium Calcium


Lemon 175-275 30-55 140-200 240-360
Orange 165-245 40-55 145-200 300-320
Mandarin 115-185 35-55 130-200 200-300
Note: The range listed is between moderate yielding and high yielding plantations, with a tree
population of approximately 400iha.

can retard the reproductive cycle and induce an imbalance in other nu-
trients. It may also increase insect damage; aleyrodid (whitefly) population
for example (Onillon, 1988).
Superphosphate is best applied in bands 10-20 cm deep alongside tree
rows just under the canopy where irrigation and rainfall runoff are concen-
trated. Phosphorus frequently remains available for long periods and for this
reason up to 3 years’ requirements may be applied in one operation.
Phosphorus can also be applied through low-level irrigation systems using
water-soluble monoammonium phosphate and, although usually expensive,
the uptake by trees is rapid. Potassium fertilizers are usually expensive in
comparison to nitrogen and phosphate but, since potassium is often present
in soils, an annual application may not be necessary. When required,
potassium can be broadcast, injected with nitrogen through low-level irriga-
tion systems, or banded as a phosphate-potash mixture; potassium sulphate
is generally preferable to potassium chloride. Leaf analysis is the best
method of determining if potassium is required and the amount.
Trace elements play a vital role in tree health, and a deficiency as
determined by soil or leaf analysis must be corrected. Copper, magnesium,
zinc, boron and manganese deficiencies are the most common, and fre-
quently produce symptoms similar to certain diseases, including die back,
leaf discoloration and premature abscission. The small amounts required
are usually applied as part of a compound fertilizer, or injected via sprinkler
irrigation. Toxicity has also been recorded and may be artificially induced,
copper for example (Alva and Chen, 1995). Chelates are a convenient
method of supplying many trace elements, but are usually too costly for
smallholder use. Many trace elements also occur in fruit, but are seldom
transmitted to distilled oils although detected in cold-pressed oils. Residues
in fruit juice are common and have been determined in most developed
countries, Greece for example (Soulis et al., 1988). Legislation also exists in
many countries limiting the level of such compounds in juice.
Organic manures generally have low nutrient content, large quantities are
needed to satisfy tree requirements and it is also important to balance the
nutrient content by adding those in deficit. These manures are unpopular
with commercial growers who consider they increase the incidence of
Rutaceae 427

disease, pests or weeds. Where they are easily available and cheap, poultry
and cattle manure, sterilized human waste and blood and bone mixtures are
becoming popular on light sandy soils to increase organic content.

Cultivation
Necessary operations have been widely described in published works, but
some are still undergoing change, in particular weed control, pruning and
harvesting techniques (Whitney et al., 1994; Blandini, 1994). Grove man-
agement in general is also becoming more sophisticated, not only by using
computer models (Ben-Mechilia and Carroll, 1989; Regev and Raber,
1993), but also by incorporating data from satellite photographs (Edwards et
al., 1988). One aspect of citrus growing which affects the cost of establish-
ment is the long period to maturity of citrus seedlings. Thus techniques
which reduce the period between seeding and profitable fruit production are
of great economic value to commercial growers. The shorter the nursery
period for instance, the earlier seedlings can be planted out. Nursery
conditions and techniques are thus important; shading is one and in South
Africa 40% shading compared to full sun produced the fastest and most
healthy growth (Muller, 1988). Some factors affecting choice of rootstock
have been previously discussed, but the trend to dwarfism and high density
planting of some citrus is of increasing influence.
Chemical weed control remains important and although a particular
compound may be innocuous, there is a danger that a combination may
cause damage through chemical reactions between them; for instance a
phytotoxic interaction between bromacil and the insecticide dimethoate.
The following herbicides have been used, either singly or in combination:
secbumeton, terbumeton, dichlobenil, fluazifop-butyl, and combinations of
bromacil+diuron, bromacil+simazine, ametryn+secbumeton. Glyphosate
and MSMA have produced conflicting results causing either damage to trees
or depressing yield, while others have caused changes in oil characteristics or
composition; including bromacil and diuron (citronellol, alpha-terpineol,
nerol), terbacil (gamma-terpinene, citronellol), simazine (citronellol, nerol,
alpha-terpineol) .
The cost of hand pruning trees has become so high that some degree of
mechanical pruning has been forced on growers, varying from manually
operated trimmers to self-propelled machines whose size has also required
plantations to be established with sufficient room for them to manoeuvre.
An important secondary effect has been a change from a standard single-
stemmed rounded canopy tree to a more bushy type suitable for hedging
techniques, or single stemmed, low pruned, closely planted orchards. In
some circumstances, prunings can be distilled or extracted to obtain an
essential oil and in Cuba, lime, lemon and mandarin prunings yielded twice
the oil volume of orange and grapefruit prunings (Leyva and Alvarez, 1984,
1992). Prunings from 10-year-old plantations average 4.6 tiha.
428 Chapter 12

Irrigation water will inevitably become more expensive and suffer from
competition between end users, thus methods of utilizing it more economic-
ally, or the development of new sources will become necessary; recycled
waste water is one method (Zekri and Koo, 1993).

Harvesting
The increase in mechanical methods of harvesting citrus may have an
adverse effect on oil quality; such techniques are generally unselective with
as much fruit as possible gathered in one pass. Thus fruit in various stages of
maturity may be bulked for processing. Variation in oil content and compo-
sition at different stages of fruit maturity is well documented and, with
certain exceptions, inclusion of immature or mature but unripe fruit pro-
duces inferior quality oil. There is little effect on juice, the main product,
that cannot be remedied by judicious blending or use of additives. While it is
possible similarly to treat oil, selective hand-picking will generally produce a
superior oil. One aspect of citrus harvesting should be noted; in some
countries, official standards define when fruit is mature and may be sold, and
these requirements can determine a harvesting period. The general require-
ments for the development of an automatic harvesting system have been
defined (Rabatel et al. , 1995).

Pests and diseases


A large number of insect species cause economic damage to citrus; the most
common are shown in Table 12.5. Other pests which can be damaging in
some seasons or regions are various nematodes (Duncan and Cohn, 1990;
Yin, 1994), locusts, grasshoppers, slugs and snails, occasionally birds, and
small domestic stock to unfenced orchards in less-developed areas. Occa-
sionally a common animal can become a serious pest; in Sicily the increasing
use of herbicides has reduced the amount of mechanical cultivation, and this
undisturbed habitat has allowed vole numbers to expand, and the animals
are now causing major damage by gnawing stems and roots of young trees
(Ciampolini et al., 1985). While not often a major pest ants can be a problem
in citrus orchards; some species protect insect pests and thus increase the
damage, other species are aggressive and create unpleasant conditions for
fruit pickers (cf. clove).
The amount of damage due to a specific pest will vary as some harm whole
trees, others only one plant part. Defoliating insects are thus important to
petitgrain oil producers, flower-eaters to neroli producers, fruit-eaters or
insects affecting fruit quality to peel oil producers. The effect on essential
oils of insect pests and chemical control measures has been little Studied,
since it is relatively unimportant compared with tree or fruit protection. For
instance, any changes in peel-oil content or composition following a severe
infestation of scale insects; or whether chemical residues remaining on the
peel affected oil odour or composition, Chemicals need not necessarily be
Rutaceae 429

sprayed directly on foliage or fruit; soil-applied aldicarb was translocated to


foliage and fruit in Brazil (Batista, 1987) and Italy (Greco et al., 1994).
There may also be physical effects on plant parts, including minor changes in
peel thickness, leaf physiology and feeder root proliferation.
The degree of pest control is related almost directly to value of the end-
product and, in general, only large commercial citrus fruit growers practise
a regular programme. Local agricultural departments produce a detailed
programme of suitable control methods, chemicals and most effective
periods of use as in Florida (Tucker, 1989) and these are increasingly
available as PC programmes or CD-ROM; in Australia for example growers
have on CD-ROM an illustrated list of the most common pests and diseases
with appropriate control measures, which is regularly updated. Chemical

Table 12.5. Major citrus pests and their distribution.

Scientific name Common name Distribution


Aleurocanthus woglumi BlacMly ww
Anastrepha ludens Mexfly America
Aonidiella aurantii California red scale ww
Atta cephalotes Leaf-cutting ant America
A. sexdens Leaf-cutting ant America
Camponotus spp. Tree ant America
Ceratifis capitata Medfly ww
Chrysomphalus ficus Florida red scale ww
Coccus viridis Soft green scale ww
Dialeurodes citri Whitefly Most
Diaphorina citri Psyllid Asia
Lepidosaphes beckii Purple scale ww
L. gloverii Glover's scale ww
Nasutitermes surinametcansis Termite America
Ophideres fullonia Fruit-piercing moth Africa, India
Othreis fullonica Fruit-piercing moth America
0.procus Fruit-piercing moth America
Papilio anchisiades Orange dog America
P. demodocus Orange dog Africa, Asia
Phyllocnistis citrella Leaf miner ww
P hyllocoptruta oleivora Rust mite ww
Pseudococcus citri Mealybug ww
Saissetia oleae Black scale ww
Solenopsis geminata Fire ant ww
T. aurantii Black aphid ww
Toxoptera citricidus Black aphid ww
Trioza egreae Psyllid Africa
Tylenchulus semipenetrans Citrus nematode ww
WW, World wide.
430 Chapter 12

methods of control remain common but integrated methods or biological


control techniques are successful in many countries and inherited resistance
to an insect pest also exists (Batra et al., 1992). Such developments are
becoming of increasing importance, since, a control programme can be a
major portion of total production costs; in Brazil it amounted to over half
(Cabrita, 1987). Conversely producers in highly profitable markets have
developed very advanced methods; an overhead monorail in Japan for
example (Ikeda and Nagarta, 1991), or substituting mechanized for manual
methods as in Spain, where Phyllocnistis citrella is now a major pest.
The diseases causing most economic damage to citrus attack the tree
generally, few are specific to leaves, flowers or fruit and the most common
together with causal organism are listed in Table 12.6. Since peel oils are the
most profitable, diseases damaging fruit are relatively more important,
directly affect profitability of citrus-fruit growers, and are usually efficiently
controlled. Various fruit rots or moulds, greening disease and viruses which
change or produce abnormal fruit and peel are well known and cosmopol-
itan. Some of the most damaging and widespread are caused by Phytophthora
spp. whose members cause foot rot, gummosis of stems, seedling blight and
brown rot of fruit (Marais, 1990; Lio and di San, 1993). Penicillium spp. are
more dangerous in dry rather than wet regions, while Diplodia spp. are most

Table 12.6. Major citrus diseases

Scientific name Common name


~ ~~~ ~~~

Alternaria tenuis Leaf spot


Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Tip die-back
Colticium salmonicolor Die-back
Deuterophoma spp. Die-back
Diapolthe citri Melanose
Diplodia natalensis Stem-end rot glumosis
Elsinoe fawcettii Scab
Glomerella spp. Anthracnose
Mycosphaerella citri Greasy spot
Oidium spp. Powdery mildews
P enicillium glaucum Green mould
P. italicum Blue mould
Phytomonas citri Canker
Phytophthora citrophthora Root and fruit rot
P. palmivora Root and fruit rot
P. parasitica Root and fruit rot
Rhizoctonia spp. Seedling blight
Septoria spp. Fruit spots
Spiroplasma citri Stubborn disease
Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri Canker
Many of these diseases now occur in all citrus-growing regions,
Rutaceae 43 1

damaging in hot conditions. Lime is highly susceptible to anthracnose


caused by Glomerella spp.
Greening is one of the most serious diseases of citrus and there are
apparently two types; one basically limited to Africa, the other and more
severe form is widely distributed from India to China and Japan. In all cases
there is an insect vector, one of the citrus psylla. The two types of greening
can coexist, as on Mauritius where the disease attacks citrus from sea-level to
1000 m. No rootstock or cultivars are considered resistant to greening, but
strategies have been evolved to limit its effects (Buitendag and Broembsen,
1993). The disease known as stubborn also has an insect vector which is
most active around 30°C in drier areas, with young trees and navel orange
most susceptible; eradication in plantations of a common host, the grass
Cynodon dactylon, is recommended.
At least 40 virus and virus-like diseases have been described as affecting
citrus; some cause such serious damage as to preclude citrus production.
Viruses are generally bud-transmitted, others including exocortis may be
mechanically transmitted by pruning tools, the most destructive have an
insect vector. The spiroplasma disease, tristeza, is of major importance since
it can limit citrus production in a particular region, as in South America
where millions of trees were killed following introduction of the virus into
Argentina in the 1930s and its subsequent rapid spread. Tristeza occurs in
most citrus-growing regions but is less damaging and spreads more slowly in
hot dry regions. Aphids are considered a major vector and, in Australia,
West Indian lime can only be grown where the black citrus aphid Toxoptera
citricidus is absent. The meristem budding technique is one method of
producing tristeza-free planting material.
Another virus complex ofworldwide distribution which may also limit citrus
production, psorosis, is spread primarily through infected propagating mate-
rial. Generally the only effective preventative measure is to cut out affected
branches or uproot and bum badly affected trees. Sweet orange and mandarin
are very susceptible. The most efficient method of reducing potential virus
damage is to use virus-resistant rootstock or cultivars. Propagation techniques
including micrografting or tissue culture can materially assist by quickly
producing large numbers of seedlings (Fourie, 199 1; Mooney, 1995).
Symptoms apparently due to diseases such as die-back of branches,
scaling bark or defoliation, can be a nutrient deficiency. Lack of copper, for
example, may cause the condition known as exanthema and a magnesium
deficiency leaf discoloration and abcission. Fertilizers can also reduce the
damage caused by a specific pest or disease; in Florida, application of basic
slag assisted control of citrus blight.

Distillation
Citrus oils are frequently obtained in a secondary operation following
expression of citrus juice. Lime, lemon and orange juice are all major
432 Chapter 12

commodities, an exception being bitter orange whose juice is of little value,


Flower and leaf oil processing will be discussed under the species from which
they are obtained. Peel oils are contained in spherical or egg-shaped sacs or
vesicles in the peel, and must be ruptured either by pressure or rasping. Full
technical descriptions of the methods used are outside the scope of this
book, and have been published in detail (Leo et al., 1985; Mathews and
Braddock, 1987; Fleisher et al., 1987; Swaine and Swaine, 1988).
The following is a brief description of the most common methods of oil
recovery. Citrus oils are basically of two types, cold-pressed or distilled. Most
lemon and sweet orange oils are cold-pressed, mainly in a single operation in
which pressure is applied to fruit, and the oil and juice drawn off in separate
channels. The oil may also be removed from the peel before juice extraction, oil
generally being released from the peel cells by a combination of abrasion and
pressure and large volumes of water are necessary to prevent oil being re-
absorbed by peel. The emulsion is filtered, desludged and centrifuged, and the
resulting oil is dewaxed and may be again filtered or clarified. Ultrafiltration
and reverse osmosis techniques were introduced to improve oil-recovery rates.
Oils are also obtained during concentration of citrus juice, especially sweet
orange. Excess water (to 25%) containing some oil, is removed under vacuum
and the oil separated via a stripping column and condenser.
The simultaneous drawing-off of juice and oil also applies to cold-pressed
lime oil, but unlike lemon and orange oil, most commercially traded lime oil
is distilled rather than cold-pressed. Initial crushing yields a mixture of
liquid and pulp which is allowed to settle into three layers; the middle layer
of lime juice is run off, leaving the top and bottom, pulpy, oil-rich layers to
be distilled. Distilled lemon and orange oils are comparatively uncommon;
are usually produced by steam distillation of spent skins which contain a
little oil after the main crushing operation; or much less commonly by
vacuum distillation of juice which can contain very small amounts of oil,
although quantities are of little significance in relation to those contained in
peel. The two methods of distillation produce oils with different properties.
Another cold process is ecuelling, where whole fruit is manually or mechani-
cally rolled over sharp projections which rupture oil cells in peel and release
oil. This process is still used to produce high-quality bitter orange or lime oil,
but largely superseded by modern mechanical processes.

Products
Although unprocessed citrus oils are frequently used by manufacturers,
most are concentrated, especially as flavourings. The main chemical compo-
nents responsible for flavour are the aldehydes, although generally account-
ing for only a small proportion by volume. The bulk is terpenes which
possess a relatively low flavour value, are insoluble in water and in some
cases chemically unstable. Removal of all or some improves oil odour,
increases solubility in water and enhances stability. The most concentrated
Rutaceae 433

citrus oils are those with all terpenes removed, terpeneless oils. At slightly
higher terpene levels are concentrated oils or more commonly folded oils; a
ten-fold oil contains only 10% of the oil’s original terpenes, but in practice
maximum strengths are generally five-fold for lime oil, ten-fold for lemon oil
and twenty-fold for sweet orange oil. Such oils are expensive, but are so
concentrated that only very small amounts are required.
The concentration or deterpenation processes may involve distillation,
solvent or poroplast extraction (Fleisher, 1994). Solvent extraction removes
virtually all the wax which is a important stabiliser of whole unprocessed oil,
but is considered a disadvantage in concentrated oils. Most citrus oils
deteriorate on standing or with age, and suitable storage and containers are
necessary to protect the required properties, prevent contamination or allow
oil to be transported (Table 12.7).
A most important aspect of concentration is the large volume of terpene
residue, widely used in cheap flavourings and perfumery; lime, lemon and
orange terpenes are generally available. Residues of solvent extraction are of
better quality and higher value than those from distillation, and referred to as
washed citrus oils as distinct from terpenes. Washed citrus oils may be used
in their own right, but are widely used to extend citrus oils to produce a
cheap but good-quality flavouring. The residue or effluent from fruit pro-
cessing contains useful ingredients which can be recovered when their sale or
utilization is profitable, or where effluent discharge content is legally con-
trolled. The major constituents are limonene, various sugars, yeasts and a
small proportion of oil (Parish et al., 1986).
Citrus oils have a very wide range of uses and research is continually
finding additional applications. Major outlets for citrus oils are in foods,
beverages, perfumery, cosmetics, soap, pharmaceuticals and condiments,
with secondary uses in the masking of unpleasant odours in domestic and
industrial insecticides, washing liquids, textiles and rubber products. The
most important market is the flavour industry which consumes large
amounts of natural oils and concentrates. In the industrial field, new uses are
regularly developed: waterless hand cleaners based on solvent properties of
terpenes present in citrus oil, or as a solvent in animal shampoo and similar
products, while considerable amounts of terpenes from citrus oils are used in
resins and adhesives, and orange oil is a source of d-limonene.
Citrus oil derivatives, such as distilled oil, essence oils and various types of
terpeneless oils are used where citrus flavour or odour is required without
the disadvantage of colour, or to blend with or enhance other oils. The
terpene, d-limonene, has a wide range of uses, one of the best known is in
production of synthetic spearmint oil flavour. Use of synthetic citrus com-
pounds in flavouring is legally restricted in many countries. It is, however,
legally permissible to use compounds consisting of blends of a whole citrus
oil, a washed oil and perhaps other components of the natural oil, such
compounds being variously known as lime oil WONF, lemon oil WONF,
434 Chapter 12

etc; the suffix means with other natural flavours. Washed oils are technically
more suitable for use in composite oils than extracted terpenes, although the
latter are more generally available and widely used. The growing trend by
consumers worldwide to pressure manufacturers to use only natural ad-
ditives and colourants in food and related products is an important factor in

Table 12.7. Effect of storage on citrus oils.


~ ~

Oil Remarks Heat Light Oxygen Acid Alkali Storage

Bergamot Less reactive than high high high low high Cool inert
other citrus headspace:
protect from light.
Lemon Rapid deterioration high moderate high moderate high Cool inert
on exposure to heat, headspace;
air and light; protect from light;
increase in viscosity antioxidants
upon ageing
Orange (Bitter) Rapid deterioration high high high moderate high Cool inert
on exposure to heat, headspace;
air and light; protect from light;
increase in viscosity antioxidants
upon ageing
Orange (Sweet) Rapid deterioration high high high moderate high Cool inert
on exposure to heat, headspace:
air and light; protect from light;
increase in viscosity antioxidants.
upon ageing
Lime (distilled) Rapid deterioration high moderate high low moderate Cool inert
on exposure to heat, headspace;
air and light; protect from light;
increase in viscosity antioxidants
upon ageing
(expressed) high moderate high moderate high

Grapefruit Rapid deterioration high high high moderate high Cool inert
on exposure to heat, headspace:
air and light; protect from iight;
increase in viscosity antioxidants.
upon ageing
Mandarin Rapid deterioration high high high high high Cool inert
Tangerine on exposure to heat, headspace;
air and light; protect from light;
increase in viscosity antioxidants
upon ageing
~

Source: Adapted from Swaine and Swaine (1988)


Rutaceae 435

maintaining and expanding citrus oil usage. Another important property of


citrus oils, especially seed oils, is their often very high antimicrobial activity.
This is being extensively investigated, and will be mentioned in the relevant
section.

Lime

Lime probably originated in northern India and adjacent areas of Burma,


and is widely grown in India where there are numerous local cultivars. An
interesting account of its early history is contained in Watt (1908). Limes are
generally classified in two groups. One contains Key, West Indian and
Mexican cultivars whose fruit is small, round, moderately seedy and highly
polyembryonic, with thin peel, smooth, greenish flesh and a citric acid
content of 6.5-8.0%. The other contains Persian types whose fruit is larger,
seedless, less acid and mainly sold as fresh limes or lime juice. The most
important producing areas for Key limes are Mexico, Peru and Haiti, while
Persian limes particularly Tahiti are grown mainly in Florida and Brazil.
Their main characteristics are shown in Table 12.8, which also compares
cold-pressed with distilled oils. Manufacturers consider Persian lime oils to
be flatter or weaker than Key lime oils, although both are offered indiscrimi-
nately as lime oil.

Botany
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle (syn. C. medica var. acida). Certain authorities
include under C. aurantifolia only the Key lime group, with the Persian
group classified as C. latifolia Tanaka. The latter may also be a hybrid
between Key lime and lemon or citron (Sacco and Calvarano, 1981). Thus
reference to cv. Tahiti for example as a lime is botanically incorrect, but is
common usage and generally accepted. In this section both groups are
discussed as lime, with any major divergence noted.
Lime is a small spreading tree usually to 4-6 m, canopy diameter to 7 m,
with many irregularly spaced often drooping branches which usually have
many short, stiff, very sharp spines, although some cultivars are spineless.
The canopy is usually rounded, dense and symmetrical in the Persian group,
more upright in the Key group, but the natural growth habit of both is
normally modified by regular pruning when cultivated. The leaves are 5-10
X 1.5-2.5 cm, glossy, dark green above, much paler below; elliptic-ovate to
obovate-ovate, round-toothed; the petioles are usually narrowly winged but
there is very wide variation. An essential oil is obtained by distilling leaves
but is of no commercial importance.
Table 12.8. Main characteristics of lime oils.

Cold-pressed" Cold-pressedb Distilled" Distilleda Distilledb


A 6 C F G D E F G
Specific 0.878 0.879 0.864 0.8573 0.878 0.860 0.851 0.853 0.862
gravity 0.8947 0.886 0.860 0.868
(20°C) (15")
Refractive 1.4854 1.4857 1.4795 1.4744 1.480 1.4763 1.4744 1.4757 1.4770
index (20°C) 1.4907 1.486 1.4743 1.4750
Optical t36.5" ng t38.0" t38.60" t35" t37.3" t52.2" t46.84" t35"
rotation (20°C) t49.01" t40" t52.60" t46"
Aldehydes 4.6 5.3 5.2 3.66 4.5 0.6 1.o 0.72 0.5
as citral (%) 6.66 8.55 4.60 1.5
A, oil/juice emulsion; 6 and C, oil/water emulsion; A,B,D,G, Key lime oils ex Mexico; C,E,F, Persian lime oils ex Florida; ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.
Source: a Haro and Fass (1986); Kesterton et al. (1971).
Rutaceae 437

The flowers are carried singly in leaf axils or in small clusters, to 35 mm


diameter. They are sharply scented, with five sometimes four petals, white
on both surfaces, containing 20-25 stamens, and the ovary is rather sharply
set off from the deciduous style. Flowering is year round, with frequently a
local maximum when most fruit is set; in India main flowering is August, a
secondary peak in February; in Florida January-February. This main flow-
ering is important to large-scale commercial growers who harvest mechani-
cally, since a majority of fruit is ready for picking at approximately the same
time; thus techniques influencing time and extent of flowering and fruit set
are important. Lime flowers year-round, and fruit produced from successive
flowerings differs physically and in composition, but the differences are
generally of little economic importance; data from Tahiti limes grown in
Florida have been published (Hatton et al., 1984).
The fruit is small, nearly spherical to oblong, 4-9 X 4-7 cm, often with a
pronounced nipple at the apex, with a pale-coloured pulp containing to 8%
citric acid. Mature fruits are a greenish to light yellow, depending mainly on
cultivar, and the colour is important when sold as fresh fruit. An essential oil
is obtained from fruit, mainly the peel. The Persian group normally has a
peel oil content of 0.3-0.4%, and Key limes nearly twice this, but fruit from
selected Key lime trees can have up to 1.5%. As noted there are basically two
types of lime, whose fruit is sweet or sour (acid), and the latter is the main
raw material for oil production. Within the acid lime category there are
cultivars whose oils differ, and oil obtained by various methods also differs.
Thus it is necessary when comparing lime oils that not only botanical and
geographical origin be stated, but also production method.
Distilling is by far the most important method of obtaining oil, with only
small amounts expressed; distilled oil is produced from ripe and unripe
fruits, expressed oil almost wholly from green unripe fruits. Since peel-oil
content directly affects total oil yield and thus profitability of an oil-
producing enterprise, data on rate of oil accumulation, variation in oil
content and reasons for this variation are important. Little work has been
carried out on the last mentioned, but there are some data on seasonal
variation. In Florida, Persian limes collected over 3 years between May and
August gave peel oil in kg/t fruit of (average in brackets): 2.54-3.18 (3.08),
3.36-4.49 (3.86) and 3.58-4.95 (4.08); a 4 year average overall oil yield in
kgit fruit was max. 4.17, min. 3.31, mean 3.67. Peel-oil composition can
also vary seasonally, and oil from early and late harvested fruit may differ
significantly, and the rate of accumulation of various oil components in
relation to fruit development requires further study. Bergapten content of
Persian lime peel in Cuba, for example, decreased to full maturity when fruit
became yellow; from 350 to below 50 ppm at picking (Miersch and Cristo-
bal, 1983).
438 Chapter 12

The remainder of this section will refer primarily to the acid lime group,
and lime, lime oils, lime products without qualification refer to acid lime.

Ecology
Lime is one of the least hardy citrus species and grown mainly in the tropics
and subtropics. An average annual temperature of 25530°C is suitable for
commercial production, with no prolonged periods of very high tempera-
ture. Persian limes are generally more tolerant of low temperature than Key
but, in Florida, where there are extensive commercial plantations, a major
constraint on fresh lime production is the regular occurrence of frost.
However, Tahiti has probably the greatest potential of all acid citrus fruits
for extended commercial production in the American tropics (Campbell and
Malo, 1980). Trees grow well from sea-level to higher frost-free inland areas
but most commercial plantations are at low altitudes.
An average rainfall of 3500 mm is the optimum well distributed over the
year; 2000 mm the minimum for successful commercial cultivation supple-
mented by irrigation; below 2000 mm irrigation is essential. It may be
possible to introduce increased resistance to water stress in cultivated lime
since related species are adapted to drier conditions, including Australian
Microcitrus spp. which produce edible fruit. Although most trees are topped
and pruned, high winds can cause considerable damage to long, drooping
branches. Hot dry winds quickly shrivel flowers and desiccate young foliage
and fruit. Shelter belts may be necessary in some windy regions, with tree
rows also aligned to reduce wind damage.
Oil characteristics from different countries vary considerably as will be
frequently noted. This is partly due to environment, partly to local cultivar.
A comparison of the main characteristics of selected distilled oils is shown in
Table 12.9. This variation can be substantial even within a relatively small
region, Table 12.10, and there is little published data on which environmen-
tal components affect fruit-oil content or composition.

Soils and fertilizers


Free-draining, rather sandy loams are most favoured, with a p H of 5.5-7.0,
and these also have the added advantage of being easily worked as planta-
tions in many countries rely on manual labour. Lime will produce an
acceptable yield on soil of relatively poor fertility and low standard of
management, and higher fruit yield from increased inputs is normally of
little importance to most smallholders compared to ease of low-cost produc-
tion. By judicious use of rootstocks and locally adapted cultivars, lime can be
grown on less suitable soil, but profitability of so doing is doubtful unless
there are special circumstances or markets.
Where it is profitable to apply fertilizers, soil and leaf analysis will give an
indication of the nutrient required and application rate; however leaf nu-
trient status is often lowered during flowering and early fruit set. The
Rutaceae 439
~~ ~

Table 12.9. Main characteristics of distilled lime oils from selected countries.

India
Bombav Central Africa Westa Sri Lanka Cuba
Specific 0.8533 0.8610 0.861 0.8726 0.856
gravity (25") 0.8547 0.865
Refractive 1.4710 1.4750 1.476 1.4755 1.474
index (25') 1.4720 (30') 1.478
Optical t38"54' t 5V65' t 42'3' t58"02' t34"
rotation (25') t45'22 t 45O
Aldehydes 0.94 0.70 1.3 1.9 1.5
(as citral %) 4.24
Solubility (viv 95% ng 1 :2 1 :2
alcohol)
a All at 20°C; ng. not given. Figures in columns are range.

amount of nitrogen required is usually stated per tree and, unless there are
specific local recommendations, a good general guide is 0.5 kg N per mature
tree annually, but a slightly higher rate may be an advantage up to 4 years
after planting out, when growth is fast. Phosphate is best applied in planting
holes and, although an annual application is seldom necessary, an additional
amount may be required to maintain yield. Potassium has produced very
erratic results in terms of increased fruit yield, and only in commercial
plantations using high-yielding trees is this nutrient profitable. Normally one
application is required when planting out seedlings, and additional applica-
tions as indicated by foliar analysis.
Trace element deficiencies usually become apparent as discoloured or
distorted foliage or fruit, and this is particularly evident with iron, magne-
sium and zinc. A small sulphur deficiency can often be corrected by using
single instead of triple-superphosphate. Toxicities may also occur, boron
being one of the most common. This can be partially corrected by improved
cultural practices or increased water application on free-draining soils but, in
general, soil with a high boron content should be avoided.

Cultivation
The operations necessary to establish and maintain any commercial citrus
plantation are equally suitable for lime. The Key lime group produces viable
seed and seedlings are normally obtained by sowing seeds in containers or
seedbeds; there are commonly 5000-6000 seeds per kg (Tahiti is virtually
seedless). Seed viability is often low, and is usually further reduced when
stored at ambient conditions, although there is usually no dormancy period
(Dharmalingam and Vijayakumar, 1987). Spacing for lemon trees is gen-
erally suitable for limes in the same region, but profitability depends on
determining optimum tree number per hectare. In Mexico, spacings of 6 X
440 Chapter 12

6, 10 X 5 and 8 X 8 m yielded 76, 5 2 and 43 tlha respectively (Valesco-


Nunez and Anquiano, 1983). Double rows are preferred in some regions;
yield per tree is lower but total yield higher at little greater expense. The
economics of modern plantations may consider low unit cost per tonne of
fruit as the main objective. Thus fully mechanized hedge-planted trees give
considerably lower yield per tree than traditional orchard spacing; in Florida
for instance, traditional spacing produces yields of 300 kg per mature
healthy tree compared with less than half this for hedgerow trees, but the
latter had double the total yield and lower production costs.
Weed control is essential in newly planted orchards, and the use of
herbicides is difficult since lime seedlings are susceptible to many of the
chemicals commonly available. Hand weeding around trees and mechanical
inter-row cultivation is normal. Once trees are established, the thick canopy
quickly shades out all but the most persistent weeds. Herbicides can then be
used, or between hedge-planted trees and, when proved safe, are preferable

Table 12.10. Comparison of regional lime oils.

Distilled Expressed
Mexican Cuba Caribbean Caribbean Florida
Component A B C C A
Alpha-pinene 1.3-1.9 0.8 1.69 2.47 2.7-3.1
Camphene 0.4-0.6 0.4 0.37 0.17 0 .O-0.5
Beta-pinene 1.7-5.3 1.2 9.49 24.23 4.3-23.0
Sabinene ng ng ng ng 0,442
Myrcene 0.7-1.1 1,l 0.86 1.40 0.8-1.6
Alpha-terpinene 0.8-1 ,I 1.9 ng ng 0.1-0.4
Limonene 42.8-52.3 46.9 47.25 44.17 43.7-56.2
1 ,8-Cineole 1.8-3.0 ng 0.29 0.26 0.3-0.5
Gamma-terpinene 6.8-1 1.6 8.9 8.86 11.88 2.5-16.6
p-Cymene 1.5-7.5 3.5 0.21 ng 0.1-1.3
Terpinolene 2.9-7.5 7.3 7.24 0.83 0.5-0.7
Linalool 0.2-0.3 0.3 0.12 0.25 0.1-0.2
Alpha-fenchyl alcohol 0.4-1 .O 1.4 0.32 ng ng
Bergamotene t 0.6-1.4 1.7 3.00 1.66 0.7-1.3
terpinen-4-01
Neral 0.2-0.3 ng 0.13 1.13 0.5-1 .O
Beta-terpineol 0.5-1 .O 0.9 0.26 ng ng
Alpha-terpineol 6.1-9.1 9.0 6.81 ng 0.1-0.4
Geraniol 0.2-0.4 ng 0.31 1.70 0.349
Beta-bisabolene t ng 1.5 2.12 3.18 ng
neryl acetate 1.3-2.1 ng ng 0.07 1.5-2.3
Geranyl acetate 0.6-1.4 ng 0.56 0.16 0.1-1.8
ng, Not given. Figures in columns are range in per cent.
Source: A, Alessandro et al. (1985); 6, Analytical Methods Committee (1984);C, Azzous eta/. (1976).
Rutaceae 44 1

to mechanical cultivation which can damage shallow roots. Chemical pest


control is normal in most plantations, but it is necessary to consider possible
residues in fruit or contamination of oil; carbaryl and omethoate residues
have been reported.
Probably the most significant factor affecting fruit-oil content is maturity,
thus time of harvesting is critical. Size is also important, with average-sized
fruits having a peel-oil content proportionally higher than smaller or over-
sized fruit (cf. sweet orange). Fully grown but unripe fruit (physiologically
mature) are often quite hard, and can cause processing problems in unso-
phisticated machinery; thus small producers may allow fruit to fall before
manual processing.

Distillation
Distilled lime oil is obtained by two basic methods: steam distilling a slurry
of crushed whole limes and finely chopped peel, or distilling juice from fruit
pressing. In the latter, juice suitable for canning is drawn off after a storage
period and the residue of juice, pulp and dissolved oil is steam distilled. An
improved technique combines steam and vacuum low-temperature distilla-
tion, which allows direct use of halved, de-juiced fruits without adding
water; this reduces the danger of affecting oil flavour, inherent in treating a
highly acid mixture with boiling water.
Lime oil composition is extremely variable as noted, and a comparison of
oils produced in the Caribbean region is shown in Table 12.10, which well
illustrates the effect of regional variation even within a relatively small
geographical area. In general, recovered oil from steam-distilled whole fruit
juice is usually 10-15% less than is present in unprocessed fruit.
Oil recovery from lime-juice production is low on an industry basis; in
Florida, the annual average is below 0.5 kgit from crushing thousands of
tonnes of Persian limes. Peel-oil content from random samples gave yields of
3.0-4.7 kgit, average 3.6 kgit. However, a certain amount of oil was
deliberately retained in the juice to impart its specific flavour. The average
yield of crude oil in Bombay, India, is 3.0 kgit but quality is poor and oil
must be reprocessed before use in food or drinks. Caribbean and Mexican
yield is generally below 2.5 kgit, but in modern factories it is up to 5 kg/t from
steam-distilled juice from whole pulped fruit (Mentonelli, 1994). There is
currently no major commercial production of lime oil in sub-Saharan Africa,
although pilot plantings in the Gambia yielded 0.27-0.82%, averaging
0.48% from local limes (about 5 kgit fruit), and in Kenya experimental
plantings near the coast yielded to 8 kg oilit from selected trees.

Products and sflecijkations


Lime oil differs from lemon and orange oil in that the bulk of world
production and consumption is of distilled oil, the more expensive cold-
442 Chapter 12

pressed oil is used mainly in high-grade products such as perfumes. Propor-


tionately more lime oil is used in cosmetics and less in utility household and
industrial products compared with lemon or sweet orange oil.
Distilled lime oil is water-white to pale yellow, and a fresh, good-quality oil
will be pale rather than coloured; the odour is sharp limey-lemon, becoming
increasingly sweet, less limey and more orangy on dry-out. Distilled oil
generally has poor tenacity and is considered inferior to expressed oil for
many uses. Storage affects oil quality especially the pleasant fresh flavour,
and after prolonged storage oil has a flat terpeney odour (Table 12.7).
Distilled oil has less citral, beta-pinene and gamma-terpinene, but more p-
cymene, terpinen-4-01 and alpha-terpineol than expressed oil, and a more
pronounced terpene-like odour. Lack of the non-volatile coumarins in-
creases oxidation risk during storage. A comparison of distilled and ex-
pressed oil is shown in Table 12.10. The main use is in flavouring food and
beverages, especially soft drinks, but the terpene content renders the oil
generally unsuitable for perfumery. The oil is seldom adulterated since it is
relatively cheap and easily available; it is more frequently extended. Ernest
Guenther’s comment that a very good quality lime oil has a high density and
low optical rotation remains valid.
Cold-pressed and distilled oils are sufficiently different to preclude gen-
eral interchangeability and although some users, including major firms, are
not particular with regard to source, others have very strong preferences.
The flavour and odour of pressed oils depend upon their oxygenated and
hydrocarbon constituents. Citral, certain aliphatic aldehydes, linalool, ger-
aniol, terpineol, borneol and their esters produce characteristic notes; while
the terpenes, especially limonene and dipentene, impart the freshness. The
aldehydes are important for odour and to a lesser extent for flavour, and a
comparison of their abundance in various oils is interesting; carbonyl com-
pounds from two types of cold-pressed oil showed Key A had lower total
aldehydes than Key B, while methylheptenone was substantially lower in oil
A. Comparing two types of oil, Persian had a lower level of carbonyl
compounds with the exception of hexadecanol, than Key B. Citral (nerol
+geraniol) accounted for 79% of total carbonyl compounds in Key A, 83%
in Key B and 85% in Persian, but Persian has only 50% of straight-chain
aldehydes compared to Key B (Haro and Fass, 1986).
Cold-pressed oils are generally highly coloured, distilled oils normally
clear, and as noted earlier there is also a basic difference in characteristics
and composition. At least 125 compounds have been identified, including
25 terpenes, ten alcohols, two phenols, six aldehydes, two esters and four
acids. Detailed analyses of cold-pressed lime and other citrus oils showed the
occurrence of heteracyclic oxygen compounds could be used to differentiate
peel oils (McHale and Sheridan, 1990). Cold-pressed oils contain 12-1 5%
wax, distilled oils are wax-free. Specifications for lime oils are shown in
Table 12.11.
Rutaceae 443

Table 12.1 1. Official specifications for lime oils

BSS EOA IS0


Specific gravity (20°C) 0.856 0.855 (25°C) 0.856
0.862 0.863 0.865
Refractive index (20°C) 1.475 1.4745 1.474
1.477 1.4770 1.477
Optical rotation (20°C) t 34$ + 34" t 34"
t 45" +47O + 45"
Aldehydes (as% citral) 0.4-1.5 0.5-2.5 1.5rnax
BSS, British Standard Specification;EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA; ISO, International Standards
Organisation.
Figures in columns are range.

Pressed oil is used in high-grade men's toiletries, while distilled oil has a
particular application in shaving creams. In comparison with distilled oil,
use of cold-pressed oil in soft drinks is low. Lime oil is often concentrated
before use as a flavouring and terpene residues also have many applications.
Use of the oil in perfumery, especially cold-pressed oil, suffered a severe
setback during the mid 1970s when it was discovered that coumarins could
have phototoxic effects on human skin. Distilled oil presented no problem as
coumarins are not carried over during distillation, however it was affected by
the general uncertainty. Rectification of cold-pressed oil to wholly or par-
tially remove coumarins largely overcomes the problem, but inevitably
increases cost.
Expressed oil was formerly obtained by manual ecuelling described ear-
lier. A mechanical method presses whole fruits, and the extract is then
passed through high-speed centrifuges quickly to separate the oil. Although
this is technically an expressed oil, its characteristics, flavour and odour
differ from ecuelled oil, and they are not always interchangeable. Expressed
oil is medium yellow to dark green and may be so dark as to render
determination of optical rotation impossible. Fresh oil has a rich sweet
odour, lemon-like but more mellow and nearer that of crushed limes but not
lime juice; it is of outstanding tenacity, far exceeding that of distilled oil and
superior even to terpeneless oils. The spicy-herbaceous and sweet balsamic
notes are especially persistent. Although expressed oil has the true peel
flavour, it is unpopular in flavourings, and is frequently blended with other
citrus oils when used in beverages or confectionery. The oil is widely used in
perfumery and also as a modifier or blender. Since expressed oil is produced
only in small quantities and is relatively expensive, it is frequently adult-
erated; commonly with distilled lime and lemon oils, citrus oil terpenes, and
certain synthetic compounds. Analyses of pure and adulterated lime oils and
additives have been published (Alessandro et al., 1985).
444 Chapter 12

Deterpened oil is colourless to pale yellow, with a strong sweet-fruity


odour, good flavour stability, and blends well with other citrus oils especially
bitter orange. A lime-lemon combination is one of the world's most popular
flavours, frequently combined with cinnamon, orange or other additives to
suit local preference. T h e total terpene content of lime oil is small, thus
deterpened oil is expensive as there is little use for terpenes so extracted
except as adulterants or extenders in other oils (Shankaracharya et al., 1977;
Fleisher et al. , 1987). The main characteristics of oils from selected sources
are shown in Table 12.12, and there is considerable variation as manu-
facturers' products differ. Terpeneless oils are also known as concentrated
lime oils, but all concentrated oils are not necessarily terpeneless!
Limette oil is obtained from a species of sweet lime (C. limetta) cultivated
mainly in southern Italy. The oil is available only in very small quantities on
demand and is said to be almost identical to lemon oil in odour, with a citral
content around 6%. Lime essence is an aqueous liquid with a pleasant
aroma characteristic of the fruit, and is used in beverages and to scent
industrial and household products. Pectin can be an important by-product
of lime processing, and directly affects the profitability of a particular plant.
Seeds remaining after processing fruit can be further processed into cakes,
meals and oil. Egyptian lime seed oil is locally reported to be similar in its
degree of unsaturation to soyabean oil.

Bitter Orange
The bitter, or sour, orange is native to South East Asia, and was brought by
traders to the Middle East and thence to Europe, where it rapidly became
established in the Mediterranean region generally, particularly Spain, hence
the common name of Seville orange. Bitter orange trees may live to a great

Table 12.12. Main characteristics of deterpened lime oils.

India USA
Colour Dark browna Dark brown' Yellow Clear
Specific gravity (25") 1.021 0.975 0.959 0.8694
Refractive index 1.526 1.510 1.4825 1.474
Optical rotation -0.9lC ng -0.9" t 33"55'
Aldehydes as citral(%) 19.98 23.90 6.09 0.71
Ester number 17.06 14.83 5.42 2.42
Acid number 7.99 6.34 5.65 1.36
Solubility 1 :3 1 :3 1 :3 1 :2
(viv 95% alcohol)
aWaxed; Dewaxed; ng, not given.
Data are from commercial oils.
Rutaceae 445

age under suitable conditions. According to a list of plants grown at the


Palace of Versailles, there died in 1858 a bitter orange tree (a descendant?)
originally planted in 1422 by Eleanora of Castile, the wife of Charles 3rd of
Navarre, which was subsequently transferred from Spain to France.
All cultivars of bitter orange bear fragrant flowers which contain an
essential oil, but when this oil was first produced is uncertain. Fresh and
sometimes crushed orange flowers were used to scent baths and toilet water
from early in recorded history, especially in Asia. The first use of distilled oil
in Europe was in the early sixteenth century; its wider use is attributed to the
wife of Flavio Orsini, prince of Neroli, who in the late sixteenth century
perfumed her gloves with the oil, and later introduced the oil into perfumery;
the oil is named for her.
Introduced into Paraguay and other South American countries in the
sixteenth century, trees quickly became naturalized over large areas. The
petitgrain oil industry of Paraguay was established in the early nineteenth
century by Benjamin Balansa on the Paraguay River east of Asuncion, where
there were extensive areas of wild bitter orange. So well established was the
species it was locally considered to be indigenous and named apepu hai in the
Gurani language. Wild trees, either self-sown or abandoned, frequently
survive as a suppressed member of the under-storey in natural semi-
evergreen forests (Gade, 1976, 1979). Since its introduction to the Car-
ibbean and South America, the bitter orange has been incorporated into a
range of traditional medicines and domestic usage; in Haiti for example
(Paul and Cox, 1995).
The major modern use for bitter orange was as rootstock since seedlings
produce a well-developed root system possessing a high degree of resistance
to many important diseases; it is now less favoured. There are 2 number of
bitter orange cultivars which differ considerably in physical characteristics
and appearance. The description which follows is generally applicable to the
true bitter or Seville orange.

