Intermetallics: Applications

Intermetallic compounds exhibit an attractive com-

bination of physical and mechanical properties such as
high melting point, low density, high strength, good
oxidation, and creep resistance. However, the room
temperature brittleness of intermetallics has limited
their structural use in a wide variety of applications.
Since the 1980s, great progress has been achieved in
the improvement of the ductility of several inter-
metallic compounds such as Ni Al, Fe Al, FeAl, and
Fe–Co–V alloys through alloying, $ $
processing, and
microstructural control. This has led to a number of
current and pending industrial applications. Mean-
while, many other compounds have been found
to have unique physical properties such as super-
conductivity, hydrogen storage capability, high
saturization magnetization, etc. The scientific and
technological achievements of the 1980s and 1990s will
undoubtedly broaden the range of industrial applica- Figure 1
tions for intermetallic compounds in structural and Complete Stage 5 rotor of cast TiAl low pressure turbine
functional areas. In this article, the current status of blade for demonstration in CF6-80C engine (Loria 2000).
intermetallic applications is briefly reviewed.
1.1 Titanium Aluminides
1. Intermetallics for Structural, Oxidation,
Alloys based on γ-TiAl have a melting point of about
Corrosion, and Sulfidation-resistant Applications
1450 mC, and exhibit better oxidation resistance than
The most promising compounds in this class include conventional titanium alloys (see Intermetallics: Ti-
aluminides of titanium, nickel, and iron, and silicides tanium Aluminides). In addition, they resist spon-
of molybdenum. Of these, titanium aluminides based taneous combustion as in the case of titanium base
on TiAl provide the highest specific strength among alloys such as Ti Al and Ti–6Al–4V alloys. The density
the structural applications. Alloys based on nickel and of TiAl alloys is$around 3.9 g cmV$, half the density of
iron aluminides exhibit excellent oxidation and cor- many superalloys used in aerospace applications. The
rosion properties due to the formation of protective lower density decreases the self-induced stresses in
alumina oxide scale on the surface. The fully adherent rotating turbine airfoils, and consequently, the weight
protective oxide scale formed on the surface allows of the disk and other support structures can be reduced
these materials to be used in applications beyond by half. When combined with the improved ductility,
where strength and ductility are important since even fracture toughness, and creep resistance of the recent
high-strength alloys such as 316 stainless steel and TiAl alloys, TiAl alloys appear to be the most
INCO 800 degrade rapidly under corrosive conditions, promising materials for turbine applications (Loria
even at 700 mC. 2000). Several TiAl components have been success-

20 mm

Figure 2
Transition duct-beam castings of TiAl as supports for GE 90 engines (Loria 2000).

1
Intermetallics: Applications
Figure 3
TiAl turbocharger wheel for automotive engine (Tetsui
and Ono 1999).
fully engine tested, including low-pressure turbine
blades (Fig. 1), transition duct-beams (Fig. 2), radial
diffusers, and compressor cases. The other important
application for TiAl alloys is in the exhaust nozzle
portion of the engine of the projected high-speed civil
transport plane. A diverter flap made from a sheet of
cast TiAl, and a nozzle sidewall made from a com-
bination of cast and powder processed sheet are being
tested for possible implementation.
However, the commercial implementation of TiAl
alloys in the aerospace industry is limited presently
because of the lack of an adequate database relating
engineering properties to a