Botany
Citrus aurantium Swingle is commonly known as the bitter, sour or Seville
orange. Bergamot orange is now classified as C. aurantium. subsp. bigaradia
and petitgrain orange as C. aurantium. subsp. amara. There are numerous
sour orange hybrids with other citrus species, some doubtfully allocated
species status (Tanaka, 1954; Samson, 1986; Gocorcena and Ortiz, 1989)
and many named cultivars. Bitter orange is source of a number of important
products, although these are not usually produced from the same subspecies
(Zhengkul et al., 1988; Boelens, 1991; Boelens and Operto, 1991). Most
important are leaf oils chiefly petitgrain, flower oils mainly neroli, peel and
fruit oils.
Bitter orange is a medium sized tree to 10 m, usually less under cultiva-
tion, normally with a central stem bearing a number of stout branches. The
446 Chapter 12

branches are spiny, the spines on young branches being long and slender but
more stout and stiffer on older branches. The wood is strong, takes a fine
polish and is used for furniture. The leaves are large (8-10 X 4-5 cm) ovate
to ovate-oblong, with the base wedge-shaped and are wavy edged or slightly
toothed. They are glossy green above, paler below and the petiole very
broadly winged. All species of bitter orange bear aromatic leaves, which yield
an essential oil on distillation, but that known as petitgrain oil derived from
C. aurantium. subsp. amara is the most important.
Leaf oil is obtained as a secondary product from trees grown to produce
another oil, or grown especially to produce leaves for processing, but the
method of obtaining oil is essentially similar once leaves have been picked.
The most important constituent of leaf oil and that which defines its quality
is ester content, calculated as linalyl acetate, and oil is sold commercially
based on the content.
The highly scented white flowers are borne singly in leaf axils or in small
clusters on axillary racemes and are larger than those of sweet orange with
20-24 prominent stamens. An essential oil, neroli oil, can be obtained by
distillation or enfleurage. A form of sour orange with scentless flowers and
lacking oil glands in leaves has been noted in Cuba (Valle et al., 1985).
Neroli oil is produced from flowers of several Citrus spp; that obtained from
bitter orange flowers is neroli bigarade, from sweet orange neroli Portugal,
and from lemon neroli citronier.
The fruit is roughly spherical, 6-8 cm in diameter, may be compressed
longitudinally and often develops a hollow core at maturity. The skin is
normally rough or warty, but smooth in some cultivars. The fruit is a
medium to dark green, and may become more yellow when fully ripe; the
pulp is very acid. An essential oil is obtained from skins and to a minor extent
from pulp. A major use for whole fruit is in (Seville) marmalades and the
juice is a valuable source of vitamins A and B. One common form of bitter
orange, bittersweet, has fruit which contains 3% citric acid compared with
an average of 1.5% for true bitter orange. There may be a correlation
between degree of acidity and oil content of leaves, since in Paraguay leaf-oil
content was lowest in those forms with the least acid fruit. The number of
seeds per fruit varies between cultivars, and they are usually viable, with no
dormancy period.

Ecology
Bitter orange is basically a warm-region species and flourishes where the
minimum temperature remains above 0°C except for very short periods. An
annual average temperature of 20-25°C is considered most suitable, but up
to twice this will be tolerated provided soil moisture is adequate. Best growth
and flowering occur in bright sunny conditions. Frost normally causes
extensive damage to small branches, and a severe frost or icing is frequently
fatal. There is apparently a relationship between high levels of polyamine
Rutaceae 447

and proline in leaves and low-temperature resistance (Kushad and Yele-


nosky, 1987). Plantations are normally below 500 m and trees flourish from
sea-level to 300 m. That altitude modifies general tree growth and also oil
characteristics is well illustrated in Paraguayan oils, where oil from trees
growing in the hilly Cordillera Department is higher in esters than that from
trees on the plains. A rainfall of 1000 mm annually falling mainly in spring
and early summer is the optimum, and irrigation is necessary where annual
rainfall is below 750 mm or seasonally erratic. Very strong winds may cause
damage by fracturing branches, while hot dry winds during spring growth
reduce leaf size and number and, at flowering, cause extensive withering. In
southern Europe strong northern winds, the Mistral in France for example,
have a similar effect.
In general, the natural factors affecting sweet orange peel also affect bitter
orange but, as the latter is not as valuable, only climatic variation is of
importance. The most important seasonal factor is rainfall, since below
average rain results in fewer and smaller fruits with lower peel content. If a
prolonged period of dry weather occurs after fruit has set, a high proportion
may be shed before maturity. Although fallen fruit can be processed for oil,
its quality and odour are inferior to oil from mature fruit. The oil yield varies
widely, 0.1-0.4%, as there are many local cultivars

Soils and fertilizers


Soils suitable for sweet orange are equally suitable for bitter orange, but as
the former is generally more profitable in those regions where both are
grown commercially, bitter orange is usually relegated to less fertile soils.
Soil type per se is seldom the main factor influencing establishment of bitter
orange plantations; usually more important are a fuel (wood) source, water
for distillation and labour availability. The most common fertilizer is spent
material from stills. Where the fruit has an alternative market or use, it may
be profitable to apply fertilizers to ensure it is of good-quality. Leaf-oil
producers seldom apply fertilizers; in Paraguay, the cost of transporting
fertilizers and difficulty of even reaching some areas raise their cost above
any additional returns from their use. In such circumstances, optimizing
production using existing inputs is a superior objective to maximum produc-
tion. Little data is available on the effects of applied plant nutrients on leaf or
fruit oil yield, composition or characteristics.

Cultivation
Bitter orange is seldom the first crop on newly cleared land as weed control
is essential if seedlings are to survive, and weeding is always difficult in the
first year after clearing. An interval of at least one year is recommended when
replanting an exhausted plantation, all trees and residue burnt and, if
possible, the land should be ploughed and left fallow. Cultivation should aim
at maximum weed reduction. Seeds are sown in pots or seedbeds, where
448 Chapter 12

seedlings remain for up to 12 months. No particular care is necessary when


planting out seedlings except to ensure each is firmly rooted; if soil moisture
is adequate and holes of sufficient depth to allow quick growth of roots, most
seedlings survive.
Growers may cut back top growth of seedlings to 20-25 cm then allow
plants to become bushy. For manual cultivation 1.0-1.5 m rows suppress
weed growth, but where weed-control machinery or mechanical harvesters
are used, trees are commonly spaced 4 X 5 m rows. Close spacing shades
lower limbs, and leaves in this sector of the canopy have a lower oil content;
thus more frequent cutting may be necessary to ensure trees do not become
too tall. In Brazil and Paraguay, leaves from trees exposed to sunlight had a
generally higher oil content than leaves from shaded trees.

Harvesting
Under normal conditions first harvest is from 3-year-old trees which are cut
back to 12-15 cm above ground level. All material is transported to stills,
where leaves and twigs are stripped, and larger branches used as fuel. When
bitter orange is grown for flowers or fruit, the annual pruning supplies leafy
material for distillation. Trees can be cut at approximately 9-month intervals
and regular cutting maintains a leafy bush which produces the maximum
foliage. When the world price of oil is low or demand falls, plantations in
Paraguay are virtually abandoned until harvesting is again profitable. Trees
which have been left uncut for several years can be recoppiced without harm,
and normal cutting resumed. There is thus a resilience in this type of
production eminently suited to local conditions. Cutting may be at any time;
in Paraguay mainly in October-March; pruning is generally in July-October
in France, February-April in Italy. On Haiti, leaves can be harvested
throughout the year, but highest quality oil is obtained in May-October after
the flower harvest. Oil yield in Paraguay increases steadily to the fifth year,
then remains constant for decades under good management (Baker,
1980).
The most important factors affecting leaf-oil content are seasonal, varietal
and to a lesser extent geographical. The second and third are to a great
extent complementary, since one or at most two cultivars are grown in a
particular region, and there are few data on the effect of growing one in
different locations; Paraguay is an exception. Annual and seasonal variation
is high since the local climate directly influences leaf oil content and oil
characteristics. In Paraguay, the highest oil content generally occurs in
January-June, the lowest in August-October; in Italy, yield rose as the
weather became warmer from February to April; in Brazil, the highest oil
content is in warm months but linalyl acetate content is frequently highest in
cool months. Two major operations affecting oil yield are directly under
Rufaceae 449

producer control: time of cutting and number of cuts annually. Regular


cutting produces bushy plants with a high proportion of young leaves which
have a higher oil content than those more mature. In Italy, where leaf oil is
of secondary importance, young leaves had an oil content of 0.29, older
leaves 0.21%.
Two commercial leaf oils are recognized, petitgrain bigarade and petit-
grain Paraguay. The former is obtained solely from leaves, petioles and often
small twiglets of true bitter orange; the latter from similar material from
various forms of bitter orange common in that country. Oil analyses or
comparisons of characteristics quoted in the literature can be misleading
without some indication of these factors. This does not refer to commercial
oils sold on ester content from a particular source, which are blended to
ensure conformity with customer requirements or official specifications.
That there can be substantial differences between oils from various countries
is well known, but even in a specific country there can be regional differ-
ences. Oils from the Cordillera region of Paraguay differ from those of San
Pedro, partially due to differences in harvesting technique, but also to type of
still and distilling method. Altitude affects quality of leaf oil as previously
noted, while the coexistence of locally widespread bitter-sweet types whose
leaf oils are significantly different but which may be included during harvest-
ing is another modifying factor. Regional variation is becoming less extreme
as new plantations use true bitter orange and other types are removed.
The gross factors affecting flower oil yield are similar to those affecting leaf
oils, and the same remarks apply regarding comparison of analyses. Wide
seasonal variation exists, indeed there can be considerable variation within
one season if weather conditions also vary substantially during or preceding
flowering. Bright, sunny and dry but not hot weather is most suitable for
flower production and harvesting. Cloudy, misty or sultry conditions reduce
flower numbers and oil content. Such conditions are also unsuitable for
flower picking, since blossoms may be moist or damp, easily damaged and
ferment while awaiting or being transported. The oil content of flowers
generally increases as the season progresses and in late flowers nearly
doubles; physical characteristics and composition also vary but as oil is
bulked this is of little consequence. The major difference is an increase in
ester content in late-season oils, but the main variation in ester content
occurs during distillation. A major source of variation in Haitian oils is the
inclusion of flowers from other citrus species, since bitter and sweet orange,
orange hybrids and even shaddock grow in close proximity and pickers are
generally, or deliberately when paid by weight, unselective.
Flowers are picked by hand when they have just opened but not full
blown, as early in the morning as possible for the finest quality oil. Inclusion
of unopened buds and wilted flowers gives a grassy odour; inclusion of small
450 Chapter 12

leaves and petioles produces an off note. Flowers are usually stored over-
night in thin layers in special stores before being distilled.

Distillation
Leaf and oil yield vary widely; in Paraguay individual trees provide 10-1 5 kg
leaves annually and 200-300 kg yields about 1 kg oil; in Haiti, 300-400 kg
about 1 kg oil; in France, 500 kg for only 1 kg of very high quality oil. A charge
normally consists of leaves, twiglets and sometimes small branches. Still
operators consider that inclusion of a reasonable amount of twigs stops
consolidation and channelling thus ensuring more efficient distillation.
While time of cutting in terms of leaf maturity effectively controls potential
oil yield, treatment after cutting can directly affect oil per tonne of material.
Distilling fresh leaves gives the highest yield; in Italy, fresh leaves yielded
0.28%, after 3 days storage 0.23%. Prolonged distillation reduces linalyl
acetate content through ester hydrolysis, especially when direct-fired stills
are used and material remains overlong in contact with water; however, in
Paraguay, the odour of this type of oil is locally preferred.
Most stills in South America and the Caribbean are unsophisticated, and
an interesting description of local Paraguayan stills is that of Baker (1980),
but this is more a factor of economic development and plantation profitabil-
ity than lack of knowledge. The Paraguayan government ‘actively supports
methods of increasing the efficiency of stills where considered necessary to
upgrade oil quality and was possible within the existing rural infrastructure’,
in practice where the local people could afford to do so on their own!
Those factors affecting oil content also basically affect oil composition,
but incorrect or prolonged distillation has a greater adverse effect on ester
content. In commercial oils, ester content as linalyl acetate is, in per cent
(average in brackets): Paraguayan 45-55 (49-52); Italian 45-79 (50-60);
French 55-70 (60-65); Brazilian 55-90 (60-65); laboratory analyses
quoted Indian (25), French Guinea ( 5 5 ) and Algerian (36). T h e very high
variation indicates there is considerable scope for selection for high leaf oil
content, and this also applies to ester content, as in Brazil linalyl acetate
ranged from 57 to 90% (Craveiro et al., 1981).
Flowers are now generally distilled for oil, while solvent extraction of
flowers and orange water yields various absolutes. Distillation differs from
that of leaf oil as flowers are placed directly into a still body containing water
which is then indirectly heated. A significant amount of oil is dissolved in the
water and recovered by solvent extraction. Thus two products are obtained,
Neroli oil and orange flower water. When only unadulterated flowers are
distilled about one gram of oil is obtained per kilogram of flowers, while
3000 kg of solvent extracted distillation water yields about 1 kg orange water
absolute.
Peel oils are obtained from all types of bitter orange fruit, and although it
is not strictly an essential oil it is widely considered as such under the name
Rutaceae 451

bitter orange oil, but for ease of reference as peel oil hereafter. Peel oil is
mainly produced in the Caribbean, particularly Jamaica, the Dominican
Republic, Haiti, and some Latin American countries especially Brazil; in
Europe, Sicily is the most significant producer, while Russia, China and
some North African countries produce small amounts. West Indian oils are
considered superior, while those from Sicily are often the most expensive.
Probably the most important factor affecting oil quality and type is method
of expression and subsequent treatment.
Peel oil is obtained by rupturing oil-containing cells in peel either by
pressure or abrasion, and the method of expression affects total yield, since
some producers only partially express peel which is then sold for other
purposes. Expression may be manual or mechanical, should be cold, and the
fruits as uniformly mature as possible. Inclusion of unripe fruit causes a
proportionally greater reduction in oil quality than inclusion of those more
ripe. Fallen and diseased fruit should be rejected, since these produce off
notes in oil. Peel may be distilled following expression to recover a poor
quality residual oil. Peel oil is more expensive than sweet orange oil as there
is no significant use for juice. Important constituents are citronellal, linalyl
acetate, 1,8-cineole, and non-volatile coumarins to 0.25% not found in sweet
orange oil.

Products and specifications


The most generally accepted designation for leaf oil is petitgrain oil but, as
with so many terms used in the essential oil trade, it is in fact incorrect. The
French word means ‘little seed’ referring to the small unripe fruits from
which the oil was originally obtained, but the name was retained when leaves
and twiglets became the main source. The designation Petitgrain bigarade is
normally accepted as applying to oil derived from Citrus aurantium and not
its subspecies, which are traded under their own names as noted later. Oils
obtained from other citrus species may also be labelled petitgrain but are
generally of little or no commercial importance.
Petitgrain bigarade is produced mainly in Europe and north Africa, while
petitgrain from other localities is usually designated by the country of origin,
i.e. petitgrain Paraguay, Haiti, etc. (Lawrence, 1993). Leaf oils, however,
are widely and frequently misnamed thus the designation petitgrain is
virtually meaningless in respect of oil composition, odour or suitability for a
particular product. Adulteration is also a major problem. The main charac-
teristics shown in Table 12.13 should be used as a general indication, since
there can be a wide variation in petitgrain oils even within a specific region;
Algerian differs from Moroccan and both from French and Italian. The
main constituents of an Algerian petitgrain oil are shown in Table 12.14,
and a detailed analysis has been published (Baaliouamer and Meklati,
1986).
452 Chapter 12

Table 12.13. Main characteristics of leaf oils (petitgrain).

Francea Paraguay' Brazilb Sicilyb Algeriaa


Specific 0.891 0.882 0.880 0.891 0.881
gravity (20°C) 0.897 0.901 0.892 (25°C) 0.899 (15'C) 0.895
Optical -4O -4O -5" -2O -0.30°
rotation (20°C) -6" tY -7c -6" (15'C) -5.50
Refractive 1.45 1.456 1.450 1.460 1.4656
index (20°C) 1.46 1.460 1.459 (25°C) 1.466 (15°C)
Solubility 1 :3.5 1 :4 1:3 1 :2 1:2.5
(viv 70% alcohol) 4.0 4.0 3.5 4.0
Acid number ng max 2.0 max 2.0 max 2.0 0.4-1 .O
Linalyl acetate (??) 64-68 35-55 50-85 50-75 25-35
Linalool (%) ng min 54 5-1 0 10-20 3040
Citral (%) ng ng < 1.5 < 2.0 < 0.2
aLaboratory analyses; commercial samples; ng, not given.
Figures in columns are range.

Petitgrain bigarade oil is pale to mid-yellow (amber) but crude oil is


almost black. T h e odour is pleasant, floral-sweet and orange-like, and the
taste orangy and bitter-sweet, with the high linalyl acetate content con-
sidered responsible for the strong sweetness. This oil is extensively used in
perfumery, and flavouring to enhance the frequently harsh synthetic com-
pounds used in food, sweets, soft drinks and cordials. North African oils
generally conform to this quality, since most plantations were established
from French material. The strong regional differences in the oils, however,
means they are not readily interchangeable. Petitgrain Paraguay is pale to
dark yellow; the odour is sweet, strong, woody-floral; the taste is bitter-
orangy. The odour may vary considerably since it is affected by length of

Table 12.14. Main constituents of petitgrain oil from Algeria.

Alpha-pinene 0.19 Bicycloelemene 0.21


Beta-pinene 1.76 Linalyl acetate 28.94
Sabinene 1.58 Geranyl formate 2.00
Delta-carene 0.20 Geranyl acetate 3.54
Myrcene 1.82 Linalool 36.10
Limonene 1.25 Terpinen-4-01 0.42
Cyclo-fenchene 0.57 Alpha-terpineol 6.80
Beta-ocimene 1.92 Nerol 1.51
p-Cymane 0.16 Geraniol 3.97
Terpinolene 0.30 Phytol 0.23
Beta-caryophyllene 0.21 Neral 0.12
Source: Baaliouamer and Meklati (1980)
Rutaceae 453

period in storage, the container, and often by the extent and type of
adulteration. Crude or bulk Paraguayan oil can be very variable in quality, is
seldom consistent, often contains water, and should be filtered and dried
before evaluation. The Paraguayan government has established export stan-
dards for oil and shipping containers, which only a few major exporters
observe. This oil is extensively used in soaps and similar products, and in
inexpensive perfumes. Petitgrain Haiti is even more variable, mainly due to
type of material distilled. Its uses are similar.
Terpeneless petitgrain oil is normally derived by vacuum distillation of
Paraguayan oil with a volume loss of 20-35%. Terpeneless oil contains
mainly linalyl acetate, linalool and methyl anthranilate, and is almost colour-
less. The extent to which terpenes are removed basically determines the oil’s
odour, which is often the individual preference of a perfumer or company.
Deterpened oils are important in perfumery where their greater solubility is
an asset; in food and drinks they are used in conjunction with natural or
synthetic fruit flavours.
Petitgrain bigarade surjleurs d’oranger is a pale to very pale yellow, with a
sweet orangy odour. It is produced in small quantities mainly in the Grasse
region of France by distilling bigarade oil over flowers from the same type of
bitter orange. The ratio of oil to flowers is not fixed, thus there is a wide
variation in the final product. The odour of this oil is considered by
perfumers to be superior to bigarade oil, and is extensively used to enhance
other flower oils in fine perfumes; the oil suffers from numerous inferior
imitations with the same name. A similar oil is produced by mixing bigarade
oil with neroli oil, but is of little value to perfumers. Another speciality oil is
obtained by distilling together leaves, twigs and flowers, whose character-
istics and odour differ as the proportion of the three plant parts varies.
Petitgrain bergamier is obtained from leaves of C. auruntium subsp.
bigarudia and has an odour similar to Paraguayan petitgrain. The oil is
seldom used alone but commonly as an adulterant or extender of other citrus
oils. A number of other leaf oils have been produced from various Citrus spp.
growing in the Philippines, East and West Africa and the Caribbean, but
none are of economic importance and unlikely to become so. Some have
specific characteristics noted in the relevant literature. The further develop-
ment of these oils probably depends on their use by a particular manu-
facturer seeking a novel product.
Flower oils are generally known as neroli oil, and usually differentiated by
a country or quality suffix. They suffer from the same problems of adultera-
tion and inferior substitutes. Neroli bigarade is the highest quality, obtained
by steam or water distilling flowers of the true bitter orange. Haitian neroli is
steam distilled from flowers of various species of citrus, and is quite different
in its characteristics and odour. Neroli oil can also be obtained by hot
454 Chapter 12

enfleurage, but this operation has now virtually ceased. Flower oils are
produced mainly in the Mediterranean region, the Caribbean, Latin Amer-
ica, Southern Africa and China and although manufacturers frequently
prefer a specific origin, the highest quality oils are French and Tunisian. The
major components are linalyl acetate, limonene, linalool, methyl anthrani-
late and geraniol.
Neroli bigarade oil is a clear, pale to very pale yellow mobile liquid,
becoming viscous and darker with age. Fresh oil has a strong, attractive
orangy-floral odour, but little persistence. The oil quickly darkens and the
odour deteriorates unless kept in well-sealed containers in a cool dark store.
The main characteristics of neroli bigarade of various origins are shown in
Table 12.15, but there can be substantial regional, indeed seasonal varia-
tion. Distilling methods and techniques also have a major effect on the oil,
particularly the extent to which certain alcohols are hydrolysed. A large
Spanish producer uses copper rather than stainless steel equipment, claim-
ing its product has a superior odour. At least 40 components have been
identified in neroli oil and analyses of two oils shown in Table 12.16.
A very interesting review of the contribution various constituents make to
oil odour is that of Buccellato (1981), who states that hydrocarbons provide
the bright, fresh citrus character, alcohols the floral body, esters the fruity
component, while phenols and nitrogenous compounds modify the whole.
Neroli bigarade normally contains a high proportion (approximate per-
centage in brackets) of hydrocarbon monoterpenes (35); linalool (30);
aldehydes (1 2 ) ; linalyl acetate (1 0); and nerolidol ( 7 ) . Although many
analyses of neroli oil have been published, they often fail to state the origin
and are thus of limited value, A characteristic of fresh neroli oil is the blue

Table 12.15. Main characteristics of flower oils (neroli)a

Commercial
France North Africa Sicily Spain Haiti range (USA)
Specific 0.87 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.86a 0.863a
gravity (20°C) 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.880
Refractive 1.47 1.47 1.4 1.4 1.47 1 .oa
index (20") 1.48 1.48 1.5 1.6 1.49 2.2
Optical t? t6" t5 O t8" t2ya t 1 .ya
rotation (20°C) t 7$ t9" 7".t +loo t 25" t9.IC
Solubility 1 12-3 112-4 1 :I-2 111.5 1:1-1.3 1 I1
(viv 70% alcohol) (80%) -2.0 (80%) 1.5
Acid number < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 < 3.5 < 3.0 < 3.0
Linalyl acetate (%) 10-15 15-25 8-1 0 15-25 12-15 ng
Linalool (%) 25-40 25-45 55-65 25-35 ng ng
a Figures in columns are the average range; the range can be much greater; 25"; ng, not given.
Rutaceae 455

fluorescence caused by anthranilates when the oil is dissolved in alcohol; this


rapidly fades on exposure to daylight and the reaction is less brilliant when
aged oil is used.
The main use for neroli oil is in perfumery, especially colognes and,
although neroli and petitgrain have basically the same odour, perfumers
consider that neroli can lift and make a top note more radiant, while
petitgrain is flatter. It has a limited use as a flavour material in sweets, soft
drinks and liqueurs. Neroli oil is a weak antiseptic, but has a strong
bactericidal action against Stuphylococcus uureus. In traditional medicine it
was believed to induce a semi-trance when inhaled warm. Nerol bigarade is
often difficult to obtain and expensive, thus a number of synthetic sub-
stitutes known as neroli bases are available (Anonis, 1985), and it is also
frequently adulterated. Haiti neroli cannot be directly substituted for neroli
bigarade, and is used in its own right in perfumery. Similar in appearance to
neroli oil, but often darker, it has a harsher less orangy note, since the often

Table 12.16. Partial analyses of neroli oils.

French Egyptian Commercial


Alpha-pinene t camphene t dipentene 5.0 4.26 0.8
t paraffin C-27
Camphene 5.50 ng
Sabinene ng 2.55 ng
Beta-pinene ng 8.67 15.0
Myrcene ng 2.15 1.6
Delta-3-carene ng 2.46 ng
Limonene ng 22.43 ng
Limonene t cis-ocimene 16.1
trans-Ocimene ng ng 6.0
Terpinene ng 4.14 ng
Alpha-terpineol 2.0 1.87 3.0
Linalool 30.0 2.52 30.6
Linalyl acetate 7.0 0.87 9.1
Geraniol t nerol 4.0 1.02 2.0
Nerol (including, farnesol t unknown) ng 6.97 0.2
Geranyl acetate t neryl acetate 4.0 3.74 2.9
Neryl acetate 1.7
Citronellol ng 1A7 0.2
Citral ng 2.41 ng
Beta-citral ng 1.87 ng
Nerolidol 6.0 ng 7.6
Farnesol ng ng 4.0
Methvl anthranilate 0.6 1.E9 0.3
All figures in table are per cent. ng, Not given
Source: Quoted in Anonis (1985).
456 Chapter 12

prolonged distillation hydrolyses esters and in particular reduces the im-


portant linalyl acetate content.
Orange flower water is the liquid remaining after flower distillation, and as
neroli oil is slightly water soluble a small amount remains dissolved. This
solution was formerly sold as orange flower water, E a u Bigarade Petales in
various concentrations, double, quadruple, etc. The liquid is now solvent
extracted to recover the oil, known as orange flower water absolute. It varies
from dark to brownish yellow and darkens further with age; the odour is only
faintly orangy although strongly floral. A major use is in perfumery as an
enhancer, or blender. T h e main components of this absolute are shown in
Table 12.17. The absolute contains significant amounts of terpineol, lina-
loo1 and methyl anthranilate, but terpenes are virtually absent. Eau de Brouts
is an interesting absolute obtained from water remaining after distilling a
mixture of flowers, leaves and twigs. It is of very variable composition, since
the charge may consist of different proportions of flowers and foliage.
Orange flower concrete is obtained by solvent extracting freshly picked
flowers, and is an orangy or darkish-brown pasty substance with a very
strong, sweet floral odour. O n dilution, the scent is almost identical to that of
natural flowers. T h e concrete is seldom used, since it is basically the raw

Table 12.17. Main components of orange flower absolutes

Orange flower absolute Orange flower water absolute


Alpha-pinene trace ng
Beta-pinene 0.4 1.1
Myrcene 0.1 ng
Limonene t cis-ocimene 5.1 0.5
trans-Ocimene 0.6 0.2
Linalool 32.0 44.2
Phenyl ethyl alcohol 4.5 1.9
Alpha-terpineol 2.4 18.5
Citronellol 0.5 0.2
Nerol 0.9 2.8
Linalyl acetate 16.8 ng
Geraniol 1.5 6.4
lndole 1 .o 0.1
Methyl anthranilate 3.0 4.1
Eugenol 0.3 0.5
Neryl acetate 0.8 0.5
Citronellyl acetate 0.1 ng
Geranyl acetate 0.6 0.5
Nerolidol 7.6 1.7
Farnesol 7.7 0.5
ng, Not given. Figures in table are per cent.
Source: Buccellato (1987).
Rutaceae 457

material for production of orange flower absolute by solvent extraction with


a yield around 50%.
Absolute is a dark to dark orangy brown, rather viscous liquid with a
warm, rich, floral, tenacious odour similar to that of the natural flower. This
absolute is of major importance in perfumery and has a multitude of uses. It
is also used in flavouring, especially sweets and drinks. The main compo-
nents are shown in Table 12.18.Oils obtained by first solvent extracting
fresh flowers and distilling the residue had the following characteristics (at
15°C): specific gravity 0.888-0.943;optical rotation -0" to -5"; refractive
index 1.47-1.50;total esters 25-35%; total alcohols 50-60%.
Fruit oils are obtained by expressing peel of bitter, bergamot and petit-
grain orange, and differ in composition and commercial use. In general,
bitter orange oil is used mainly in flavourings, bergamot oil in perfumery,
petitgrain oil as a blender or extender. The several reorganizations of the
genus Citrus has resulted in many analyses and published evaluations of
various peel oils being incorrectly attributed. Thus there may be confusion
as to which citrus species produced the oil in question. Bitter orange oil as
discussed herein is obtained from C. aurantium, and bergamot oil from C.
aurantium subsp. bigaradia. Peel oil from C. aurantium subsp. amara differs
in composition and is of no commercial importance (Boelens and Jimenez,
1989a).Thus bitter orange oil will include references to bigaradia oil without
mention of its previous species attribution; conversely, data will not be
included where the original attribution is suspect. This also applies to
bergamot oil.
These oils are not considered essential oils since they contain non-volatile
components, but to ignore them for this reason would be pedantic, since
they are widely regarded and internationally traded as essential oils. The
highest quality is obtained by cold-expressing peel of mature but unripe
fruits, and inclusion of oil distilled from expressed peel sharply reduces
quality and odour. The oil is normally a darkish-yellow, but can vary
between pale olive to brownish yellow depending on regional origin. A
crystalline sediment may appear after prolonged storage. The odour is
distinctive, fresh, biting, with rich sweet floral undertones, and tenacious;
the taste is bitter-sweet. The oil is used as a flavouring, particularly in orange
beverages from soft drinks to liqueurs, cake mixes and confectionery of all
kinds. It is also used as a blender or enhancer in high-class perfumery. Major
components of the oil are the terpenes approximate 90%, with, in per cent:
d-limonene (min 50), linalyl acetate (2-lO),myrcene (1-4)and decanol (1).
The main components of peel oil are shown in Table 12.18;the very wide
range of individual components has been frequently noted in the literature.
The main characteristics of cold-expressed oil from various origins are
shown in Table 12.19.
Bitter orange peel oil is frequently adulterated with extracts from other
citrus oils, synthetics and less valuable citrus oils. So desired are true oils that
458 Chapter 12

producers may be contracted in advance to supply oils of a specific type.


These oils are expensive but economical since they can be used at very high
dilutions without loss of odour. In international trade, oils originating in
Guinea (West Africa) and Spain are considered the finest quality. Concen-
trated oil is produced by vacuum distilling whole oil, which reduces the
terpene content to a specified level. This concentrated oil, tenfold oil, is a
yellowish or orangy brown. A completely deterpened, almost colourless oil is
also produced from whole oil with a yield of 3%. All deterpened oils have a
flatter odour which can limit their other advantages. Bitter orange oils are
also produced from other citrus species, invariably of lower quality and in
erratic supply. One in particular, Curacao peel oil produced on the West
Indian island of that name, is used almost exclusively to flavour Curacao
liqueurs.

Table 12.18. Major components of bitter orange and bergamot peel oils.

Component Bitter orange Bergamot


Alpha-pinene 0.40-1.30 0.90-1.50
Beta-pinene 0.30-6.00 4,50-7.00
Sabinene 0.05-1.30 0.75-1.25
Myrcene 1.80-2.20 1.oo-2.00
d-Limonene 45.00-95.00 35.00-55.00
Gamma-terpinene 0.10-9.00 5.50-7.50
Decanol 0.40-1 50 0.10-0.40
Citronellal 1 .oo-2.00 0.50-1 50
Linalool 12.00-14.00 12.00-14.00
Linalyl acetate 9.00-1 1.oo 30.00-35.00
Alpha-terpineol 0.10-3.00 0.084.10
Geranial 2.50-3.50 0.30-0.50
Nerol 0.30-0.60 0.05-0.1 0
Geraniol 0.454.85 0.01-0.02
Camphene 0.40-0.90 ng
1,8-Cineole 1.OO-8.00 trace
Octanal 1.25-2.50 0.10-0.1 5
Nonanal 0.10-0.40 trace
Nonyl acetate ng 0.80-1 .OO
lsopulegal 0.25-0.50 ng
Geranyl formate 0.25-0.60 ng
Terpinen-4-01 0.254.45 0.25-O.40

ng, Not given, Figures in columns are range in per cent. The very wide range of individual components
is noteable.
Source: Published data from Italian commercial samples.
Rutaceae 459

Table 12.19. Main characteristics of bitter orange peel oil

USA
~

France Italy India Florida EOA


Specific 0.86 0.845 0.86 0.846 0.845a
gravity (20°C) 0.87 0.851 0.87 0.850 0.851
Optical t 86" t9IC t8 4 O t 90" t 88"
rotation (20°C) t92O t 97' t 88" t 95" t 98"
Refractive 1.470 1.473 1.473 1.470 1.4725
index (20") 1.480 1.476 1.475 1.474 1.4755
Solubility 114-8 1 :4 1:8 1:4-5 1 :4
(viv 90% alcohol)
Aldehyde content < 1.0 0.5-1.5 0.50-0.1 5 0.5-1 .O
(as decanal %)
a25'Cc; ng, not given; EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA.
Figures in columns are average range of commercial samples.
Source: Abstracted from published data.

Bergamot Orange
This subspecies of C. aurantium has had a somewhat chequered taxonomic
career and is now known as C. aurantium subsp. bergamia. Argument
continues regarding its origin, status, and whether it is a mutation or hybrid.
Development of the toilet water known as eau-de-cologne, originally made
in Italy by the Feminis family in the sixteenth century, stimulated bergamot
oil production, as the oil is an essential ingredient. Expressed oil was well
established in Italy by the mid-eighteenth century, and commercially traded.
Bergamot orange has a much more restricted distribution than bitter orange,
and was originally confined to the south-west coast of Calabria, southern
Italy. Although bergamot has been introduced elsewhere, only the Ivory
Coast, Guinea, Morocco and Corsica produce oils comparable with Cal-
abrian oils, and Italy remains the most significant producer (Giacomo,
1987; Dugo, 1994).

Botany
Bergamot is an upright tree to 12 m with a single trunk to 25 cm DBH and
numerous branches. Under cultivation, trees are pruned to 4-5 m and
branches cut back to maintain a tree diameter of 5 m. The leaves and flowers
are typical of the species. An essential oil can be obtained from leaves by
distillation but is of no commercial importance (Lawrence, 1993). The fruit
is generally globoid to 7.5 cm, the peel thin, tough, smooth and initially
green becoming yellow when ripe. The very regular, spherical shape of
bergamot fruits and the evenness of peel thickness greatly facilitated the
introduction of mechanical processing equipment. Bergamot oil is obtained
460 Chapter 12

from the peel, the juice is of minor value, and residues after processing are
used as stockfeed. In Calabria, three bergamot varieties are recognized,
Feminello, Castagano and Inserto, and the last is locally considered a hybrid
of the first two and by far the most popular. All three were tested in North
and West Africa where Inserto proved most adaptable. The rootstock used
for bergamot has a significant influence on growth, yield and disease
resistance, and remains to be fully evaluated.

Ecology
It was widely publicized that bergamot required quite specific climatic
conditions if it was to flourish and its fruits to contain oil of the required type.
The most important producing regions of Calabria have a mild equable
climate where temperature only very rarely falls below 10°C or exceeds
30°C. The success of the West African plantations with a very different
climate indicates that agronomic skill is probably more important. Frost
causes serious damage to trees and, if prolonged, is often fatal. Low
temperatures at flowering or when fruit is setting drastically reduce yield.
Strong, hot winds have a similar effect and shelter belts are recommended
where there are seasonally high winds. An annual rainfall of 500-700 m m is
adequate if augmented by irrigation. Plantations are normally established
below 400 m in Europe, at higher levels only on southern slopes or sheltered
valleys. Detailed statistics on climatic conditions in the North and West
African bergamot regions have been published (Huet and Dupuis, 1967)
and can be used as a guide when considering the suitability of establishing a
bergamot plantation.

Soils and fertilizers


Soils in the Calabrian region are generally poor, and the more fertile free-
draining valley soils are favoured for bergamot plantations. In north and
west Africa, sandy loamsiclays are preferred. Poorly drained or seasonally
waterlogged areas should be avoided, since trees are susceptible to various
soil-borne diseases which flourish in these conditions. O n most established
Calabrian plantations little fertilizer is applied; older growers tend to believe
that chemical fertilizers alter oil characteristics, but there is no scientific
evidence for or against this belief. The local agricultural department recom-
mends an N P K mixture (unspecified) at 5 kg per tree, dug in just within the
canopy area every second year. The effect on fruit yield is variable and
unquantified, but the author was told ‘fertilized trees are more healthy with
less disease and give more fruit’. Residue remaining after processing peel
may be used as a mulch, or grass and similar material spread between trees
in very dry years. When plantations are intercropped with vegetables which
frequently receive fertilizers or farmyard manure, adjoining trees benefit. In
North Africa, 0.25 kg of an unspecified N P K mixture is placed in planting
holes, and additional phosphate and potash applied to young trees as
Rutaceae 461

indicated by soil analysis. In West Africa, phosphate is essential since soils


are heavily leached; superphosphate is most often used but local rock
phosphate placed in planting holes is equally effective.
The effect of fertilizers on peel and peel oil is not known, nor the lack or
excess of trace elements. Similarly, the effect of pest control chemicals and
residue level on peel, which could affecr oil odour in particular, has been
little noted.

Cultivation
In general, cultivation as for other citrus is suitable, and spacing between
trees governed by the agricultural system employed. Bergamot seeds are
viable, but most seedlings are budded or grafted onto other citrus rootstocks.
Sour orange is widely used, but other species may prove to be more disease
resistant. Older growers in the Calabria area believed lemon and citron stock
gave an oil of finer quality, but there is no data indicating rootstock
influences oil composition or characteristics. Tree density can vary from 450
to 600 per hectare in older plantations, 350-400 in plantations where
mechanical equipment is used.
Many plantations are intercropped initially to reduce establishment cost;
with jasmine in North Africa and occasionally in Italy. Irrigation is normal
since trees flourish in warm dry conditions. Surface irrigation is common in
Calabria partly from tradition but also because installing sprinklers or
rainguns is unprofitable. Drip irrigation which conserves moisture and
ensures regular growth, is probably the most viable system where it can be
employed. Weed control is normally manual when family or cheap labour is
available, but herbicides are now becoming more popular as there are
frequently labour shortages at critical periods. An overall grass cover is
normal in older plantations established on hillsides or sloping land to resist
soil erosion, and this is either scythed or grazed by small livestock. A circular
area around tree trunks is often cleared to reduce damage by disease and
pests. This system is of value elsewhere, where contour planting on terraces
would be an advantage. Pruning is in February after harvesting is completed
and this is a skilled operation as each tree is pruned individually. Mechanical
pruners have been tested and are discussed in the sections on lemon and
sweet orange.
Bergamot trees mature slowly; a small harvest may be possible after 7
years, increasing annually to 12-1 5 years, and trees remain in bearing for
50-60 years with proper attention. Fruit yield from well-managed planta-
tions in Calabria is 200-300 kg per tree, and average oil yield 300-600 g per
tree. Individual trees have much higher fruit and oil yield and should be used
to upgrade local stock. Those factors affecting fruit size, etc. noted under
bitter orange are generally applicable to bergamot. Peel oil content and its
composition, however, are not only directly affected by agronomic factors
but also by time of picking, handling, transport and method of expression,
462 Chapter 12

which are not further discussed since these operations can be easily con-
trolled.
Peel oil content is extremely variable, and although this is partly genetic,
climate directly affects oil content. It is difficult to assess the effect of a
specific component; a high temperature for instance can be accompanied by
high humidity as in the West African rainy season, or low as during a sirocco
wind in Italy or the khumsin in North Africa. A moderately high temperature
during maturation apparently reduces linalool content and increases ester
content in North Africa and, although ester content increases when the
weather becomes warmer as the season progresses in Calabria, a drop in
temperature in the final stages of fruit maturation may further increase ester
content of peel oil. Growers still remember a sirocco wind which occurred in
July 1965 when the temperature rose very quickly to a high level causing
extensive fruit damage; oil produced that season had a low ester content and
a high rotation. In Calabria, linalool content is highest in early fruits and
decreases steadily to a minimum in March, while linalyl acetate content is
the reverse; early fruit in general has less terpenes than late maturing.
Flowering begins in West Africa at the beginning of the rainy season and
early maturing fruit has lower esters and alcohol content.

Harvesting
Manual harvesting is general and although tree-shakers have been used
where possible, it is unlikely for economic reasons that mechanical harvest-
ing will become common. Picking begins in November-December and
completed in February-March in Calabria and North Africa, somewhat
earlier in West Africa where seasonal rainfall and temperature have a major
effect on rate of fruit maturation. Fruit is harvested when mature but unripe,
carefully stored in the shade after picking and quickly transported to the
processing plant. Many producers in Calabria now sell their crop on the tree
to an independent contractor, or the processor arranges for it to be picked,
as young people have little interest in agriculture and labour is scarce and
costly. A result is that smaller, independent oil producers have gradually
been replaced by large processing plants. One of the biggest was the
Consorzio di Bergamotto (the Consortium) which not only processed fruit
but bought local oil which it further processed to a guaranteed standard of
quality and purity. The Consortium was subsequently reorganized and its
monopoly power reduced.

Distillation
Several oils can be obtained from bergamot fruit other than the standard oil,
including treatment of crude oil or residues. In Calabria, bergamot oil is
produced mainly by the Pelatrice process with only a minor amount by the
traditional Calabrese method. An oil, Bergamotelle, is distilled from young
fruit; another locally named Nero is expressed from ripe and fallen fruit; also
Rutaceae 463

a derived distillate Frecci, and Mollicata extract. These are normally only
produced to order, or by extractors for their own use. Most important is
Nero, highly aromatic and frequently used to enhance less fragrant oil. The
oil's main characteristics are apparent density 0.896-0.900; rotation < 10"
but turbidity may make accurate measurement difficult; esters 30%; alco-
hols 50%; non-volatile residues 15%. A Calabrian oil, fallen bergamot, is
obtained from peel of fallen fruits which are whole and not diseased or
rotten, and mainly used to extend true oil. An oil obtained by steam distilling
peel remaining after cold-pressing fruit has a low linalool and linalyl acetate
but high monoterpene content, and its main use is also to adulterate true oil.
Juice and pulp residue may also be distilled to recover an oil which does not
resemble peel oil in odour. The annual oil yield from factory-processed fruits
is 0.45-0.65% depending mainly on climatic conditions in a particular year,
averaging 0.50%.

Products and speciJications


Bergamot oil is a mid- to olive-green, becoming more yellowish or paler with
age or exposure to daylight; its odour is fresh, rich, sweet and fruity. The
main use is in perfumery, in flavourings, for food, confectionery, beverages
including the famous Earl Grey tea, and tobacco products. The oil must be
used with caution in cosmetics since its bergapten content may cause skin
irritation, and photosensitivity is a danger in sunscreens and similar prod-
ucts. T o overcome these problems Bergamot Oil NS (non-sensitizing) is
available, or terpeneless grades can be used. The main characteristics of oil
from various countries are shown in Table 12.20. The major components
are, in per cent: total alcohols (45-60) of which linalyl acetate (30-50), free
linalool and other alcohols (11-22); total terpenes (30-48) of which d-
limonene (to 65); beta-pinene (to 15); gamma-terpinene (to 12); alpha-
pinene (to 3) (see Table 12.18). In Calabrian oil, limonene seldom exceeds
55%, unlike other citrus oils with over 60% and, in general, limonene and
linayl acetate content is similar. A detailed analysis of Calabrian oil has been
published (Dugo, 1994). Certain furocoumarin compounds including ber-
gapten can deposit with storage, and gamma-terpinene change to p-cymene
if the storage period is lengthy (Table 12.7). Data available indicate some
geographical variation in oils, but as North and West African plantations
were basically established from Calabrian material, variation is thus prob-
ably due to differences in climate and distilling or extraction techniques.
The considerable natural variation in bergamot oil composition, however,
adds to the problem of identifying a genuine oil, as was demonstrated by
Calabrian analyses. These showed significant changes in oil composition
within specific periods and between oils from adjoining districts (Dugo et al.,
1991; Dugo, 1994; Lawrence, 1994). Many samples offered commercially
have greater variation due to adulteration, in particular by synthetic linalyl
acetate, or reconstituted bergamot oil (Cotroneo et al., 1992). Bergamot oil
464 Chapter 12

Table !2.20. Main characteristics of Bergamot orange peel oil.

Italy Ivory
USA (Calabria) Guinea Coast Morocco USSR
(EOA) A B C D E F
Specific 0.875 0.8795 0.8790 0.8730 0.875 0.862 0.877
gravity (20%) 0.880 0.8845 0.8867 0.8910 0.882 0.873 0.888
(25%) (15°C)
Refractive 1.4650 1.464 1.462 1.464 1.462 1.468 1.464
index (20°C) 1.4675 1.466 1.467 1.468 1.465 1.770 1.469
Optical t8 O t15O t5 O t12O t6" t38" ng
rotation (20°C) t 24" t 30" t3Ic t 33" t 22O t 60°
Solubility
(viv 90% alcohol) 1:l 1:l 1 :0.5 1:l ng ng 1:I
Ester contenta 35-45 30-60 30-45 32-45 32-44 16-33 3545
aAs linalyl acetate pi);ng, not given; EOA, Essential Oil Association, USA.
Source: A, Muller (1966); B, Calvarano (1965); C, Schwob (1953); D and E, Chapot (1962); F, Lozzi
(1963)I

has been intensively studied and there are a number of synthetic substitutes
available, but those which approach the true oil are also nearly as ex-
pensive.
Terpeneless bergamot oil is obtained by vacuum distilling whole oil, with
a yield of 66-75% depending on the product required. Its most important
assets are greater solubility and slightly stronger and finer odour. Since it is
more expensive, it is used in higher quality perfumes and similar products.
Bergamot concrete produced in small amounts by solvent extraction has an
excellent bergamot odour. Bergamot petitgrain is produced by steam distill-
ing leaves and twigs from annual pruning, and used as a partial substitute for
other petitgrain oils, but is normally too expensive or available only in small
amounts. This oil is a green to olive-yellow mobile liquid, with generally the
same odour characteristics as South American oils. The residues from oil
extraction, dried, wet, and as silage are used for stockfeed, or may be further
processed to obtain specific ingredients, The juice known as ugro, although
too bitter for use in beverages without further processing, is raw material for
extraction of various acids and vitamins, but frequently discarded as
waste.

Lemon

Lemon is of Asiatic origin but its native home remains unclear although the
Indo-Burmese region is most valid. The fruit reached Europe via Persia and
Rutaceae 465

the Middle East sometime in the twelfth century. Sicily is now the most
important European producer of lemon oils, Spain is of lesser importance.
Sicilian lemon oil was first mentioned in 1780 when Abbot Domenico
Sestini noted production of several thousand pounds. Christopher Colum-
bus carried seeds to the West Indies in the fifteenth century and lemon was
subsequently dispersed throughout South America by Catholic missionar-
ies; Argentina is now the largest lemon producer followed by Peru and
Brazil. Missionaries were also responsible for introducing lemons to Cal-
ifornia in the late 18th century, and this state is probably the world’s largest
single producer of lemon oil.
Seed was first carried to Australia in 1788 and lemon is grown commer-
cially and generally in gardens including that of the author, and rough lemon
has become widely naturalized. Lemon has also been more recently in-
troduced to many African countries, but only South Africa, Ivory Coast and
Guinea have significant commercial production. Lemons are seldom grown
commercially in Asia or South East Asia, although single trees are often
planted in gardens and smallholdings. A very interesting account of contem-
porary world lemon oil production was Ernest Guenther’s survey
(1963-64). There are many named cultivars of smooth and rough lemon
available commercially, and specialists mass-propagate rough lemon seed-
lings for rootstock.

Botany
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. (syn. C. medica subsp. limonium Hook., C. limoniunz
Risso), and the species are divided into two groups with either smooth or
rough skinned fruit. Some taxonomists regard the two as distinct species; the
smooth as C. limon, the rough (citronelle) as C. jumbhiri Hodg. Others
consider rough lemon a stabilized lime X citron hybrid since their centres of
origin overlap and generally coincide with lemon. Chemotaxonomy may
offer a solution, and also assist in classifying the many cultivars. Meyer
lemon (sometimes designated C. meyeri but usually C. limon X C. sinensis) is
considered to be a smooth lemon X orange hybrid, with a characteristic oil.
In this section C. limon will be discussed as smooth and rough lemon.
Smooth lemon is a medium-sized tree to 10 m but generally 4-6 m, with
a single trunk and many branches which are usually well, if irregularly,
spaced, giving the tree an open, spreading appearance. Small branches and
twigs bear short stiff spines, usually absent on mature wood. Rough lemon is
a large spreading tree to 12 m seldom cultivated for its fruit. It quickly
becomes naturalized as seed is viable and seedlings vigorous. Leaves on both
are pointed, elliptic-ovate, 5-10 X 2.5-5.0 cm, slightly serrate, with short
almost wingless petioles. They are normally light to mid-green in colour,
glossy, and less strongly scented than other Citrus spp. Steam distilled leaves
and twiglets of smooth lemon produce oil of petitgrain lemon with a citral
content to 50%; the main characteristics are shown in Table 12.21. Nearly
466 Chapter 12

Table 12.21. Main characteristics of lemon leaf (petitgrain) oils

Italy France Algeria Hungary


Specific gravity (20°C) 0,8697 0.865 0.872 0.8857
0.8781(15°C) 0.866 (1 5°C)
Refractive index (20°C) 1.4771 1.472 1.476 1.4806
1.4793 1.476
Optical rotation (20°C) t26.8' t14O t27.2" 22.46"
t33.4°((150C) t 28" (23°C)
Solubility ng ng "9 1:1-2.5
(viv 70% alcohol) (85%)
Citral (%) "g ng ng 38
ng, not given. Figures in columns are range,
Source: Published figures.

100 compounds have been isolated, and the major components are limo-
nene, sabinene, gamma-terpinene, beta-ocimene and linalool (Lund et al. ,
1982; Lawrence, 1993); rough lemon leaves contain a very similar oil (Lund
et al., 1981; Lawrence, 1993).
The flowers are 3-5 cm diameter, white, the buds pink-tinged and the
reflexed petals retain the colour. They are usually borne singly or in pairs in
axils of leaves. The flowers are fragrant in both types but not processed for
oil. Flowering can continue year-round and thus flowers, immature and ripe
fruits can occur on the same tree. In certain cultivars, flowering can be so
profuse that growers thin to ensure large, even-sized fruit. Growth regulators
can enhance fruit set when applied at flowering, or substantially reduce
premature fruit drop, but some adversely affect peel thickness and/or oil
content. Neroli citronier is obtained by distilling lemon flowers, but is not a
substitute for neroli bigarade obtained from bitter orange blossoms, and is
produced only on demand.
Smooth lemon fruit is ovoid to oblong, 7-10 X 3.5-5.0 cm diameter,
tapered at both ends with a pronounced terminal nipple: rough lemon may
be considerably larger, but very variable in shape. The fruit is normally mid-
green becoming yellow to bright yellow when ripe. The peel is relatively thin,
smooth and tight; or rough, thicker and more loosely attached. The seed is
small, ovate, and may be absent in smooth lemon, numerous and viable in
rough, with no dormancy period. Seed from Eureka grown in Pakistan
yielded 28% oil, containing ten fatty acids, including palmitic 41 % and oleic
34% (Sattar et al., 1987).
Smooth lemon fruit is used mainly for juice and although very acid has a
multitude of uses. Fruit is seldom eaten although slices may be added to
many foods and beverages. Rough lemon fruit has virtually no commercial
use except as a seed source. Whole smooth lemons may contain to 1.6% oil
(2.2% in peel only) but cold-pressing normally returns only 66-75% of oil
Rutaceae 467

present, Steam distilling produces a higher yield, but the oil has different
characteristics and odour and is considered inferior. By contrast, Meyer peel
oil contains over 90% limonene, but also thymol to 6%. The major compo-
nents of cold-pressed peel oil are shown in Table 12.22.

Ecology
Lemon flourishes in a Mediterranean-type climate with an average tem-
perature of 20-30°C, but selected cultivars have greater cold or heat toler-
ance. While the climatic requirements for commercial lemon production
may be restrictive, lemon is very adaptable. In Australia, self-sown rough
lemon trees have become widely naturalized along creek banks in dry areas,
the fruit known as bush lemons. Mature trees tolerate low temperatures for
very short periods but frost causes extensive damage to young shoots, and
seedlings and young trees invariably succumb. Frost can limit production in
otherwise suitable areas, as in Spain where a late frost can drastically reduce
a crop and severe frost decimates groves. Selection within cultivars grown at
the northern limit of their range could produce types more frost resistant,
since there is a relationship between the amount of free proline present in
seedlings and their ability to withstand freezing (Yelenosky, 1985; Kushad
and Yelenosky, 1987; Zambakhidze et al., 1989). Lemons in frost-prone

Table 12.22. Main characteristics of cold-pressed lemon oil

USA
New
A B C Italy Hungary India Algeria Zealand Guinea USSR
Specific 0.849 0.845 0.846 0.849 0.880 0.852 0.850 0.854 0.849 0.856
gravity 0.855 0.852 0.851 0.858 0.886 0.860 0.857 0.855 0.862
(20°C)
Refractive 1.474 1.474 1.473 1.474 1.479 1.472 1.4754 1.474 1.473 1,471
index(20"C) 1.476 1.476 1.476 1.476 1.481 1.475 1.478 1.476 1.478
Optical t 57O t 59" +
70" t 57O t2O0 t 67' t 68O t 46" t 50" ng
rotation t 65O t 67O t 78" t 65' t 25O t 80" t 53" t70.2c
(20°C)
Solubility 1 :3 1:3 1 :3 1 :3
125 1 :3 1 :I
(95% alcohol) (85%)
Aldehyde 2.3 2.2 > 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 3.0
as citral (%) 3.0 3.6 4.5 4.0 2.8 4.2 4.5
Residue on 1.5 1.4 < 2.5 < 2.0 ng 2.0 ng 2.5 ng
evaporation (%) 1.8 3.0 2.4 2.7 S
A, California; B, Florida; C, Arizona; ng, not given.
Figures in columns are range. Sources: Published analyses.
468 Chapter 12

regions must be protected and a variety of methods and materials have been
used (Eshankulov et al., 1985; Makharadze et al., 1987). It is, however,
unlikely that under such conditions large-scale lemon production will be
profitable. Partial or temporary protection is more common; straw and black
plastic is used in southern Italy (Pilone, 1987).
A rainfall of 750-1 000 mm is the optimum but lemon will grow well in dry
almost arid regions under irrigation, as in California where the coastal region
has an average of 500 mm, further inland below 100 mm, and in the virtually
waterless Negev Desert, Israel. Lemons from very dry areas often have
thicker peel than those from wetter or cooler districts, the surface wax is
thinner, and this is reflected in wax content of the oils. In regions where
rainfall approaches the maximum or seasonally heavy storms occur, ridge-
planting is effective.
Commercial lemon production is generally below 300 m but trees will
grow well and fruit regularly at relatively high altitudes. The author grew
lemons between 1500 and 2000 m in the Kenya Highlands on the Equator
and it is common in Uganda gardens and upland areas of Tanzania. At
Mazoe, Zimbabwe, large commercial plantations are at 1200 m, and West
African plantations are located north of the humid coastal region. In the
USA, the main growing regions are on the Californian coast and further
inland, and in Arizona. In Sao Paulo, Brazil, most groves are around 500
m.
Published data frequently compares seasonal yield of fruit and oil, and the
wide variation indicates the direct effect of climate. Fruit processed in
Florida from 1968-1972 gave an average oil yield of 6-8 kg/t; California has
much larger production from a bigger geographical area and seasonal
variation in bulk oil is much less since one district has little influence.
Analyses of early, mid and late season oils showed total hydrocarbons
averaged 94% in California, 97% in Florida, while total aldehydes (as citral)
averaged 2.9 and 1.8 respectively (Staroscik and Wilson, 1982). Commer-
cial oil from lemons grown in the three major producing areas of California,
Florida and Arizona are quite distinct, with substantial variation in major oil
components, including beta-pinene, limonene, neral, geraniol, linalool and
geranyl acetate. Some differences are varietal or due to a combination of soil
type and irrigation water, but climatic differences are probably most influen-
tial (Staroscik and Wilson, 1982; Chanukavadze and Kharebava, 1990).

Soil and fertilizers


Lemon is probably less demanding in terms of soil type than other citrus
species and, although healthy trees can be found growing from stony
uplands to delta silts, for commercial production a deep, moderately sandy
loam p H 5.0-6.0 is preferred. Whatever the soil type, it must be free-
draining as lemon is very susceptible to waterlogging. Saline soils are
unsuitable, but slightly saline irrigation water can be used with discretion, as
Rutaceae 469

will be noted later. Highly alkaline soils are also generally unsuitable, but
rough lemon was successful as a rootstock on high p H corraline soils in the
Solomon Islands (Caiger, 1987). Soils with a high boron, zinc or magnesium
content are also unsuitable for commercial plantations.
The approximate uptake of nutrients by lemon trees is shown in Table
12.4 and is a guide to the general level of nutrients which must be available.
In New Zealand when unfertilized tree yield (control) was 100, yield from
phosphate alone was 123; phosphate and potassium 133, phosphate and
nitrogen 138, all three 145. Local trials to determine the fertilizers required,
and the type and amount are essential since lemon cultivars react very
differently to similar amounts. This applies not only to tree growth, fruit
yield and quality, but also to fruit oil content and composition.
Lemon generally has a greater nitrogen requirement than other citrus
growing in the same area, since the optimum level in lemon leaves usually
requires the application of 20-50% more nitrogen to produce the same level
as in orange leaves. The reason for this apparently low nitrogen recovery in
lemon remains unclear. Nitrogen usually increases fruit yield, but can also
increase peel thickness and oil content. In Florida 180,325 and 470 kg Niha
gave an oil yield of 9.0, 9.4 and 9.5 kgit fruit, equal to 176, 206 and 216 kgi
ha (Kesterton et al., 1974).
Potassium in balance with other nutrients produces larger fruit with
smooth peel (although peel thickness may be reduced) and more juice with
a higher acid content. Reduction in peel thickness is compensated in terms
of oil production by more and larger fruit. An excess of potassium invariably
reduces fruit and oil yield, and potassium should not be applied unless there
is a deficiency limiting fruit production. Potassium sulphate is preferred to
potassium chloride, since chlorine in the latter can build up to toxic levels
after repeated application.
Superphosphate is generally applied to provide the necessary amount of
phosphate, but where a small suphur deficiency exists, single-
superphosphate will normally correct this imbalance. Lemon trees quickly
show symptoms of trace element deficiency or toxicity, in particular boron,
zinc and magnesium; high nitrogen levels applied to sandy soils will often
increase, or may induce, a magnesium deficiency. In Australia, Eureka
lemon on citronelle rootstock readily shows magnesium deficiency symp-
toms. Other effects of fertilizers are discussed later.

Cultivation
The cultivation necessary to establish any commercial citrus orchard is
suitable for lemon. Pruning is essential to maintain trees in full bearing, its
frequency and extent are governed mainly by local factors. Cultivars such as
Lisbon have a denser canopy which requires more frequent thinning. Eureka
canopy density should be related tohours and intensity of sunlight either to
increase light penetration or provide shade. Hand pruning is common on
4 70 Chapter 12

smallholder trees, but mechanical topping and pruning is now general in


commercial plantations.
Cultural practices affect fruit yield, peel and peel oil content. Selection of
parent material has a basic effect and thus trials to determine the most locally
suitable cultivar are essential. In Argentina, nine cultivars gave oil yields of
291 kgiha (5.3 t fruit) to 539 kgiha (7.3 t fruit), with substantial variation in
citral content (Foguet, 1987). The rootstock chosen usually has less effect
on yield than scions or buds, although in Australia the local rough lemon
rootstock, citronelle, reduced overall fruit quality, including peel of varying
thickness and oil content (Thornton and El-Zeftawi, 1983). When 21
budwood selections with 10 varieties of rootstock were compared in Florida,
peel oil was 5.6 to 7.2 kgit of fruit. Selecting high-yielding budstock on one
variety of rough lemon rootstock increased oil yield by 2.3 kgit of fruit
(Kesterton and Braddock, 1977). Not only is peel oil content affected, oil
characteristics and quality may also be related to parent rootstock, although
this has been more accurately defined in respect of sweet orange.
Spacing can affect tree growth and fruit yield; very close spacing shades
lower sections of trees and reduces fruit yield and leaf oil content especially
with Lisbon, which has a relatively dense crown. Close spacing also requires
extensive pruning which is expensive and exhausting to trees. Newer culti-
vars are low-growing or will tolerate heavy mechanical pruning, and can be
planted at higher populations per hectare. A spacing of 7 X 7 m in single
rows gives approximately 200 trees/ha, but many smaller growers plant in
double rows at a triangular 7 X 4 m spacing to give 400 trees/ha. Chemicals
used for pest and disease control, growth regulators and similar compounds
may leave residues on leaves and fruit which can affect oil odour or
composition, others are applied to modify peel oil composition; for instance
triethylamines to influence biosynthesis of the important terpenoids (Yo-
koyama et al., 1986).
Although surface irrigation is widely practised, it is inefficient and drip
irrigation or under-crown sprinklers give the highest returns per unit of
water applied. In Tadjikistan, CIS, water use per tonne of fruit was 540 and
543 m respectively for the two latter systems. Irrigation is generally used to
remedy a moisture deficit, but it can also be a management tool. By
withholding water during dry weather to induce moisture stress, trees flower
more profusely later that year or early the following year. This traditional
technique is still practised in Italy and known asforzatura (forcing) (Barbera
et al., 1985). Changing irrigation systems can affect general tree growth and
yield since roots must adapt to the new wetted area; in California, trees
required 2 years to establish a new root pattern (Sakovich and Post, 1986).
Irrigation water composition is important since much is now contaminated,
and it is necessary to ensure no toxic compounds are present. Salinity is an
ever-increasing problem, but saline water can be successfully applied to
lemon trees provided the sodium content is known and the appropriate
Rutaceae 471

management system employed. Trees should preferably be well established,


since seedlings and young trees are more susceptible. Where materials and
labour are available, mulching can substantially increase yield on more
sandy soils; paddy straw in Assam for instance, increased yield threefold
(Nath and Sarma, 1992).
A lemon tree budded on selected rootstock and well maintained should
remain healthy and in bearing for decades, and trees nearly 100 years old are
common in Sicily. Under modern systems of orchard management where
trees produce the maximum possible fruit, the profitable life span is gen-
erally considerably less. Unthrifty trees can be cut back and rebudded
without ill effect.

Harvesting
Fruit yield varies widely; smallholders obtain 6-1 5 t/ha but a large commer-
cial plantation with a density of around 400 treesiha using selected strains
should average at least 50 t/ha annually. In Australia, irrigated Frost Nu-
cellar Lisbon, or sweet orange on Troyer citrange stock at a spacing of 7 X 4
myaveraged 75 tiha fruit (six fruit per kg). Yield increased from the fourth to
the eighth-ninth years and subsequently maintained this level; rising from
5 5 to nearly 200 kg per tree.
Except where labour is still plentiful or cheap, mechanical harvesting is
usual, especially where the majority of fruit is processed. Since fruit for
processing can be handled in bulk less carefully than for the fresh fruit
market, transport, storage and pre-processing operations have considerable
flexibility of timing. Factory storage of several weeks is common at peak
delivery periods, with no major detrimental effect on juice or oil.

Distilling
Lemon peel oil is normally cold-pressed and distilled oil mainly produced
from expressed peel. These oils have different characteristics and odour, and
distilled oil has little commercial importance except as an additive (adulter-
ant) of expressed oil. Leaf oil is obtained by distillation.
In Russia, Meyer peel oil and monoterpene content of oil rose as fruit
matured; in Florida, the highest aldehyde content was in late-season and
lowest in early-season fruit, while high aldehyde content was related to high
oil content, and this seasonal variation can be used to advantage by pro-
ducers. Early maturing lemons from local trees in Sicily, prirnojiore, are
bulked irrespective of variety to yield a top quality oil, sold a t a premium or
used to boost later, lower quality oils (Cotroneo et al., 1986). There is
considerable regional variation in local oil yield and characteristics, and also
within-season variation. Pressed oil yield is highest at first harvest,
0.5-0.6%, and falls to half this at last picking. An additional 0.05-0.1 % of oil
is obtained by steam distilling expressed peel. Accepting citral as the most
4 72 Chapter 12

important constituent, Sicilian oil varied from Syracuse in the south-east,


round Messina to Palermo in the north-west as follows (citral %): 3.4-5.7;
4.0-6.0; 3.5-4.9; seasonal variation at Messina gave 6% in December falling
steadily to 4% in April. In Spain, early harvested fruit (December) contain
citral to 5% but this may be below 2% in fruit harvested in March.

Products and speciJications


There are three main types of peel oil, from smooth, rough and Meyer lemon
and their main characteristics are shown in Table 12.22, but specific
cultivars can diverge considerably. In the main producing regions of the
USA and Brazil, peel oil is blended to conform to an official standard. Rough
lemon oil is especially variable since it is locally produced in small quantities
from the predominant cultivar. Smooth lemon oil is by far the most im-
portant and is obtained from the commercial cultivars Eureka, Lisbon,
Villafranca (ex Eureka), Femminello and their selections, i.e. Frost Nucellar
Eureka, Monroe Lisbon, etc. There are slight differences in oil from culti-
vars grown in the same district, but this is normally disregarded when oil is
bulked. In some regions, however, there are much larger differences; Fem-
minello and its selected strains yield the highest quality oils in Sicily.
Detailed analyses and comparative data on Mediterranean and other lemon
oils have been published (Boelens and Jimenez, 1989b; Chamblee et al.,
1991; Dugo, 1994; Lawrence, 1994).
Cold-pressed oil is a clear, pale to greenish yellow, free of deposited
material. The odour is fresh, sweet, strongly lemony, very similar to fresh
peel, but not persistent. Approximately 70 compounds have been isolated
from peel oils and the major components from various origins are shown in
Table 12.23. The oil contains citral to 6% but usually 2-4%, limonene to
70%, pinene to 15%, beta-pinene to 22% and gamma-terpinene to 12%, but
these proportions may not occur in the same sample. The principal con-
stituent is limonene, but the most important flavour and odour components
are the isometric citrals, neral and geranial, plus other minor oxygenated
compounds. The total citral content is generally accepted as determining the
quality of lemon oil, and thus its price. Sterols present in a Russian cultivar
have been identified, the most abundant was sitosterol (Zambukhidze et al.,
1989).
The oil also contains dissolved waxes and other non-volatile components
which may separate or deposit a sediment, especially in cold storage. The
non-volatile constituents are natural anti-oxidants, principally coumarins
and psoralens, but commercial oils normally contain an antioxidant. The oil
rapidly oxidizes and loses odour on exposure to air, but if stored in darkness
retains its characteristics indefinitely (Table 12.7). During storage, beta-
pinene and gamma-terpinene content can decrease while p-cymene in-
creases and these changes may affect the oil’s flavour but citral, the key
flavour compound, is little affected. Control lemon or citral-less oils are
Rutaceae 4 73

more stable, but have less of citral’s characteristic lemony-fruity notes


(Freeburg et al., 1994). Investigation into biological insect control found the
oriental fruit moth produces a lemon-scented pheromone based on ethyl
cinnamate and methyl jasmonate, both found in lemon oil (Nishida and
Acree, 1984).
Cold-pressed oil is very widely used to flavour soft drinks, in the food
industry (especially baked goods and confectionery) in small quantities in
perfumery, and even smaller quantities in pharmacy. A study of lemon oil
usage in the USA gave the following, in per cent: soft drinks 60, cake and
biscuits 15, confectionery 14, flavourings 5 , perfumery 3, pharmaceuticals 2,
all others 1. For higher-quality products or where water solubility is required
all or some terpenes are removed and the oil is then described as concen-
trated, folded or terpeneless. Main characteristics of cold-pressed peel oil
and terpeneless oil are shown in Table 12.24. Terpeneless oils are widely

Tale 12.23. Main components of lemon peel oil.

California Sicily New Zealand


A B C
Alpha-thujene 0.44 ng ng
Alpha-pinene 2.15 2.2 2.6
Sabinene 2.68 1.9 3.2
Beta-pinene 16.58 12.2 22.9
Myrcene 1.33 1.5 ng
Alpha-terpinene 0.28 0.2 ng
pGymene 0.03 0.3 1.8
Limonene 59.92 66.5 52.0
Gamma-terpinene 9.39 8.8 9.0
Terpinolene 0.36 0.4 0.3
Linalool 0.21 0.2 < 0.2
Nonanol 0.21 0.1 < 0.2
Terpinen-4-01 0.10 ng < 0.2
Alpha-terpineol 0.26 0.2 0.3
Neral 1.07 0.9 1.o
Geranial 1.70 2.0a 1 .I
Nery acetate 0.60 0.7 0.7
Geranyl acetate 0.61 0.7 0.6
Caryophyllene 0.26 0.3 0.3
Alpha-bergamotene 0.35 ng ng
Beta-bisabolene 0.53 ng 0.3
Total hydrocarbons 94.44
Total aldehydes as citral 3.20
a t bisabolene; ng, not given,
Source: A, Staroscik and Wilson (1982);B, Anon. (1984);C, Lodge et al.
(1984).
4 74 Chapter 12

Table 12.24. Main characteristics of cold-pressed lemon peel oil and terpeneless oil.

Smooth Rough Meyer Smootha


Specific gravity (25°C) 0.85 0.85 0.840 0.930
0.86 0.87 0.855 0.935
Refractive index (20°C) 1.474 1.475 1.474 1.475
1.475 1.476 1.475 1.480
Optical rotation (25°C) t 56“ t 60” t 65O t 0.7’
t 66“ t 65” t83O t2.7”
Solubility (viv 95% alcohol) 1 :3 “g ng 1 :2
Aldehyde (% as citral) 2.5-3.5 2.0-2.5 0.45-0.60 35-50
Residue on evaporation (%) 1.5-1.8 3.0-4.0 3.0-3.5 20-25
aTerpeneless; ng, not given.
Figures in table are average range from commercial oils.

used in flavourings, where small amounts of known composition are re-


quired in formulae, and in perfumery where its solubility is an asset.
The removed terpenes, known as lemon terpenes or washed lemon oil,
retain an attenuated lemon flavour and odour and, because of their high
stability, are used in low cost soaps, domestic detergents and similar prod-
ucts. Lemon terpenes have more extensive use in perfumery than has lemon
oil per se. Lemon-like effects can be produced from other materials including
turpentine, acetylene, lemongrass and Litsea cubeba oils (cf.). There is little
direct interchangeability between lemon oils and the various alternatives;
nor are lemon oils from different sources readily interchangeable. Cold-
pressed oil may be adulterated and methods of detection have been pub-
lished (McHale and Sheridan, 1988). Distilled oil is usually from expressed
peel with a minor use as flavouring in cheap confectionery products such as
boiled sweets.
Lemon oil concentrate is obtained by vacuum distilling lemon oil which
removes most terpenes and produces a more concentrated if slightly less fine
odour, but a major disadvantage is the increased wax and sesquiterpene
content. Concentration is defined as twofold, etc. and improved techniques
have now overcome their disadvantages. Concentrate is used mainly in
flavourings, especially beverages and frozen confectionery where absence of
terpenes is a major asset. The so-called absolute lemon oil is a clear, soluble,
terpeneless mobile liquid which closely approaches the character of true
lemon oil.
Petitgrain oil lemon is seldom produced in the main lemon-growing areas,
and only in Italy is it regularly available in commercial quantity. The oil is
pale to olive-yellow, clear to slightly cloudy, with the strong fresh odour of
crushed lemon leaves; the main use is in perfumery when its very rich sweet
citrus odour is required. Over 100 compounds have been detected in lemon
Rutaceae 4 75

leaf oil, and a very detailed analysis is contained in Baaliouamer et al. (1985)
and other oils reviewed (Hortobagyi and Szabo, 1958; Lawrence, 1993).
The main constituents are normally, in per cent, limonene to 30, beta-
pinene to 25, geranial to 15, with a total aldehyde content calculated as citral
to 45, but these proportions may not occur in the same sample. Terpeneless
petitgrain oil is prepared by vacuum-distillation with a yield around 50%
and is normally produced only on demand. The main use is in flavourings,
where its rich freshness is an asset, and in perfumery.
Lemon essence is obtained by fractionating and condensing vapours from
initial stages of juice production, and has a pleasant fresh aroma character-
istic of the fruit. Although not widely utilized, essence can be used as a
flavour enhancer and masking agent in industrial and household aerosol
products such as insecticides and detergents. A large number of lemon
aromas or distillates are available commercially derived wholly or partially
from lemon fruit or oil, while others are synthetic products.
Meyer lemon juice is similar to smooth lemon and used in both lemon
concentrate and lemon drinks, but the oil is quite different. Meyer lemon oil
has a low aldehyde content with only traces of the important flavour
constituents geranial and neral, but up to 6% thymol, and is thus different in
odour and taste to smooth lemon oil. Thymol imparts an off-flavour to end-
products and consequently the oil has limited value in the traditional lemon
oil market. The oil could, however, be used as a raw material for thymol
extraction, or in products where a thymol flavour or odour is desired, since
potential oil production is high. Meyer leaf oil is not produced commercially;
the major component is limonene to 60%.
A lemon scented oil available commercially is verbena oil distilled from
foliage of Verbena tnphylla L‘Herit., which has a citral content to 30%, a
fragrant lemon odour, and blends well with other citrus oils. Another
‘verbena’ oil is distilled from foliage of Lipia citriodora Knuth., native to
South America. Most of the commercially available verbena oils are syn-
thetic blends, since the true oil is produced in very small quantities and very
expensive.

Grapefruit

Grapefruit is the only citrus species native to the New World and probably
originated on Barbados from a natural cross between introduced parents
sometime in the seventeenth century; it has since spread around the world
(Kumamoto et al., 1987). Hybrids between grapefruit and other citrus
produce essential oils of varying composition (Ruberto et al. , 1994).
4 76 Chapter 12

Botany
Citrus paradisi Macfad. (syn. C. decumana Murr.) is considered a stabilized
hybrid between C. maxima (C. grandis) pummelo, and C. sinensis sweet
orange. A proposed classification for C. maxima and C. paradisi by the
Vavilov Institute placed them in Cephalocitrus (Karaya, 1987). The original
confusion between grapefruit and pummelo (or shaddock) was due to
misidentification. The origin of the common name grapefruit has long been
disputed (Scora and Nicolson, 1986).
Grapefruit is a large, vigorous tree to 30 my with a single trunk, many
branches, and a round to blunt conical shape if left unpruned. The branches
are sturdy, the twigs angular and the young shoots slightly pubescent. The
leaves are large, blunt-ovate sometimes pointed, with the margins round-
toothed, and are a dark glossy green above, lighter below. The petioles are
broadly winged, the wings forming a small heart-shaped secondary blade
below the main blade apex where the leaf joins the stem. An oil obtained by
steam-distilling leaves had the following major constituents (per cent):
sabinene 55, ocimene 10, linalool 15, gamma-terpinene 2.5, citronellal 5 .
The relative proportions in leaf oil vary substantially between young and
mature leaves, and between leaves sampled progressively through the grow-
ing season.
The flowers are large, up to 5 cm diameter, white, singly or to 20 in
clusters on small racemes, with four to five slightly reflexed thick petals and
25 stamens. The flowers are usually very fragrant but the strength varies with
the cultivar, and flowers are distilled to obtain Neroli grapefruit oil, the
major constituents of which are sabinene, myrcene, limonene, beta-
ocimene, linalool and terpinen-4-01. In contrast, oil produced in Vietnam
reportedly from C. maxima flowers contained 35 components, including in
per cent: nerolidol 29.3, limonene 18.2, linalool 16.4, farnesol 15.7
(Nguyen et al., 1991).
The fruit is large to 15 cm diameter, generally spherical but often
compressed laterally, light yellow to orange, and shape and colour are a
cultivar characteristic. Fruit is normally borne in clusters and, as total weight
per branch can be high, heavily laden branches may break or fracture in
strong winds. Controlling the time and extent of flowering can reduce this
problem, which is particularly dangerous in young trees (Taron, 1992).
Fruit characteristics differ with the cultivar; the peel may be thick to very
thick, the juice slightly to very acid, sometimes bitter, and cultivars divide
into two groups with whitish or pigmented flesh. The fruit may be seeded or
seedless, and the number of seeds varies between cultivars. In general,
seedless cultivars take longer to mature. For the fresh fruit and juice market,
seedless types are preferred, although lack of seed may also be accompanied
by a loss in flesh flavour. Products obtained from grapefruit and orange
grown in Florida are shown in Table 12.25, but the ratios are very variable.
Processed dried peel and pulp residues are used as stockfeed. Dried seed
Rutaceae 477

Table 12.25. Products obtained from grapefruit and orange in Florida.

Grapefruit Marsh Orange Valencia


Whole dried pulp at 10% moisture 4.8 4.2
Pulp waste concentrates 0.1 0.3
Frozen juice sacs 1.2 2.3
Peel frits 1.8 3.0
Peel oil 0.12 0.38
Oil phase essence 0.003 0.004
Water phase essence 0.025 0.027
(800:l conc. at 13% alcohol)
Duncan
Seed oil 0.20 0.04
Seed meal 0.27 0.05
Seed hulls 0.15 0.03
Note: Figures in table are averages in kg per box (average weight of box 38.5 kg).

contains, on average, 32.2% oil, 44.1% meal and 23.7% hulls (see also
Table 12.3).
The major constituent of peel oil is limonene, while nootkatone derived
from C. maxima gives the oil its characteristic taste. Over 100 compounds
have been detected with monoterpenes accounting for about 95%; including
d-limonene to 95%, alpha-pinene about 1% and octanal to 0.6%. The
percentage of non-volatiles is high compared with orange or mandarin oils.
Substantial variation exists in peel oil from cultivars grown in the same
region, and from the same cultivar grown in different regions. The best
documented is between Californian and Florida grapefruit, while Argentine
grapefruit oil reportedly lacks gamma-terpinene and p-cymene. Peel oil
content also varies between cultivars; in Florida the average per tonne of
processed fruit from cultivars Duncan, Marsh and Ruby Red was 2.56,2.82
and 2.95 kg over a 4 year period (Kesterton et al., 1978). In general, yield of
oil from grapefruit is approximately half that of Valencia oranges in the same
region. The main characteristics of peel oil are shown in Table 12.26.

Ecology
Grapefruit prefers a very warm to hot climate with an average annual
daytime temperature of 2 5 3 0 ° C and warm nights; low temperature re-
stricts or inhibits growth and a severe frost kills trees. A rainfall of 1200-
1500 mm is required for commercial production, with supplementary
irrigation below 1200 mm. Above 1500 mm or in areas of high humidity,
fruit diseases become more frequent and the value as fresh fruit reduced.
Grapefruit plantations are usually below 500 m, but the tree will flourish and
produce fruit to 1200 m in the high-altitude tropics where there is bountiful
sunlight and little frost. Marsh grapefruit grows in East Africa from the coast
4 78 Chapter 12

Table 12.26. Main characteristics of grapefruit peel oil.

USA (Florida) Indiab New Zealandc


Cold-presseda Distilleda Cold-pressed Cold-pressed Brazilb
Specific 0.8556 0.8415 O.8519(2O0C) 0.856(20”C) 0.858
gravity (25°C) 0.8588 0.8539 0.8560
Optical t86.74“ t91.5” t93.30” t81.09”(20”C) t9Y40’
rotation (25’C) t90.25O t96.Y t 111.30°(20”C)
Refractive 1.4771 1.4741 1.4758 1.4670 1.4755
index (20°C) 1.4779 1.4746 1.4878
Residue on 9.73 0.19 6.3 6.16 6.9
evaporation (%) 13.46 3.66
Aldehyde 1.30 2.30 ng 0.56d 1.o
content (as 1.66 4.06
decanal)
Ester content (%) 3.47 0.08
4.41 2.52
aAverage over a number of varieties; variety(ies) unspecified; cultivar Golden Special; as decanal;
ester number; ng, not given.
Source: Abstracted from published figures.

to 2000 m and there appears to be no reason why selection should not


increase the range. Because of the considerable weight of mature fruit per
tree, high winds can cause extensive damage. Windbreaks are frequently
essential, and districts where high winds are common when grapefruit ripen
should preferably be avoided for commercial plantations.

Soils and fertilizers


Soils suitable for sweet orange are also preferred for commercial grapefruit
plantations, although grapefruit will grow on a wide range of soils, provided
these are free-draining. Trees can be found in gardens or smallholdings
throughout warmer regions of the world, so popular is the fruit. The author
grew trees in coral-based sands of the Kenya coast and on lateritic soils in the
western highlands. The main areas of commercial production are in south-
ern and south-eastern USA, especially California, Florida and the neigh-
bouring gulf states, with smaller areas in South America and Mediterranean
region. In almost all of these regions soil is a free-draining, sandy loam. A
neutral to slightly acid soil p H 6.0-7.0 is preferred, but more acid soils will
be tolerated under good management; alkaline and saline soils should be
avoided. The basic fertilizer requirements are as for sweet orange, but leaf
analysis should be routine and any nutrient deficiencies corrected. The
effect of specific fertilizers on peel and peel oil content or characteristics has
not been determined.
Rutaceae 479

Cultivation
Cultivation of sweet orange in the same region is suitable for grapefruit
including rootstock and seedling care, harvesting, transport, and processing.
A major difference between grapefruit and sweet orange is at maturity;
grapefruit may be left hanging (held) on trees until required without loss of
quality. Potential yield of fruit per tree is usually high and a major constraint
on achieving this is incorrect plantation management. Since individual
grapefruit are heavy, weight per tree may not be as important as number of
fruit, since fresh fruit are usually sold individually and not by weight; the
converse applies when fruit is processed. The number of fresh fruit per
kilogram should not be less than three for thin-peeled or two for thick-peeled
cultivars, since half a fruit is the normal domestic serving per person,
irrespective of weight.
Smallholder yields may be only 10 tiha, superior commercial plantations
80 tiha but up to 100 tiha. Experimental stations have recorded individual
tree yield to 400 kg, with 440 treesiha yielding 176 tiha, an indication of the
potential for improvement. Trees produce a crop 4 years after planting out,
steadily increasing annual yield to 12-14 years, and yield may continue to
increase to the twentieth year. The rootstock has a significant effect on
general tree growth and health. In Australia, Marsh Seedless on Symons
sweet orange rootstock gave a greater annual yield per tree for the first 14
years than on Troyer citrange. The former then levelled off at 250 kg per tree
but the latter steadily increased to 300 kg per tree in the twentieth year,
equivalent to 120 tiha at the spacing used (Thornton and El-Zeftawi, 1983);
in Cuba there was a significant difference in resistance to disease (Simon et
al., 1994). Tree population has a direct effect on yield, as noted, but
cultivars differ in their rate of growth; some can be more heavily pruned or
skirted and planted closer or in double rows. Since fully laden grapefruit
branches may touch the ground, high pruning reduces the danger of con-
tamination by soil-borne disease, insect pests and snails.
Irrigation techniques not only affect tree growth, but their efficient use in
terms of applied water directly affects plantation profitability; the most
efficient are under-canopy systems. At Bet Dagan, Israel, time of application
and wetted area significantly affected water usage and fruit yield; when 632
mm or 803 mm was applied via drips or sprinklers between April and
November, yield was highest a t 89 and 96 t/ha in the sprinkler irrigated plots
(Bielorai, 1987). On mature trees in Florida, the wetted surface area was
more important than the system used at the same water rate (Zekri and
Parsons, 1989). Determination of water need also allows accurate timing; in
Malawi, a water deficit of 5 cm from field capacity was considered the
optimum to commence watering and watering from full bloom to fruit
maturity was the most effective (Chilembewe, 1985). Watering during the
dry season to 85% of field capacity over the same period in Cuba gave a
higher average fruit yield of 35 t/ha. The total water applied was 2359 m3 in
480 Chapter 12

seven surface irrigations (Pardo et al., 1983). The vast difference in total
water applied compared with Israel indicates the massive saving in water
usage possible. Reclaiming water is another method of conserving existing
supplies (Maurer and Davis, 1993).
Herbicides may adversely affect general tree growth, but with no reported
effect on oil content or composition. Pest and disease control chemicals may
affect fruit and peel directly by contact, or indirectly by controlling a
particular pest or disease; application of aldicarb significantly increased yield
and fruit size in Florida (Roux et al., 1991). Chemicals to promote or control
growth, thin fruit or prevent premature fruit fall, can also affect peel and peel
oil; for example GA may increase peel thickness.

Harvesting
Mechanized harvesting is now routine in developed countries but even in
less developed regions there is increasing need to reduce costs or provide an
alternative to a labour shortage, Somalia for instance (Elmi et al. , 1988).
Tree shape also influences the extent to which harvesting machinery can be
used, and a high skirt without loss of yield is a major contributor to
profitability.
The basic factors affecting oil yield are weight of fruit per hectare and its oil
content, generally under the control of plantation managers. The total yield
of oil per hectare is related to amount of peel and peel oil content, and there
are significant differences in both between cultivars; differences which can be
exacerbated by natural factors, or management techniques. Duncan cultivar
in Florida for instance, had an average oil contendtonne of fruit of 2.8, 2.7,
2.5 and 2.2 kg in four successive years, averaging 2.54 kg. The seasonal effect
on oil content is well known but, as grapefruit is not grown for its oil, this
variation is merely accepted as a fact of life by growers! Variation can be
substantial as shown by figures published by the Florida citrus industry;
average oil recovery per tonne of fruit in succeeding years was 2.5 kg to 3 kg.
Cultivars also differed in their reaction to seasonal variation, the greatest
variation in oil content is often in March Seedless. The oil content of
grapefruit diminishes significantly as fruit matures, and can be five times as
high in early picked fruit as in fruit fully mature and held on trees. There is
thus a conflict between oil and fresh fruit production which must be a
personal decision by individual growers.

Distillation
Oil is generally obtained by cold-pressing fruits, but also by steam distilling
juice or pulp; there are basic differences in the oils and the latter is
considered much inferior. The main characteristics of oils from various
origins are shown in Table 12.26. Remarks in this section without qualifica-
tion refer to cold-pressed oil. A basic difference exists between oil from white
Rufaceae 481

and red fleshed cultivars; the former generally has a higher aldehyde content
and lower evaporative residue than the latter, which also contains a small
amount of linalool. Where large numbers of both are grown and processed in
the same plant, they should preferably be treated separately and the oil also
stored separately and offered as an individual type. Physical and chemical
properties of oil from different cultivars varies within a fairly narrow range,
the most commonly grown cultivars varying least.
Oil composition is more important and can differ substantially between
cultivars and within a cultivar depending on fruit maturity. In Marsh for
instance, the major constituent limonene remains relatively constant, octa-
nal and decanal rise while linalool, undecanal, alpha-pinene and dodecanal
fall substantially. An important constituent is the sesquiterpene ketone,
nootkatone, which in Duncan fruit increased with maturity from 0.065 to
0.8 10%. Nootkatone content also differs between Russian cultivars,
0.10-0.35% (Abkhazava and Kharebava, 1989). Chemical treatment can
alter the rate of accumulation and total nootkatone of oil (Tomas et al.,
1993). For processors to whom the oil is a valuable by-product, mid to end
of season fruit thus contain an oil of higher quality and value. Leaf oil is
obtained by distilling fresh leaves, and its composition and characteristics
vary with leaf maturity. It is normally produced only on demand (Lawrence,
1993).

Products and specifications


Cold-pressed oil is yellow or pale orange yellow, sometimes with a greenish
tinge; the odour is characteristic of the fruit, rather sweet and fresh; the
flavour typically citrus but not bitter. Correct storage is important as the oil
deteriorates rapidly on exposure to air, daylight or moisture, and anti-
oxidants are commonly added. The main components of grapefruit oil are
shown in Table 12.27, and discussed in detail in Lawrence (1994). The oil
is also available as a fivefold oil, with a major reduction in d-limonene but a
significant increase in nootkatone. Cold-pressed oil is rarely adulterated, but
often diluted with distilled oil, a substitution easily detected. The main use
for all grapefruit oils is in the flavour industry, with only a small amount in
perfumery. Distilled grapefruit oil is produced by steam distilling pressed
peel and processing residues. It is of little value per se, but is often mixed with
other citrus oils in cheaper perfumes and industrial products.
Grapefruit seed oil produced by expression is a vegetable oil, and seldom
produced commercially. The oil had considerable antimicrobial activity
when tested against Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, and the generally
difficult to inhibit Pseudornonas aeruginosa. Gram positive bacteria were
sensitive at very low concentrations, less than 0.005% (Hunter, 1993).
482 Chapter 12

Table 12.27. Main components of grapefruit, mandarin and tangerine oils.

Grapefruita Mandarinb Tangerinea


Alpha-pinene 0.38 3.93 1.oo
Beta-pinene 0.02 2.1 6 0.44
Sabinene 0.42 ng ng
Myrcene 1.37 1.80 2.03
Alpha-terpinene ng 0.42 0.05
d-Limonene 84.00 67.00 91 .oo
1,8-Cineole ng 0.50 0.63
Gamma-terpinene 0.01 20.14 3.00
p-Cymene t octanal 0.84 1.34 0.40
Terpinolene ng 0.89 0.13
Octanal 0.62 ng ng
Citronellal 0.10 0.01 0.04
Decanal 0.40 0.03 0.10
Linalool 0.10 0.13 0.60
Neral t terpineol 0.80 0.15 0.05
Nootkatone 0.10 ng ng
Thymol ng 0.03 0.03
aUSA; Italy; ng, not given
Figures in table are percentages.
Source: Swaine and Swaine (1988).

Mandarin

Mandarin is native to China and Indo-China and spread to other countries


of the Far East where it was extensively grown for domestic purposes. First
recorded by Europeans in the early eighteenth century, it rapidly became
very popular and commercially cultivated in southern Europe and North
Africa. It was later introduced to the Americas, Southern Africa and Aus-
tralia.

Botany
Citrus reticulata Blanco. (syn. C. nobilis var. deliciosa, C. deliciosa Ten).
Mandarin and tangerine oranges have been given species status, considered
the same species or merely varieties of one species. In this section, both are
treated as one species and the multiplicity of interspecific or intergeneric
hybrids ignored. The name tangerine is used generally in English-speaking
countries but mandarin elsewhere, due mainly to the methods of marketing
and advertising fresh fruit. The various mandarin essential oils are well
known, but tangerine is of no significance; thus all reference in this text
without qualification refers to mandarin and mandarin oil.
Rutaceae 483

Mandarin is normally divided into four groups, each well adapted to a


certain environment and growing poorly in others. These are Common,
King, Willowleaf and Satsuma, each represented by a major cultivar in its
preferred region. The groups were accorded species status by Hodgson
(1967), but the author prefers the single-species classification of Swingle
(1967).
Mandarin is normally a small spreading tree to 4 m, with a single trunk, and
many rather thin drooping branches which may be either spined or spineless.
The leaves are narrowly lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, to 5 X 2 cm, the
margins slightly toothed and the petioles with very small wings or almost
wingless. They are glossy dark green on both surfaces. The leaves have a
characteristic and penetrating scent when crushed, and mandarin petitgrain
oil is obtained by steam-distilling leaves. The composition of the oil can vary
substantially (Lawrence, 1993), but the major constituents are normally
linalool 55-75%, thymol methyl ether 7.5-1 5%, gamma-terpinene 5 1 0 %
and ocimene 5-1 0%. Leaf oil obtained in the Philippines had the following
characteristics at 28°C: specific gravity 0.8625; refractive index 1.4763;
saponification value 28.334; ester value 13.125; acid value 2.489: oil content
0.83% and main constituents citral 24.8% and linalool 7.6%. An Algerian
leaf oil was very different: specific gravity (15°C) 0.983-1.014; optical
rotation +4" to +13O; acid number 0.50-1.10; ester number 171-211; ester
content 50-62%; solubility 3:5 viv in 85% alcohol. Oil from satsuma type
leaves in Russia varied significantly between rootstocks and during growth,
especially the gamma-terpinene and beta-terpinene components (Kekelidze
et al., 1984; Kekelidze and Lomidze, 1989.). Detailed analyses of leaf oils
from Egyptian cultivars have been published and there were significant
differences (Karawya and Hifnawy, 1977).
The small, thin petalled, white, scented flowers are produced singly in leaf
axils. The extent of self or open pollination in the various groups of mandarin
varies considerably and is most evident in many popular cultivars, while
production of parthenocarpic fruit is apparently a related factor. Distilling
flowers yields an oil whose main constituents are myrcene, limonene and
beta-ocimene. Although the flowers are borne singly there may be many to a
branch, and mature fruits often appear to be hanging in clusters.
The fruit is a flattened globoid, 5-10 cm in diameter and size is a cultivar
characteristic, as is peel colour which varies from yellow to deep orange-red
when ripe. Growers usually refer to red coloured fruit as tangerines (in the
USA mainly Dancy), the smaller lighter coloured fruit as mandarins. Pig-
ments in the peel and the biosynthetic pathways involved in their develop-
ment have been partially determined (Hsu et al., 1995). A characteristic of
mandarin fruit is the loose, easily removable peel, and the degree of attach-
ment and thickness varies with the cultivar.
Mandarin flesh varies from pale to deep orange, is usually sweet with a
pleasing scent and thus most acceptable as fresh fruit, the major market.
484 Chapter 12

Segments are also canned or bottled, but the juice has a much smaller
market. Fruit may be seeded or virtually seedless (satsuma) and the number
of seeds per fruit is generally a cultivar characteristic, although climate and
other factors may also affect the number. Seedlessness is important in the
fresh fruit market, and research continues to produce cultivars with the
minimum or no seeds (Watson et al., 1995). Seeds rapidly lose viability if
stored at ambient conditions. Apartial analysis of seed composition is shown
in Table 12.3. Some cultivars, including Emperor, are favoured rootstock
for other mandarins.
The peel contains oil secreted in glands in the exocarp, and a detailed
description of the glands, oil accumulation and biogenesis of oil components
has been published (Bosabalidis and Tsekos, 1986). There is wider variation
in mandarin oils than in other major commercial citrus species, and thus
general comparisons are of little value. Florida mandarin and Brazilian
mandarin oils are often very similar in their characteristics, although varying
somewhat in composition and odour, due to many Brazilian plantations
being basically established from US material, particularly Dancy. Brazilian
mandarin oils, however, are often mixed (or contaminated) with sweet
orange oil. Mandarin peel oil content is among the highest of commercial
citrus, can reach 17% in some seasons, and in fruit from selected trees
almost 22%. Average oil yield from commercially processed cultivar Dancy
in Florida over 5 years was, in kgper tonne offruit, 6.6,7.6,7.8,6.0 and 7.0,
averaging 7.0 kg (Kesterton et al., 1978).

Ecology
The satsuma group is the most cold-tolerant of all mandarins, and grown
mainly in Japan, China and Russia. There are a number of Japanese satsuma
cultivars, those with greatest cold tolerance grown in northern regions, with
a semi-tropical cultivar on Kyushu. Satsuma mandarin was introduced to
the southern CIS republics, is the most important citrus species and culti-
vars were reportedly undamaged at -2°C (Odanbashyan et al., 1988).
The common group has a low heat requirement and probably the best-
known is Clementine, widely planted in North Africa especially Morocco,
and in Russia selections from the cultivar were little damaged by -6°C.
Cultivar Dancy, intermediate between temperate and tropical types, is the
most important mandarin of the USA, and requires a relatively high humid-
ity to flourish. Its range could probably be extended, since it has been
introduced to several South American countries.
The willowleaf group has a slightly higher heat requirement than com-
mon, and is the preferred type in southern Italy and the Mediterranean coast
generally. The king group is well suited to tropical conditions and an
additional asset is it can be budded on bitter orange rootstock. Cultivar
Ponkan (Indian Nagpur) is probably the most successful truly tropical
mandarin.
Rutaceae 485

A rainfall of 1200-3000 mm is necessary depending on region, and while


warm sunny conditions produce highest-quality fruit, some cultivars are
susceptible to sunburn. Where this may occur the extent of pruning and row
orientation are important in reducing the damage. In the Mediterranean
region, cultivar Clementine is more resistant than other cultivars. T o reduce
sunburn or protect trees from high winds, interplanting mandarin in timber
plantations has been suggested, but certain species adversely affect growth
or yield; eucalyptus in India for example (Allolli et al., 1988). Conversely,
mandarin may be planted as shade trees in coffee (Hanamashetti et al.,
1987).
Oil from fruit grown under cover can differ from oil produced from open-
grown fruit, with the former considered to be of finer odour, although this is
a subjective test. If those compounds generally accepted as mainly con-
cerned with odour are compared, this could be true, as fruit from Satsuma
mandarin grown in the common vinyl houses of Japan had a higher level of
oxygenated compounds, 3.3% compared to 1.3% for open grown fruits, and
geranyl acetate was five to eight times higher (Sawamura et al., 1983).
Seasonal influence on peel oil content is high but most data refer to oil
yield per tonne of fruit processed in a particular season, and within-season
variation can also be high. However the difference between maximum and
minimum oil yield is not constant either annually or seasonally. Thus the
effects of individual climatic components on peel oil content, oil character-
istics and composition remain to be determined for most cultivars. Wide
annual variation is common but within-season variation can be greater; in
Florida over 4 years, a specific month's yield of Dancy ranged from 6.80 to
9.25 kg oil per tonne of fruit processed.
Topography may influence tree growth and yield and in northern regions
south-facing slopes are preferred, the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere.
Steepness of slope can be important since cultivation may cause soil erosion,
but mainly for its effect on tree growth. Satsuma trees made superior growth
in Japan on a 17-19' slope compared to those on a 27-32' slope. A major
reason was greater root growth on the less steep slope, and root growth was
also correlated with a higher leaf area index (Ono et al., 1986). In general,
trees planted on terraces usually out-yield plantations on natural hillsides.

Soils and fertilizers


The range of soils on which mandarin can be successfully grown is much
wider than for other citrus species, as the climatic range covered by the
various mandarin groups is also much greater. Generally, a free-draining
loam often with a sand admixture is preferred, p H 6.0-7.0. Heavy clay soils
are unsuitable as was well illustrated (although not stated) in a report from
China (Lou and Yin, 1986). Mandarin will tolerate a relatively high salt level
and is used as rootstock for less tolerant citrus; some cultivars are highly salt-
486 Chapter 12

tolerant (e.g. Bukraie in Iran) and this characteristic is worthy of further


investigation, since the global area of saline affected soil is increasing.
Fertilizers applied to sweet orange growing in the same region are suitable
for mandarin. Where there is no specific nutrient deficiency in plantations of
trees over 9 years old, fertilizer rates should be at nutrient replacement level
only. The recommendation in Australia for such plantations under irrigation
is an annual application of 13:3:3NPK mixture at 900 kgiha for trees spaced
6.7 X 3.4 my and 850 kgiha at 7.3 X 3.7 m. Leaf analysis is excellent for
determining nutrient status of trees especially for potassium, since reports
indicate the undesirable effect on tree growth and fruit yield of an excess. A
nitrogen deficiency in high-yielding trees often affects fruit quality, can also
increase peel disorders or disease, and both adversely affect oil content,
composition or odour. In many regions leaf colour charts indicating defi-
ciencies are available to growers.
The gross effect of fertilizers on peel thickness or peel oil content has been
widely noted in respect of total peel weight for a given quantity of fruit, or
peel oil content per tonne of fruit processed. The effect on fruit and fruit
composition of various types of a specific fertilizer has been little investi-
gated, although trials have indicated a non-significant reduction or increase
in individual oil components at the fertilizer levels normally applied.

Cultivation
The cultivations necessary to establish any commercial citrus plantation are
equally suitable for mandarin. Because of their small size mandarin trees can
be planted at closer spacing, 5 X 5 m or 5 X 3.5 m in double rows is
common. Larger cultivars can be spaced at 7 X 7 m or 6.5 X 3.5 m in double
rows (c. 450 treesiha). In Georgia (CIS), a satsuma cultivar at 1250 treesiha
(4 X 2 m) gave the highest fruit yield (Pirtshalaishvili and Tsereteli, 1986),
but 2500 treesiha was profitable using the low-growing Wase cultivar.
Mechanical pruning is possible, its disadvantages being outweighed by its
generally lower cost, and could become more common with the growing lack
of skilled labour (Oren, 1988). A variety of methods and techniques,
together with their effect on fruit yield, quality or general tree health and
longevity have been reviewed (Tsereteli, 1989). Chemicals can retard
growth, especially out-of-season shoots, and Fosamine in China controlled
summer shoots with less damage to trees than hand pruning, and increased
fruit yield (Meng et al. , 1987).
The economics of weed control should be determined locally, since there
is often little difference in fruit yield between clean weeding, herbicides or
grassed plantations. Herbicides may be necessary to control persistent or
perennial weeds, but must be evaluated prior to regular use as some damage
tree roots (Sharma, 1989; Bajwa, 1990; Kalyan et al., 1995). Since there is
growing consumer demand for organically grown fruit, non-chemical weed
control could become more profitable.
Rutaceae 487

Irrigation techniques, especially water control and volume applied, di-


rectly affect not only total fruit yield but individual fruit. A moisture shortage
when fruit is swelling usually produces thick peel of low oil content, more
strongly attached to flesh. Growth regulators applied during growth and
development frequently influence peel pigmentation, and may increase or
reduce peel thickness and firmness (Garcia-Luis et al., 1992; Agusti et al.,
1994).
Interplanting mandarin to provide trees with shade has been noted
previously but, in general, interplanting or underplanting is seldom success-
ful for commercial mandarin plantations. Intercropping young trees with
vegetable or similar crops to provide an income until they begin fruiting may
be profitable but, in general, integrating mandarin into a mixed cropping
system is not recommended, although it has been investigated (Sharma et
al., 1995).
Mandarin trees are usually prolific yielders but are also strongly alternate
in bearing. Since a very high number of fruit per tree can also affect average
size and juice content, controlling annual yield is important to commercial
growers. Not only does this allow a more regular income, it reduces strain on
trees producing a very high yield, and the danger of fracturing branches
through weight of fruit. Heavily laden branches thick with golden fruit may
delight tourists in North Africa but are unpopular with growers. Hand
thinning, possible when labour was cheap and plentiful has now been
replaced by chemicals, commonly ethephon applied at physiological fruit-
drop. Integrated pest management techniques to allow minimum use of
pesticides are becoming more common; a ten year study in Japan confirmed
their success on satsuma (Itioka et al., 1992).

Harvesting
Mechanical harvesting is becoming more common, but some mandarin
cultivars must be hand harvested including the popular Early Imperial.
Fruits of these cultivars must not be pulled but clipped to prevent plugging,
caused when the button is pulled out leaving a hole in the peel through to the
flesh. Fruit yield per tree is directly related to standard of plantation
management and cultivar; thus the yield of satsuma mandarins in Japan is
usually very high, since the standard of plantation management is such that
trees are often identified and treated individually! The importance to Jap-
anese consumers of completely unblemished skins, symmetrical shape and
uniform colour ensures growers produce the highest quality fruit, sold at
very high prices. The growing shortage of rural workers however, is forcing
Japanese growers to mechanize, and a variety of methods and systems have
been introduced (Anon., 1991).
488 Chapter 12

In Australia, Early Imperial on sweet orange rootstock averaged


130 kgitree, but only 100 kg/tree on Troyer rootstock; Ellendale on sweet
orange rootstock averaged 125 kg/tree. In India, Nagpur averaged 50 kg tree
at plantation level, but is said to be capable of much higher yields since it is
highly alternate in its behaviour. On the Kenya coast a South African
introduction, Cape naartje, regularly yielded 50-80 kg/tree with minimum
attention.
Fruit maturity basically controls oil composition since certain compo-
nents, present at a high level initially, fall steadily and may be absent in
mature fruit. Linalool in particular can represent nearly one-third of alcohols
in young fruit but less than 5% at maturity. Thus time of harvest has a direct
influence on oil composition, as does the inclusion of immature fruit at
processing. The variation in peel oil composition was well illustrated over
the harvesting period in Italy; from October to February there was a monthly
decline in the amount of alpha-thujene, alpha-pinene, terpinolene and
methyl N-methyl anthranilate, but a steady increase in limonene from 68.5
to 73.5% over the period (Dugo et al., 1990; Dugo, 1994).

Distillation
Mandarin oil is usually obtained by cold-pressing peel, or steam distilling
expressed peel and pulp, occasionally from pulped whole fruit. The resulting
oils differ in their characteristics, and steam-distilled oils are considered low
quality and frequently used to adulterate cold-pressed oils. Oils vary in their
main characteristics, composition and odour and there is also a substantial
difference between cultivars. Leaf oil is also obtained by distillation, and
composition can vary substantially according to the month leaves are
picked.
Although peel oil can be obtained from almost any mandarin cultivar, in
practice commercial oil production is limited to a very few regions which use
the most favoured local cultivar. In the USA, this is Dancy, in the Medi-
terranean, Clementine and Willowleaf, and in Japan, the satsuma group.
The main characteristics of oils from various origins are shown in Table
12.28.
Major differences exist between mandarin cultivars in the ratio of peel to
fruit, the oil content of peel and oil characteristics, and this genetic variation
is the most important natural factor affecting oil yield in a particular region.
Since specific cultivars are well adapted to a particular area and thus the
obvious choice, regional oils differ. Climate also has a modifying effect and
oil from the same cultivar grown in different countries, sometimes regions,
will also usually differ in certain characteristics or composition. Complicat-
ing oil comparisons are the large number of hybrids whose oils are often
designated mandarin (or tangerine) but which differ significantly from
Rutaceae 489

Table 12.28. Main characteristics of mandarin oils.

Standard US Sicilya Spaina Japana Indiaa


Specific 0.8447 0.8489 0.8488 0.8519 0.8252
gravity (15%) 0.8453 0.8587 0.8494 (25°C)
(25°C)
Refractive 1.4730 1.478 1.4710 1.4718 1.4725
index (20") 1.4770 1.475 1.4712 (25°C)
Optical t 63O t 64' t98" t 99" 95"
rotation (20°C) t93O t 75" t98" (25°C)
Aldehyde content 0.95 "g ng ng 0.65
(% as decanal) 1.40
Ester content (%) 0.5-1.5 ng ng ng 0.54
Residue on evaporation (%) 2.75-4.5 2.54.0 ng ng 2.93
Solubilityb (viv 95% alcohol) 1 :2 1:1.5 ng ng 1:2
a Average figures; oils may sometimes be unstable: ng, not given. Figures in columns are range.

commercial oils. The main characteristics of oils from accepted mandarin


cultivars are shown in Table 12.29, which not only illustrates this difference,
but also regional variation. Additional analyses of mandarin oils have been
published; from Argentina (Cappello et al., 1981), Uruguay (Dellacassa et
al., 1989), Florida mandarin and tangerine oils (Inoma et al., 1989), and
Italian cultivars (Dugo, 1994). Processing residues are raw material for a
number of products (Ozeki et aZ., 1995).

Products and specifications


Cold-pressed mandarin oil is pale to mid-yellow, or orange to dark orange
brown depending mainly on cultivar, and most commercial oils are dark.
The odour is very intense, sweet and sometimes unpleasant, quite character-
istic and unmistakable. The taste is similar to sweet orange. A concentrated
oil, very dark and with a much stronger flavour, is also available produced by
vacuum concentration. Although regional oil may be composed mainly of
one cultivar, Tunisian or Sicilian for example, in other major producing
areas where juice is more important several cultivars may be processed
indiscriminately. There is also a tendency to retain the term tangerine oil to
differentiate it from mandarin oil, when in fact these are only cultivar
differences.
Some 80 components of mandarin oil have been detected, including
limonene to 95%, gamma-terpinene to 20%, myrcene andp-cymene to 8%
each. The main components influencing flavour are thymol and dimethyl
anthranilate, both usually below 1%. There are substantial differences
between commercially designated tangerine and mandarin oils, especially
relating to important aroma and flavour components. An Argentine oil
obtained from local mandarins, and a Florida oil from cultivar Dancy
490 Chapter 12

Table 12.29. Characteristics of mandarin peel oil from different cultivars and regions.

Indiaa Dancy Satsuma


Coorg Nagpur Florida Brazil USSR Japan
Specific gravity 0.8252 0.8487 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.853
(20°C) 0.855 0.53 0.856
Refractive index 1.4725 1.4730 1.473 1.474 1.473 1.471
(20°C) 1.475 1.476 1.477 1.474
Optical rotation t95"' 102O6 t 90" t 94O t 92O t94O
(20°C) t 93" t 96" t95O t99O
Ester content (%) 0.54 0.43 0.3-0.4 0.5-1.5 ng ng
Acid number 1.75 4.5 ng ng ng ng
Solubility (viv 70% 1:2 1 :3 Insol. Insol. 1 :8 1:8
alcohol)
Residue on 2.93 4.5 2.0-45 2.5-3.5 ng ng
evaporation (%)
Aldehyde content 0.65 0.56 0.5-1.8 0.5-1.5 ng ng
(% as decanal)

aAll at 25°C; ng, not given; Insol., insoluble.


Figures in columns are range of average values.

(termed a tangerine) contained the following percentages (tangerine in


brackets: thymol 0.182 (0.022), methyl N-methylanthranilate 0.652
(0.072), gamma-terpinene 14.0 (1.74), beta-pinene 1.8 (0.17). These dif-
ferences are well appreciated by end users who are the final arbiters, and will
purchase that oil most suitable regardless of its description (Wilson and
Shaw, 1981). Growers should therefore concentrate on producing an oil to
suit their major market, not one which conforms to a standard based on
doubtful botanic classification.
Mandarin oil is used mainly to flavour soft drinks, sweets, confectionery
and as a general food flavouring. The oil is also widely used as a blender or
modifier of other citrus oils, and a small amount is used in perfumery.
Japanese mandarin oil, mikan oil, is produced in Japan from satsuma
cultivars, is generally similar to mandarin oil, has similar uses and is
produced to satisfy domestic demand. Terpeneless and sesquiterpeneless
mandarin oil are quite different to whole oil, have very specialized uses, and
are normally prepared by the end user. Mandarin aroma is a concentrate
produced on demand for manufacturers of soft drinks and liqueurs.
Mandarin petitgrain oil is steam-distilled from leaves and twigs, or small
unripe fruit, and is often preferred to peel oil as it contains less terpenes. It is
produced mainly in Italy. The oil is mid to dark olive green with an intensely
sweet, floral odour, Its main use is in perfumery, with a little used in
flavourings. The major components are normally limonene, methyl N-
Rutaceae 49 1

methylanthranilate, linalyl acetate and linalool, although the amount and


proportions vary considerably between cultivars and regional oils (Lawr-
ence, 1994).

Sweet Orange

Sweet orange is probably native to the southwest China-Burma borders but


apparently no longer exists as a truly wild species. Widely distributed in the
Far East in ancient times, its early history is obscure. Oddly, none of the first
Europeans to visit South East Asia mention sweet orange, but by the
fourteenth century a fruit believed to be sweet orange was mentioned by
travellers to India. The fruit was probably introduced to Portugal by Vasco
de Gama on his return in 1498 from his first voyage to India, has since
spread worldwide, and there are numberless cultivars. Sweet orange has
been crossed with other citrus species to produce hybrids whose fruit is sold
under a specific, sometimes proprietary name. One of the best known
interspecific hybrids is Meyer lemon.

Botany
Citrus sinensis Osbeck (syn. C. aurantium varinensis L., C. aurantiurn Lour.),
commonly known as sweet orange, is usually divided into three main groups,
blood, navel and common, with some authorities adding Spanish (Medi-
terranean). Blood oranges have pink or red flesh caused by anthocyanin;
navel oranges have a small secondary fruit pushed to the top of the primary
fruit producing the characteristic appearance; all other cultivars will be
designated common. The most important common cultivar is Valencia
because of its adaptability; in navels it is Washington; but in blood oranges
there is no one cultivar occupying a similar predominant position, although
St. Michael and Maltese are well known. However, so important is orange
production to a particular region that most have developed a specific
cultivar.
Sweet orange is usually a medium-sized, dense, conically headed tree with
glossy green leaves, the golden fruit carried singly or in bunches. Tree height
between 8 and 15 m is a cultivar characteristic, but dwarf types have been
produced. There is normally a single trunk, much branched often from low
on the trunk. Branches may be more or less spined and this is a cultivar
characteristic, although on many cultivars young twigs may be spined
initially. Spines also vary from short to long, to 5 cm, sturdy or slender,
pointed or blunt, but on many cultivars are slender and blunt.
The leaves are glossy green above, lighter below, narrow, ovate-oblong,
acute, base rounded, sometimes slightly toothed, 7.5-10.5 cm X 2.0-3.0
cm, on short petioles with very narrow wings. Petitgrain oil is obtained by
492 Chapter 12

distilling leaves and the main constituents are normally monoterpenes to


50%. T h e main characteristics are specific gravity 0.85-0.87, optical rota-
tion +37" to +45", refractive index 1.472-1.473, and solubility in 90%
alcohol normally 1:2-3 v/v. Interestingly, caffeine has been identified in
cultivar Valencia leaves (Stewart, 1985). Rootstock may have an influence
on leaf oil content and composition, for in Russia Washington navel grafted
on C. junos had a higher oil synthesis rate in leaves than when rooted on
Poncirus trifoliata rootstock (Keklidze et al., 1987).
The flowers are fragrant, white, singly or in clusters up to six in leaf axils;
to 6 m m diameter, with usually five petals, four to five sepals, 20-25
stamens, and a long slender style. There is normally one major flowering,
April-May in the Northern Hemisphere, September-October in the South-
ern Hemisphere, or just before the rains in those regions where the seasons
are less well defined. An oil is obtained by steam distilling flowers and
enfleurage was formerly practised on a very small scale. The main character-
istics of a distilled oil are specific gravity 0.85-0.86; optical rotation +44" to
+49O; refractive index 1.400-1.440 and solubility in 90% alcohol 1:2.5-4.0
VIV .
The fruit is ovoid or ellipsoid, 7.5-10.0 cm diameter, and size is a cultivar
characteristic. T h e peel is usually smooth, varies in thickness between
cultivars, and is normally attached to the flesh, although easily removed. The
ratio of peel weight to total fruit weight is generally 20-40% with the average
nearer the lower figure. Peel thickness is a cultivar characteristic; in Wash-
ington navel it is 4-8 mm, in the Russian cultivar Superior Sukhimi 2-3 mm,
and thickness is affected by growth regulators such as GA. Chemicals
applied to control aspects of growth or reproduction affect oil content or
composition to some degree, for instance 2,4-D to control fruit drop (Erner
and Coggins, 1989). Fortunately the rate of application to achieve the
required result is usually well below the level producing a significant effect
on, or residues in, peel oil (Nigg et al., 1988). Peel surface is wax coated and
the amount and composition is a cultivar characteristic, with some remain-
ing in the oil after extraction. Wax on fruit normally increases slowly as fruit
matures, reaching a peak at full maturity and early senescence.
Peel colour is yellow to orange when ripe, but some cultivars may retain
the original green colour. The degree of yellowing is related to temperature
and sunshine, and may also be affected by greening disease as will be noted.
The flesh varies from light yellow to reddish and is usually sweet since
oranges are normally grown for fresh fruit or juice, and selected for this
characteristic. Common cultivars and blood oranges are normally seeded to
some degree, while navel are usually seedless. Seed is generally a white,
wedge-shaped ovoid with a wrinkled surface and white interior. and usually
viable with no dormancy period. In Florida, wet seeds in Valencia orange
whole fruit averaged 0.85% by weight. Analyses of dried seeds averaged
meal 44%, oil 31.5%, hulls 24.5%, and the ratio ofwet to dry seeds was 3:l
Rufaceae 493

(Tables 12.3 and 12.25). Dried ground seed can be processed into stockfeed
and other products.

Ecology
The main groups of orange cultivars are also suited to different environ-
ments. The navel group is less vigorous, requires a dry warm temperate
climate, and is frequently grown under irrigation. In the tropics it will usually
not be successful below 1000 m, sometimes below 2000 m, and in East
Africa for instance it grew and fruited well in the highlands around 1500 m
but was a commercial failure at the coast. The lower limit for commercial
navel orange production in Colombia is 2000 m.
The common group has the highest heat requirement, but individual
cultivars have greatly extended the group’s range; Valencia for example is
very adaptable and can be grown successfully from sea-level to 1500 m,
occasionally higher in the tropics and semi-tropics. The highly successful
plantations established in Guinea, West Africa, were between 800 and 1200
m although orange trees can be found growing almost to sea level. The main
effect of a fall in average temperature or rise in altitude is to lengthen the
period to maturity. Some cultivars are successful in a relatively restricted
environment, Shamouti in coastal Israel and Egypt is an example; others
such as Hamlin in Florida and Brazil require more humidity. India, with its
wide range of environments, has a number of important cultivars; Pineapple
and Valencia in the cooler north, Mosambi in the centre and west, Sathgudi
in the more tropical south.
Blood oranges generally require semi-tropical to tropical conditions and,
where this orange is grown extensively, a local selection has generally proved
the most successful; Blood Red in India, Kwata in Surinam, Ruby more
widely. The degree of flesh colour in a particular cultivar frequently de-
creases as the mean maximum temperature increases; for example the
relatively pale-fleshed cultivar Kwata produced true blood-coloured oranges
when grown in California.
A major limiting factor is frost, and where this is common commercial
orange production is hazardous, although frost damage is less if trees are
healthy. In Florida, trees with adequate nitrogen levels were more frost
resistant, while a deficiency of nitrogen and potassium reduced resistance
(Koo, 1985). Thin-peeled cultivars are liable to sunburn which affects flesh
and oil content and, where sunburn is common, a heat-tolerant cultivar
should be grown and pruning on the sunward side of trees reduced.
Interplanting with tall but narrow-canopied trees can also be effective,
provided these are planted to give the greatest protection in the afternoon.
Total rainfall and its distribution directly affect fruit production, fruit and
oil composition. The general effect of humidity on a specific cultivar is to
produce fruit with thinner peel and higher juice content than in arid
conditions, as is to be expected. Peel oil content may also be higher, but oil
494 Chapter 12

produced in a very dry year may have a harsher note. Moisture stress affects
fruit development generally, the detrimental effect being greatest during the
period of fast growth from mid-maturity. Damage to peel in this period is
frequently irreversible. In Florida for instance, rainfall directly affected
aldehyde content of Valencia oil, and a 14 year graph of monthly rainfall was
almost similar to one showing oil aldehyde content. Other cultivars followed
this general pattern, but cultivars with a normally low aldehyde content
showed least variation. Less detailed data from other countries tends to
support the rainfall/oil composition relationship, but this may not be so clear
cut and include factors other than available soil moisture, such as tem-
perature or relative humidity.
Regional oils vary considerably in main characteristics and composition;
total aldehyde content from a particular cultivar grown in different regions of
the same country can also vary substantially, as can the ratio of various
aldehydes, esters and alcohols (Table 12.30). Time of harvesting also affects
aldehyde content and proportions, noted later, while seasonal conditions
usually modify all oil components.

Soils and fertilizers


Commercial orange plantations are normally on well-drained sandy loams,
but have been successful on a wide range of soils: coral sands in Africa,
laterites in Africa and India, stony soils in the Mediterranean and South
America, heavy alluvial soils in China and Central America and, with skilled
management, a high fruit yield is obtained. In general, a high standard of
management requires greater inputs and thus plantations must be larger and
the market for fruit greater. Alternatively, low labour cost can offset the extra
input required as in some African and South American countries.

Table 12.30. Aldehyde content of some orange oils from the USA.

Valencia Mid-season California Navel


Octanal 0.3934.505 0.342-0.374 0.1504,172
Nonanal 0.0694.075 0.057-0.060 0.022
Citronellal 0.904.094 0.055-0.060 0.064-0.081
Decanal 0.3754.41 5 0.277-0.338 0.131-0.142
Neral 0.072-0.073 0.064-0.065 0.045-0.062
Geranial 0.120-0.1 80 0.134.114 0.080-0.104
Perillaldehyde 0.033-0.040 0.029-0.031 0.013-0.01 7
Dodecanal 0.080-0.083 0.055-0.067 0.030-0.034
Beta-sinensal 0.0564081 0.047-0.048 0.019-0.026
Alpha-sinensal 0.037-0.060 0.034 0.016-0.024
Nootkatone 0.024-0.051 0.015-0.035 0.043-0.045
Figures in table are range.
Source: Wilson and Shaw (1984).
Rutaceae 495

Soils with a p H 5.5-6.5 are the optimum, to p H 9.0 have been successfully
utilized, but rootstock then becomes increasingly important. In Australia,
soils of p H 8.0-9.2 were planted to Valencia orange on three rootstocks, and
fruit yield compared over 11 years. Cleopatra mandarin and Rangpur lime
rootstocks showed the greatest tolerance and gave highest yield. These two
rootstocks also differ in their ability to extract soil nutrients, and this must
also be a factor in rootstock selection. Valencia oranges grown on Cleopatra
rootstock in the Caribbean had a leaf content high in calcium and magne-
sium but low in potash; Rangpur rootstock produced the opposite effect.
Saline soils are generally unsuitable, but saline or chlorinated water can be
used for irrigation provided the composition is determined, and special
management techniques applied (Cole, 1985; Dasberg et al., 1988).
In many countries, the choice of fertilizer is frequently influenced more by
price and availability than suitability, and in these circumstances fertilizer
trials will establish the optimum amount. Soil type or a change in cultivar
grown or rootstock used can affect a fertilizer programme. Farmyard or
other organic manure is often applied to orange orchards in less-developed
regions, but seldom in the main producing areas as its well-documented
disadvantages far outweigh the value of the nutrients supplied. High yielding
orange trees require substantial amounts of plant nutrients as indicated in
Table 12.4 and at least this level should be available. Fertilizers should
preferably be broadcast within the canopy area, but at the drip circle if
applied via irrigation equipment. Fertilizers have a direct influence on peel
oil content but no significant effect on composition at the levels normally
applied.
Nitrogen requirement is normally less than for lemon, grapefruit and
mandarin in the same area. An excess often produces thick-peeled fruit with
a lower juice content, but the degree to which this occurs is modified by
rootstock and cultivar. The type of nitrogen fertilizer applied is usually not
important; on mature double-planted and irrigated Navel and Valencia
oranges in Australia, urea (46% N) at 240 kg, ammonium nitrate (34% N)
a t 325 kg and ammonium sulphate (21% N) at 525 kg, all per ha, produced
the same fruit yield. On some soils, however, regular application of ammon-
ium sulphate can lower pH, reduce phosphate availability and thus adversely
affect fruit quality, peel becoming rough and puffy with lower oil content.
Slow-release nitrogenous compounds are becoming more popular especially
where leaching is high.
Potassium availability is frequently low in many orange growing soils, but
the amount applied should be sufficient only to correct a deficiency or
ensure a balance between applied nutrients, as was demonstrated in Egypt
(Fawzi et al., 1990). Lack of potassium results in small fruit; an excess
reduces fruit quality, especially in Valencia, may also reduce cold-hardiness,
and this is exacerbated if there is also a nitrogen deficiency. Orange trees are
496 Chapter 12

capable of taking up luxury amounts of potassium, which either wastes


money or can induce deficiencies of other nutrients.
Sufficient phosphate to last several years can normally be supplied in one
application in bands 15-30 cm below the soil surface adjacent to the drip
ring of trees, or half-way between trees and the centre of the inter-row for
hedge-planted trees. The type ofphosphate is unimportant provided that the
nutrient is available at the required level. Trace elements should be supplied
only where leaf or soil analyses indicate a deficiency (Koo, 1988), and
orange cultivars may react differently to the same level of a particular
element, zinc or boron in particular.

Cultivation
Orange production on a commercial scale is a major industry, and new
entrants or those wishing to upgrade their operations are advised to seek the
services of one of the many highly skilled and experienced consultants
available. It should be stressed that orange oil production is normally a by-
product of large-scale fruit processing and for this reason is unlikely to be
commercially viable in its own right, unlike sour lemon or lime.
Damage by pests or diseases to leaves or fruit can affect oil content,
sometimes oil composition. Fungal infections reduce leaf oil content mainly
by reducing leaf area, but may also affect oil components including linalool.
Susceptibility to the scale insect Aonidiellu aurantii in Egypt was correlated
with high hydrocarbon content of peel, while resistance increased with
higher terpene alcohol content (Salama and Saleh, 1984).
Probably the most important factor influencing peel oil content or compo-
sition is genetic via rootstock and scion (or bud), but as oranges are not
grown to produce oil but fruit or juice, selection is based on these characters.
Orange cultivars or selections whose fruit has yielded very high peel oil
content under experimental conditions have generally proved unsuitable for
commercial orange production. Therefore techniques or methods used to
improve oil yield must be applicable in commercial orange plantations
without significantly affecting fruit yield or quality. Consequently, most data
refer to methods of influencing peel oil content andior composition of the
most common cultivars.
The importance attached to oil yield is thus an indication of the relative
price of orange oil to other plant operations. Its major effect is to reduce cost
of orange juice extraction, and is of greatest significance in very competitive
markets. For this reason most data are from major juice-producing regions,
and may not be relevant elsewhere. Rootstock, bud or scion have a direct
effect on peel oil content, as demonstrated in Florida where oil content of 34
bud selections yielded 5.0-7.2 kg oilit fruit; nineteen different rootstocks
gave a much lower variation, indicating that budwood was more important
than the rootstock (Hendrickson et al., 1970). The rootstock, however, can
have more significant influence within a specific cultivar; when a clone of
Rutaceae 497

Valencia was budded on trifoliate orange, sweet orange or Rangpur lime, the
important aldehyde content of peel oil was 1.2, 1.44 and 1.73% respectively
(Kesterton and Braddock, 1977).

Harvesting
Maturity affects fruit composition, peel oil content and oil composition as
noted. Oil content increases as peel and contained oil cells develop, and total
oil increases as fruit size increases since there is a direct relationship between
surface area and number of oil cells. Oil composition changes, but is often
masked by techniques used to extract oil (Kesterton et al., 1971). This
applies generally to orange cultivars, irrespective of whether they are early,
mid-season or late maturing; a variation most clearly demonstrated at any
major orange-processing plant. Oil yield increases as the season progresses
with one or more peaks if several cultivars are successively processed. Over-
mature fruit remaining on trees retains its oil content but, when processed,
often gives a very low yield due to softening of peel which is more difficult to
process.
Peel oil yield varies substantially between cultivars, regions, and season-
ally. In Florida for instance the 5 year average for five cultivars was 3.5-6.2
kg oil per tonne of fruit, and oil yield of individual cultivars varied 20-30%
within a season, with Valencia generally outyielding all others. The average
commercial yield in Brazil was 4 kg from cultivar Pera; Sicilian yields
averaged 4-5 kg, elsewhere in Italy 4 kg; in Spain the average is 2.5 kg but
individual plantation yield is often twice this. When oil was manually
extracted the yield was frequently quoted per 1000 fruits; thus 1 kg oil in
Sicily required 2000 fruits, in French West Africa 1200-1500, in Tanzania
1500-2000.
Nearly 150 compounds have been detected in peel oil, some in minute
quantities. The main constituents are the terpene hydrocarbons at around
95% and aldehydes at 2%. Oil composition can change during harvesting as
noted, especially the important aldehydes (Table 12.31). Changes can also
occur in oil composition between harvesting and processing; fruit stored at
extraction plants for up to 7 days generally has substantially higher ester
content, slightly lower aldehyde content and higher evaporation residue.

Distillation
Oil is obtained by cold-pressing peel or whole fruit, or by steam distilling the
residues from segmenting or juicing, and the two oils are quite different in
composition and characteristics (Table 12.32). Peel oil content varies from
0.5-2.5%, but up to 3.5% in selected cultivars. Oil content, however, should
not be confused with oil yield from commercially processed fruit, which is
usually below two-thirds of peel oil content.
The maturity of the fruit arriving at a processing plant affects oil composi-
tion and quality, and changes in oil composition as fruit matures is shown by
498 Chapter 12

Table 12.31. Main components of seasonally produced orange oils in Florida,

Early-season Mid-season Late-season


Alpha-pinene 0.54 0,46-0,54 0.50-0.62
Myrcene 2.08 2.02-2.05 1.78-2.1 8
Limonene 95.37 94.87-95.20 94.71-95.24
Linalool 0.25 0.48-0.62 0 46-0 56
I I

Citronellal 0.10 0.10-0.1 2 0 I12-0.20


Decanal 0.24 0.30-0.39 0.35-0 46 I

Neral 0.06 0.05-0.08 0.05-0.09


Geranial 0.12 0.14-0.1 7 0.12-0.17
Perillaldehyde 0.02 0.02-0.03 0.02-0.03
Dodecanal 0.03 0.04-0.06 0.05-0.07
Beta-elemene 0.05 0.05-0.06 0.04-0.06
Beta-caryophyllene t beta- 0.04 0.07 0.07-0.09
copaene
Beta-farnesene 0.01 0.02 0.02
Valencene 0.04 0.09-0.12 0.07-0.1 5
Beta-sinensal 0.07 0.07 0.07-0.13
Alpha-sinensal 0.02 0.02-0.04 0.02-0.06
Figures in table are range.
Source: Shaw and Coleman (1974).

variation in the amount and ratio between constituents. The important


aldehyde component normally rises steadily then falls slightly after peak
maturity. Total esters fall steadily to approximately two-thirds maturity then
rise rapidly to reach a maximum just after peak maturity. Oil characteristics
also change but, in general, the main physical properties in major US
producing regions remain within limits of the US Pharmacopoeia. These
findings apply to fruit produced during a normal season (one without major
climatic variation); a season with marked variation results in a significant
change in oil composition as previously noted. There are significant differ-
ences in oil from different cultivars, and from the same cultivar in different

Table 12.32. Main characteristics of commercial orange oil in the USA.

USP Standard Cold-Dressed Distilled


Specific gravity (25°C) 0.842-0.846 0.824-0.844 0.840-0.842
Refractive index (20°C) 1.472-1.474 1.472-1.473 1.471-1.473
Optical rotation (25°C) t 94O to t 99O t95" to t98O t 9 7 " to t99O
Residue on evaporation (%) 43 mgi3 ml 2-3 0.5-1.5
Aldehyde content
as decanal (%) 1.2-2.5 1.5-2.0 1.7-2.5
Figures in table are range.
Orange oil varies greatly in its solubility in 95% alcohol; some are virtually insoluble in 10 vols.
Rufaceae 499

regions or countries. Analyses and other data quoted herein are from the
main orange-growing areas, and may not necessarily apply elsewhere. In
general, these oils conform to official standards or industry requirements,
and are a good guide to a saleable oil.
Neroli Portugal is obtained by steam distilling sweet orange flowers
mainly in Portugal and Spain, but is seldom available in any quantity since
the fruit is more important. Leaf oil is obtained by distilling fresh leaves, and
is also not normally available in commercial quantity.

Products and specz@ations


Sweet orange oil is the most important of citrus oils in terms of quantity
produced, and exceeded in international trade only by pine oils. Because of
its importance, orange oil has been widely investigated, and almost every
aspect of its characteristics and composition discussed in detail and the data
published (Lawrence, 1994). The following descriptions are those used in
world trade or are standard specifications.
Orange oil is commercially produced from several cultivars with varying
time to maturity, as noted. In practice, commercial oil is classified as mid-
season oil but when obtained wholly from Valencia fruit is usually known as
Valencia oil and considered the highest quality (Vora et al., 1983). A
comparison of seasonally produced Florida orange oils is shown in Table
12.31. Orange oils are commercially available from several countries and
again there can be significant differences which often preclude direct inter-
changeability; some are rich in aldehydes important in flavourings, others
have an especially desirable odour and are thus attractive to fragrance
manufacturers, while international traders have their own standards. Florida
orange oil has a worldwide reputation for consistent high quality, with
aldehyde content of 1.2-1.4% for mid-season oil and 1.6-1.8% for Valencia
oil; Spanish domestic oil is also of similar high quality especially that known
as primera, as is Italian oil which may have a slightly higher average aldehyde
content; Brazilian Pera orange oil is considered of lesser quality, as is oil from
local Valencia oranges. Caribbean oils are generally in this category, al-
though some Jamaican orange oil has a high reputation in Europe.
Cold-pressed orange oil is pale yellow-orange to very dark orange some-
times with an olive or brownish tinge; machine pressed oils are lighter, hand-
pressed oils darker. Oil from Washington navel is a dark red, while Spanish,
Moroccan and some Italian oils are a dark reddish orange. The odour is
fresh, fruity and very similar to that released by cutting or scratching fresh
peel. The taste is mild, orangy and not bitter. The main constituents of cold-
pressed oil are approximately: terpene hydrocarbons 95% (mainly d-
limonene); aldehydes 1.5% (largely octanal and decanal); alcohols below
1% (mostly linalool); esters below 0.5% (mostly octyl and neryl acetates)
and the non-volatile compounds around 1%. Winterizing orange oils to
extend storage life is common, but may cause any wax to separate out.
500 Chapter 12

Orange oils are used primarily in flavouring, especially soft drinks, and
many food products. Thus those oil components considered to influence
flavour are very important and their proportions in a specific oil normally
determines its price. Large extraction plants blend the various oils produced
during a season, and offer a standard proprietary product of guaranteed
purity and composition. Whole orange oil imparts a true orange flavour, but
in excess there is risk of product deterioration due to formation of rancid
odours, and a tendency to separate from other ingredients due to insolubility
in water. Addition of small quantities of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) or
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) controls these problems. Where whole oil
is unnecessary, concentration overcomes most technical problems. Cold-
pressed orange oil is frequently adulterated with distilled orange oil, other
distilled citrus oils or synthetics. A restraint on the level of adulteration is the
generally low price of orange oil compared to other oils. Interestingly, orange
oil is a potent ant-killer but the method of action is unclear.
Distilled orange oil is produced by steam distilling peels, expressed or not,
and juicing residues. The oil is colourless to very pale yellow with a fresh,
sweet, rather weak odour of low tenacity. It is used to adulterate expressed
oil or as a blender or a poor substitute for other citrus oils. A major use is as
raw material for production of d-limonene (noted later).
Terpeneless orange oil is obtained by various methods (Moyler and
Stephens, 1992), but is seldom available commercially in any quantity.
These oils are colourless to very pale yellow, with a sweet, refreshing,
orange-peel odour, have enhanced keeping qualities compared to whole oil,
and up to five times the flavour strength. The residual products of concen-
tration, which include orange terpenes known as washed orange oil, are
widely used as masking agents in household and industrial products such as
aerosols, scouring powders and dishwashing liquids.
Petitgrain orange oil is obtained by steam distilling fresh leaves and twigs
and varies from olive-green to green-orange, with a light fresh note followed
by a characteristic bitter undertone. The oil is produced in very small
quantities on demand, but in general cannot compete with petitgrain bitter
orange. Detailed analyses of the oil have been published (Lawrence,
1993).
A number of other products are derived from orange oil, usually produced
by manufacturers on demand or for a specific end use. The use of natural
instead of artificial colours in food and drink is increasing due to consumer
pressure; thus carotenoids which can be extracted from orange processing
waste are now more valuable, and an added asset is that their flavour is
compatible with orange flavoured foods and drinks. Orange wax is a by-
product of orange oil processing, and contains useful perfumery com-
pounds. A derivative, I-carvone, is an important source of a synthetic
spearmint flavour, and as the price of I-carvone from orange oil is usually
two-thirds of natural spearmint oil, this use will probably continue. As a
Rutaceae 501

source of menthol and menthone, I-carvone has been replaced by cheaper


alternatives.
The derivative d-limonene, produced by redistilling orange oil, has a
growing range of uses in the manufacture of hot-melt and pressure-sensitive
adhesives, latex paints, quick-drying printing inks, resins, plastic industry
solvents, in the rubber industry and in shoe creams. The use of orange oil
derivatives, particularly by the plastics industry, is of such importance that in
the USA a large proportion of mid-season orange oil may be used solely in
the production of d-limonene. This depends mainly on the price manu-
facturers have to pay for d-limonene in comparison to its price as a flavour-
ing, which is directly related to the availability and price of d-limonene from
the other major source, dipentene derived from turpentine. The odour of d-
limonene from dipentene differs from that of d-limonene from orange oil,
but there is considerable substitution. Orange terpenes and d-limonene may
also be used as fuel, but are far more expensive than conventional fuels and
are unlikely to become important.

Boronia
Boronia Sm. is a genus of about 95 species occurring throughout Australia,
with the one species native to New Caledonia differing greatly from all
Australian species. Western Australia has 49 species, 45 are endemic.
Boronia are dwarf to tall shrubs, rarely small trees. Branches are glabrous
and hairy. The leaves are opposite, simple or compound, and often aro-
matic. The inflorescence is a dichasium (cymose); flowers may be red, pink,
yellow-green, green, blue, purple, brown or white, valvate or imbricate in
bud. The flowers have four petals, a four-lobed spreading calyx, and eight
stamens. The fruit is a capsule of four carpels, separating to expel the ripe
seeds. The seed is hard, black, waxy or shiny. Only B. megastigma is currently
harvested for its oil.

Botany
Boronia megastigma Nees. (brown boronia) is an upright, dense, sometimes
straggling, small to medium shrub, 1.5 X 1 m in diameter, with numerous
often minutely hairy branches. The leaves are green, compound, trifoliate to
1.5 cm, very narrow, and soft, with a blunt tip. The peduncles are axillary,
short, pendant and profuse. The flowers are very fragrant, variable in colour
from dark to reddish brown or yellow-green outside, light yellow to yellow-
green inside, solitary, bell-shaped and about 1 cm in diameter. Main
flowering in Australia is late winter-early spring. Some factors affecting bud
and flower development have been determined (Davis and Menary, 1983;
Roberts and Menary, 1989a; Day et al., 1994, 1995). Since it became
popular as a garden plant, many forms have been selected for their flower
502 Chapter 12

colour and given varietal names. In this section boronia will be used to
designate B. megastigma, its products and derivatives.

Ecology
Boronia megastigma is a native of coastal areas of Western Australia but now
widely distributed as a garden plant, and currently also grown for its oil in
Tasmania and New Zealand (Smale, 1991). Plants occur in moist sites in
generally dry sclerophyll forest under medium or intermittent shade, or
where substantial leaf litter maintains soil moisture and ameliorates the
generally high temperature, as the roots are normally superficial. Mature
plants are frost resistant but young seedlings often succumb.
Temperature affects both rate of growth and flowering and, in general, a
temperature encouraging a high rate of vegetative growth was detrimental to
flower production, and vice versa. When plants were subjected to a range of
environmental conditions, the maximum flower numbers occurred with a
night temperature of 5-7OC, a short day of 10 hours, and under 50% to
100% sunlight (Roberts and Menary, 1989b).

Soils and fertilizers


Since boronia plants have superficial and slow-growing roots, a sandy loam
which retains moisture but does not become waterlogged is preferred for
plantations. The fertilizer requirements of boronia cultivated for essential oil
production are still being determined, but it appears that nitrogen promotes
flower production, percentage volatiles and beta-ionone content of the oil.
Importantly, the highest application level should be in spring to promote
herbage growth, reducing as flower buds appear. Fertilizers also affect plant
size and growth habit, which could become important as mechanical har-
vesters are developed.
In Tasmania about 200 kgiha of a 12:5:14 NPK compound is applied to
the seedbed, and further top-dressing at 4-6 weekly intervals between
pruning and flowering. Trials indicated a response up to 100 kgiha N, with
flower oil content and beta-ionone content of the oil highest at this level.
Ammonium nitrate and CAN outyielded IBDU and urea, although there
was a significant difference in the response of boronia clones to both fertilizer
levels and types (Roberts and Menary, 1994).

Cultivation
Pre-planting operations should produce a clean seedbed suitable for hand or
mechanical planting. Seed has a prolonged dormancy period, a thick and
oily testa, is extremely difficult to germinate, and may take 6-10 weeks to
emerge. Thus plants are normally raised by cuttings from selected parent
stock, since there is great diversity of forms with varying flower oil content
and composition. Seedlings can be rooted in pots or a nursery bed and
Rufaceae 503

planted out when bushy and 5-8 cm high, in the southern spring. Seedlings
should not become rootbound in pots, since such plants fail to make
adequate root growth after planting out and usually die.
A spacing of 1.2 m X 7 5 cm giving 11,000 plantsiha will allow plants to
expand to fill the available space when about 3 years old. Since plants
normally grow in strong leaf litter or with similar protection, mulching is
essential to maintain soil moisture and reduce temperature in the root zone.
Weeding is essential in young plantations, should be frequent in mature
plantations, especially after the major pruning, and should be as shallow as
possible. Herbicides can damage the shallow roots and soil inactivated
chemicals are most suitable, but trials are necessary before regular use.
Plants are heavily pruned in the autumn after planting to produce an open-
hearted, well branched shrub, and again after each harvest to maintain this
shape.

Harvesting
Flowers are harvested manually in September-October by a comb raked
through bushes and, as this can be unselective, the inclusion of leaves and
stalks reduces oil quality, since leaves contain oil of very different composi-
tion. Combing is time-consuming and unpopular, and more efficient and
quicker harvesting methods are currently under trial. Harvesting is as early
in the day as possible, for rising temperature encourages a sticky exudate
which makes clean-combing of flowers difficult. Flowers must be trans-
ported to the distilling plant without delay, as they quickly ferment in bulk.
When delay is unavoidable, bags of flowers are placed in a mobile chiller at
5"C, and up to 12 days of such storage is possible without deterioration.
Boronia is generally free of major pests and diseases in the wild and, when
cultivated, only psyllids, mites and scale insects have required control.
Chemical pesticides should not be used once buds begin to expand, as
residues have occured in solvent extracted oil. Trials are essential to estab-
lish the most suitable chemical.

Distillation
Flowers and foliage can be steam-distilled but are usually extracted with
food-grade hexane to produce a concrete, and again extracted to produce an
absolute. Concrete yield is very variable and averages about 1% with an
absolute yield of around 60%. There is considerable variation in the yield of
flowers and concrete from individual plants, indicating that selection could
quickly increase yield of either or both.

Products and speciJications


Boronia concrete is a dark brownish-green semi-solid, with a warm, woody-
sweet odour, but the true boronia flower scent is released only on dilution.
504 Chapter 12

The main characteristics of oil from wild plants growing in Western Aus-
tralia were: apparent density (40°C) 0.9091-0.9173, refractive index (38°C)
1.4572-1.4852, optical rotation -2" to -3.5", acid number 27.5-30.5,
ester number 106.7-109.3, melting point 35541°C. The considerable over-
all variation is attributed to seasonal conditions which can differ greatly
between years but composition and characteristics are less variable from
cultivated plants growing in more stable conditions in Tasmania and New
Zealand.
Absolute is produced by alcohol-washing concrete, which also separates
out the wax fractions. Absolute is a green viscous liquid, with a fresh, fruity-
spicy odour and a rich tenacious floral undertone. Its principal constituents
are ionone, eugenol, triacontane, phenols, ethyl alcohol and ethyl formate.
The main use is in food flavourings, with minor amounts used in perfumery.
Since the absolute is extremely expensive and available in very small quan-
tities, it is often adulterated except when obtained from primary pro-
ducers.

West Indian Sandalwood

Amyris balsamifera L., source of West Indian sandalwood oil, is not related to
either true or Australian sandalwood, and occurs on Caribbean islands and
neighbouring countries of South America, but only in Venezuela, Haiti and
Jamaica has it been commercially exploited. There are no recognized sub-
species although oil obtained from trees growing in different localities was
stated to have slightly different characteristics. This is unlikely and any
differences are probably due to misidentification since the very similar A.
elemijera L. also occurs in the same region, known as bois chandelle, and
serves the same local purposes. Amyris balsamijera is known as bois chandelle
(candelwood) on Haiti, tigua in Venezuela, torchwood in Jamaica, and
balsam amyris in the USA. In most areas where the tree occurs and where it
is not distilled, local people used the wood to make torches and as firewood.
Amyris balsamijera is widely distributed in drier regions, most commonly on
limestone soils near the coast. When undisturbed it tends to develop
thickets, but is under pressure in more populated areas from browsing by
goats. The related A.elemifera also yields an essential oil by distillation of
heartwood, but was formerly used mainly for fence posts and furniture.
Amyrz's balsamifera is a small tree 3-6 m, 75-150 cm DBH, with smooth
bark greyish when young, becoming rougher and deeply fissured with age.
The inner bark is light brown. The trees have a rounded crown of pale green
foliage. The leaves are opposite, compound, with three to seven ovate
leaflets, 40-125 X 12-50 mm, glandular, and aromatic when crushed. The
flowers are small and white, in terminal and lateral clusters. The fruit is a
Rutaceae 505

black drupe, elliptic, 5.5-12.5 mm long, tapering to a narrow base. Trees


flower for many months and fruit prolifically. Essential oil is contained in the
heartwood. Trees are felled, the trunk and large branches trimmed, de-
barked, cut into lengths for transport to a distillery, and reduced to a coarse
powder for distillation. Steam distilling is usual with a yield of 2-4%,
depending on the charge (young or old wood, branches or heartwood, etc.).
Oil from fresh wood is usually of lower quality than from wood allowed to
season for up to 6 months but the higher quality is obtained at expense of
quantity, since there is loss of oil during seasoning. No data are available on
extent of this loss, or rate at which it occurs. Oil is known to remain in wood
for many years, since fence posts of Amyris spp. timber, decades old when
distilled, yielded a small quantity of excellent quality oil.
West Indian sandalwood oil is a yellow to dark-yellow viscous liquid,
whose published characteristics vary considerably. Some analyses probably
refer to closely related species, or indeed mixtures, since harvesting may be
indiscriminate where the species co-exist. The characteristics of Jamaican
and Haitian sandalwood oils are shown in Table 13.6. Haitian oils generally
have a higher specific gravity, optical rotation and alcohol content than other
oils. West Indian sandalwood oil consists primarily of sesquiterpene hydro-
carbon, about 20%, and oxygenated sesquiterpenes about 80% (Beck,
1989). West Indian oil has a lingering, mild woody note, differing con-
siderably from East Indian oil, for which it is not considered a substitute.
West Indian oil is chiefly used as a perfume fixative, in soaps and cheaper
cosmetics and may also be fractionated.

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Santalaceae
13-
The order Santalales comprises 7 families of which the ill-defined sandal-
wood family, Santalaceae, includes some 400 species distributed among
25-30 genera. Members of the Santalaceae are unusual in that they are to
some degree parasitic, and probably the best-known fully parasitic member
is mistletoe, Viscum album L. Certain members of the Rutaceae produce oils
similar to sandalwood and are included here for convenience.
The genus Santalum L. comprises 16-20 species of evergreen trees and
shrubs distributed in drier tropical regions from Asia to the South Pacific
between 30"N and 40"s. Members occur naturally in India, Indonesia,
Australasia, Fiji, Hawaii and other Pacific islands. Most important commer-
cially is S. album L. the tropical hardwood which produces an equally
important essential oil. Other members produce timber, oil or both. The
somatic number of the genus is x = 10.

Sandalwood
Sandalwood's generic and common names are probably derived from the
Sanskrit chandana, and sandalwood is known as chandana, chandal and
sandal in India, plus many vernacular names (Watt, 1908). Sanskrit authors
distinguished various types using chandana as a collective name, srikhanda
for white and pitachandana for yellow sandalwood. Arabs, who became
acquainted with sandalwood via their trade with Indian merchants, called it
sandal and passed on the name to Europeans. It is laauala (fragrant wood) in
Hawaii, cendana generally in Indonesia, on Timor haumeni, but sandal on
Sumba Island. The sixteenth century traveller Garcia de Orta noted 'both
yellow and white kinds grow on the island, and a special red kind being
obtained in Tenasserim,'(Burma).
Sandalwood's original home is in dispute but is probably the Indo-Asia
region, as natural stands occur in India, Malaysia and Indonesia, but the tree
is today found chiefly in India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and

516
Santalaceae 517

Sunda, since it has been over-exploited in many countries in which it


occurred. A factor influencing present-day distribution of sandalwood was
the popularity of the oil in ancient times, a demand which introduced the
tree to other Asian and Eastern countries but virtually exterminated it in
others. A report from the Indonesian Bureau of Statistics stated that by 1995
illegal logging and smuggling had greatly reduced the number of mature
trees on Timor and Sumba despite a government ban which allows only oil
exports, almost 7 t in 1994 worth US$ 2 million. Total Indonesian sandal-
wood oil exports for the years 1989-1 994 averaged 1 1 t with wood exports in
1994 stated as 680 tonnes.
Sandalwood and oil have a recorded use of at least 2500 years, but were
probably utilized long before in religious and social ceremonies. India provides
many early written records; in the earliest Vedic commentaries the Nirukta (c
500 BC), the Vinaya Pitaka (400-300 BC) and the Arthasastra and Milinda
Pahna both dating from around 200 BC, although some references to sandal-
wood in these manuscripts could be to Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. commonly
known as red sanders or red sandalwood. The S a n s h t poem Rtusamhara
describes courtesans of that time ‘Their round thighs covered with beautiful
fabrics and bejewelled wrappings, breasts perfumed with sandal, adorned with
necklaces and jewels, and scented from the bath that impregnated their hair’.
Sandalwood sawdust and oil, gum arabic and other materials was moulded
into incense sticks (Fig. 13.l), and their fragrant smoke perfumed temples and
courts; clothes held in the smoke also retained the scent. Thus sandalwood
and its products became an integral part of Brahmin, Buddhist and other
religious rituals. Incense was also closely connected with Hindu erotic arts,
and the personal perfumer to a former Maharajah of Mysore was able to
prepare 20 special blends suitable for all such occasions (Morris, 1982-1983).
A paste of ground sandalwood was applied to ease the pain of burns, and oil
for treatment of gonorrhoea (Rumphius, 1741).
The sandalwood tree was known as the royal tree in ancient Indian
writings, and its fragrant yellowish-brown wood became a favourite material
with the country’s highly skilled woodcarvers for its aesthetic appeal, and
also very importantly for its resistance to termites. Darker shaded wood is
considered more fragrant, while lighter, honey-coloured shades are more
favoured for ornamental works. Most highly prized wood contains small
natural marks known as birds eyes. Woodcarvers of Mysore, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala states in southern India, and Jodhpur and Jaipur in the north
became famous for their skill in working sandalwood, a skill they apparently
retained as perfectly carved sandalwood blocks were used to illegally print
Indian currency notes, so hard and accurate were the blocks!
Sandalwood was an important export to neighbouring countries from
early times, where it was also highly valued for the wonderful carvings made
from it. Further afield it was traded eastward to China and westward to the
Mediterranean, often by Arab and Persian merchants. The introduction of
518 Chapter 13

Fig. 13.1. Drying sandalwood incense sticks, Penang.

Buddhism to China by Indian monks travelling the famous Silk Road


brought the sandalwood-based incense sticks used in their ceremonies, and
the Chinese later incorporated such sticks, joss sticks, into almost every facet
of daily life. Sandalwood was known as tanheong or scented tree, the oil
became very important, and in the Great Herbal of 1578 credited to Li Shih-
Chen, wood and oil are described in detail together with various inferior
substitutes. 011-2 of the latter was purple sandalwood (again probably P.
santalinus), itself highly prized in the Ming Period for the manufacture of
magnificent furniture. Sandalwood was also greatly valued by highly skilled
woodcarvers around the port of Hangchow, and this region is today the main
source of pliable, but strong, and beautifully carved sandalwood fans, prized
by fashionable Chinese and Japanese. So great was demand for sandalwood
in China that when Canton became the major foreign trading port, thou-
sands of tonnes of wood were imported and overseas visitors commented
that whole sections of the town were scented with its fragrant oil.
The Pacific sandalwood trade owed its existence not only to satisfying the
growing Chinese demand but also another far removed: substitution of tea
for ale as the English national drink due to a reduction in import duty when
the East India Company lost its monopoly of the tea trade. This resulted in
a massive increase in tea drinking, a demand which could then only be
supplied from China, whose tea merchants required payment in gold, spices
or sandalwood. This demand led to a massive exploitation of sandalwood
trees growing on Polynesian islands, especially Hawaii, where indigenous
stands of sandalwood trees, known as iliaha were decimated, and by the mid-
nineteenth century the tree was exterminated on some islands. A description
of methods used by those engaged in this trade indicates the extent of the
San!a/aceae 519

exploitation (Degener, 1945). An American sea captain talking to a chief


would delineate on the sand of the beach the area of his ship’s hull and
indicate the depth. After negotiating a price with the chief, a hole would be
dug equal to the hull specifications. The chief would then force his subjects
to fell enough sandalwood trees to fill the hole with billets 8 ft by 1.5 ft. It was
estimated that on one occasion nearly 3000 persons each carrying one to six
pieces of wood were seen filling several such holes, and almost the whole
able-bodied population of the island away in the mountains cutting sandal-
wood. This was not true sandalwood, but from closely related Polynesian
species whose wood has a very similar scent. Exports of sandalwood con-
tinued on a small scale from individual islands; Tonga for example exported
20 t in 1994 worth US$ 750,000 to Taiwan. The Chinese named the
Hawaiian Islands Tan hsiang shun (hills of fragrant sandalwood) which
remains in current use. Throughout the Pacific sandalwood was used to dye
and perfume the traditional tapa cloth, and carved to produce ceremonial
objects and regalia.
Australia was directly engaged in the sandalwood-for-tea trade with
China, not only because it was close to Pacific islands where the trees grew,
but for internal economic reasons. In 1823 in New South Wales, Commis-
sioner Bigge calculated that in five years the colony had paid the equivalent
of British Pounds 200,000 to purchase tea, and commented ‘that the
magnitude of this sum expended by the people of such a small colony in the
idle habit of tea drinking was truly lamentable’ (Bigge, 1823). T o supply an
alternative to the outflow of capital which drained the development re-
sources of the colony, Australians became very active in the Pacific islands
sandalwood trade, albeit in its final stages and dominated exports from the
Melanesian region, including the New Hebrides and adjacent islands (Shi-
neberg, 1967). Australia also has several native sandalwoods, the most
important being S. spicatum (R. Brit) DC., commercially exploited for its
timber and oil (Donovan, undated).
The history of sandalwood in Europe is obscure, with few attributable
references in early literature. It was mentioned in Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea of the first century AD, and again some 500 years later by the traveller
Cosmos Indicopleustes of Alexandria in the records of his travels around the
Indian Ocean (Universal Christian Topography, AD 545). Sandalwood or oil
are rarely mentioned in medieval European literature, and it remained little
known in the West until Europeans became established in India. With the
British conquest of the eighteenth century, sandalwood became well known
in Europe and as highly prized. A major use was for production of sandal-
wood oil, the chief source of supply being Macassar (Indonesia). In the late
nineteenth century, the export of wood to Europe from India averaged
2000 t annually (Watt, 1908).
When and where sandalwood oil was first produced is unknown, but it was
probably in India using stills imported by Arabs. True stills were in use in
520 Chapter 13

Alexandria, Egypt by AD 200 having evolved from earlier methods of oil


production used in dynastic Egypt for embalming mummies. The earliest
verifiable Egyptian report of sandalwood is from the seventeenth century BC,
as imported from the land of Punt. Which particular species this was is
impossible to determine and may not have been true sandalwood. A tradi-
tional Indian distilling method practised in the northern region of Kanauj is
described in Watt (1908): ‘The wood is first reduced to a powder, about
40-60 lbs of which are soaked in clear water for 48 hours, then placed in a
copper still. The water carrying the oil evaporates and is condensed in the
usual way, when on cooling the oil floats on the surface and can be collected.
It is believed the water used has an important function, since that in the
Kanauj area is supposed to soften the wood and facilitate the liberation of the
oil, whilst that of Jaunpur improves oil quality. It is said the yield is about
2.25-3.0 seers of oil to 1 maund of wood’ (c. 4.5-6.0 lb to 82 lb). Although
sandalwood oil is currently produced in modern stills, local makers of tradi-
tional Indian perfumes, incense sticks and medicines prefer water-distilled oil
and claim it has a finer scent. Sandalwood harvesting is officially controlled in
India, but there are many private distilleries producing an official Agmark
grade of oil, or their own branded product (Sen-Sarma, 1982).
First to analyse sandalwood oil was P. Chapoteaut in 1882, but it was E.J.
Parry in 1895 who first used the name santalol for the alcohol fraction; later
stated to consist of 5 5 6 0 % alpha-santalol and 25-30% beta-santalol
(Brunke and Rojahn, 1980). The oil also contains aldehydes (tricycloeka-
santalal, exonorbicycloekasantalaland teresantalal), ketones, phenols, acids
(teresantalic acid) and heterocyclic compounds. The chemical composition
of sandalwood oil from various origins has been described in detail, while
work on specific compounds continues (Brunke and Tumbrink 1986; Yu et

Table 13.1. Heartwood content of sandal trees in Tamil Nadu State, India.

North Coimbatore Salem Javadi Hills North Arcot


G W G W G W
53-61 19.5 56-61 38.0 61 55.8
61-76 28.6 71-76 66.6 76 98.8
76-91 48.5 86-91 293.4 91 146.0
91-107 28.1 102-1 07 144.2 106 237.6
107-1 22 121.9 117-122 177.7 122 328.7
- - 132-1 37 298.8 137 390.0
147-1 52 316.9 152 435.3
163-1 68 204.7 168 482.5
G. girth in cm: W, average weight in kg of heartwood per tree.
Source: Abstracted from Indian government statistics.
Santalaceae 52 1

Table 13.2. Santalum species producing a timber (T) andior an oil (0).

Common name Botanical name Product


East Indian sandalwood (chandal) S. album L. TO
Australian sandalwood S. spicatum DC. 0
(Northern sandalwood) S. lanceolatum R. Br. TO
Polynesian sandalwood S. freycinetianum Gaud. TO
(Hawaiian sandalwood) S. ellipticurn Gaud. 0
S. pyrularium A. Grey. TO
S. haleakalae Hbd. TO
Chilean sandalwood S. fernandezianum Phil. TO
Fijian sandalwood S. yasi Seem. 0

al., 1988; Verghese et al., 1990; Wang et al., 1991). Standard characteristics
of the oil are shown in Table 13.1.
The sandalwood oil of commerce is mainly obtained from East Indian
sandalwood, S. album L. Other oils sold as sandalwood are derived from
other Santalum species or trees not members of the Santalaceae. In this
chapter the designation sandalwood without qualification refers to S. album,
and its oil as East Indian sandalwood oil. Santalum species producing a
timber and/or oil are listed in Table 13.2.
Species other than Santalum which produce an oil incorrectly designated
sandalwood oil, or oil used to adulterated genuine sandalwood oil, or a
timber substituted for true sandalwood are listed in Table 13.3.

Botany
Sandalwood, S. album, is a small evergreen tree to 18 my the trunk 2 . 5 m
DBH when mature. The tree is an obligate root parasite becoming less
dependent on other plants with maturity. A sandalwood seedling can
continue to grow only by becoming attached to roots of other plants. Initial
root growth is directed to this end, and unless seedlings are able strongly to
parasitize adjoining plants, mortality is high. Once parasitism is well estab-
lished, non-parasitic roots develop, and the young tree is then also able to

Table 13.3. Non-Santalum species producing 'sandalwood' timber (T) or oil (0).

Locality and common name Botanical name Product


Australia (bastard sandalwood) Eremophila mitchelli Benth, 0
East Africa Colpoon compressum Berg. 0
(East African sandalwood) Osyris tenuifolia Engl. 0
India (red sandalwood) Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. T
Asia (bead tree) Adenanthera pavonina L. T
West lndies (candlewood) Amyris balsamifera L. 0
522 Chapter 13

obtain nutrients directly from the soil. The amount varies with individual
nutrients; the soil supplying most potash and calcium, the host nitrogen and
phosphate.
Root parasitism in sandalwood was first mentioned in 1871 by John Scott
then curator of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, India, and has since
been studied in detail and reviewed (Morris, 1982-1983). Initial root
contact with host plant is by haustoria, and penetration by an intrusive
wedge of cells produced within the haustorium which invades the root core;
this acts as a direct link between the two plants, linkage being between xylem
systems (Kanjit, 1969) (Fig. 13.2). Some 300 plants have been recorded as
hosts to sandalwood, divided into those most and least suitable (Parthasar-
athi et al., 1973). Although sandalwood is main beneficiary of a link there is
some transfer in the opposite direction, and this can also occur by root
contact with non-parasitized plants. Examples quoted included transference
of the bitter principle present in leaves of Stychnos nux-vomica L. to leaves of
adjacent sandalwood trees, and the characteristic taste of sandalwood to
Eugenia spp. growing near by. Unusually, sandalwood can also be para-
sitized, commonly in India by Cuscuata reflexa Roxb.
When sandalwood trees are uprooted or above-ground parts destroyed by
natural causes, roots freely produce suckers often many metres from remains
of the original trunk. Young trees usually coppice from undamaged butts,
but mature trees seldom. Sandalwood roots contain the highest oil content
to 10% by weight, with the following characteristics: specific gravity (25°C)
0.9645; refractive index (30°C) 1.4930; optical rotation (25°C) - 15"; total
alcohols as santalol 95.9%.
There is usually one main stem on undamaged trees, but height and trunk
diameter at maturity are very variable, depending greatly on local condi-
tions. Under natural forest the mean annual girth increment was 2.7-4.6 cm
in Mysore and 1.9 cm in Coimbatore. The bark is generally reddish or
brownish but also greyish brown, sometimes nearly black, rough, and cracks
vertically on mature or aged trees. A characteristic of young trees exposed to
strong and prolonged sunlight or forest fires is cracking and peeling of bark.
A compound isolated from the bark produced hormone activity in insect
larvae by disturbing their physiological development. The compound also
has a chemosterilant effect which is being further investigated. At present,
bark has no commercial value and is usually discarded and burnt.
The oil is contained primarily in the heartwood and larger roots, thus rate
of heartwood formation is of prime importance; however, this occurs early in
some trees and late in others. Trees growing under favourable conditions in
India showed heartwood development at around 10 years of age when
saplings were 3 m and 24 cm DBH. Heartwood formation accelerates
rapidly from 20 years and is at its prime in trees 30-60 years old, 40-75 cm
DBH. The proportion of heartwood to outer wood and bark is 65-85% on
healthy mature trees, and the girth-heartwood ratio from three districts in
Santaiaceae 523

Fig. 13.2. Sketch of haustorium showing method of penetrating host, (CSIR, New Delhi.)

India is shown in Table 13.1. Trees affected by spike disease (cf.) usually
produce poor-quality wood and oil, with a heartwood yield below 25%.
Sapwood and heartwood are normally sharply demarcated, the former
unscented white to whitish yellow, the latter scented, light yellowish-brown
when freshly cut changing on exposure and age to dark reddish brown (see
also products and specifications). T h e environment has a substantial effect
on type of heartwood; from trees growing on dry rocky ground in India it is
harder with a higher oil content than from trees growing on more fertile soils,
whose heartwood is softer with a lower oil content but of greater volume age
for age.
Oil is obtained by hydro or steam distilling pulverized heartwood and
major roots, and its characteristics differ according to method used, types
and proportions of heartwood and roots in a charge. The most important
components are the sesquiterpene alcohols; alpha- and beta-santalols to
90%, alpha- and beta-santalenes to 3%, and other oxygenated sesqui-
terpenes to 4%, but not necessarily in a particular sample. Oil quality is
usually stated in total alcohols as santalol, and should not be less than 90%
(Shankaranarayana and Kamala, 1989).
The leaves are thin, glabrous, decussate, rarely alternate, elliptic-ovate to
ovate-lanceolate, entire, acuminate, and narrowed to a slender petiole. They
measure 1.5-8.0 X 1.6-3.2 cm and thus are veryvariable. They are generally
524 Chapter 13

mid to dark green and lighter below. Shape, size and colour of leaves on
individual trees vary considerably, since all stages of development can occur
on one tree (Fig. 13.3). Although the tree is a true evergreen, large numbers
of leaves may be shed during prolonged rain or dry periods in India, with the
main flush of new leaves appearing with the October monsoon, or light rains
in May. Fresh leaves yield a pale yellow wax, melting point 30°C, containing
approximately 75% unsaponifiables, largely n-octocosanol, n-tricontanol,
palmitone and d-10-hydroxy palmitone.
The flowers are unscented on short multi-flowered, terminal and lateral
paniculate cymes, usually shorter than the leaves. The flowers are initially
pale yellow, becoming blood or purplish red. T h e perianth is a bell-shaped to
obovate tube, four lobed, containing four short stamens, each with fine basal
hairs, the ovary half-inferior; the pedicel is usually similar or shorter than
perianth tube, seldom longer. The flowers are basically insect pollinated
(Bhaskar, 1993). Trees flower profusely from an early age, and in India main
flowering is February-April.
T h e fruit is a globose drupe, 1.0-2.0 cm diameter, purple-black when
ripe, the endocarp tough, ribbed, and containing one hard seed. The sweet
ripe fruits are a favourite food of birds and small animals, which are
important seed dispersal agents. The main fruiting season in India is July-
September with a secondary crop in November-April, and trees produce an
abundance of fruit and seed. T h e seed is red when physiologically mature,
but dark grey when over-mature and there are 4000-6000 per kg. Hot-
pressed ripe seed yield a dark red viscous fluid, to 60%, whose main local use

Fig. 13.3. Variation in leaf shape and size. 1, Sanfalum album; 2, S. yasi. (CSIR, New Delhi.)
Santalaceae 525

is as a drying oil, plus a range of minor industrial uses. The main character-
istics are: specific gravity (25°C) 0.9356; refractive index (30°C) 1.4891;
iodine value (Hanus) 153; saponification value 176; unsaponifiables 8.8%;
sterolic and santalbic acids; the oil thickens on exposure to sunlight or when
heated. Fatty acids in other Santalaceae have been determined (Hopkins
and Chisholm, 1969). Meal from whole seeds has a 2% nitrogen content.

Ecology
The natural distribution of sandalwood is between 30°N and 40"s and 40"E
and 80°W and, although this appears to cover a large area, sandalwood is
restricted in its occurrence. It is probably native to Indo-Malaysia and
occurs naturally from India through Asia to Indonesia, with species of
similar characteristics on many Pacific islands; in China it is most common
in the Lingnam region. Sandalwood could probably have been grown
successfully in many other countries if its semi-parasitic habit had been
known, since there are many records of such attempts.
An annual rainfall of 600-1600 mm is suitable, 850-1350 mm the
optimum but 2500 mm tolerated if the soil is free-draining. Below 600 mm
growth is slow and rate of heartwood formation commercially unviable. In
India, seasonal rainfall is superior to regular small falls. In low-rainfall
regions or during prolonged dry periods the water requirement is sub-
stantially augmented by moisture obtained through the host; thus moisture
stress is often initially noticed by the host wilting. Trees growing in areas of
rainfall above 1500 mm grow faster and form heartwood more quickly than
in lower rainfall regions, and although oil content may also be higher in the
former its quality is considered inferior. Trees are intolerant of waterlogging
when young but less affected when mature; permanently wet soil is unsuit-
able.
Sandalwood grows naturally from sea-level to 1500 m, but in India best
quality heartwood is produced between 600 and 900 m especially in Karna-
taka and Tamil Nadu states. Sandalwood has also been introduced into
many areas of India and, once trees become established, their high seed
production and ease of dispersal quickly results in a large natural population,
especially in government forests or areas protected from grazing and fire.
Sandalwood prefers a dry, sunny climate, but excessive heat or prolonged
periods of hot sunshine severely restrict growth and are frequently fatal to
seedlings; in older trees bark may split, form deep cracks and under severe
conditions may peel exposing the wood. Trees grow well in open scrub or
deciduous woodland with intermittent but not dense shade and are com-
monly found in Indian scrub forests among Lantana spp. and bamboo.
Seedlings benefit from shade, but mature trees seldom thrive under heavy
shade.
526 Chapter 13

Soils and fertilizers


It is frequently stated in the literature that sandalwood makes best growth on
tropical often lateritic, red earths. True though this may be today, the
present distribution of sandalwood has been significantly influenced by man
through grazing pressure by domestic stock and use of fertile soils for other
crops. Self-sown seedlings on crop land are usually destroyed during cultiva-
tions, while herdsmen deliberately use fire to promote new grass growth,
which kills sandalwood seedlings or vital host plants. On fertile loam trees
become much larger and grow faster than on soils less fertile. Heartwood
from trees growing in fertile, moist soils is generally softer with a lower oil
content compared with heartwood from trees on less fertile soil. The volume
is usually considerably greater but, as sandalwood is sold by weight, it is thus
less valuable than denser wood whose oil is also considered of higher quality.
Sandalwood is frequently found on red ferruginous loams overlying gneiss,
stony or gravelly soils of little depth, and seldom on the common black-
cotton soils of India. Trees are intolerant of salinity, and highly calcareous
soils should also be avoided since there is apparently a relationship between
such soils and the incidence of spike disease.
Sandalwood oil is obtained almost wholly from uncultivated trees and
little or no fertilizer is deliberately applied. Trials in India indicated that of
the three major nutrients only nitrogen increased girth and thus volume.
While the nitrogen status of a soil can have a direct influence on rate of
growth, trees obtain only a small amount of potash, phosphorus and calcium
from the soil, the greater proportion plus substantial amounts of nitrogen is
contributed by the host. Thus leguminous host plants confer a growth
advantage and in India these are various Acacia spp. (see below). Research
into causes of spike disease determined that copper, zinc, manganese,
molybdenum and cobalt had no significant effect on the incidence or
prevention of spike disease, or on general tree growth.

Cultivation
Naturally occurring sandalwood is treated basically as a forest tree, and its
semi-parasitic nature is a major factor influencing the methods used. In
general, duplication or improvement of the natural system of reproduction
has proved most successful, summarized as dispersal of seeds, presence of
suitable hosts, protection from fire and grazing. At its simplest, this involves
closing sandalwood areas with protection against grazing and fire; improve-
ment involves seed collection and planting in established sandalwood areas
to increase tree numbers. Following the first showers of the monsoon, up to
five seeds treated with an insecticide are dibbled into the ground under a low
growing preferably thorny host (S.N. Rai, Conservator of Forests, Sandal
Research Centre, Bangalore, personal communication). Seed should not be
sown in heavily grassed areas, since uncontrolled burning is a major cause of
mortality in seedlings and young trees.
Santalaceae 52 7

Host selection is important and although sandalwood is recorded as


parasitizing 300 plants, some are preferred (Parthasarathi et al., 1973).
Acacia spp. provide the greatest amount of nitrogen but are favoured browse
plants and thus a danger to sandalwood seedlings which are also readily
eaten. Widely favoured is Cassia siamea Lam., grown in many tropical
countries for fuel, which is easily established, grows readily on a variety of
soil types and is seldom browsed by domestic stock. In areas of low-growing
scrub or open woodland, sandalwood and the selected host seeds are sown in
groups and later thinned to the required stand: in Karnataka, India, a
favoured host is Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Brit. Particularly undesirable as
hosts are Lantana spp. and Acalypha spp. Direct sown seed should be placed
approximately 2-3 cm deep, deeper on lighter soils and preferably into moist
soil (Rao and Ozias-Akins, 1985; Uniyal et al., 1985; Bapat and Rao,
1988).
Seed is freely produced on mature trees but viability in India is very erratic
and 60-80% germination in a nursery, 30-40% in the field is usual. Viability
decreases rapidly after 2 years in normal storage. Soaking in a 0.05% GA
solution overnight before sowing can assist germination (Nagaveni and
Srimathi, 1980). Viability in Indonesia was directly affected by seed matu-
rity at planting; red seed, which is physiologically mature, gave 80% germi-
nation, while black seed, which is in a dormancy phase, gave half this. Black
seed was thus recommended for storage and later sowing (Mahdi, 1986).
Fresh seed should be collected, depulped and dried, then treated with a
fungicide. Seed is germinated and planted into polythene tubes or pots
together with seed of a host plant, and may be planted out in the pots when
they have two pairs of leaves, but the optimum height is considered to be
25-30 cm. Germination is epigeal, emergence in 8-16 days, and initial
growth rapid to 20-30 cm in the first year, 60-70 cm by the second. Survival
then depends on a seedling quickly making contact with a suitable host.
Sandalwood can be vegetatively propagated using hypocotyl segments,
shoot, root or leaf cuttings (Sita, 199 1). Where sandalwood is a major forest
crop, the ground immediately around seedlings is kept free of weeds until
seedlings are well established, and if the host overtops the seedling it is
pruned or lopped. Methods of producing virus-free seedlings indicate such
seedlings grow faster with greater volume of heartwood, and could reduce
time to maturity from 50 to 20 years (Rao and Bapat, 1978).

Harvesting
Harvesting sandalwood for timber or oil involves felling the tree by uproot-
ing, not cutting the trunk. Only mature trees with a minimum 60 cm DBH,
trees affected with spike disease, or dead trees are harvested. Official
regulations governing selection, removal and disposal of sandalwood in
India are comprehensive and enforced. Regulations also control felling in
Australia, Fiji and Hawaii. Selected trees are marked by Indian Forestry
528 Chapter 13

Department officials, and uprooted at the end of the monsoon when soil is
wet to depth. Felling is normally by labourers who dig out trees which are
then winched over; large roots are also recovered. Once felled, those bran-
ches which have no heartwood are lopped and discarded, as are smaller
roots. Branches which have heartwood are removed by sawing as close to the
trunk as possible, to leave the trunk clear. The bark and outer wood is
removed leaving a 2-3 cm covering of white sapwood to protect heartwood
during transport. The trunk and major branches are then sawn into billets of
90 cm or multiples, the sawdust being carefully collected in sacks. Lop and
top, together with unwanted white wood, is usually burnt on site.
Billets are transported to the nearest government storage depot for certifi-
cation and weighing. This is a complicated procedure, as in some instances
the felled tree will be physically reconstructed from billets and branches to
ensure none has been stolen. Final dressing of billets is carried out at depots,
the remaining heartwood is accurately weighed and stamped. Billets are then
stored until sold or processed. The annual loss in storage averages about 2%
by weight of heartwood, 5% of roughwood (i.e. that with its covering of
whitewood). There are no data on how storage affects oil content, but it is
considered that loss under controlled storage is small, especially in rough-
wood billets, and has no effect on oil quality.
Sandalwood is so valuable in India that weighing is essential to establish its
value and, while large billets may be determined to the kilogram, small
pieces are weighed to the gram. Sandalwood was previously graded into
eight types of heartwood and rootwood, but today names usually denote
origin rather than type, i.e. Bombay billets or Malabar peria; Maccassar
sandalwood comes from Timor, Indonesia.

Distillation
The largest billets are normally reserved for wood sculptures and carvings,
only those with extensive cracks or unwanted irregularities plus branches
and roots are used for oil production. Water distillation was used in tradi-
tional stills with wood reduced to a coarse powder, mixed with water in a vat
and heated, the distillate being condensed and separated. One charge of
sandalwood could be distilled many times, sometimes continuously for
several weeks. A typical charge was 20-30 kg of finely divided or powdered
wood, soaked in water for the preceding 48 hours, yielding to 4.5% oil.
While it is claimed by local perfumers that such oil, attar of sandalwood, has
a more delicate fragrance than steam-distilled oil, there is no distinguishable
difference in quality or characteristics, although oil yield from a given
volume of timber is less with water distillation.
Most oil is currently produced in modern state-owned steam-distillation
plants; material to be distilled is progressively reduced in size from billets to
a free flowing uniform powder, to ensure the maximum amount of oil is
released. A charge of usually 750-1000 kg is distilled for 48-72 hours at a
Santalaceae 529

steam pressure of 1.4-2.8 kgicm’. In general, the higher the pressure the
greater the oil yield, but above 3 kg/cm2 the oil can have a harsher note
considered undesirable by buyers. The yield of oil per tonne of powder varies
according to the quality of original material; pure rootwood gives the highest
yield. Oil yield per charge of high-quality material is 4.5-6.5%; crude oil is
bulked for further processing to produce a standard grade. Extraction of
sandalwood using hydrocarbon solvents produces sandalwood concrete.
The main constraint on more widespread use was the high initial and
running costs and the process was abandoned; laboratory extraction gave a
yield of 7% (Adams et al., 1975).

Pests and diseases


Insect pests of sandalwood have been little investigated, although many have
been reported. Most research has been directed to determining the relation-
ship between an insect vector and spike disease; thus incidence and occur-
rence of numerous types of leafhoppers and jassids is well documented.
Most important in India are Jassus indicus, Acropona walkeri, Coccosterphus
tuberculatus, Moonia albimaculata, Coelidia indica and Nephotettix virescens,
and the last three are associated with transmission of spike disease. How they
do so is unclear, since the insects show no signs of the virus in their bodies.
Within the Coleoptera, various Adoretus spp. are commonly recorded,
especially A. latirosis and A. versutus. The adults feed on leaves, but the root-
feeding larvae are more destructive. Other leaf-eaters are Amblyrhinus por-
icollis, Apogonia ferruginea, Dereodus sparsus, Myllocerus dorsatus, Coptosoma
cribrariae, and C. varigatum. Leaf eating larvae include Asotis selenaria,
Atteva fabriciella, and C yptothelea crameri.
Insects damaging or boring branches, twigs or young shoots include
Aristobia spp., Sinoxylon atratum, Anoplocnemis phasiana, Eu ybrachys to-
mentosa, Hemaspidoproctus cinerea, the widespread Nezara viridula, Ptyeli-
nellus spp. (the rain insects), Ricania fenestrata and Sarima nigroclypeata,
together with various scales including the polyphagous Aonidiella orientalis,
Ceroplastes actinijormis and Chloropulvinaria psidii and the widespread and
polyphagous Ice y a purchasi and Saissetia nigra.
Wild sandalwood trees are generally free from fungal diseases but three
have been recorded as damaging sandalwood to some degree, and there is a
virus which causes spike disease (Choudhuri, 1963). Ganoderma applanatum
causes mottled sponge rot, G. lucidum spongy or butt rot, while sooty mould
caused by Asterina congesta is common and widespread. A leaf-curl virus,
known as Santalum-virus 11, is believed to be insect transmitted in southern
India. By far the most destructive disease is spike disease, more commonly
called spike, likened to witches’-broom disease which affects other tropical
tree crops, and first recorded in 1899 from the Coorg area of India. Trees of
all ages are susceptible, usually die within 3 years, and the economic loss is
extremely high. Branches initially show infection, the symptoms being
530 Chapter 13

shortening of the internodes with severe reduction in leaf size and the leaves
becoming yellow, then reddish and falling. Root tips and haustoria die.
Symptoms of spike normally indicate severe infection, since the disease can
remain undetected as symptoms may be masked (Parthasarathi and Ven-
katesan, 1982).
The major insect vectors are leafhoppers and jassids, and a very high
population is required to infect sandalwood, only sustained where there is a
high density of suitable host plants. Clearing rank vegetation around sandal-
wood or growing sandalwood in environments unsuitable for these insects
dramatically reduces incidence of spike disease, and is the recommended
method in India. Where spike disease is established it is essential not only to
control insect and plant vectors but to uproot attacked trees. Aerial photo-
graphy of sandalwood forests show circular areas of infection around a
diseased tree. Production of virus-free seedlings by micropropagation tech-
niques has been successful (Sita, 1991). A plant pest which has become
more important is the angiospermic parasite Cuscuta rejlexa, a classic in-
stance of the biter bit!

Products and speciJications


Sandalwood is considered one of the finest woods for the carver and highest
quality heartwood is generally reserved for this use. The wood must be
slowly seasoned before use, but usually seasons flawlessly. The heartwood is
aromatic, light to medium yellow when freshly cut, gradually becoming
darker, ageing to a dark reddish brown, generally dull to somewhat lustrous.
The wood is moderately hard to hard, straight, extremely close-grained, very
fine and even textured, weighing 0.9-1.2 kg/m3, saws easily, can be worked
to a smooth finish and takes stain well. It is used for a great variety of
ornamental objects, works of art and more utilitarian pieces from fans to
furniture. The wood is extremely valuable and thus there is almost no
wastage, the smallest pieces being used for buttons, beads and inlays on
other materials.
Sawdust is used in incense sticks or further powdered for use in sachets to
scent stored clothes; very fine powder is occasionally mixed with tobacco to
make scented cigarettes, or smoked in pipes. A paste of sandalwood powder
is applied to the forehead at religious ceremonies by Hindus, and women use
eyebrow sticks to which sandalwood paste has been added. The powder is
also commonly used to scent wood pyres at cremations, and the oil sprinkled
on body-attendants and mourners. Making incense sticks, agarabatti, is an
important cottage industry. Sawdust is reduced to a fine powder by regrind-
ing and mixed with other scented material, saltpetre and gum. The mixture
is then hand-rolled into sticks, thicker candles or small conical cakes to be
burnt in temples, on social occasions, or to scent rooms. The ingredients and
proportions are often a secret of local makers, who used rose, jasmine, agara
wood (Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.), cinnamon, gum arabic and gum gugul
Santalaceae 53 1

(Commiphoru mukul Engl.), to produce sticks with a distinctly fragrant


smoke.
Sandalwood oil is a pale yellow ageing to golden yellow viscous liquid. Its
odour is extremely soft, sweet-woody animal balsamic, with outstanding
tenacity. The characteristic scent is primarily due to various santalols and
santalenes, especially epi beta santalol and tram beta santolol, and the quality
of sandalwood oil is judged on its total alcohol content as santalol. Fresh oil
often has a lower level of santalol to santalyl acetate and santalene, but this
ratio is gradually reduced or sometimes reversed with age. The main
characteristics of sandalwood oil are shown in Table 13.4.
Age at felling has a significant effect on oil composition; oil from 10-year-
old trees contained, in per cent: santalol72-83, santalyl acetate 4.5-6.5, and
santalene 3.6-7.3; from 30-50 year old trees 86-91, 2.6-3.4 and 1.3-2.9
respectively (Shankaranarayana and Parthasarathi, 1984a).
The major use for sandalwood oil is in perfumery, where its outstanding
fixative property, blending ability, and attractive fragrance has made it a
basic component of countless perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and toiletries. The
oil is also used for co-distilling other essential oils, including rose, Mimusops
eleizgi L. and Pundanus spp. It is also widely used in the manufacture of
traditional Indian perfumes such as rose attar and Kewda attar. Pure
santalol can be isolated from sandalwood oil and acetylated sandalwood oil
has also been produced. The oil is also an antiseptic, antiscorbutic, diuretic,
and is used somewhat dubiously to treat bronchitis, bladder infections and
gonorrhoea; the last first reported in the eighteenth century in the East
Indies (Rumphius, 1941).
East Indian sandalwood oil is frequently adulterated, commonly in India
with oil of Erthroxylum monogynum (Indian bastard sandal). Up to 40% by
volume may be added, but deception is self-defeating as the adulterant
begins to decompose after 24-30 hours, and the offensive odour is easily

Table 13.4. Characteristics of Indian sandalwood oil

USA India UK
Specific gravity 0.969-0.975 (25°C) 0.962-0.976 (30°C) 0.971-0.983 (20'C)
Refractive index 1.505-1.508 (20°C) 1.499-1.506 (30°C) 1.505-1.51 0 (20")
Optical rotation -15" to -19'20' -15O to -20" -16" to -20"
Ester content (% 1.6-5.4 Min 2.0 Min 2.0
santalyl acetate)
Total alcohol j% 90.3-97.4 Min 90 Min 90
santalol)
Solubility (viv 70% 3 5-5 0
I I ng 1-5
alcohol)
ng, Not given. Figures in columns are range.
Source: Published Standards.
532 Chapter 13

detected (Sen-Sarma, 1982). Other common adulterants are cedanvood oil,


castor oil, glycerine acetate, terpineol, and West Indian, Australian and
African sandalwood oils. Methods of detection are fully described in the
literature.
A number of synthetic substitutes are available, but few approach the
typical sandalwood oil fragrance or tenacity (Shankaranarayana and Partha-
sarathi, 1984b). Oil obtained by acid hydrolysis of distilled sandalwood
chips or powder differs in its characteristics, appearance and scent from
original wood oil (Narayana and Parthasarathi, 1986). The oil is easily
obtained in India where some 4000 t of spent heartwood powder is produced
annually; thus this oil could become an important by-product.

West Indian sandalwood

West Indian sandalwood oil is dealt with in Chapter 12 as its source, Amyris
balsamifera, is a member of the Rutaceae and thus it is not related to either
true or Australian sandalwood.

Australian sandalwood

Several oils designated sandalwood oil or distilled from local Santalum spp.
have been produced in Australia, but only that from S. spicatum has achieved
commercial importance. Other common species are S. acuminatum A. DC.,
S. lanceolatum R. Brit. and S. murrayanum R. Brit. Development of the
South Pacific sandalwood trade as previously noted increased exploitation
of domestic sandalwood, and greatly contributed to the early development
of inland Western Australia (Donovan, undated; Talbot, 1983). Sandal-
wood has been exported since 1845 when 4 t was shipped to Colombo, and
between 1908 and 1930 the annual average was about 8000 t, reaching a
maximum of 15,000 t in 1920 but the market to China subsequently
collapsed and exports ceased. In 1945, the government sponsored Aus-
tralian Sandalwood Co. began exporting sandalwood logs and in recent
years exports have averaged about 1500 t. Harvesting of existing sandal-
wood stands is strictly controlled by the West Australian government
through a system of licensed contractors and quotas (Fig. 13.4).
Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) D C . (syn. Eucaya spicata Sp. & Sumn.) is
typically a small evergreen tree, 3-8 m, 10-30 cm DBH when mature,
greyish in appearance, somewhat umbrageous, leaves in the crown rather
sparse, and irregular branching of the crown is conspicuous. The bark is
rough, fibrous and furrowed on the lower trunk and grey or bluish and
smooth on the upper trunk and branches. The sapwood is pale, the heart-
wood dark brown. The leaves are erect on stout petioles, opposite, narrow
lanceolate, 3-6 X 1-2 cm, dull grey-green and leathery. The flowers are
Santalaceae 533

Fig. 13.4. Sandalwood billets and roots, Australia.

small, fragrant and numerous on axillary and terminal panicles. They are
green with a red interior and are bisexual. The perianth is in four fleshy
segments and the anthers are two-celled, with the filaments short and
incurved. The ovary is inferior, the style having two to three stigmas. The
fruit is a yellow to orange-red globoid drupe, 2.0-2.5 cm diameter. The
peduncle is short, the exocarp leathery, the endocarp smooth, and the
perianth and disc persist until fruit is ripe. The seed has a high santalbic acid
content. The ground under wild trees is usually littered with past seasons
seeds, known as quandong nuts, and used by Australian Aborigines to
alleviate coughs and colds.
Santalum spicatum occurs in drier inland regions of Western and South
Australia, generally between 22 and 34"S, usually below 500 m, with a mean
annual rainfall of 150-500 mm most falling in winter. Trees can be found on
a wide range of soils, including calcareous loams and sandy red loams. It
generally prefers level country, but can be found growing on hillsides. The
species' parasitic habit requires it to grow in association with other trees and
shrubs, and two common local hosts are Acacia acuminata Benth. and A .
aneura F. Muell. (Boland, 1984).
Sandalwood is harvested by pulling-out trees and roots, and the trunk and
branches above 2.5 cm diameter are retained. The trees make slow growth
and, in the Kalgoorlie district of Western Australia, the estimated time for
trees to reach the legal felling size is 50-100 years. T o preserve existing
stands the government has declared large reserves, with regeneration en-
couraged by seeding and protection against grazing. A Sandalwood Re-
search Institute has been established to develop methods of increasing the
number of wild trees, and establishing plantations. Commercial distillation
534 Chapter 13

is similar to East Indian sandalwood, with an oil yield of 1.5-3.0%, but up to


7.0% in the laboratory.

Products and specz9cations


The largest and best quality logs are exported to South East Asia and, in
general, only roots, the lower trunk and smaller branches are locally distilled,
which reduces the potential oil yield. Although timber is collected in other
states, oil is produced only in Western Australia. Australian sandalwood oil
is a pale yellow, viscous liquid with a soft sweet woody odour and extremely
tenacious, but differs from East Indian oil in having a rather bitter not sweet
top-note, and being very slightly resinous. Its taste is unpleasant. Redistilled
oil is little different to East Indian oil with the dendrolasin content mainly
responsible for the odour difference; dendrolasin has a sweet lemongrass
odour (Adams et al., 1975). Unrectified oil usually has a santalol content of
60-70%, rectified oil (commercial oil) not less than 90%. The quoted
santalol content usually refers to total alcohols, ofwhich approximately 10%
are not santalol, and are eliminated by fractionated distillation. Redistilled
oil can directly replace East Indian oil in perfumes, cosmetics and scented
soaps. The main characteristics of West Australian oil are shown in Table
13.5, compared with other oils described, or confused with, sandalwood
oil,
Two other Australian oils, incorrectly stated as sandalwood, have been
distilled from wood of S. lanceolatum and Eremophila mitchelli. Santalum
Zanceolatum R. Br., locally known as the plumbush and widely distributed in
northern regions of Australia, is an erect evergreen shrub or small tree to 6
m, depending mainly on environment, with spreading, pendulous branches.
The leaves are opposite, oblong, tapered at both ends, to 6.5 cm, and

Table 13.5. Main characteristics of Australian sandalwood oils.

S. spicatum BPC S. lanceolatum E. mifchelli


Specific 0.9690 0.968 0.9474 1.03
gravity (1 5°C) 0.9725 0.974 0.9628 1.04
Refractive 1.505 1.498 1.5068 1.5260
index (20'C) 1.506 1.508 1.5085 1.5384
Optical -3" -3" -4Y42' t6"
rotation -5
O -10" 61 ' -6"
Free alcohol % 94.3 Min 90 ng ng
(as santalol) 95.4
Solubility 1 :3-3.5 113-6 1 :1.3-1.7 111-4
(viv 20°C) (70%) (70%) (70%) (70%)
Ester ng ng 8.4-23.5 ng
ng, Not given; BPC, British Pharmaceutical Codex (for S. spicafum). Figures in columns are range.
Sources: Walker (1968); Plaimer Ltd (1985).
Santalaceae 535

leathery. The flowers are small, whitish and four petalled, in terminal
panicles. The fruit is an edible ovoid drupe, 1 cm in diameter and dark blue
when ripe. The oil yield of steam distilled heartwood is 1.75-2.5%, and its
major use is as an additive to local sandalwood oil to ensure compliance with
the optical rotation standard of pharmacopeias. The amount produced is
very small and quite different to sandalwood oil in its characteristics and
composition, since it contains no santalol and main constituent is a sesqui-
terpene alcohol, lanceol. Oil distilled from S. preissianurn Mig. timber
contains a long-chain sesquiterpene diol, the crystalline santal camphor.
Eremophila rnitchelli Benth., the bastard sandalwood, is a tall shrub or
small tree to 10 m, glabrous, viscid and strongly scented. The leaves are
lanceolate to 50 mm and the flowers are highly fragrant, solitary in axils. The
fruit is ovoid, containing four nuts each with one to two superposed seed. Oil
distilled from heartwood yields 1.5-3.0%, and is a viscous, dark yellowish-
brown liquid. It is neither a substitute nor an alternative to sandalwood oil.
Its main constituents are three related sesquiterpene ketones, eremophilone
being the most important. Fijian sandalwood oil is obtained from S. yasi and
contains 49% alpha-santalol and 42% beta-santalol (Smith and Morris,
1979).

African sandalwood
Various oils designated African sandalwood or East African sandalwood
have been described in the literature, but there is considerable doubt
regarding their botanical origin. Most were ascribed to Osyris tenuifolia Engl.
native to Tanzania where it is known as bastard sandalwood (msandali in
KiSwahili), south to Mozambique and perhaps also Madagascar. In Kenya,
Osyris compressa (Berg.) A. DC., now Colpoon compressum Berg., is known as
East African sandalwood, but as Cape sumach in South Africa where its
leaves and bark produce a tanning extract. The timber is not used to provide
an essential oil. In Kenya, C. compressum is listed by the Forestry Depart-
ment as a substitute for sandalwood but the author is unaware of sandal-
wood oil being produced. Osyris tenuijolia billets were exported from Tanza-
nia to India as East African sandalwood, but also not locally distilled. It is
thus unlikely that C. compressurn is the origin of East African or African
sandalwood oil, and that 0. tenuijolia is the source.
Osyris tenuijolia is a much-branched tree to 8 m with thin glabrous
lanceolate leaves, solitary, greenish-yellow inconspicuous flowers, and
berry-like red fruits. The oil yield from distilling wood chips averages 5%.
The only specifications located for East African sandalwood oil are probably
from 0. tenuifolia (Table 13.6). The oil is light brown, similar in odour to
that of S. lanceolatum. The main component is lanceol, and the oil is not an
alternative nor substitute for sandalwood oil. African sandalwood oil was not
536 Chapter 13

Table 13.6. Main characteristics of sandalwood oils.

Haiti Jamaica Africa


Specific 0.959 0.9798 0.9477 0.9637
gravity (1 5'C) 0.974 0.9840
Refractive 1.5050 1.5079 1.5219 1.5076
index (20°C) 1.5070 1.5060
Optical t 30" t51° - 42"50' -45"6
rotation t 42" t 63"
Acid number ng 0.4-1.9 ng 0.7
Ester number ng 0.9-2.8 11.1 7.5
(after acetylation) ng ng 72.8 203.5
Alcohol content 63-77 67-75 ng ng
(% santalol)
Total alcohols ng ng 30.5 95.2
(as CI,H*,O)
Solubility (viv alcohol 20°C) 1 :3 (80%) 1:3.5 (70%) 117-8 (90%) 114 (70%)
Source: Abstracted from published analyses.

commercially produced a n d timber exports virtually ceased with the demise


of the traditional dhow trade between East African and Persian Gulf ports in
the mid 1970s. In 1995, a private company based in the coastal port of
T a n g a began small-scale production of sandalwood and other local wood
oils for export.

References
Adams, D.R., Bhatnagar, S.P. and Cookson, R.C. (1975) Sesquiterpenes of S.
album and S. spicatum. Phytochem. 14, 1459-1460.
Bapat, V.A. and Rao, P.S. (1988) Sandalwood plantlets from synthetic seed. Plant
Cell Reports. 7(6), 434-436.
Bhaskar, V. (1993) Pollination biology and fertilization in S. album. Flora (Jena)
187(1-2), 73-78.
Bigge, J.T. (1823) Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the State of Agriculture and
Trade in the Colony of New South Wales. Parliamentary Paper 136, p. 59.
London, UK.
Boland, D.J. (ed.) (1984) The Forest Trees ofAustralia. Thomas Nelson, Melbourne,
Australia.
Brunke, E.J. and Rojahn, W. (1980) Sandalwood oil. Dragoco Report. 5 , 67-75.
Dragoco Inc., Totowa, New Jersey, USA.
Brunke, E.J. and Tumbrink, L. (1986) First total synthesis of spirosantalol. Progress
in Essential Oil Research. W. de Gruyter & Co., Berlin, Germany, pp.
32 1-327.
Choudhuri, J.C.B. (1963) Sandalwood tree and its diseases. Indian Forest. 89(7),
456-462.
Sanfalaceae 53 7

Degener, 0. (1 945) Plants of the Hawaii National Park. Edwards Bros, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA.
Donovan, R.J. (undated) A History of the Sandalwood Industry of Western Australia.
Battye Library, Perth, Western Australia.
Hopkins, C.Y. and Chisholm, M.J. (1969) Fatty acid components of some Santala-
ceae seed oils. Phytochem. 8, 161-165.
Kanjit, J. (1969) The Biology of Parasitic Flowering Plants. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California, USA.
Mahdi, A. (1 986) The biology of S. album seed. Biotrop.Tech.Bull. 1(l), 1-9.
Morris, E.T. (1982-1983) Romantic sandalwood: Its history and uses. Dragoco
Report 4/5, 106-116 (1982); 2, 40-47. (1983). Dragoco (UK) Ltd, Ipswich,
UK.
Nagaveni, H.C. and Srimathi, R.A. (1980) Use of gibberellic acid to assist germina-
tion of sandal seeds. Ind. Forester 106(11), 792-799.
Narayana, K.H.S. and Parthasarathi, K. (1986) HESP - a new essential oil from the
acid hydrolysis of spent sandal heartwood. Perjtium. Flav. 10(6), 60-1.
Parthasarathi, K. and Venkatesan, K.R. (1982) Sandal spike disease. Current Sci.
5 1( 5 ) , 225-230.
Parthasarathi, K. et al. (1973) Hosts of sandalwood. Current Sci. 43(1), 20.
Rao, P.S. and Bapat, V.A. (1978) Vegetative propagation of sandalwood plants
through tissue culture. Can. Bot. J . 56, 1153-1 155.
Rao, P.S. and Ozias-Akins, P. (1985) Plant regeneration through somatic em-
bryogenesis in protoplast cultures of sandalwood. Protoplasma 124(1/2),
80-86.
Rumphius (1941) George Eberhand Rumpf. Herbarium Amboinense, 6 vols. Re-
printed 1971. Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Scott, J. (1871) Root parasitism by sandalwood. J. Agri. Hort. Soc. India. 2, 287.
Sen-Sarma, P.K. (1 982) Sandalwood -its cultivation and utilization. In: Cultivation
and Utilization ofAromatic Plants. pp. 395-405. CSIR, Jammu-Tawi, India.
Shankaranarayana, K.H. and Parthasarathi, K. (1984a) Compositional differences
in sandal oils from young and mature trees. Znd. Perj'ium. 28(3/4), 138-141.
Shankaranarayana, K.H. and Parthasarathi, K. (1984b) Synthetic sandalwood
aroma chemicals. Perfum. Flav. 9(1), 17-20.
Shankaranarayana, K.H. and Kamala, B S. (1989) Fragrant products from less
obvious sandalwood oil. Perjtium. Flav. 14(1), 19-21.
Shineberg, D. (1967) They Came for Sandalwood. Melbourne University Press,
Victoria, Australia.
Sita, G.L. (1991) Tissue-cultured sandalwood. Current Sci. 61(12), 794-795.
Smith, R.M. and Morris, P.R. (1979) Composition of Fijian sandalwood oil. Znt.
Flav. FoodAdd. 10(2), 57.
Talbot, L. (1983) Wooden gold. Early days of the sandalwood industry. Forest Focus
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Uniyal, D.P., Thapliyal, R.C. and Rawat, M S. (1985) Vegetative propagation of
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Frag. J . 5 , 223-226.
538 Chapter 13

Walker, G.T. (1968) The chemistry of oil of sandalwood. Perf: Ess. Oil Record.
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Wang, Z.H., Hong, X.K. and Bao, X.S. (1991) Comparative G C analysis of
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Watt, G. (1908) The Commercial Products of India. John Murray, London, UK.
Yu, G.P. et al. (1988) Studies on the chemical constituents of Chinese sandalwood
oil. Yaoxue Xuebao 23, 868-872.
Zingiberaceae 14,
The Zingiberaceae includes some 47 genera, containing approximately 1500
species of perennial tropical and subtropical herbs mainly as ground flora of
lowland forests divided into two subfamilies, the Costoideae and Zingiber-
oideae (Tomlinson, 1956). The Zingiberoideae includes several important
spice producers: ginger, Zingiber officinale ROSC.,turmeric, Curcuma domestica
Val. and cardamom, Elettaria cardamomum Manton. A relative, Languas
officinarum (Hance) Fanvell, is known as ginger root or Chinese ginger. The
genus Zingiber Boehmer contains approximately 80 species but some are of
doubtful authenticity. The genus name is probably derived from the Sanskrit
singabera, via the Arabic zanzabil, and Greek zingiberi.

Ginger
The genus Zingiber is indigenous to tropical India and South East Asia,
Australia and Japan, with the main centre in Indo-Malaysia, although
Zingiber offkinale may not exist as a truly wild plant. Many species yield an
essential oil but only ginger in commercial quantity. Thus any reference to
ginger in the text without qualification refers to Z. oficinale. Some of the less
important locally cultivated species which produce spice or essential oil used
as substitutes for, or adulterants of, ginger and its products are Z. amada
Roxb., Z. elatum Roxb. and Z. zerumbet (L.) Smith in India, Z. cassumunar
Roxb. in India and South East Asia and Z. mioga Rosc. in Japan and Korea
(Taroeno, 199 1).
The original use of ginger was as a spice and so ancient is this use that it
predates historical records, as the number of unrelated local names attest. In
India, it is mentioned in the earliest Sanskrit literature (Korla and Dohroo,
1991), but apparently not in the oldest Vedic works. In China, the first
known record is from Confucius (c. 500 BC) ‘who was never without ginger
when he ate’ (Breitschneider, 1870), and it was also used to treat rheuma-
tism, toothache and malaria. Ginger was introduced to Japan much later and

539
540 Chapter 14

cultivation is relatively recent. Dried ginger was traded from India via Arabia
to the Middle East, but whether it was known in dynastic Egypt before 500
BC is uncertain; it was certainly in use by the time of Alexander and later
became common in Greece and Rome. Ginger is mentioned in Dioscorides
De Materia Medica, and later by Pliny. Initially used mainly as a medicine to
treat stomach disorders in Europe, it gained popularity as a spice and was
well enough known to be included in most herbals from the ninth century; in
the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries it was in general use, together with
pepper and other oriental spices. The rhizomes of Z. cassumunar are widely
used in traditional medicine in the south east Asian region, and their anti-
inflammatory activity is apparently due to their curcuminoid content (Ma-
suda and Jitoe, 1995).
Potted ginger plants were carried on local vessels trading along the China
coast in the fifth century (Rosengarten, 1969) and, as plants are easily
transported, ginger was quickly introduced to countries along the maritime
trade routes of the Indian Ocean and South China Sea (Svendsen and
Scweffer, 1985). In the thirteenth century Arabs carried rhizomes on their
voyages to East Afnca, to plant at coastal settlements and on Zanzibar.
Probably the first European to see ginger growing in its natural habitat was
Marco Polo in the late thirteenth century. Chinese records show that ginger
was cultivated in the Malacca region (Malaysia) in 1416 and, following
European exploration in the region, live plants quickly became familiar to
European botanists. The Portuguese introduced ginger to their West African
colonies in the sixteenth century following Vasco da Gama’s voyage to India
and quickly established a thriving export trade in rhizomes sufficient to supply
their domestic market, becoming independent of other sources. The Spaniard,
Francesco de Mendoza, carried rhizomes to Mexico shortly after Columbus
and ginger subsequently spread throughout the Caribbean islands and Central
America. Spanish colonists exported 1000 t of Jamaican rhizomes in 1547 and
Jamaica remains a leading producer and exporter of high-quality ginger.

Botany
Zingiber oficinale Roscoe is commonly known as ginger in English, adrak in
Hindi, allam in Tamil, haliya in Malay, khing in Thai, kiang in Chinese (in
general) and shoga in Japane’se.The basic chromosome number of the genus
is x = 11; ginger is a diploid with 2n = 22, but tetraploids with 2n = 44 have
been chemically induced. There are many locally important cultivars, at
least 100 in India for instance and, as ginger is vegetatively propagated, local
cultivars often tend to be uniform and develop specific characteristics. The
highly mechanized ginger industry in Queensland, Australia, was founded
on a cultivar imported in the 1920s (Whiley, 198 1).
Zingiber oficinale is an erect, leafy perennial, usually cultivated as an
annual, with purple flowers and a robust branched rhizome growing hor-
izontally near the soil surface (Fig. 14.1). The root is a sympodial rhizome,
Zingiberaceae 54 1

6-20 cm depending on the cultivar, somewhat laterally compressed, often


palmately branched, the lobes are usually 1.5-2.5 cm diameter but in some
cultivars much larger, with widely branching, somewhat shallow, fibrous

Fig. 14.1. Zingiber o f h a l e , ginger. A, plant with rhizome; B, leaf; C, inflorescence; D, flower; E, flower
in longitidunal section (Purseglove et al., 1981).
542 Chapter 14

roots (Fig. 14.2). The rhizome is firm, the skin corky and small scaled, and
skin thickness and appearance are a cultivar characteristic. Rhizome shape,
size, degree of branching and extent of rooting are directly affected by soil
type and soil reaction. The skin colour varies from buff to very dark brown
almost black; the flesh colour from pale yellow to deep orange red, and both
are cultivar characteristics. Rhizome morphology and histology have been
described in detail (Parry, 1963; Nybe et al., 1979).
Th e rhizome is the raw material for the three main spice products, fresh
(green) ginger, dried whole or powdered ginger, and preserved ginger, with
methods of preparation described in detail (Purseglove et al., 198 1). Ginger
oil and oleoresin are obtained from fresh or dried rhizomes. The oil cells are
distributed in cortex and pith as are the gingerol-containing cells, but the
two are independent (Mangalakumari et al., 1985). Thus peeling has a
major effect on the amount and type of oil produced, as will be discussed. In
addition to the volatile oil, the dry rhizome contains (per cent): starch and
related compounds (4-60), crude protein (10-20), crude fibre (2-10) and a
small amount of minerals.
Within a local cultivar these proportions vary little, since vegetative
propagation limits major variation. Analyses of Indian rhizomes gave the
following percentages by dry weight (average in brackets): moisture 8.5-
16.5 (10.9), crude protein 10.3-15.0 (12.4), crude fibre 4.8-9.8 (7.2),
starch 40.4-59.0 ( 5 9 , water extract 14.4-25.8 (19.6), cold alcohol extract
3.6-9.3 (6.0), acetone extract 3.9-9.3 (6.5), volatile oil 1.0-2.7 (1.8), while
analyses of 30 cultivars gave a fibre content of 3.5-7.6% (Nybe et al., 1979).

Fig. 14.2. Ginger plant showing rhizomes, Australia


Zingiberaceae 543

A high fibre content is a major disadvantage when rhizomes are used as spice
or preserved.
Starch occurs as ovate to subrectangular granules, ta 45 X 24 microns,
which are normally absent from young rhizomes but occur in pith and to a
lesser extent inner cortex of mature rhizomes. Ginger distillation residue in
India contained 50-55% starch which could be recovered by processing.
Meat cooked with slices of fresh rhizome is often more tender due to the
action of a proteolytic enzyme, zingibain, and 1 g obtained from 40 g fresh
rhizome is sufficient to tenderize 10 kg meat; the antioxidant effect of
rhizome extracts on meat has been noted (Lee et al. , 1986). The rhizome is
further discussed at the end of this section and under harvesting and
distilling.
Shoots arise from the rhizome, and in China, Korea and Japan the small
shoots are especially relished and red-shooted ginger Z. rniogu is cultivated
specifically for this purpose; it is currently being grown in New Zealand for
export to Japan. The ontogeny of shoot apices has been studied in detail
(Shah and Raju, 1975). The effect of growth regulators on ginger has been
investigated (Furutani and Nagao, 1986) but their use is of little practical
value and may leave residues in plant parts Uayachandran and Sethumadha-
van, 1988). The stems (pseudostems) are slender, erect, to 100 cm but
generally 50 cm, 5-10 mm in diameter, glabrous except for short hairs near
the base of leaf blades, bearing 8-12 distichous leaves. The leaves are mid-
green above, paler below, measuring 5-25 X 1-3 cm. The lamina is thin,
subsessile, linear-lanceolate, the base obtuse or rounded, narrowing evenly
to a slender tip, with a pronounced midrib. The ligule is up to 5 mm, broad,
thin, glabrous and slightly bilobed.
The inflorescence is carried on a slim leafless stem, 15-25 cm, generally
arising directly from the rootstock. The scape is slender, 10-20 cm, the
upper sheaths with or without short leafy tips. The inflorescence is cylindri-
cal, cone shaped, 4-7 X 1.5-2.5 cm diameter. The bracts are appressed,
ovate or elliptic 2-3 X 1.5-2.0 cm, green with a pale submarginal band, the
lower with slender white tips. The flowers are axillary in each bract and
short-lived. The calyx is 1-1.2 cm long, thin, tubular, spathaceous and
three-lobed. The corolla tube is 2-2.5 cm long with three yellowish lobes,
the dorsal measuring 1.5-2.5 cm X 8 mm and curved over the anther. The
labellum is roughly circular, 1.O-1.5 cm, dull-purple with a cream-blotched
base; the side lobes are 6 X 4 mm wide, ovate-oblong, free almost to the
base, and coloured as the midlobe. The stamen filament is short and broad,
the anther cream-coloured, 9 mm. The dark purple 7 mm connective is
prolonged to a slender beak-like appendage, containing the upper section of
the style, and the stigma protrudes below the apex. The ovary is inferior and
trilocular with several ovules per loculus. Pollen morphology and structure
of a number of Zingiber spp. has been determined (Theilade et al., 1993).
Flowering is a cultivar characteristic; some flower rarely, others regularly,
544 Chapter 14

especially when grown undisturbed as perennials. A detailed description of


flowering in one Indian cultivar has been published (Pillai et al., 1978). The
fruit, rarely produced, is a thin-walled, three-valve capsule containing sev-
eral small black, angled, arillate seeds whose viability is usually very low.
Cleanly peeled whole dried rhizomes are the most common form of ginger
offered for retail sale in the UK. Powdered spice is usually prepared in UK
from lower grades of clean-peeled ginger, but other European countries and
the USA frequently, and the U K to a limited extent, use unpeeled ginger.
Unpeeled whole, split or sliced rhizomes are used in powdered mixed spice.
All types may be used for oil distillation and oleoresin extraction, but coated
rhizomes are the most extensively used; the preferred material to produce oil
is coated Nigerian splits, followed by Cochin, then Jamaican. Many coun-
tries produce dried ginger but only Jamaica, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, India,
Australia and China in quantities large enough to be internationally traded.
Oil is produced mainly from their cultivars, and thus there is considerable
variation in oil yield, characteristics and composition (Table 14.1). Oil from
27 Indian cultivars gave the following (all at 24°C): yield 0.9-2.50%,
refractive index 1.4898-1.4988, optical rotation -34.4' to -49O, specific
gravity 0,8474-0.8 720.
A major factor influencing oil yield is whether rhizomes are peeled or
unpeeled, since oil-containing cells are especially numerous in the epidermal
tissue, thus peeled or scraped rhizomes have less oil. A comparison of whole
dried rhizomes and scrapings in India gave an oil yield of 2.0 and 0.9%
respectively, illustrating not only the substantial oil loss which occurs but the
viability of distilling peelings, whose oil has different characteristics to
rhizome oil. The characteristics of ginger oil from selected origins are shown
in Table 14.2, including peelings oil. Variation in optical rotation is notable,

Table 14.1. Ginger oil from selected countries.

Rhizome Flavour and odour Oil yield (% viw) Extractsa ("h)


Indian (Cochin) Light brown partly Lemonlike 2.2 4.25
peeled
Jamaican Buff, peeled Delicate 1.o 4.4
African Dark, partly peeled Pungent, slightly 1.6 7.2
(Sierra Leone) camphoraceous
Nigerian Light, partly peeled Very pungent, 2.5 6.5
fibrous camphoraceous
flavour
Japanese Dark unpeeled Flat, lemony 2.0 4.6
Chinese Pale brown unpeeled Mild, lemony 2.5 ng
Australian Light brown, unpeeled Strongly, lemony 2.5 ng
aEthylene dichloride; ng, not given.
Source: Mathew et al. (1973); Connell (1970)
Zingiberaceae 545

Table 14.2. Ginger oil characteristics from selected countries.

Indiana
Jamaican
Whole Peelings Malaysian (average) USA (EOA)
Specific 0.8905 0.870 0.878 0.871
gravity (“C) (30) 0.880 (23) 0.886 (25) 0.882 (25)
Refractive 1.4859 1.4870 1.489 1.488
index (“C) (30) 1.4880 (23) 1.496 (25) 1.494 (20)
Optical -5”12‘ -35” -30” -28”
rotation (“C) (30) -45”(23) -35’ (25) -45O (20)
Acid value 0.90 ng 3.5-4.9 ng
Ester value 6-1 0 ng 16-1 9 ng
Ester number 72.2 ng “g ng
after acetylation
Saponification < 20
value
aCochin; ng, not given: EOA, Essential Oil Association,
Figures in columns are range: there is very wide variation in analyses.

typical, and related to age of rhizome and period of exposure to air and light
during storage. The main oil constituents are, in per cent: zingiberenes to
40, alpha-circumene to 20, farnesene to 9 and sesquiterpene alcohols to 18;
monoterpenes represent about 1% and are important in determining the
final aroma.
The pungent constituents determining taste and flavour of ginger oil have
been widely investigated (Purseglove et al., 198 1; Lawrence, 1984). One
analysis gave the following (per cent wiw): 6-ginger01 11.88, 8-ginger01
1.67; 6-shogaol 0.08, 10-ginger01 2.38 (Chen et al., 1986). Analysis by
electrospray mass spectometry confirmed the leading role of 6-gingerol, and
that supercritical carbon dioxide extraction gave an oil which contained the
pungent and volatile compounds of the original rhizome (Bartley 1995).
These pungent compounds are present in well-prepared rhizomes, but can
be substantially reduced by poor post-harvest handling or improper distill-
ing. A pungency comparison of rhizomes from various origins based on these
constituents is shown in Table 14.3. The substantial differences in yield,
aroma, flavour and pungency between the various types of ginger is reflected
in the character of the resultant oleoresin (McHale et al., 1989).

Ecology
Ginger is native to moist tropical regions of South East Asia, and commer-
cial production is limited to regions lying mainly between the Tropics of
Capricorn and Cancer. So popular is the spice that ginger is now cultivated
as an annual much more widely than originally considered possible, but the
546 Chapter 14

Table 14.3. Pungency components of ginger rhizomes (%).

6-G 8-G 10-G 6-S


Brazil F 1.11 0.16 0.24 0.06
Brazil D 0.81 0.12 0.20 0.17
India F 2.44 0.24 0.26 0.05
India D 0.99 0.07 0.10 0.10
Indonesia F 1.10 0.16 0.21 0.01
Jamaica F 2.21 0.15 0.45 0.05
Kenya F 0.74 0.13 0.21 0.01
Nigeria D 0.61 0.09 0.15 0.11
F, fresh; D, dry; G, gingerol; S, shogaol.
Source: Derived from Steinegger and Stucki (1982).

bulk of rhizomes entering world trade still come from the tropics. A rainfall
of 2500-3000 mm well distributed over the year is the optimum, but
1500-2000 mm will produce good crops with supplementary irrigation.
Ginger seldom succeeds as a mainly irrigated crop since the necessary
humidity and soil moisture cannot usually be profitably maintained. Warm
sunny conditions are preferred, but in hot, dry periods especially when the
temperature exceeds 30"C, young unshaded plants may be scorched. A
temperature above 37OC without high humidity can cause severe foliar
damage at all growth stages and if the soil is also dry, rhizomes will be
damaged and may die.
When grown as a small farmer crop and rhus frequently interplanted
among taller plants, ginger benefits from their shade during very hot periods,
but it is generally considered shading per se is unnecessary. The short term
effect of high air or soil temperature is best ameliorated using other methods,
including sprinkler irrigation or heavy mulching. Australian growers apply
water at a low 2.5-3.0 mmihour via overhead rotary sprinklers from 10 am to
3 pm during October-December to protect young plants. A ground tem-
perature of 25530°C is the optimum for initial rhizome growth, and al-
though this occurs at the correct time of planting in tropical regions, it may
not in other ginger growing areas. In Australia, soil temperature at 10 cm
frequently does not reach the optimum until several months after the normal
planting season and delays full emergence by up to 6 weeks. Thus low soil
temperatures at or following planting could be an important constraint on
commercial ginger production where the time available to produce a crop is
limited. Irrigating immediately following planting may also have a similar
effect on soil temperature, but could be an advantage where soil temperature
is above the optimum. Frost at any stage of growth will kill foliage and
rhizomes at or near the soil surface. In areas where frost is common as in the
hill regions of India and China, annual ginger is harvested before frosts
occur.
Zingiberaceae 54 7

Ginger is normally grown at low altitudes, but altitude is apparently of


little importance provided other conditions are favourable, since ginger
grows well in Assam to 1500 m and on Jamaica to 1000 m . High winds can
damage mature plants but are normally of little importance. In areas where
there are strong prevailing winds, shelter-belts or rows of tall plants between
sections of ginger will provide protection.

Soils and fertilizers


A friable fertile loam of no great depth is the most suitable for annual ginger
since rhizomes and roots proliferate in the top 25 cm. A major requirement
is that soils should be permeable or artificially drained, since ginger is very
susceptible to water-logging. Ginger is, however, very adaptable, and almost
any soil will produce an acceptable rhizome yield with good management as
in India, where ginger is grown on sandy and clay loams, tropical red earths
derived from laterite and drained paddy-fields following the rice harvest.
Volcanic soils are favoured on Mauritius and other Indian Ocean islands,
but silty clay loams on Madagascar. In West Africa, forest soils were
originally favoured but are now less available.
In Jamaica, ginger is grown mainly on hilly land unsuitable for other crops,
generally clay loams over limestone or conglomerates. Moderate to heavy
clays are utilized in Australia. Ginger is frequently grown on alluvial soils or
drained paddy fields in China, Taiwan and Japan, or specially drained
marshy areas to produce ginger shoots and young green ginger. Soil type can
affect rate of growth and thus time to maturity of rhizomes; for instance on
calcareous soils in north-east India oil content was highest in cultivar Rio de
Janeiro at 180-210 days, compared to 240-260 days on more clayey soils of
southern India (Maurya et al., 1984).
Soil of p H 6.0-7.0 is preferred and very alkaline and very saline soils are
generally unsuitable, but ginger will grow with reduced vigour at higher or
lower levels. While the quoted p H range is usually considered the optimum,
ginger can tolerate much lower levels; in a nutrient solution of p H 3.3 yield
was half that at p H 6.5, which field trials confirmed (Islam et al., 1980). Acid
soils in Queensland, Australia’s main ginger growing region, are normally
limed annually to adjust soil reaction to p H 6.5; in India lime is normally
applied only on larger plantations. An interesting use of lime was in Ma-
laysia, where 4-5 t/ha of magnesium limestone plus an NPK mixture and
17 kg copper sulphate, applied to an acid peat, produced a green rhizome
yield of 18 t/ha (Chew, 1969).
Total nutrient removal per hectare by a ginger crop has apparently not
been accurately determined, but it must be substantial since average rhizome
yields of 20-40 t/ha are common, and up to 120 t/ha at experimental stations,
in addition to the dense foliage. In Mauritius, ginger extracted 80.5 kg N to
548 Chapter 14

produce 30 t of fresh rhizomes (Mamet, 1972). Nutrients should be easily


available since absorption is most rapid during early growth, thus phosphate
should be in a water-soluble form particularly on slightly acid soils; subse-
quently the rate of nutrient uptake is closely correlated with increase in
rhizome size. Forming beds with topsoil concentrates the nutrients available
on shallow soils, plus soil from termite mounds in Africa. In Himachal
Pradesh State, India, commercial ginger growers apply up to 40 tiha of
animal manure annually prior to planting and a top-dressing of 10 t/ha well-
rotted manure 2-3 months later. In West Africa where animal manure is less
available in large quantities, 3-5 tiha is common.
Night soil in large (but unspecified) amounts is applied in China before
planting and as a top-dressing. Where castor pomace is easily available in
India, up to 5 tiha is applied, half before planting and half as a top-dressing.
The value of castor pomace as a top-dressing depends mainly on its nitrogen
content, to 6%; pomace also contains significant amounts of phosphate but
less potash (Weiss, 1971). In Australia, up to 200 tiha of mill mud (a
phosphate-rich sugar-cane processing residue) or aged poultry manure to 10
tiha is applied. Such bulky materials should preferably be ploughed-in well
before planting and where ginger is grown on ridges or mounds, incorpo-
rated during their construction. Green manure crops to increase soil fertility
or water-holding capacity in drier regions are of value, but their profitability
must be established compared to other methods. Green manure or cover
crops are usual in Australia, to which mill mud or poultry manure are
applied to enable decomposition to be well advanced before planting gin-
ger.
The effect of fertilizers on rhizome composition has been little reported,
the most common remark is that no fertilizer used had any significant effect
on fibre content. In India, high nitrogen rates occasionally depressed oil
content, and the effect of various N levels on certain rhizome characteristics
in Mauritius is shown in Table 14.4. Moisture content at harvest was
7 0 4 0 % ; on a dry weight basis fibre was 3.6-8.1, ash 2.9-5.8 and ether
extract 2.9-5.2 (Owadally et al., 1981).
Fertilizers as NPK mixtures are commonly applied to the seedbed and,
when manufactured locally, are known as ginger mixtures; common ratios
are, India 8:8:16, Fiji 13:13:21 and Australia 12:14:10. Nitrogen placed in
the seedbed at planting generally increases rhizome yield, and at least one
third of the total nitrogen requirement should be so applied, the remainder
in one, two or sometimes three top-dressings. A total of 100 kg Niha will
normally be required. In India, the first top-dressing is usually 40-60 days
after planting, the second around 90-1 00 days. In Australia, three similar
applications are made at almost equal intervals over crop growth but up to
ten applications when supplied via irrigation equipment.
The end product required directly influences the amount of nitrogen used;
in Australia, where rhizomes are harvested at several levels of maturity for
Zingiberaceae 549

Table 14.4. Effect of varying nitrogen levels on rhizome characteristics in Mauritius

Mean moisture (%) Mean fibre (% DM) Mean ash (% DM) Mean ether extract (U DM)
Na 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 1973 1971 1972 1973
0 80.7 74.4 73.0 5.83 4.18 8.13 5.78 4.83 3.75 3.63 4.68 5.18
20 79.7 73.1 72.4 5.33 3.98 6.85 5.75 3.98 3.30 3.28 4.08 4.78
40 79.6 72.4 73.8 5.00 4.08 580 5.25 4.33 2.88 3.45 3.78 4.73
60 79.8 72.2 73.1 5.53 3.90 6.63 5.80 4.35 3.48 2.95 3.88 5.25
80 79.1 70.6 74.4 5.05 3.58 6.28 5.63 4.00 3.15 3.13 3.90 5.05
akgiarpent.
Source: Owadally eta/. (1981).

different end uses, up to 350 kg N/ha in multiple applications is profitable.


The effect of varying the number of applications on nitrogen recovery and
rhizome yield is important to ensure optimum usage. Placing all N in the
seedbed in Queensland increased rhizome yield from 35 to 49 dha; from split
applications, yield at early and late harvest increased from 32 to 49 tiha and
50 to 76 tiha respectively. Recovery of N in shoots plus rhizomes can be low
when all N is applied in the seedbed, but rises progressively when the same
amount is supplied in several applications (Lee and Asher, 198l), or delayed
until plants are making vigorous growth (Xu et al., 1993). The type of N
fertilizer is of little importance, but large amounts of ammonium sulphate are
best avoided on more acidic soils. In Australia, urea, ammonium nitrate and
ammonium sulphate in that order were most profitable (Lee and Asher,
1981). Phosphate, usually as superphosphate, should be applied in the
seedbed and generally at a similar level to nitrogen. On some tropical soils
there can be a high residual effect and if this is proved to be so locally the
annual amount of phosphate can be reduced. The high rate of phosphate in
relation to nitrogen which is frequently applied is notable, and indicates the
necessity for trials to determine the optimum level, and ratio between the
three main nutrients.
It is essential to determine the optimum level of potassium required, since
ginger’s reaction to this nutrient is often unpredictable. Too little retards
growth, especially with higher rates of nitrogen and phosphate, too much
frequently has no beneficial effect and wastes money. The optimum amount
must be determined in relation to levels of nitrogen and phosphate required,
since both affect the uptake of potassium. In many areas, high rates of
potassium are applied especially in the compound mixtures previously
quoted, but annual application at these rates may not be justified since there
can be a substantial residual effect. In Australia, applications are directly
related to the level of available soil potassium. Potassium is normally applied
in the seedbed or spread and worked in prior to planting, but can be in two
550 Chapter 14

equal applications, at planting and approximately 3 months later. In Aus-


tralia, three almost equal applications are made, in the seedbed, at 3 and 2
months later. T o use one or more applications should be judged entirely on
the profitability of so doing. The potassic fertilizer chosen is generally of little
importance, but on some soils chloride-free types are advantageous.
There is little data on the effect of minor and trace elements on plant
growth or rhizome yield, but where a response has been shown to occur on
other local root crops, it will probably also affect ginger. This is especially so
with high rates of applied potassium, when a magnesium deficiency can be
induced. Very large lime applications to correct soil acidity may result in
iron, manganese and boron deficiencies late in growth; the very small
amounts necessary can be easily incorporated in the compound fertilizer
chosen at very little additional cost.

Cultivation
Ginger is grown from small farmer level to large-scale fully mechanized
operations, to service a range of markets. This section is concerned only with
ginger grown to produce whole dried rhizomes for oil and oleoresin.
When grown by small farmers, the land is cleared of major vegetation
which is dried and burnt, then hoed and weeds heaped round ginger hills.
On a larger scale, cleared land is first dug over or ploughed to control weed
growth then ridged, either manually or mechanically. These ridges normally
include a layer of manure or weeds at the base, and vary in size to suit the
locality. For the following season’s crop, weeds and manure are placed in the
channel and ridges on each side split to build the new ridge. Several rows of
rhizomes at whatever inter-plant distance is favoured are planted on each
ridge, and may be mulched to prevent over heating and suppress weeds. A
monthly weeding is normally required, and fertilizers applied according to
local experience and cash resources of the farmer.
Ginger is often underplanted in giant castor, coconut, orange and young
coffee and high, light shade can be beneficial; in India ginger planted under
6-year-old arecanut trees gave a higher rhizome yield than under 2-year-old
trees and in the open (Sankar and Muthuswamy, 1984). In mature tree
plantations, the beneficial effect of partial shade can, however, be offset by
root competition. Ginger is also frequently intercropped but this is not to be
recommended where it is a main cash crop. Benefits which may result from
the partial shading and soil cover are generally outweighed by a reduction in
rhizome yield. Interplanting ginger with maize and dwarf beans in South
Africa reduced rhizome yield by 80 and 60% respectively compared to
mulched ginger (Anon., 1979). Intercropping with Sesbania spp. to provide
light shade for young plants was beneficial in southern India, and the
Sesbania later cut to provide mulch. Growers also alternate several rows of
ginger and other crops: in West Africa, maize or yams; in Taiwan and China,
Zingiberaceae 55 1

soya beans or vegetables; in India, maize, pulses or chillies; on Caribbean


islands, yams, chillies and vegetables.
T o reduce the incidence of pests and soil borne disease, a rotation to
ensure ginger is grown only once in 3-4 years is recommended by many local
agricultural departments. In India and Sri Lanka, suitable crops are cassava,
sweet potatoes, yams or chillies, but for irrigated ginger a rotation of 6 years
is recommended to include betel vine, plantains, sugarcane, maize and
various vegetable crops. In the Caribbean, 2-3 years ginger followed by 2
years of soybean, chillies, vegetables or similar crops is recommended. In
Australia where ginger is continuously cropped, soil and rhizomes are
fumigated to reduce nematode and disease build-up.
Where ginger is a major cash crop as in India, Sri Lanka, China, West
Africa and the Caribbean, cultivations are by draught animals or small
tractors, but Australian growers are fully mechanized and machinery is
becoming larger, more specialized and efficient. Whatever system is used the
basic operations are similar; land should be thoroughly ploughed, and pre-
planting operations aim at maximum weed reduction, removal of roots and
previous crop residue. Subsequent cultivation should produce the fine tilth
required to produce well-shaped, clean rhizomes. Fields may be ridged prior
to planting, or the two operations combined. When ginger is sown on
hillsides, ridging on the contour, use of terraces and mulching is necessary,
and failure to do so results in the gullies so common on unprotected hillsides
in Jamaica and West Africa.
Ginger is usually vegetatively propagated from small portions of rhizome
(setts or seed pieces) from the previous year’s harvest, but can also be
micropropagated using meristems, rhizome sections or tissue culture (Hos-
oki and Sagawa, 1977; Babu et al., 1993). Since 4-10 t of setts are required
to plant 1 ha, adequate and suitable storage is very important, and there are
many methods. Probably the easiest is to leave a section of field unharvested,
cut the foliage to ground level and cover plants with a thick mulch; rhizomes
are dug when required. A widely used system is pit storage. In India fully
mature healthy rhizomes are soaked in a fungicide solution, shade-dried,
then placed in pits to within 10-15 cm of the top. Each pit is then covered
with planks, the centre having a small hole; planks are then plastered with
mud to seal the pit, leaving only the hole open. Pits vary from 3.0 to 5.0 m
deep, are rendered smooth inside and recently also lined with plastic.
Smoking rhizomes once or twice before placing in the pits reduces the
incidence of disease.
A common practice in Kerala is to preserve seed ginger in smoke houses;
rhizomes are first dipped in a thick solution of cow dung, dried and spread
on bamboo mats raised on supports to allow the smoke to circulate freely.
The room is sealed and smoked periodically until rhizomes are removed
about a fortnight before planting. This technique causes some desiccation
and loss of viability. In other areas small heaps of rhizomes are placed on
552 Chapter 14

sand beds in the corner of rooms and covered with more sand. Provided the
heaps are kept dry and examined regularly to remove those diseased, the
rhizomes remain sound until planting.
T o inhibit sprouting, weight loss or to control diseases during pre-sowing
storage, rhizomes can be waxed, chemically treated, or irradiated prior to
storage (Paul1 et al., 1988; Yusof, 1990; Wu and Yang, 1994). Cold storage
is not recommended as rhizome viability is gradually reduced and may be
zero after very short periods below 0°C (Ra et al., 1989). In Australia, good
quality rhizomes are kept in controlled storage to provide material to sow a
nursery in advance of main planting, and also to store superior clonal
material for multiplication. In general, setts 3-6 cm long or 30-60 g have
proved most successful, and many trials have shown a significantly higher
yield is obtained from larger setts (Table 14.5, which also shows the effect of
plant population on yield). There are distinct cultivar differences and in
some regions of India setts up to 150 g gave highest yield, but Jamaican
growers prefer setts with six buds irrespective of size.
Planting is usually manual by small farmers but is easily mechanized, and
a variety of small planters available. On large estates, lands are ridged or
bedded, fertilizer applied and setts placed by fully automatic equipment in
one operation. Depth of planting is not critical and 5-12 cm is common.
However, previous remarks on soil temperature are apposite, and fungicidal
treatment recommended. A row width of 25-30 cm but up to 50 cm
depending on bed size is normal, with in-row spacing of 15-35 cm. Row
spacing is also governed by harvesting machinery and thus three rows are
normally sown per bed and dug together. Accurate in-row spacing is not
necessary provided the optimum number of setts is sown, since ginger tends
to expand to fill the area available. About 8-10 t ha of setts are required on

Table 14.5. Effects of cultivar, population and sett size on yield


and mean knob size of two cultivars in Australia.

Treatment Yield (kgiplot) Mean knob size (9)


Cultivar
Queensland 52.9 23.1
Fijian 56.2 29.2
Spacing (cm)a
11.2 63.8 26.7
17.0 55.3 26.2
22.4 44.6 25.6
Sett size (9)
42.5 48.3 24.6
85.5 60.8 27.7
' In 60 cm rows; knob, part of rhizome.
Source: Whiley (1 gal),
Zingiberaceae 553

fully mechanized Queensland estates; under less intensive conditions in


India and Sri Lanka 1.5-4 tiha is sufficient, as the raised bed system of
cultivation reduces the area sown. On Mauritius the optimum was 38 X 38
cm square spacing, approximately 60,000 pph. Five different in-row spac-
ings of 55,000 to 166,000 pph showed the superiority of close over wide
spacing on Fiji, with 60 X 10 cm producing highest green rhizome yield; 60
X 30 cm gave the highest yield per plant but could not compensate for the
low plant density (Sivan, 1979).
The time of planting is important since the soil must be moist and not dry
out once setts are sown and, in general, the earlier in the season the crop is
planted the higher the yield, especially with raingrown crops. Recom-
mended sowing times are: in India, east March, south April, north March-
April; Sri Lanka, March-April; April-May in Jamaica and other Caribbean
islands; September in Queensland, Fiji and neighbouring islands;
December-January in Mauritius; March-April in Taiwan and April-May in
China; April-May in West Africa. Soil temperature at planting should be
20°C, preferably 25"C, but not above 30°C. Emergence depends on depth
of planting and cultivar, but the majority of plants should emerge in 14-28
days (average 20 days). If emergence is delayed or erratic, better selection or
storage of seed material is indicated, or more attention to soil conditions.
There are local exceptions to this general observation; in Australia full
emergence can be 6 weeks after planting for the reasons stated previously.
When fresh green rhizomes are used as planting material other factors may
affect viability and emergence; in Ghana, fresh rhizomes had a variable
dormancy period that affected germination and subsequent yield. Use of
growth-promotors to hasten emergence is normally unnecessary although
effective; setts treated with Ethrel increased root and shoot growth with
more regular emergence in Australia, but in India gamma irradiation sig-
nificantly reduced shoot growth and rhizome yield (Giridharan and Bal-
nakrishnan, 1991). Where the time available to produce a ginger crop is
limited, a method of hastening germination is necessary, and in Taiwan,
China and Japan this is by pre-sprouting setts; these may be spread on sacks,
straw or similar insulating material and enclosed wholly or partially by
polythene sheeting to raise the internal temperature. Taiwanese and Chi-
nese growers also construct hot-beds of well-rotted manure and cover these
with plastic or straw on which the setts are placed to encourage sprouting.
Once planted, ginger must be kept free of weeds until its foliage is
sufficiently dense to suppress weed growth. Hand-weeding is common, and
exposed rhizomes are covered at the same time. Manual or mechanical
weeding should be as shallow as possible to avoid rhizome damage. The
following herbicides correctly used caused little or no crop damage: ala-
chlor+chlorambe, atrazine alone and plus metolachlor, fluometuron, sima-
zine, and 2,4-D pre-emergence; diuron, monuron, and directed sprays of
glyphosate post-emergence. Influencing the greater use of herbicides in
554 Chapter 14

small farmer crops is the absence or increasing cost of non-family labour.


Since weeding is essential to obtain a high yield of good quality rhizomes,
inability to control weeds or the cost of employing casual labour is becoming
a significant factor in ginger production.
Most small farmer ginger is raingrown, but larger growers and mecha-
nized crops are partially irrigated, since a water shortage during growth
results in a lower yield of smaller, more fibrous rhizomes. Irrigation can also
be used to ensure high humidity in the crop, and prevent sunburn. Water is
most commonly applied via channels or furrows which separate the ginger
beds, with overhead sprinklers or rainguns equally effective but more ex-
pensive. The method of application is usually unimportant provided an
adequate soil-moisture level is maintained over the growing period; as a
guide this must be equivalent to 1500-2000 mm rainfall. When irrigation
water is not available or topography precludes its use, mulching to conserve
soil moisture can substantially increase rhizome yield or quality; in Assam,
mulching with green leaves two or three times doubled rhizome yield to
15,700 kgiha. Mulching is also popular to reduce soil temperature and a
variety of materials are used, including sugarcane trash, rice husks or straw,
sawdust and plastic film. Decomposition of plant material provides some
plant nutrients but when sawdust is used the amount of nitrogen applied as
a top-dressing should be increased; in Australia urea is favoured at 600-750
kgiha.

Harvesting
Rhizomes are left to mature and develop their full aroma, flavour and
pungency when required for oil. Time to harvest thus varies with locality and
cultivar, and is based mainly on local experience. Leaving rhizomes too long
in the ground reduces oil and oleoresin content and may affect pungency;
thus the optimum period for harvesting in a particular locality must be
accurately determined. In southern India and Sri Lanka maximum oil and
oleoresin content occurred 245-265 days after planting; in northern India
180-220 days; in Taiwan and China 230-255 days; in Australia 270-290
days. In Hawaii, oleoresin was constant at 1% (fresh-weight basis) over 34
weeks of rhizome growth, but the important 6-ginger01principle was highest
on a dry-weight basis at 16 weeks (Baranowski, 1986).
The rate of oil increase and ratios of various constituents over time require
more investigation, but fibre development has received considerable atten-
tion and although the initial rate is slow, once rhizomes approach physio-
logical maturity it rapidly increases. In Australia, when green rhizomes reach
approximately 50% commercial fibre content by weight, daily fibre deposi-
tion became 1% by weight. So important is the fibre level in rhizomes to be
used as preserved or green ginger that Australian crops are monitored daily
to ensure the commercial limit of 40-45% fibre-free flesh is not exceeded
Zingiberaceae 555

(Fig. 14.3). Fresh weight of rhizomes gradually increases to 170 days after
planting in Fiji, but rose quickly thereafter to 224 days, with fibre content
also increasing faster over the latter period (Sivan, 1379). Oil content of
mature rhizomes generally tends to be in inverse ratio to fibre content, but
the rate of oil loss during maturation has not been determined. The propor-
tion of oil often tends to fall with the age of the rhizome, and not merely in
relation to total fibre. Both cultivar and season may have a direct influence
and there is evidence that these relationships can be very localized. In
Australia, the volatile oil content normally increases from 2 to 4.5% on a
dry-weight basis over the 4 month harvesting period, but remains fairly
constant at about 0.4% on a green weight basis.
Harvesting is usually manual, plants being carefully lifted from the soil to
prevent rhizome damage. At maturity much of the foliage has withered and
presents few problems. Harvesting in Australia is fully mechanized using
special equipment and this is becoming more common elsewhere. In India,

Fig. 14.3. Harvesting ginger for preserving, Australia.


556 Chapter 14

only partial mechanization is practised, with rhizomes being loosened me-


chanically to assist hand-lifting. Mechanization affects the method of culti-
vation, since beds or rows must be spaced to suit the number of rows
harvesting equipment can cover; three-row machines are the most common.
Whatever method of lifting is used, rhizomes must be handled with care to
prevent damage, since breaks in the skin not only allow infection by
pathogenic fungi but loss of volatile oil.
Following lifting, rhizomes are washed and roots removed, killed, dried
and stored. Killing is easily carried out by immersion in boiling water for
about 10 minutes. It is sufficient to state that these operations should be
performed as soon as practical after lifting, and any method which ensures
clean, whole, dried rhizomes are quickly delivered to store is acceptable.
Mechanization of these operations has been mainly limited to drying, and
although mechanical washing and drying is possible most small producers
rely on traditional methods. Where sun-drying is not possible wood-fuelled
driers are used, but recently solar-heated driers have been introduced.
Weight-loss during drying is 60-70% to reduce moisture content to
7-1 2%; under controlled conditions, artificial drying minimizes loss of
volatile oil and pungency. The method and type of drying affects not only the
yield of oil, but also its odour (Table 14.6); oil with the finest aroma was
obtained from fresh green ginger or from freeze-dried ginger (Mathew et al.,
1973). Peeling, scraping, slicing, bleaching and similar treatments which
produce edible or preserving ginger should not be used on rhizomes destined
for oil or oleoresin production.
Rhizome yield is basically determined by the cultivar grown, and thus
agronomic and climatic factors can only assist in obtaining the highest yield.
No genetically governed low-yielding cultivar can produce a higher rhizome
yield than a high-yielding cultivar grown under the same conditions. This

Table 14.6. Effect of drying method on yield and quality of ginger oil

Yield from Refractive Specific Optical


dry ginger index gravity rotation
Treatment (%v/w) (29°C) (29°C) (29°C) Odour
Vacuum freeze-drying 1.7 1.4915 0.8377 -39.7O Lemon-like
Cross-flow drying 1.6 1.4919 0.8311 -43.8O Faint lemon-
like
Sun-drying 1.5 1.4910 0.8318 -42.2O Flat, no lemon
odour
No drying: fresh green 2.0a 1.4893 0.8221 -30.9O Lemon-like
Commercial dry ginger 1.7 1.4872 0.8301 -40.4O Flat, no lemon
(whole) odour
aCalculated on dry basis.
Source. Adapted from Mathew et al. (1973)
Zingiberaceae 557

may sound obvious, but the author has seen a high degree of management
skill wasted on low-yielding types when much higher yields could have been
obtained using another cultivar at lower total inputs! The reason usually
stated is tradition or local consumer preference. For example in Kerala,
India, dry rhizome yield from common local cultivars is 2-6 tiha, average
2-3 t/ha, but nearly 10 t/ha from high-yielding selections available from the
local agricultural experimental farm. The substantial differences in rhizome
yield and oil content between Indian cultivars is well documented, and
indicates the considerable potential to increase oil yield.
Yield from small farmer ginger crops is generally below 3 tiha dried
rhizomes, indeed in Africa and the Caribbean it seldom exceeds 2 tiha. As in
India, yields obtained a t local experimental stations and by more skilled
growers are frequently several times the local average, emphasizing the
potential for greatly increased production at little or no additional cost.
Australian specialist growers regularly obtain 10-1 5 t/ha dry rhizomes and
up to 150 t/ha green from selected strains; the ratio of green to dry ginger is
roughly 5 to 1. Similarly to yield, the oil or oleoresin content of rhizomes and
their characteristic odour and pungency are genetically controlled. Increases
can be achieved only by planting selected cultivars possessing the optimum
combination of these factors, but only in Australia has this been achieved on
a commercial scale.
Differences in composition of freshly harvested, whole rhizomes have
already been noted, and the range in commercial dried rhizomes is well
documented. Fibre, volatile oil content and pungency level are the most
important criteria in determining suitability for a particular product. Young,
tender rhizomes, about 5-7 months after planting are preferred for pre-
served ginger since the fibre content is negligible and the pungency mild. As
rhizomes mature, volatile oil, pungent constituents and fibre increase. The
volatile-oil content of Australian dried rhizomes increases from 1.8 to 4.4%,
with the mid-season crop preferred for oil or oleoresin, the late-season for
dried spice.
The extent to which rhizomes are cleaned prior to drying directly affects
volatile oil and fibre content. Removal of the cork skin reduces fibre content
but also enhances oil loss through rupture of the surface oil cells; thus cleanly
peeled Jamaican ginger generally has a lower oil and fibre content. Peeling
rhizomes also influences pungency, as the constituents concerned are mainly
located in the outer skin layers. The fibre content of unpeeled dry rhizomes
can be 10%, but in commercial dried ginger it is usually 1.5-6.0%, with the
pungent constituents, gingerols, in freshly dried rhizomes 1-2%.

Distillation
For steam distilling, dried rhizomes are comminuted to a coarse powder
immediately before being loaded into the still; in Sri Lanka the optimum
particle size was 1 mm, with a 1:15 ratio of ground ginger to water. The
558 Chapter 14

charge must be packed evenly, or the powder may be spread on several trays
to ensure complete recovery of the oil. Distilling is by live steam and,
depending on weight of charge and steam pressure, may take up to 20 hours.
Cohobation is normally necessary to obtain maximum oil yield. In Sri Lanka
and India, approximately 70-75% of oil was recovered from dried ground
rhizomes, a further 5-6% by cohobation; from green ginger 50-60%. Oil
yield generally is 1.5-3.0 averaging 2.0%, above 3.0 is exceptional but up to
6.0% can be obtained from selected strains at experimental stations. Chi-
nese oil distilled from dried, coated rhizomes yields 1.5-2.5%, but re-
portedly 4-5% from rhizomes produced in Hunan Province.
The distilled material, ginger marc, can be solvent extracted to produce an
inferior oleoresin, sometimes used as a diluent or adulterant of other
oleoresins or ginger oil. Marc is also dried, powdered and used as an inferior
spice and can be added to stockfeed and, although fibrous, is readily eaten.
Rhizome peelings left after preparing edible ginger should be distilled as
soon as possible, since delays of only a few hours can result in oil loss of
60-70% (Pieris, 1982). A yellow dye can be solvent extracted from ground
rhizomes (Popoola et aZ., 1994).
Ginger oleoresin is obtained by solvent extracting powdered, dried rhi-
zomes, with significant differences in yield, aroma, flavour and pungency
due to rhizome origin, age at harvest, solvent and extraction method.
Jamaican, Sierra Leone, Nigerian, Indian and Australian gingers are all
suitable, although manufacturers choose ginger according to the end use.
Jamaican ginger oleoresin is preferred by soft-drink manufacturers, the meat
industry favours heavier-bodied, more pungent African oleoresin. It is
important that rhizomes for extraction be mould-free, since mycotoxins may
be co-extracted with flavour principles (Pieris, 1982). Well-dried rhizomes
are ground or pulverized to a coarse powder and extracted with the selected
solvent. Using the b a x h counter-current method, the powder is packed in
stainless columns and extracted by cold percolation; compared with other
spices, percolation is notably slow. Fine grinding of rhizomes leads to caking
in the extraction column, resulting in an even slower percolation rate,
although resulting in a higher yield of oleoresin. Fractions of extract contain-
ing not less than 10% soluble solids are drawn off and distilled under
reduced pressure, to lower potential heat damage to the gingerols, since
excessive heat during extraction can degrade them to less pungent shogaols
or weakly pungent zingerone and aliphatic aldehydes.
Common commercial solvents are ethanol, acetone, trichloroethane or
dichloroethane, and the oleoresins produced differ in their characteristics,
odour and flavour. The moisture content of rhizomes may dilute water-
miscible solvents, thus the powder is effectively extracted with a solvent-
water mixture, which extracts non-flavour components including water-
soluble gums. This causes problems during solvent removal and oleoresin
concentration, and sludge may separate out during storage. Conversely, a
Zingiberaceae 559

water-miscible solvent is preferred to extract oleoresin for use in soft drinks,


to ensure certain water-soluble flavouring extractives are present. Super-
critical fluid extraction dissolves the aromatic and pungent principles from
powdered rhizomes in liquid carbon dioxide under high pressure, and these
are then recovered. This technique will probably become more common,
since it produces extracts considered to be nearer to the true ginger flavour
and pungency.
Australian mid-crop ginger is the only commercially available material
selectively harvested for extractors when volatile oil content and pungency
are highest. Jamaican, Sierra Leone, Nigerian and Indian gingers are gen-
erally harvested at full maturity, when volatile oil and other desirable compo-
nents have declined from peak values. Rhizomes thus vary considerably in
oleoresin yield and, as commercial extractors operations are confidential,
most data are from laboratories and probably higher than in commercial
plants. Using acetone the yield from Australian dry rhizomes over a growing
season was 5-1 1%, using ethanol to 20%, and oleoresins from major ginger-
growing areas had an average volatile oil content of 7-28%. Using trichloro-
ethane, yield was 2.6-4% from Indian up to 7.2% from African rhizomes.
Using dichloroethane a typical extraction from 209 kg material gave solvent
36 kg, oleoresin 12.4 kg (a yield of 5.9%), oil content in finished product
34% w/w, residual solvent 30 ppm (Lewis et al., 1972). Solvent extraction
residues have similar uses to ginger marc, dried meal usually contains
10-12% protein and 40-50% starch.

Pests and diseases


Numerous insects have been recorded as damaging ginger, but most are of
minor or local importance (Table 14.7). An aspect of pest control which has
received little attention, but could become of increasing importance, is that
of residues in rhizomes being transferred to the oil, DDT and BHC for
example.
Foliage pests may become damaging in a specific crop or season especially
on interplanted or intercropped ginger, when a polyphagous pest can cause
indiscriminate damage, Heliothis spp. for example. Most often reported are
scale insects especially Aspidiella spp., thrips, various sucking bugs, leaf-
rolling caterpillars, grasshoppers, mites, whiteflies, and lacewing bugs, Ste-
phanitis spp. The most important foliage pest whenever ginger is grown in
Asia, but especially India, is the shoot-borer Dichocrocis punctijeralis, larvae
of the yellow peach moth. This moth is polyphagous, widespread, and with
its near relatives probably causes more damage in other countries than is
currently reported. It occurs on ginger from China, Japan, Taiwan, through
India to Pakistan, Sri Lanka and the Middle East, and south to Australia.
Leaf miners, especially the widely distributed Lema spp., can be damaging in
specific years. Chrysomelid beetles are frequently reported on ginger, but
560 Chapter 14

Table 14.7. Important insect pests of ginger.

Pest Common Name Region


Acrocercops irradians - Asia
Aedidiotus subterraneus Coccid Mauritius
Aspidiella spp. Scale insect AsidAfrica
Aspidiotus destructor Coconut scale a, b
A. sinicus Chinese rose beetle b
Calabota spp. Ginger maggot Asia
Celphus spp. - Asia
Chalcidomyia atricornis Asia
Dichocrocis punctiferalis Shoot borer a, b
Drosophelia spp. Boring larvae Asia
Formosina flavipes - Asia
Hedychrous rufofasciatus - Asia
Lema spp. Criocerine beetles b
Mimegralla coeruleifrons Rhizome fly Asia
Monolepta australis - Australia
Panchaetothrips indica Thrips India
Pantomorus cewinus Fuller's rose beetle a, b
Stephanitis typicus Lace-wing bug b
a, Polyphagous; b, Widespread.

are usually of minor importance; Monolepta australis is confined to Australia


where it is also an important pest of groundnuts.
Insects attacking the rhizome cause varying degrees of damage, from
superficial scoring of the skin to boring the flesh. In general, the degree of
skin damage is slight and of economic importance only where appearance of
rhizomes is a major factor; much more damage can take place during
storage. Nematodes can limit continuous ginger growing, most commonly
Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita and Radopholus similis. Symptoms are
galls on feeder roots, cracks in rhizome skin and small, light-brown water-
soaked lesions in the flesh. Nematode populations increase very rapidly and
can only be adequately controlled by soil fumigation, now routine in
Australia and may become necessary in other countries. Fenamiphos pellets
applied pre-planting in South Africa doubled rhizome yield in land infested
with Meloidogyne spp. (Willers, 1985), while nematode-free material can be
cultured in vitro (Nel, 1986). Damage to rhizome flesh in the field not only
reduces quality; it also allows egress to pathogenic fungi, and this secondary
infection is often more damaging.
Commonly reported is the polyphagous and widely distributed Fuller's
rose beetle, Pantomorus ceminus; adults and larvae eat and bore into rhi-
zomes. The related Adoretus sinicus, Chinese rose beetle, behaves similarly. A
fly whose larvae burrow rhizomes in Asia is Mimegralla coeruleifrons, but
Zingiberaceae 56 1

damage is usually confined to individual rhizomes. Females of small scolytid


beetles bore rhizomes to lay their eggs and larvae damage the flesh; com-
monly reported are the widely distributed Stephanoderes spp. Rhizomes are
attacked by the common pests of stored food products and none are specific
to ginger; if uncontrolled the damage caused can be extensive. Control
should aim at ensuring no infected rhizomes enter stores by treating sacks or
containers with insecticide, while storage areas and buildings should be
regularly fumigated.
Diseases are generally more damaging than insects, as the widespread
transfer of ginger rhizomes and plants on ancient trade routes helped to
spread the pathogens. Thus disease prevention or control is now an essential
component of commercial ginger growing and its neglect is disastrous; soft
rot for example may destroy one third of a particular crop. The most
commonly reported diseases of ginger and causal organisms are shown in
Table 14.8.
Probably the most destructive are rhizome rots and affected rhizomes are
usually destroyed. The main symptom is degeneration of the rhizome body
into a soft, usually almost black, putrefying mass. The main above-ground
symptom is an initial yellowing of leaf tip, sheath and margins, which
gradually spreads over the whole leaf; desiccation and death quickly follow.
Waterlogging or badly drained soils exacerbate the damage. The most
common causal organisms are Pythium spp., Fusarium spp. and Rosellinia
spp., with a specific species being responsible in some countries; P. aphani-
dermatum in India and F. oxysporum f.sp. zingiberi in Australia. The only
satisfactory control method is selection of healthy setts and fungicidal
treatment prior to planting (Das et al., 1990). Ginger should not be grown
on land infected with soft rot fungi except as part of a long rotation or with
regular fumigation. In India various oilseed cakes incorporated in soils
infested with P. aphanidermatum considerably reduced the number of in-
fected rhizomes and increased yield. Dry rots due to Diplodia spp. and
Macrophomina spp. occur in Asia and Trichurus spiralis, a grey rot, in parts of
India. P’rricularia zingiberi, blast, can be important in Japan and controlled
by soil fumigation.
Leaf spots caused by Colletotrichum spp., Helminthosporium spp., Cerco-
spora spp. and Septoria spp. are common and may require chemical control.
Other leaf spots including Glomerella spp., Coniothyrium zingiberi, Phyllosticta
zingiberi, Phaeoseptoria spp., and Xanthomonas zingibericola in the Far East,
are usually of lesser importance except in specific years, and normally
controlled by the chemicals used on outbreaks of more damaging pathogens.
A serious bacterial wilt of lower stems and rhizomes is caused by Pseudomo-
nas solanacearum; symptoms are progressive yellowing and wilting from
lower leaves to the whole plant, and badly affected stems or rhizomes yield a
milky exudate when cut. The disease is widespread, exists in a number of
regional biotypes, and attacks many tropical crops often grown in rotation
562 Chapter 14

with ginger. Resistance exists to some of these diseases, but whether this is
general resistance or merely to the local biotype has yet to be determined.
Rhizomes can also be infected in store, and once this has occurred it is
extremely difficult to control. Only healthy, dry rhizomes treated with a
fungicide should be stored, and regular inspection is essential during pro-
longed storage, especially for seed rhizomes. Bacterial soft rot caused by
Emoinia carotovora is responsible for serious loss of stored rhizomes in
Australia.

Products and speciJications


Jamaican dried ginger generally has 1.O-1.3% volatile and about 4.4% non-
volatile ether extract; distilled oil is used extensively in soft drinks. Nigerian
dried ginger resembles Jamaican ginger but is of lower quality, the aroma
and flavour being coarser with a pronounced camphoraceous note, very

Table 14.8. Some important diseases of ginger.

Causal organism Common name Region


Armillaria mellea Rhizome rot Australia
Cercoseptoria zingiberis Leaf spot Asia
Cercospora spp. Leaf spot Asia
Cochliobolus spp. Leaf spot Asia
Colletotrichum zingiberis Leaf spot Asia
Coniothyrium zingiberi Leaf spot Philippines
Diplodia natalensis Dry rot Asia
Erwinia carotovora Bacterial soft rot Australia
Fusarium roseum Root rot Asia
Glomerella spp. Leaf spot Asia
Helminthosporium maydis Leaf spot Asia
Leptosphaeria zingiberi Leaf blight Asia
Macrophomina phaseolina Dry rot Asia
Memnoniella echinata Black rot Asia
Nectria inventa Red rot Asia
Nectriella zingiberi Leaf spot Philippines
Pellicularia filamentosa Thread blight Asia
Phakopsora spp. Leaf spot Asia
Phyllosticta zingiberi Leaf spot or mosaic Asia
Pseudomonas solanacearum Bacterial wilt W
Pyricularia spp. Leaf spot East Asia
Pythium spp. Soft rot W
Rosellinia spp. Black rot W
Septoria spp. Leaf spot Asia
Jrichurus spiralis Grey rot Asia
Xanthomonas zinqibericola Leaf spot Far East
W, Widespread
Zingiberaceae 563

pungent, with a non-volatile ether extract content 2.0-2.5% and it is in


demand for oil and oleoresin extraction. Sierra Leone dried ginger has a
rather harsh, slightly camphoraceous, very pungent odour, with the non-
volatile ether extract content averaging 7 and volatile-oil 1.6%; it is in
demand for oil, oleoresin, and flavouring stock feeds. Cochin and Calicut
are two Indian gingers named for the major production areas; volatile oil
content 1.9-2.2, non-volatile ether extract 4.0-4.5%. Both have a lemon-
like aroma, are widely used for blending and preferred by ginger-beer
manufacturers. Australian dried ginger has a pronounced lemon-like aroma
and flavour; quality generally considered intermediate between Jamaica and
Sierra Leone, with the mid-season crop possessing greatest pungency and
volatile oil content, to 4.4% and in demand for oil and oleoresin extraction.
While a multitude of products can be manufactured from ginger, only oil
and oleoresin will be discussed.
Ginger oil is a clear, pale yellow to orangy-yellow mobile liquid becoming
more viscous with age or exposure to air. The odour is rich, warm, spicy,
somewhat lemony, with a floral note; the taste warm, spicy, pleasantly
aromatic, not pungent but occasionally slightly bitter at high concentrations.
Jamaican oil is usually paler, very mobile, more sweet and lemony than
African, which is darker, richer with a more heavy odour, and much more
tenacious. Some 100 constituents have been detected in ginger oil, the main
components being sesquiterpene hydrocarbons 50-66%, oxygenated
sesquiterpenes to 17% and monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated
monoterpenes most of the remainder. Among the sesquiterpene hydro-
carbons, alpha-zingiberene predominates (at 15-30%), with beta-
bisabolene (6-12%), ar-curcumene (5-1 9%), alpha-farnesene (3-10%) and
beta-sesquiphellandrene (7-10%) (Lawrence, 1995). With the significant
exception of the citrals, the relative proportion of low-boiling point mono-
terpenes is generally low, to 2%. Australian oils have a high citral content,
8-27% (averaging 19.3%) compared with 0.5-4% in most oils; ratio of citral
a (geranial) to citral b (neral) in most Australian samples averages 2: 1. The
main components of selected ginger oils are shown in Table 14.9.
The principal difference between oils distilled from dried and fresh
(green) rhizomes is that the latter usually contain more lower-boiling point
components. As noted, up to 20% of volatile oil can be lost during sun-
drying of Indian rhizomes, and the lemon-like aroma becomes progressively
weaker since the major reduction is in the lower-boiling components,
including citrals. Australian, Cochin and Calicut fresh rhizomes have a
pronounced fresh, lemon-like aroma, and retention of this characteristic in
Australian oils is probably due more to careful drying than inherent rhizome
properties. The low content of zingiberene and high content of beta-
bisabolene in the Sri Lankan cultivar is notable (Pieris, 1982; MacLeod and
Pieris, 1984).
564 Chapter 14

Table 14.9. Major components of ginger oils.

Australia China India Sri Lanka


Monoterpenoid hydrocarbons ng 12.05-1 6.82 4.4 2.7-30.3
Alpha-pinene trace 0.86-1.34 0.4 0.2-3.3
Camphene trace 2.58-4.12 1 .I 0.9-14.1
Oxygenated monoterpenoids 4-30 3.78-3.26 3.6 8.1
Geranial 3-20 ng 1.4 1.O-7.7
Nerol 1-10 0.34-0.48 0.2 2.5-1 0.1
1,8-Cineole ng ng ng 2.1-12.23
Sesquiterpenoid hydrocarbons 38-58 46.20-56.07 65.7 29.8-87.4
Ar-curcumene 6-1 0 ng 17.7 5.7-17.7
Beta-sesquiphellandrene 7-1 1 ng ng trace-0.3
Zingiberene 20-28 ng 35.6 0.3-1.2
Beta-bisabolene 5-9 16.45-27.67 0.2 20.1-60.4
(Z)-beta-farnesene ng 0.70-0.79 ng 0.5-1.2
Sesquiterpenoid alcohols ng 0.57 16.7 4.8-10.4
Beta-eudesmol ng ng ng 1.0-5.4
(E)-beta-sesquiphellandrol ng ng ng 0.2-1.2
ng, not given.
Source: Ekundayo et al. (1988).

Post-distillation changes in oil occur during storage or utilization; the


most important is that exposure to light and air increases viscosity, the
formation of non-volatile (polymeric) residues and decreases optical rota-
tion value, while detrimental changes in composition, aroma and flavour can
occur at temperatures above 9OOC. The oil is mainly used to flavour a
multiplicity of food products, in beverages, soft drinks and special liqueurs,
with small amounts used in cosmetics, perfumes and certain pharmaceut-
icals. A regional ginger oil may be preferred by individual end users, but
regional oils are often blended to incorporate the special characteristic of
each. The oil also has considerable antifungal activity and has been used as
a seed dressing in India (Dhirendra, 1990).
Oleoresin is a dark amber ro dark brown viscous liquid, frequently
depositing a grainy mass on standing. Its odour is very aromatic, warm, spicy
and sweet and its taste pungent, warm and biting, but never bitter. Oleo-
resins produced from Jamaican, African and Indian rhizomes differ in
odour, taste and pungency partly due to the solvent used, since total removal
of some solvents is very difficult. Carbon dioxide extraction of rhizomes
produces an extract high in 6-gingerol, as heat decomposition does not
occur (McHale et al. , 1989).
Commercial oleoresins have a volatile oil content of 25-30%, and 1 kg is
usually equal to 28 kg good-quality ground spice. Commercial oleoresins are
labelled according to rhizome origin or as a blend, and are offered in liquid
Zingiberaceae 565

form or dispersed on sugar or salt. The main characteristics as defined by


the US Essential Oil Association Standard (EOA) are: volatile oil content
18-35 ml per 100 g; refractive index of oil 1:488-1.498 (20'); optical
rotation -30" to -60' (20°C); meets Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic
Regulations in respect of residual solvent; soluble with sediment in alcohol.
The main use is as a substitute for ginger oil, but also in ginger flavoured
carbonated soft drinks. The oleoresin is seldom used in perfumes or cos-
metics because of its poor solubility in alcohol, but more often in pharma-
ceuticals especially throat lozenges and similar formulations.
Absolute is usually produced from solvent extracted dried rhizomes; the
extract (basically oleoresin) has the solvent removed, and the residue further
extracted with alcohol. Absolute can also be produced by extracting com-
mercially available oleoresin, but may not reflect the original material.
Absolute is normally produced by the end-user, and not commercially
available as it can be up to ten times more expensive than the parent
oleoresin. The absolute can replace oleoresin, but is generally restricted to
applications where an alcohol-soluble extract is essential.

References
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Fruit Res. Inst. (Nelspruit) 84, 5-8.
Babu, K.N. et al. (1993) Biotechnology in spices. Indian Hort. 38(3), 46-50.
Baranowski, J.D. (1986) Changes in solids, oleoresin and 6-ginger01 content of
ginger during growth. HortSci. 21(1), 145-146.
Bartley, J.P. (1995) A new method for the determination of pungent compounds in
ginger. J. Sci. Food Agric. 68, 215- 222.
Breitschneider, E. (1870) On the Study and Value of Chinese Botanical Works.
Foochow, China.
Chen, C.C. et al. (1986) Pungent compounds of ginger extracted by liquid carbon
dioxide. J. Agric. Food Chem. 34(3), 477-480.
Chew, W.Y. (1969) Performance oftapioca, sweet potato and ginger on peat. Planter
(Kuala Lumpur) 45, 445-45 1.
Connell, D.W. (1970) The chemistry of the essential oil and oleoresin of ginger.
Flav. Ind. 1, 677-693.
Das, T.M.P., Devadas, V.S. and Pillai, G.R. (1990) Efficacy of fungicides for
treatment against pre-emergence rhizome rot of ginger. Ind. Cocoa, Arecanut &
Spices?. 14(1), 13-15.
Dhirendra, iM.(1990) Seed protectant property of ginger oil. Ind. Pe$um. 34(4),
266-268.
Ekundayo, O., Laaksoi, I. and Hirtunen, R. (1988) Composition of ginger volatile
oils from Nigeria. Flav. Frag. J . 3, 85- 90.
Furutani, S.C. and Nagao, M.A. (1986) Influence of daminozide, gibberellic acid
and ethephon on flowering, shoot growth and yield of ginger. HortSci. 21 (3-1),
428-429; 20(3-l), 392- 393.
566 Chapter 74

Giridharan, M.P. and Balnakrishnan, S. (1991) Effect of gamma irradiation on yield


and quality of ginger. Ind. Cocoa, Arecanut and SpicesJ. 14(3), 100-103.
Hosoki, T. and Sagawa, Y. (1977) Clonal propagation of ginger through tissue
culture. HortSci. 12, 451-452.
Islam, A.K.M., Edwards, D.G. and Asher, C.J. (1980) p H optima for crop growth.
Plant and Soil. 54, 339-357.
Jayachandran, B.K. and Sethumadhavan, P. (1988) Effect of CCC, Ethrel and
kinetin on quality of ginger. Agric. Res. J. Kerala 26(2), 277-279.
Korla, B.N. and Dohroo, N.P. (1991) Production technology in ginger - a review.
Agric. Reviews 12(1), 22-36.
Lawrence, B.M. (1984) Major tropical spices -ginger. Perfum. Flav. 9(5), 1-40.
Lawrence, B.M. (1995) Progress in essential oils. Pefum. Flav. 20(2), 54-56.
Lee, T.M. and Asher, C.J.. (1981) Nitrogen nutrition of ginger. Plant. Soil 62,
23-34,
Lee, Y.B., Kim, Y.S. and Ashmore, C.R. (1986) Antioxidant property in ginger
rhizomes and its application to meat products. J. Food Sci.51 (l), 20-23.
Lewis, Y.S. et al. (1972) Oleoresin ginger. Flav. Ind. 3, 78-81.
iMacLeod, A.J. and Pieris, N.M. (1984) Volatile aroma constituents of Sri Lankan
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Mamet, J.R. (1972) Notes sur la culture du gingembre a 1’Ile Maurice. Circular 37.
Maurit. Sugar. Ind. Res. Inst., Mauritius.
Mangalakumari, A.C. et al. (1985) Histological studies on the localisation of sig-
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Masuda, T. and Jitoe, A. (1995) Phenylbutenoid monomers from the rhizomes of 2.
cassumnar. Phytochem. 39(2), 459-46 1.
iMathew, A.G. et al. (1973) Oil of ginger. Flav. Ind. 5, 226-228.
iMaurya, K.R. et al. (1 984) Prediction of maturity of ginger in calcareous soils. Ind.
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McHale, D. et al. (1989) Transformation of the pungent principles in extracts of
ginger. Flav. Frag. J . 4, 9- 15.
Nel, M. (1986) In vitro culture of excised ginger roots. Inform. Bull. No. 159. Citrus
Subtrop. Fruit. Res. Inst., Nelspruit, South Africa.
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Sri Lanka.
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Zingiberaceae 567

Ra, S.W. et al. (1989) A study of cold injury to ginger. Res. Rept. Rural Dev. Ass.
Hurbo. 31(3), 39-42.
Rosengarten, F. Jr (1969) The Book of Spices. Livingstone Pubs. Co., Wynwood,
USA.
Sankar, C.R. and Muthuswamy, S. (1984) Dry matter production and recovery of
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Shah, J.J. and Raju, E.C. (1975) Ontogeny of the shoot apex of ginger. Nomoeg. J.
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Sivan, P. (1979) Growth, spacing, time of lifting and production of early harvest
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Whiley, A.W. (1981) Effect of plant density on time to first harvest maturity etc. of
ginger grown in S.E. Queensland. Trop. Agric. (Trin.) 58(3), 245-251.
Willers, P. (1985) Efficient nematode control a step nearer for ginger producers. In5
Bull. Cit. Subtrop. Fruit Res. Inst. 160, 4-6.
Wu, J.J. and Yang, J.S. (1994) Effects of irridiation on the volatile compounds of
ginger rhizomes (Z. oficinale). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2(1 l), 2574-2577.
Xu, K., Zhao, D.W. and Jiang, X.M. (1993) Studies on the nitrogen absorption rate
in ginger using isotope-N, Acta Hort. S i n k 20(2), 161-165.
Yusof, N. (1990) Sprout inhibition by gamma irradiation in fresh ginger. J. Food
Process. Preserv. 14(2), 113- 122.
Distilling and
Extracting
Essential Oils 15 -

Methods of obtaining aromatic substances were early developed, and the


first texts are those of alchemists who flourished in the early civilizations of
the Middle East, epitomized by the community at Alexandria, Egypt. The
Persians in particular developed the use of personal fragrances to a high
level, and from their language are derived attar from atar meaning essence
and atara to smell sweet, and from the Arabic al-ambiq came the modern
alambic. Zosimus of Panoplis (Corpus Hermeticum, Oxford University,
1924) credits Maria the Jewess with inventing the still, but first representa-
tion appeared in an Alexandrian text of the second or third century AD, The
Gold-making of Cleopatra (Morris, 1981).
The Arabs in the seventh to thirteenth centuries produced many great
men of science including Avicenna, who in the 10th century AD wrote over a
hundred books, one devoted entirely to the rose, a flower cherished by Islam.
He is credited with inventing the cooled condenser which he used to
produce pure essential oils and aromatic water. However, in 1975 a Dr
Paolo Rovesti led an archaeological expedition to Pakistan and, in Taxila
museum which preserves many artefacts from the ancient Indus valley
civilizations, found a perfectly preserved terra-cotta distillation apparatus
from about 3000 BC. Contemporary perfume containers also exhibited in the
museum confirmed the production and storage of aromatic oils. This
discovery suggests the Arabs may have obtained the basic knowledge from
this region.
Distilling techniques were also developed in China where KO Hung (AD
300) was described as the father of Chinese alchemy, but the first major
published work is by Sun Ssu-miao AD 600, The Great Secrets of Alchemy.
Members of the Benedictine Monastery of Salerno about AD 1000 are
credited with developing the modern still (Forbes, 1948), but the first
authentic and detailed description of distilling essential oils is by the Spanish
physician Anald de Villanova in the late thirteenth century. It was not until
AD 1500 that a definitive work was published in Strasbourg; Hieronymus

568
Distilling and Exfracting Essential Oils 569

Brunschwig's Liber De Arte Distillandi, and in 1592 the Nuremburg edition


of Dispensatorium Valem'i Cordi listed 60 distilled essential oils.
Methods of oil production and analysis became the province of pharma-
cists, later chemists, and the founder of industrial chemistry is considered to
be the German Johann Rudolph Glauber (1604-1670), while the French-
man, A. Lavoisier (1743-1794) is credited with developing the basic chem-
istry of essential oils. The town of Grasse in southern France became a
leader in the essence industry, and by the eighteenth century virtually
dominated European production of essential oils and waxes (Chollot,
1985). Not only did local manufacturers develop more efficient extraction
methods, individuals also became famous for their noses; so important were
these appendages that treatises were written on their construction, shape
and olfactory abilities! (Muller, 1967). A technique used in Grasse was
enfleurage, developed to extract essence from flowers considered too deli-
cate to be exposed to heat; jasmine in particular. Rivalling Grasse were the
perfumers of Cologne who achieved fame from one major product, Eau de
Cologne (Bedoukian, 1993).
Having grown the plants producers must then extract the oils, and the
description of the many primitive but ingenious stills makes fascinating
reading (Guenther 1949-1 952). Unfortunately, much of the oil produced
was poor quality and producers received minimal return for their efforts,
crude oils being subsequently processed in more advanced plants. T o up-
grade oil quality and returns to local growers, governments introduced more
efficient but relatively inexpensive stills; Sri Lanka and Indonesia for exam-
ple (Jansz et al., 1981; Ames and Matthews, 1968). Modern plants use the
latest techniques and computer-operated equipment to produce oils whose
composition is accurately controlled, which conform to an accepted stand-
ard, or to the requirements of an end user (Swaine and Swaine, 1988).
Thus the expertise and skill required is greater than most growers can
attain, resulting in growing and processing becoming separated; with planta-
tions managed by experienced farmers and agronomists, distilling and
extracting plants by technicians and chemists (Boelens et al., 1990). There is
still a place for grower-producers, however, provided they are willing to
accept the much higher investment and management skills necessary, or
combine to form a cooperative able to carry out these operations on their
behalf. This kind of development is well illustrated by the high degree of
cooperation achieved by relatively small essential oil producers in Tasmania,
Australia (Weiss, 1994).
General remarks on distillation or extraction have been mentioned in each
chapter, but the very advanced technology now required to process essential
oils has produced many highly specialized publications detailing the opera-
tions. Not only are processing plants becoming increasingly complex,
highly-qualified personnel are required to monitor and guarantee the end-
product.
5 70 Chapter 15

Various methods of obtaining essential oils are shown in the following


generalized diagrams, which were very generously supplied by Mr Bernard
Meyer-Warnod, of Camilli, Albert & Lalone, Grasse, France. A basic
flowsheet indicating the operations is shown in Fig. 15.1; specific oils will
deviate to a greater or lesser extent. Distilling is frequently effected at source
of raw material, as the equipment required is generally inexpensive and
simple to operate. Special oils, absolutes and other derivatives usually
require more advanced facilities, and are also produced in consuming
countries from imported materials.
Hydro-distillation is probably the most common as it is simple and cheap,
small growers operating water or wateristeam stills; temperature in the still
body is raised by direct firing often using spent residues as fuel (Fig. 15.2).
Oil quality is directly related to the skill of the operator, not only in managing
the still but in selecting or preparing raw material. Steam distillation uses
water heated in a separate boiler, which may require fuel with a higher
calorific value than dried still residues; commonly wood or diesel but
increasingly solar energy is used (Fig. 15.3).
Vacuum distillation obtains oil from a charge under a vacuum varying in
intensity depending on the material. This technique allows very accurate
control of distillate since it can be adjusted according to the boiling points of
various oil constituents (Fig. 15.4). Molecular distillation processes material
under a high vacuum, and can be used on raw material or to reprocess crude
or other oils. Products from this technique are considered of very high
quality and odour (Fig. 15.5).

Raw material 7

Extraction by
animal fat
Resinoid

G
1
Alcohol extraction

Absolute I
I

I 1
I

I Alcohol extractionI

+lWater absolute absolute

Fig. 15.1. Basic flowsheet of the operations necessary to obtain an essential oil or derivative.
Distilling and Extracting Essential Oils 571
5 72 Chapter 15

E'
E
m
m
._
U
s
.-
I
-
-m
.-
I

.-U
v)

E
%
tj

d,
ii
Distilling and Extracting Essential Oils 5 73

Enfleurage is a method of extracting flower oils by absorption on a wax or


fat, then recovering the oil by solvent extraction. Layers of flowers are laid on
trays of specially prepared fat (in Europe beef or pork) and the flower layers
removed and renewed until fat is saturated. This method is highly labour
intensive, but products are of extremely high quality, and the technique will
continue to be used while manufacturers are prepared to pay a premium for
its products.
Extraction involves passing solvent through raw material and then sepa-
rating oil and solvent. It can take place under normal atmospheric condi-
tions, in a partial vacuum or in the presence of a gas. Commercial plants use
batch, battery or continuous-flow systems, single or multi-solvent tech-
niques, and include solvent recovery and oil-refining equipment. These
plants are generally expensive to construct and operate, and are frequently
located in developed countries using imported dried material, particularly
spice oleoresins. Since solvent extraction removes volatile and non-volatile
constituents, composition of the oil obtained can differ significantly from
distilled oil, and may contain undesirable components requiring removal.
The solvent used frequently influences the oil obtained as a residue or odour

'izzz
modifier, but solvent extracted oils are generally considered to reflect a

Condensors
0

-. Water circulation

Raw
material
Heating
jacket
=+- - n-7-r-

Fig. 15.4. Vacuum distillation diagram,


& \
" \
Distillate
8
-+- Pressure

Vacuum pump
valve

L Dosing pump

+
2 Vacuum pump

Fig. 15.5. Molecular distillation unit.


Distilling and Extracting Essential Oils 5 75

plant’s natural odour more accurately than distilled oils (Fig 15.6). Com-
monly used are petroleum ether, hexane, toluene or other binary solvents.
Products from solvent extraction may be further processed, i.e. concretes
into absolutes (Fig. 15.7). Many countries have introduced stringent regula-
tions controlling the use and type of solvents, and recommendations govern-
ing solvents used in the food industry are published by the International
Organization of the Flavour Industry (IOFI).
Gaseous extraction uses liquid carbon dioxide which, under pressure and
regulated temperature, is passed through the material, then via a separator to
recover oil and gas. This method is considered superior to liquid solvents,
since it preserves important unstable or heat-sensitive components and
requires less energy. Carbon dioxide is safe, non-combustible, odourless,
tasteless, inexpensive and readily available, ideal properties for an extraction
solvent, while its low viscosity enables it to penetrate the material being
extracted and its latent heat of evaporation allows it to be easily removed
without residue. An important feature of this process is that by varying the
temperature and pressure of the gas, an extract with specific flavour or odour
specifications can be obtained. A less costly variation is the subcritical liquid
gas technique, whose products, however, may require further processing.
Since the introduction of gas extracted oils as ingredients for flavours and
fragrances in 1982, the range is increasing steadily. Some advantages of
carbon dioxide gas extracts are: (i) no organic solvent is employed; (ii) at low

iniection >EL Finishing


Primary
evaporator
(6000 I) I
Saturated
I solvent

Fig. 15.6. Solvent extraction unit.


576 Chapter 15

evaporator
Fig. 15.7. Concrete to absolute unit.

temperatures thermally labile compounds are undamaged; (iii) there are no


off notes, more topnotes (since there is no evaporation of natural top note
volatiles) and more back notes; (iv) better solubility because no extra water-
insoluble monoterpene hydrocarbons are generated during processing; (v)
no degradation products are formed and the true natural odour and flavour
profile is obtained (Fig. 15.8). Refinements of supercritical fluid extraction
obtain virtually all the volatiles in a material, and fractionation provides
valuable by-products (Wilkinson, 1993).
Expression implies pressure to separate oil from its natural matrix, but can
also include ecuelling and similar techniques. Most expressed oils are
obtained from citrus fruit peel, classified as hot or cold pressed, and the latter
predominate. Some peel oils are produced as a by-product of juice extrac-
tion, and the operation differs. The methods used to obtain peel oils,
including the sponge process for bergamot and ecuelling for lime, were
labour intensive and described by Ernest Guenther as incredible drudgery.
Modern methods are almost wholly automatic, and processes vary depend-
ing on whether the juice is saleable. Where this is so, production systems are
geared efficiently to produce juice or fruit segments with oils a major by-
product.
Crude oil may require further processing prior to storage or transport,
including filtering to remove solid impurities, drying to remove water, and
refining to reduce unwanted components or distillation artefacts. The
composition or characteristics of most essential oils are modified by expo-
sure to air and sunlight and affected by temperature. Oils should be stored in
opaque containers, filled to capacity before sealing, and kept in darkened,
Distilling and Exfracting Essential Oils 577

cool buildings. Containers should be transported under cover, and prefera-


bly at a moderate temperature. There may be shipping or other freight
regulations governing the method of transport, containers and storage in
transit.
Oils are frequently reprocessed before final incorporation into retail
products, and the growing sophistication of these applications has required
oil composition be defined with ever-greater accuracy. A huge volume of

Water -

Collector
(from water bath)

CO2 (1)
(from storage cylinder)
Continuous dense phase extraction apparatus

Quick @ Quick release

Water bath

Continuous supercritical extraction apparatus.


(P = pressure gauge, T = temperature measurement).

Fig. 15.8. Carbon dioxide extraction-process diagram.


578 Chapter 15

published data is thus available on essential oil composition, compounds


affecting taste and odour, and methods of processing to suit special require-
ments. A most important aspect of such research is the detection of im-
purities, additives or adulterants. Despite the growing accuracy and ad-
vanced technology of chemical analyses including enantioselective gas
chromatography, the specialist’s nose remains a vital component of evalu-
ation, although even that is under threat with the development of electronic
noses! These are arrays of chemical sensors linked to a neural network, and
the odour molecules are caught on the surface of various electrically con-
ducting organic polymers. This alters their electrical resistance by an
amount dependent on the molecule’s composition, and the physical and
chemical structure of the polymer. Change in the electrical characteristics of
the polymer array represents a unique signature (smellprint), which is
compared via a neural network to a computer-held memory bank. Food,
drink and perfume companies use electronic noses to increase the objectivity
and consistency of quality control. Once programmed to recognize a for-
mulation, an electronic nose will accurately identify the genuine from a
counterfeit, or a pure from an adulterated oil. Electronic noses are cheap,
about one tenth the cost of chromatographic analysis in 1995, and they don’t
catch a cold!

References
Ames, G.R. and Mathews, W.S.A. (1968) The distillation of essential oils. Trop. Sci.
10, 136-148.
Bedoukian, P. (1993) Eau de Cologne. Perfum. Flav. 18(l), 37-4 1.
Boelens, M.H. et al. (1990) Ten years of hydrodiffusion oils. In: Proc. 11th. Znt. Cong
Ess. Oils.Frag. Flav. Vol. 4. pp. 121-126, Aspect Pubs, London, UK.
Chollot, R. (1985) History of Grasse. Perfum. Flav. 91(6), 72-77.
Forbes, R. (1 948) A Short Histo y of the Art of Distillation. Brill & Co., Leiden, The
Netherlands.
Guenther, E. (1949-1952) The Essential Oils, 5 vols. D . van Nostrand & Co., New
York, USA.
Jansz, E.R. et al. (1981) Distillation of leaf essential oils. CZSZR Res. Bull. No. 1.
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Morris, E.T. (1981) Roots: The earliest history of the essential oil industry. Perfum.
F ~ u v 6(2),
. 54-58.
iMuller, P.A. (1967) The noses of Grasse. Perj! Ess. Oil Recd. 58(8), 531-534.
Swaine, R.L. and Swaine, R.L. Jr (1988) Citrus oils: processing, technology and
applications. Perfum. Flav. 13(6), 1-20.
Weiss, E.A. (1994) Oils from Outback. C T M S 6(1), 31-32.
Wilkinson, G . T . (1993) SFE extraction in essential oil recovery. In: Advances in
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (unpaginated). Food Research Institute, Werribee,
Victoria, Australia.
Glossary

Absolute. Highly concentrated, alcohol-soluble, usually liquid; normally


obtained by solvent extracting plant material, oils or concretes (q.v).
Absolutes are considered most accurately to reflect the taste and odour
of the original material.
Acetyl value. Number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize acetic acid liberated by hydrolysis when 1 g of the acetylated
fat or oil is saponified. It measures the free hydroxyl groups.
Acid number (value). Number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide
required to neutralize the free acid from 1 g of the substance.
Adulteration. Any material added to a whole, genuine oil which alters its
original composition or odour. The word is normally used to designate
materials added for fraudulent purposes. Legitimate adulteration is
usually defined, i.e. fixative added, refined, enhanced, etc.
Alcohols. Organic compounds containing one or more hydroxyl groups
attached directly to carbon atoms. Primary alcohols on oxidation give
aldehydes, secondary alcohols ketones.
Alkaloids. Organic substances existing in combination with organic acids in
great variety in plants. Alkaloids are usually derivatives of nitrogen ring
compounds, and are frequently colourless, crystalline solids with a bitter
taste. Often toxic to humans, although widely used in medicines.
Aroma. An intangible concept described by Arctander as odour plus
flavour.
Aromatic chemicals. Any chemical with an aroma or flavour, and usually
synthetic. Not to be confused with the chemical definition of com-
pounds containing a benzene ring structure.
Artefacts. Compounds produced during distillation and other processes,
or storage of essential oils.
Artificial. Similar to imitation. A flavour or perfume which may contain all
natural ingredients but have no natural counterpart.

579
580 Glossary

Blender. Material added to another, or a combination, which generally


enhances the odour or flavour.
Boiling-point. Components of essential oils have varying boiling points:
low boiling-point compounds will distil-over first, those with higher
boiling-points progressively later. Control of distillate content is thus
possible by varying distillation temperature or duration.
Brix number. Percentage of total soluble solids using a Brix hydrometer
calibrated at 20°C.
Chemotaxonomy. Use of chemical analysis of plants or plant parts,
especially essential oils, to assist in classification. Is particularly useful
where there are no (or minor) visual botanic differences.
Cohobation. Return of all or part of distillate to charge for further distilling.
Usually occurs automatically.
Colour. From comparison with standard colour charts, colorimeters; com-
monly obtained spectrophotometrically.
Compound. Frequently used to describe a group of oil constituents. Is ill-
defined.
Concrete. Concentrated solvent-extracted solid or waxy material; main use
is as raw material for production of absolutes.
Constituent. Specific component of an oil accurately defined.
Crude oil. Oil from generally unspecialized stills which may contain water,
impurities and solids. Is usually reprocessed prior to shipment. Oil is
frequently so described when delivered in bulk, commonly for use as
raw material for an isolate.
DBH. Diameter at Breast Height. A standard measurement in forestry.
Dispersal agent. Inert substance used as carrier for commercial oleoresins
to facilitate handling and storage.
Distillate. Liquid produced by distillation; may be crude from primitive
stills, or refined from modern stills.
Enfleurage. Flowers are placed on trays of fat which absorbs the oil. Oil is
then solvent extracted. Normally used to prepare very high-quality
perfume materials from flowers harmed by high temperature.
Essence. A general and ambiguous term for a concentrated perfume or
flavouring material.
Essential oil. The commonly used term for a volatile oil normally secreted
in special glands in various plant parts, and not found in living cells.
Obtained by distillation, extraction or expression. Most essential oils are
terpenoids, some benzene derivatives. Not to be confused with fixed or
vegetable oils.
Esters. Organic compounds formed by union of an acid and an alcohol with
elimination of water. Oil quality is often defined by ester content
expressed as a percentage of desired major component(s), linalool,
linalyl acetate etc. or as total esters.
Glossary 58 1

Extracts. Any concentrated material normally obtained by solvent extract-


ing natural raw materials. The term is widely misused.
Extrait. Not to be confused with extract. It originally referred to an
alcoholic solution of the odorous portion of a pomade, and intermediate
between pomade and absolute. Extraits are currently defined as per-
fumes containing not less than 20-30% concentrate.
Fixed oils. Non-volatile, fatty, generally vegetable, frequently contained in
seeds (oilseeds for example). Usually obtained by pressure extraction.
Flow-point. On heating, a solid or semi-solid (usually an absolute) be-
comes soft and flows downward through a small orifice. The tem-
perature at which the sample forms a hemispherical protuberance at the
orifice is the flow-point. The temperature at which the first drop falls is
the drop-point.
Folded oil. A concentrated oil produced by removing unwanted com-
pounds from whole oil; commonly two-fold, ten-fold, etc. and con-
sidered to have that many times the strength of the desired component
or odour.
Imitation. Concentrate, generally flavouring, containing all or some por-
tion of non-natural materials. In many countries, such additives must be
defined in consumer products, i.e.orange juice, sweets.
Isolates. Obtained by fractionating oils including citral, phellandrene,
vetiverol, safrole, etc. Isolates have specific uses and an essential oil may
be used solely as a source of isolates.
Odour. There is no accurate description for this term. It commonly
attempts to explain what an individual perceives via their nose as the
scent of any material. A highly esoteric language is used to describe
odour by technicians and perfumers (see odour grouping as suggested
by Arctander, 1960, pp. 679-694).
Oleoresin. Can be a natural exudate (gum or resin) or solvent extracted
from plant materials. Prepared oleoresins are normally dark, very vis-
cous to gummy or plastic semi-solids, and considered to be the most
concentrated liquid form of the raw material. They are not a substitute
for the whole oil.
Optical rotation. Angle through which the plane of polarization of light is
rotated when polarized light passes through a layer of liquid. Unless
otherwise specified, measurement is by sodium light in a 1 mm layer at
20°C. Oils may be dextrorotatory (+) or laevorotatory (-) according to
whether the plane of polarization is rotated to the left or right.
Oxidization. A general term indicating the changes in oil composition or
odour when exposed to air; most are undesirable, thus oil should be
stored in full, airtight containers.
Melting-point. A common method of determining melting-point is to
place a small portion of the solid (usually an absolute) in a 1 mm glass
capillary tube closed at the base and suspended in a water bath with a
582 Glossary

thermometer. The temperature at which the sample becomes com-


pletely clear is the melting-point; (cf. flow-point).
Photosensitive. Reacts to light. Many oils are affected by light, resulting in
decomposition of, or undesirable reactions between, constituents. Thus
oil should generally be stored in opaque containers.
Pomade. Concentrated substances obtained from enfleurage; almost
wholly used for absolute production.
Refractive index. Ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in
a substance. It varies with the wavelength of light used.
Resinoid. Prepared by solvent extracting exudates, highly lignified plant
material, or animal substances. Incorrectly but commonly used when
describing the physical condition of absolutes.
Sesquiterpenes. See terpenoids.
Solubility. Maximum quantity of an oil which can be dissolved in a stated
volume (viv) or weight (wiw) of alcohol of given concentration; 70%,
90%, etc. normally at 20°C, or as specified.
Solvent. Hexane, petroleum ether, acetone or methanol used to extract
essential oil or other derivatives from plant materials or their extracts.
There are legal requirements in many countries regarding their use and
residues in products for human consumption.
Supercritical fluid extraction. Method of extraction using a liquid gas,
frequently carbon dioxide.
Synthetics. Mixtures or formulations, usually of synthetic chemicals but
sometimes also containing natural products, which simulate to some
degree the original product; most are only partially successful.
Terpenoids. Volatile aromatic hydrocarbons, including monoterpenes,
sesquiterpenes, diterpenes and higher polymers. A wider use of the term
would include terpene hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones and camphors.
Terpenes are of great importance in essential oil composition and their
presence or absence has a marked effect on odour and usage. Whole oils
may be processed to remove all or some terpenes, and described as
terpeneless oils. Terpenoid distribution is now considered of major
value in taxonomy (chemotaxonomy).
Ultrasonic extraction. Method of obtaining plant aromatic materials
using very-high-frequency vibrations; is specialized and uncommon.
Unsaponifiable matter. All constituents not saponified by alcoholic caus-
tic potash, but soluble in petroleum ether or ethyl ether.
Viscosity. Rate of flow of a liquid. Measured in cgs units the absolute unit
of viscosity is the poise. Absolute viscosity of water at 20.2"C is 1000
centipoise (one hundredth of a poise).
Volatile oil. See Essential oil.
Weight per millilitre. Weight in grams of 1 ml of a liquid weighed in air at
the specified temperature.
Glossary 583

Whole oil. Specifically an oil free of all impurities, water and additives and
true to the original material; is often misused.
WONF. With Other Natural Flavours. An extract or flavour too weak to be
used alone, and reinforced with other natural flavouring material con-
taining similar or complementary components. This identification is a
legal requirement in certain countries including the USA.
Index

Note: Page numbers in italic refer to Algeria 344


figures. Allellopathy 263
Aloysia triphylla 207
Analytical Methods Committee-
Absolute Essential Oils (AMC-EO)
boronia 504 USA, 368
cananga 22 Annonaceae 10
clove 256 Artabotys odoratissimus 10
geranium 50 Cananga latifolia 10
ginger 564-565 C. odorata 10, 14, 18
jasmine 347, 354, 357 forma genuina 12
orange 456, 457 forma macrophylla 12
osmanthus 359 Monodora myristica 2 14
patchouli 152 Aphrodisiac 344
rose 410, 412, 413, 414 Aquilaria agallocha (agara wood) 530
vetiver 128 Areca catechu 217, 386, 550
ylang-ylang 22 Argentina 88, 465, 489
zdravetz 54 Artificial drying 249, 376
Acacia spp. 526, 527 Atherosperma moschatum 196
A. acuminata 533 Attar 129, 395, 531
A. anura 533 Western 65, 85, 90, 98, 501
A. farnesiana 156 see also rare oil Australia 34, 288,
Acalypha spp. 527 465, 467, 486, 488, 495, 516,
Adenanthera pavonina 52 1 539, 569
Aframomum melegueta 323, 389 Australian Geranium and Pelargonium
Africa see also individual countries Society 25
East 26, 69, 88, 90, 166, 477, 535 Australian melaleuca oil 310
North 25,344,352,396,401,459, Australian Standard 278
499
South 24, 28, 198, 296 Bangladesh 37 1
West 69, 458, 459, 465, 497 Bay rum tree 322-330
Albizzia spp. 224 botany 323
Alexandria (Egypt) 236, 519, 568 cultivation 326

585
586 Index

Bay rum tree contd. botany 157


diseases 329 cultivation 16 1
distillation 328 diseases 163
ecology 324 distillation 163
harvesting 327 ecology 160
pests 328 harvesting 16 1
products and specifications 329 natural 165
soils and fertilizers 325 pests 163
Barbados 475 products and specifications 164
Barbosa (Coasts of East Africa and soils and fertilizers 160
Malabar) 363 synthetic 165
Belize 331 Cananga 10-22
Bergamot orange see Orange, bitter botany 12
Bitter orange see Orange, bitter cultivation 16
Blume (FloraJavae) 10 diseases 19
Blumea balsamifera 166 distillation 18
Boland, D.J. 318 ecology 16
Boronia 501-504 harvesting 17
Brazil 88, 90, 117, 167, 198, 283, 371, pests 19
373, 45 1, 465, 468, 493, 497, products and specifications 20-22
499 soils and fertilizers 16
British Standards Institution (BSI) 286 Canarium commune 226
British Standards Specification Capsicum spp. 389
(BSS) 174, 255, 333, 368,443, Cardamom 539
531 Cassia 168
Brophy, J.J. 318 Chinese 169-173
Brunschwig, Hieronymus (Liber De Indian 177-179
Arte Distillandz) 569 Indonesian 174-175
Bulgaria 51, 395 Vietnamese 176
Kazanlik 395 Cassia buds (Flores cassia) 170, 172
Burma 491, 516 Cassia siamea 155, 527
Bursera delpechiana 167 Castor (Ricinus communis) 550
Butter, CD-ROM 429
mace 233 Cedrus spp. 4 17
nutmeg 222,233 Cere, Govenor 2 16
C:GN ratio 400, 407
Chapoteaut, P. 520
Cajuput 311-314 Chemotaxonomy 140, 181, 365,417
botany 31 1 Chemotypes (chemovar) 11, 26, 273,
cultivation 3 13 278,306,314,318
diseases 303 China 27, 88, 118, 139, 157, 168,
ecology 312 170, 343, 396, 482, 517, 518,
harvesting 3 13 525,532
pests 303 Chinese
products and specifications 3 13 eucalyptus oil 301
soils and fertilizers 3 13 ginger 539
Calotropis gigantea 527 Chrysanthemum sinense var japonica 166
Camphor 156-166 Cinnamon, bark exports 179
Index 587

Indonesia 18 1 spice 246, 248, 253


Sri Lanka 180, 181 Colombia 493
Cinnamon 179-195 Columbus, Christopher 180, 465
botany 181 Commiphora mukul (gum gugal) 531
cultivation 186 Comoros 10, 12, 90
diseases 191 Concretes
distillation 188 boronia 543
ecology 183 cananga 19, 2 1
harvesting 187 clove 256
pests 190 geranium 49
products and specifications 191 ginger 656
soils and fertilizers 185 jasmine 342, 349, 350, 352,
Cinnamon of the Amazon 167 353-356,357-359
CISIR (Ceylon Institute of Scientific orange 456
and Industrial Research) 100 patchouli 152
Citronella 67-85
rose 410, 412, 413
botany 69
vetiver 128
cultivation 80
ylang-ylang 2 1
diseases 67
zdravetz 53
distillation 82
Consorzio di Bergamotto 462
ecology 73
Cook, Captain James 302
harvesting 81
Cooperatives 6, 44, 115, 125
pests 66
products and specifications 83 Cosmos Indicopleustes (Topographia
soils and fertilizers 77 Christiana) 236, 363, 519
Citrus 41 7-435 CostaRica 364
botany 419 Cyptocaya massoia 155
cultivation 427 CSIR (India) 346
diseases 430 CSIRO (Australia) 262, 270
distillation 43 1 Curcurna domestica 539
ecology 422 Cuscuata reflexa 522
harvesting 428 Cynodon dactylon 63, 43 1
pests 428
products and specifications 432
soils and fertilizers 425 d’Etchevery, Captain 11
see also individual species Dicypellium cayophyllaturn 155, 238
Cloez, M. 285 Dioscorides (De Materia Medica) 50,
Clove 235-258 334,540
botany 238 Diseases see individual crops
cultivation 246 Distilling essential oils 568-578, 570
diseases 252 distilling, history 568-569
distillation 250 hydro-distillation 570, 571
ecology 244 molecular distillation 570, 574
harvesting 248 steam distillation 570, 572
pests 251 vacuum distillation 570, 573
products and specifications 253 see also individual crops
soils and fertilizers 245 Dominican Republic 324, 451
Cloves, mother-of-cloves 243 Dutch East India Company 216
588 lndex

Eau de Cologne 286, 569 Erodium 24


Ecuelling 423, 536 Geranium 24
Egypt 26, 318, 333, 344, 350, 396, G. nzaculatum 50
495,496,520 G. macrowhizuni 24, 50-54, 52
Elettaria cardamomum 539 G. robertianum 5 0
Enantioselective gas G. sanguineum 51
chromatography 577 G. striatum 51
Enfleurage 347,454, 571 Monsonia 24
EOA see Essential Oil Association Pelargonium spp. 24-50, 27, 30, 40,
Eremophila mitchelli 321, 534, 535 44
Erthroxylum monogynum 53 1 P.x citrosum 28
Eythrina spp. 224, 372 P. capitatunz 26, 28, 30
Essence, lemon 475 P. capitatum X P. radens 28, 30
Essential Oil Association, USA cultivar Rose 28, 30, 31, 32, 33
(EOA) 168, 223, 255, 278, 286, P. citriodorum 27
324, 333, 368, 384, 443, 459, P.cucullatum 24
464, 531, 545, 565 P.$scheri 26
Eucalypts 2 5 9-27 2 P.fragrans 27
botany 261 P. graveolenr 24, 26, 28, 29
cultivation 266 P. odoratissimum 28, 29
diseases 270 P. peltatum 24
distillation 267 P.radens 26, 28, 29
ecology 264 P. roseum 27
harvesting 267 P. tomentosum 28
pests 268 P. triste 51
soils and fertilizers 265 P.zonale 24
Eucalyptus oil, Chinese 301 Sarcocaulon 24
Eugenia brasiliensis 246 Geraniales 24
E. unifora 246 Ginger 539-565
E. jambolana 246 botany 540
Extracting essential oils 568-578 cultivation 550
ecuelling 576 diseases 561
enfleurage 57 1 distillation 557
expression 576 ecology 545
gaseous extraction 573, 575, 576 harvesting 554
solvent extraction 571, 575 pests 559
sponge process 577 products and specifications 562
supercritical fluid extraction 575 soils and fertilizers 547
Gingergrass see Palmarosa
Glauber, Johann Rudolph 569
Flavour and Extract Manufacturers
Gliricidia spp. 244, 372
Association (FEMA) 7
Glossary 579-583
Fertilizers see individual crops
Gramineae (syn. Poaceae) 59
Fiji 12, 516, 535
Andropogonae 59
Cymbopogon spp. 59-60, 60, 66
Gama, Vasco de, 215, 236, 363, 491, C. citratus 59, 85-103, 87, 93, 98
540 C. confertifalurus x C . jwarancusa
Geraniaceae 24 (jamrosa) 67
Index 589

C. densifEorus 104 Hawaii 516,519, 554


C. flexuosus 59 Herbicides see Weed control
C. jwarancusa 60 Herman, Paul (Horti acadenzici
C. martinii 59, 103-117, 104, 113 Lugduno- ba tavicatalogus) 24
var. motia 59 Honduras 82, 88
var. sofia 59 Honey 260,278,281,296,298,299,
C. nardus 59, 67-85, 70, 71, 72, 316
76
Honourable East Indian Company 216
C. pendulus 60
c. winten'anus 59, 64, 67-85
Vetiven'a 59, 126
Imperata cylindrica 63, 371, 374
V.zizanioides 1 17-1 30 Incense 518, 530
Granada 215, 217, 220, 224, 227
India 27, 60, 104, 117, 139, 166, 168,
Grapefruit 475-482
botany 476 177, 485, 493, 516, 522, 525,
cultivation 479 528,539, 548
diseases 430 Assam 99, 369
distillation 480 Kerala 366, 370
ecology 477 Malabar 369, 528
harvesting 480 Tamil Nadu State 368, 525
pests 428 Indian Standards Office 286, 531
products and specifications 481 Indonesia 10, 60, 90, 100, 139, 168,
soils and fertilizers 478 174, 181, 215, 237, 313, 516,
Grasse (France) 15, 25, 34, 344, 569 517
Greece 202 Java 12, 68, 118
Grevillea robusta 372 Macassar 519, 528
Grimm, Surgeon-Major 68 Moluccas 239, 215, 235
Growth regulators, chemical Sumba 516,517
bergamot 466, 470 Timor 516, 517
citrus 421 Insect Pests see individual crops
clove 241, 243 Intercropping
ginger 552, 553, 541
bergamot 461
jasmine 344, 351
cananga 17
lemongrass 89
citronella 80
mandarin 486
clove 244
orange, sweet 492
cymbopogon 6 1
patchouli 144
pelargonium (geranium) 31 eucalyptus 267
rose 399, 400 ginger 546, 550, 551
Growth regulators, natural 266 laurel 204
Guatemala 69, 80, 81, 82, 85, 90, 284, lemongrass 97
300,320 mandarin 487
Guenther, Ernest 577 palmarosa 1 12
Guinea 458, 459, 465, 493 patchouli 142, 144, 146
pelargonium (geranium) 38, 39
pepper 371
Haiti 504, 90, 117, 451 rose 405
Hallucinogens 2 17-2 18 vetiver 61
590 lndex

International Federation of Essential products and specifications 357


Oils and Aroma Traders soils and fertilizers 348
(IFEAT) 7
International Fragrance Association
(IFRA) 7 Kaffer, A.J. 68
International Organisation of the Kalmia latifolia 201
Kampuchea 364, 370
Flavour Industry (IOFI) 7 , 573
International Pepper Community 364 Kenya 26, 166, 320,441,468, 535
International Standards Organisation khas-khas oil 117
(ISO) 27, 82, 86, 368, 443 Kin0 260
Iran 347, 395, 486 Knossos (Crete) 394
Irradiation 107, 399, 487, 553 Koala 263
Irrigation Kretek cigarettes 253
citronella 8 1
citrus 424, 425, 427 Lamiaceae (syn. Labiateae) 138
cymbopogon 64 Microtaena cymosa 138
eucalyptus 293 Plectranthus patchouli 138
ginger 554 Pogostemon spp. 138
grapefruit 479 P. benghalensis 139
jasmine 350 P. cablin 138, 139-152, 145
laurel 204 P. comosum 138
lemon 468, 470 P.heyneasus 138
lemongrass 97 P. hortensis 138
palmarosa 112 P.plectranthoides 138
patchouli 146 Languas oflcinarum 539
pelargonium 41 Lantana spp. 525, 527
rose 405 Lassak, E.V. 318
vetiver 124 Lauraceae 155
Israel 25, 34, 36, 468, 493 Aniba 167-1 68
Italy 461, 468, 488, 499 A. rosaeodora 167
Calabria 459, 460, 461-463 A. canelilla 167
Sicily 344, 45 1, 465, 472, 497 Cyptocaya moschata 2 15
Ivory Coast 459, 465 Cinnamomum spp. 155, 195
Iwamoto, Kiyoshi 68 C. burmanni 174-176, 175
see also Indonesian Cassia
C. cassia (Chinese cassia) 168,
Jahns, E. 285 169-1 74
Jamaica 499, 504, 540, 547 C. camphora 155, 156-168, 159
Japan 117, 157,396,484,487, 539, C. loureirii (Vietnamese
547 cassia) 176-177
Jasmine 342-359 C. tamala (Indian cassia) 177-179
botany 344 C. verum 179-195, 182, 184, 188
cultivation 349 Dicypellium cayophyllatum 155, 238
diseases 356 Laurus 155
distillation 354 L. azorica 155,200
ecology 347 L. nobilis 155, 200-207, 203
harvesting 35 1 Litsea spp. 155, 207
pests 356 L. cubeba 207
lndex 59 1

L. diversifolia 207 L'Heritier, C.L. de Brutelle 261


L. sebijera 207 Li, Shih-Chin (Pen T'sao) 395
Ocotea 155, 198 Lime 435-444
0. cymbarum 200 botany 435
0.pretiosa 166, 198-200, 199 cultivation 439
0. quixos 200 diseases 430
0. wrightii 200 distillation 441
Ravensam aromatica 155, 215, 238 ecology 438
Sassafras 15 5 harvesting 44 1
S. albidum 195-198 pests 428
S. randaiense 196 products and specifications 442
S. tzumu 196 soils and fertilizers 438
Laurel 200-207 Lipia citriodora 475
botany 201 Litsea cubeba 103, 207, 384
cultivation 203 Lobelius (Plantarum sue Stiripium
diseases 205 Historia) 217
distillation 205
ecology 202
harvesting 205 Macassar hairdressing 20
pests 205 Mace 217, 220, 221, 222, 224, 227,
products and specifications 206 228
soils and fertilizers 203 butter 233
Lavoisier, A. 569 Madagascar 10, 19, 198, 364, 372,
Lawrence, Mary (A Collection of Roses 535
from Nature) 394 Nossi-Be 17
Lemon 464-475 Magnolia virginiana 196
botany 465 Magnoliales
cultivation 469 Annonaceae 10
diseases 430 Myristicaceae 214
distillation 47 1 Pyenanthus 214
ecology 467 Virola 214
harvesting 47 1 Malaysia 60, 139, 174, 216, 313, 539
pests 428 Sarawak 94, 364, 372, 375
products and specifications 472 Malaysian Agricultural Research and
soils and fertilizers 468 Development Corporation 372
Lemongrass 85-103 Mandarin 482-49 1
botany 88 botany 482
cultivation 95 cultivation 486
diseases 99 diseases 430
distillation 99 distillation 488
ecology 89 ecology 484
harvesting 97 harvesting 487
pests 66 pests 428
products and specifications 100 products and specifications 489
soils and fertilizers 92 soils and fertilizers 485
Leptospemzum spp. 319-322 Mauritius 2 16
Leucaena spp. 372 Melaleuca spp. 302 (see also Cajuput,
Levden Botanic Gardens 24 Niaouli, Tea-tree)
592 lndex

Melegueta pepper (see Aframomum E. piperita 260


melegueta) E. polybractea 260, 287-292
Mendoza, Francesco de, 540 E. radiata 260, 266, 292-294
Mentha arvensis 267 E. regnans 262
Meriandra benghalensis 166 E. sideroxylon 290, 300
Meyer-Warnod, Bernard 570 E. smithii 294-296
Microtaena cymosa 138 E. staigerana 300
Mimosa spp. 77 E. tereticornis 300
Mimusops elengi 53 1 E. viridis 290, 296-297
Monimiaceae 155 E. youmanii 301
Doryphora sassafras (Australian Eugenia 235
sassafras) 155, 198 E. aromatica 238
Morocco 344, 352, 396, 401, 459 E. brasiliensis 246
Mozambique 69, 535 E. unz’jlora 246
Myrica cerifera 333 E. jainbolana 246
M . gale 333 Leptospermum 235, 3 19-322
Myristicaceae 2 14 L. lanigerum var. macrocarpum 322
Myristica argenia 2 14 L. liversidgei 322
M . canarica 214 L. petersonii 3 19-322
M . castaneaefolia 2 14 L. scoparium var. rotundifolium 322
M . elliptica 214
L. sphaerocarpum 322
M. fragrans 215-233,219,220,
Melaleuca 235, 302-319, 304, 308,
221, 222
309,310,312
M . laurijolia 214
M. alternifolia 302, 304-3 1 1
M . malabarica 214
M. bracteata 318
M. muelleri 214
M . succadanea 2 14
M . cajupti 302, 311-314
Myrtaceae 235-341 M . cajupti subsp. cajupti 3 1 1
Eucalyptus spp. 259-302, 259, 262, M. cajupti subsp. cumingiana 3 1 1
269,291 M. cajupti subsp. platyphylla 3 1 1
E. aswingens 260 M . dissitz’jlora 319
E. behriana 290 M . leucadendron 302
E. camaldulensis 260 M . linariifolia 3 19
E. citridora 260, 265, 272-277 M . quinquenervia 302, 3 14-3 18,
E. cneorifolia 301 316
E. deglupta 301 M . trichostachya 318
E. dives 260, 277-280 M. viridiPora 314
E. dumosa 290 Myrtus spp. 235, 333-335
E. elata 297 M . communis 333-335
E. globulus 260, 264, 267, Pimenta 235, 322-333
280-287 P. dioica 322, 330-333
E. goniocalyx 300 P. racemosa 322-329, 325
E. leucoxylon 298 P. racemosa var. citriodora 323
E. macarthurii 298-299 P. racemosa var. grisea 323
E. maidenii 299 Syzygium 235
E. nzelliodora 260 S. aromaticum 238, 239, 242, 248
E. naimerosa 297 S. cumini 246
E. oleosa 301 Myrtle 333-335
lndex 593

National Food and Drug Apopin 164


Administration (NFDA) 7 bay leaf (myrcia oil) 324, 329, 330
Netherlands 24 bergamot 461-464
New Caledonia 314, 315, 501 bitter orange 444, 450-458
New Zealand 319,469, 502 leaf (petitgrain) 446, 448, 449,
Niaouli 3 14-3 18 451-453
botany 315 flower (neroli) 449, 453-457
cultivation 3 17 fruit (peel) 450, 457-459
diseases 303 Bois de rose see aniba
distillation 3 17 boronia 503-504
ecology 316 cajuput 312, 313, 314
harvesting 3 17 camphor 164, 166
pests 303 blue 166
products and specifications 3 17 brown 166
soils and fertilizers 3 17 white 165
Nose, electronic 577 canaga 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 19,
Koses, of Grasse 569 20-22
Nutmeg butter 222, 233 cassia
narcotic 217, 218 Chinese 172, 174
Nutmeg 215-233 Indian 179, 180
botany 218 Indonesian 175
cultivation 225 Vietnamese 176, 177
diseases 229 cinnamon 191, 195
distillation 228 bark 192
ecology 224 chip 189
harvesting 227 leaf 193
pests 229 root 194
products and specifications 230 citriodora 277
soils and fertilizers 224 citronella 74, 75, 8 3
Nutrient deficiency symptoms 38, 144, Ceylon 83
371,403,439 Java 8 3
citrus 431, 433-435
clove 243, 250, 251, 253-258
Ocimum kilimandscharicum 166 bud 250,254
Ocoted spp. 198-200 leaf 249, 250, 257
0.pretiosa 166, 198, 199 mother of cloves 243, 258
Odakkali Research Station (India) 119 stem 256
Oil Eucalyptus 260, 265
biosynthesis 32, 89, 120, 159, 181, Chinese 301
182,263,470 E. dives 278
marketing 5, 7, 569 E. globulus 285
metabolism 32 E. leucoxylon 298
organically produced 5 E. macarthurii 298
storage 45, 100, 149, 151, 311, 408, E. maidenii 299
434, 446, 505, 517, 522, 523, E. polybractea 288
527, 530, 564, 577 E. radiata 294
Oils E. sideroxylon 300
aniba (Bois de rose) 167, 168 E. smithii 295
594 Index

Oils contd. flower water 456


E. staigerna 300 leaf 449-453
E. tereticornis 300 peel 451, 457, 459
E. viridis 297 orange, sweet
evolimba 280 flower 492,496,499
geranium (pelargonium) 25, 28, 30, leaf 499-500
31, 33, 34, 41, 42, 45, 47-50 peel 492,494, 497-500
ginger 544, 545, 556-559, 562, 564 palmarosa 103, 107, 115-1 17
gingergrass 103, 117 patchouli 147, 149, 151-152
grapefruit 477, 480, 482 pepper,
flower 476 betel 387, 388
leaf 476 black 367, 368, 381, 382
peel 477, 478, 480, 482 cubeb 384, 386
seed 481 white 384
jasmine 342, 343, 353, 354, pimenta,
357-359 berry 331-332
laurel leaf 331, 332-333
berry 207 rose 400,401,408,409, 41 1-413
leaf 206, 207 sandalwood 517, 519, 520, 522,
lemon 523, 526, 528, 530, 532
leaf 466 African 535
peel 467, 471-475 Australian 532, 534, 535
Meyer 471, 475 Indian 523,528, 531, 532
lemongrass 90, 92, 99, 100, 103 West Indian 504
leptospermum 321, 322 sassafras 197
lime 436,437,439-444 synthetic 166
limette 444 tangerine 482
linaloe 167 tea tree 305, 306, 310, 311
lipia 45 verbena 475
litsea 207 vetiver 120, 128, 129
mace 222, 223, 228, 232 ylang-ylang 10, 11, 12, 15, 19,
mandarin 482, 488, 489 2 0-2 2
flower 483 zdravetz 53
leaf 483, 490 Oleaceae 342-36 1
peel 482, 484, 485, 486, 488, Jasminum spp. 343
489,490 J. auriculatum 342, 344-345, 347,
Mawah 26 354
melaleuca 305, 314, 318, 319 J. grandiflorum 342, 344, 345,
myrtle 347,353-354,346,355
berry 335 J. odoratissimum 343, 347
leaf 333, 334 J. oficinale forma grandiflorum see
niaoli 3 14, 3 17 3. grandijlorum
nutmeg 221-223, 228, 230-232 J. paniculatum 343
leaf 2 18 J. sambac 342, 343, 344,
ocotea 198, 200 345-347, 348, 353-354
orange, bergamot 458,463, 464 Osmaizthus americanus 359
orange, bitter 0.fragrans 359
flower (neroli) 453, 455 0. sandwicensis 359
lndex 595

Oleoresins Otto, see rose oil


bay leaf 329
cinnamon 195
clove 256 Pakistan 466, 568
cubeb 386 Palmarosa 103-1 17
ginger 558, 564, 565 botany 105
laurel leaf 207 cultivation 11 1
mace 228, 232 diseases 67
nutmeg 228,232 distillation 1 14
pepper, black 381, 383, 384 ecology 107
pimenta 332 harvesting 112
vetiver 129 pests 66
Orange, bitter 444-459 products and specifications 1 15
botany 445 soils and fertilizers 109
cultivation 447 Pandanus spp. 531
diseases 430 Paper (raw material for) 83, 89, 100,
distillation 450 115, 121,285
ecology 446 Papua New Guinea 237, 239, 259,
harvesting 448 313,314,319
pests 428 Paraguay 445, 447, 448, 449, 451
products and specifications 451 Parasitism 5 16, 522-523
soils and fertilizers 447 Parry, E.J. 520
Orange bergamot 459 Patchouli 138-152
botany 459 botany 139
cultivation 461 cultivation 144
diseases 430 diseases 150
distillation 462 distillation 148
ecology 460 ecology 142
harvesting 462 harvesting 146
pests 428 pests 150
products and specifications 463 products and specifications 151
soils and fertilizers 460 soils and fertilizers 143
Orange oil derivatives, Pelargonium 24-50
d-limonene 50 1 botany 28
I-carvone 500 cultivation 38
wax 500 diseases 46
Orange sweet 491-501 distillation 43
botany 491 ecology 34
cultivation 495 harvesting 41
diseases 430 pests 45
distillation 497 products and specifications 47-50
ecology 493 soils and fertilizers 36
harvesting 497 Peltophorum spp. 244
pests 428 Pennisetum spp. 38
products and specifications 499 P. purpureum 63
soils and fertilizers 494 Pepper, betel 386-388
Orta, Garcia de 157, 516 Pepper, black 362-384
Osmanthus spp. 359 botany 365
596 Index

Pepper, black contd. Pimenta 330-33 1


cultivation 37 1 Plantation
diseases 379 establishment costs 97, 114, 115,
distillation 377 277,290,292,321,376
ecology 368 life 43, 69, 88, 105, 163, 188, 227,
harvesting 374 266,277,309,405
pests 377 nucleus 43, 115
products and specifications 381 Plectranthus patchouli 138
soils and fertilizers 369 Pliny (Historia Naturalis) 168, 394, 540
Pepper, cubeb 384-386 Poivre, Pierre 2 16
Pepper, long 362, 364, 365 Polianthus tuberosa 343
white 364, 367, 375, 384 Polo, Marco (Description of the
tailed 364, 365, 384-389 World) 236, 363, 540
Peru 465 Pomade 342,354
Pharmacopoeia Portugal 284, 363
UK 169,534 Prioris, Jacques 27
US 174,498 Pruning
Philippines 10, 91, 370, 483 bergamot 461
Piperales 362 cananga 17
Choranthaceae 362 cassia 172
Piperaceae 362-392 cinnamon 187, 188
Peperomia 362 citrus 427
Piper spp. 362, 364, 365 clove 247, 249
P. aethiopum 289 geranium 41
P.aduncum 365 grapefruit 479
P. attenuatum 365 jasmine 351, 357
P.bantamense 362 lemon 469
P. betle 365, 386-388, 387 lemongrass 97
P. boehnzeriaefoliunz 365 pepper 374
P. caninum 386 rose 405
P. chaba 365 Prunus laurocerasus 200
P. clusii 364 Psidium guajava 239
P. crassipes 384, 386 Pterocarpus santalinus (red
P.cubeba 364, 365, 384-389 sandalwood) 517, 518, 521
P. excelsum 362 Pueraiia phaseoloides (kudzu) 247
P. guineense 364, 365 Puerto Rico 324,328
P. longijolium 364 Pycnanthus spp. 2 14
P. longum 362, 364, 365 P.angolensis (ilomba wood) 2 14
P. medium 362
P. methysticum 362
P. molissimum 384 Raimbault, F. Rev. 12
P.nigrum 362-384,365 Raffles, Sir Stamford 216
P.peepuloides 365 Ravensara aromatica 155, 215, 238
P. pinnatum 362 Ray (Historia plantorum)
P. porphyrophyllum 362 Redoute, Pierre-Joseph (Les Roses) 394
P. retrofractum 364 Rosaceae 393-416
P. saigonense 364 Rosa spp. 393, 398
Saururaceae 362 R. alba 396
Index 597

R. borboniana 399, 402 Georgia 43, 486


R. canina 396 Crimea 396
R. centifolia 393, 396, 397, 399, Rutaceae 4 17-5 19
406,408,411,412,413 Amyris spp. 504, 505
R. chinensis 393 A. balsamifera 504
R. damascena 393, 395, 396, A. elemifera 504
397-416 Boronia spp. 501-504
R. damascena forma trigintipetala B. megastigma 501-504
(Kazanlik rose) 397, 400, Aurantioideae 4 17
407 Citreae 417
R. damascena var. Eucitrus 417
sempe$orens 407 Citrus 417-435, 420
R. gallica 393, 396, 397, 406, 408 C. aurantifolia 419, 435-444
R. gallica var. aegyptiaca 396, 41 1 C. aurantium 419, 444-459
R. gigantea 396 subsp. bigaradia 419, 459-464
R. indica 393, 395 subsp. amara 419
R. moschata 399, 402 C. jambhari 465
R. multz'jlora 393, 399 C. junos 492
R. pannonica 396 C. limetta 444
R. phoenicia 397, 398 C. limon 419, 423, 464-475
R. rugosa 395, 400, 41 1 C. maxima 476, 477
R. sancta (R. richardiz3 394 C. medica 423
Research Institute for Fragrance C. meyeri 465
Materials (RIFM) 7 C. paradisi 419, 423, 475-482
Reunion 10, 26, 38, 48, 117 C. reticulata 41 9, 423, 482-49 1
Rheede (Hortus Malabaricus) 236 C. sinensis 419, 423, 491-501
Rbeiro (Fatalida histora da Zlha Fortunella 417, 423
Ceilo) 180 Microcitrus 17, 438
Rooting compounds 39, 186, 266, Poncircus trijoliata 417, 423, 492
373,404 Rwanda 88, 283
Rose 394-396
botany 396
cultivation 404 Samayao, Julio 69
diseases 409 Samoa 12
distillation 408 Sandal Research Centre (India) 526
ecology 400 Sandalwood 5 16
harvesting 406 African 532
pests 409 Australian 532
products and specifications 410 Fijian 516, 535
soils and fertilizers 402 Indian 516
Rossi, Geronimo (De Distillatione botany 520
Liber) 395 cultivation 526
Rotations 43, 81, 125, 551 diseases 529
Rothschild, Baron Edmund de 25 distillation 528
Rumphius (Herbarium Amboinese) 237 ecology 525
Ruscus racemosus 20 1 harvesting 527
Russia 25, 34, 36, 48, 51, 139, 202, pests 529
274,283 products and specifications 530
598 Index

soils and fertilizers 526 cv. Rose 2n = 77 28


Sandalwood contd. pepper2n=128 365
West Indian 504 betel 2n = 52 365
Santalales 5 16 cubeba2n=24 365
Santalaceae 5 16-538 long 2n = 26 365
Colpoon spp. 521 rose 2n = 35 397
Colpoon compressum 521, 535 vetiver 2n = 20 118
Santalum spp. 516 zdravetz 2n = 46 5 1
S. acuminatum 532 Sonnerat (Voyage en New Guinee) 237
S. album 418, 516, 520-532, 523, Sour orange see Orange bitter
524 Spain 284, 344, 458, 499
S. ellipticum 521 Sri Lanka 60, 117, 185, 532, 569
S. fernandezianum 52 1 St. Vincent 230
S. freycinetianum 52 1 Staphylococcus aureus 455
S. haleakalae 521 Stills 65, 66, 268, 269
S. lanceolatum 521, 532, 534 bayrum 328
S. muwayanum 532 cananga 19
S. preissianum 535 cassia 172
S. pyrularium 521 cinnamon 189
S. spicatum 519, 532-535, 533 citronella 82
S. yasi 521 clove 250
osyris spp. 535 eucalyptus 290
0. compressa 535 geranium 44
0. tenuifolia 521, 535 ginger 568, 569
Sassafras 195-198 lemongrass 99, 100
Australian 198 orange, bitter 450
Schinus molle 382, 386, 388 palmarosa 1 14
Seed oil 422, 444, 477, 481, 492, 524 patchouli 149
Sens, Ernest 27 rose 409
Sensor, chemical 577 sandalwood 528
electronic 577 vetiver 127
Sesbania spp. 550 see also Distilling essential oils
Seychelles 117, 185, 190 Stock feed 83, 100, 115, 120, 422,
Shade trees 224, 226, 244 423, 444, 464, 476, 493, 558,
Silage 100 559
Smith, Christopher 216 Stychnos nux-vomica 522
Smythe, Arthur Bowes 25 Sula, Angelus 195
Solar energy 6, 44, 249, 376 Sulcimen the Merchant (Memoirs) 157
Somatic number Sun, Ssu-miao (The Great Secrets of
cananga2n=16 12 Alchemy) 568
cinnamon 2n = 24 155 Sweet (Flore de Serres et des Jardines de
citrus 2n = 18 417 I’Europe) and (Les Geraniums) 24
cymbogon 2n = 20 40 59 Sweet orange see Orange sweet
ginger grass 2 n = 4 0 105
jasmine 2n = 26 344
nutmeg 2n = 42 21 8 Taiwan 68, 73, 82, 139, 157, 166, 547
palmarosa 2 n = 4 0 105 Tangerine see Mandarin
pelargonium 2n = 66-88 28 Tanzania 26, 34, 468, 497, 535, 536
Index 599

Tea-tree 304 V. surinamensis (virola wood) 2 14,


botany 304 216
cultivation 307 Virus see diseases
diseases 303 Viscum album 5 16
distillation 309 Vitamins 102, 400, 446
ecology 305
harvesting 308
pests 303 Wallace’s line (Eucalyptus) 259
products and specifications 3 10 Water see irrigation
Wax, jasmine 358
soils and fertilizers 306
orange 492, 500
Tephrosia spp. 77
Theophrastus (Enquiry into Plants) 394 Weed control
Tiemann, Johann Karl 238 bergamot 461
boronia 503
Timber 158, 176, 182, 196,240,252,
cananga 17
300,315,323,330,419
eucalyptus 261, 272, 278, 281, 292, cinnamon 186
citronella 80
294,296,298,299
citrus 427
Torreya calijornica 2 15
Tucker, A.O. 365 clove 247
Tumeric 539 eucalyptus 267, 284, 289
Turkey 201, 202, 395 ginger 550, 553
grapefruit 480
jasmine 350
Uganda 184,468 laurel 204
Umbellularia californica 206, 322 lemongrass 95, 96
United States of America 195 lime 440
California 465, 493 mandarin 486
Florida 438, 440, 441, 492, 493, melaleuca 308
499 nutmeg 226
USSR see Russia pelargonium (geranium) 40
patchouli 146
Valentijn, Francois (Description of pepper 371, 374
pimenta 326, 327
Ceylon) 180
Venezuela 504 rose 405
Verbena tn$hylla 475 sandalwood 527
vetiver 124
Verthema (Travels) 363
Vetiver 117-129 Wilting 18, 42, 44, 65, 82, 99, 114,
botany 118 148, 172, 331
cultivation 123 World Trade in Essential Oils 1-7
diseases 67
distillation 126 Xylopia aethiopica (Piper
ecology 121 aethiopium) 389
harvesting 124
pests 66
products and specifications 128 Ylang-ylang see cananga
soils and fertilizers 122 Yugoslavia 5 1
Vietnam 88, 139, 168, 176, 314, 364
Virola spp. 2 14 Zaire 69, 274, 283, 294, 295, 299, 321
600 lndex

Zanzibar 16, 236, 237, 244, 250, 257, Z. amada 539


258 Z. cassumunar 539
Zdravetz (Geranium) 50-54 Z. elatum 539
Zimbabwe 5, 27, 34,465,468 Z. mioga 539, 541
Zingiberaceae 539-567 Z. officinale 539, 540-565, 542,
Zingiberoideae 539 543,555
Curcuma domestica 539 Z. zerumbet 539
Ellettaria cardamomum 539 Zosimus of Panoplis (Corpus
Zingiber spp. 539-540, 543 Hermeticum) 568

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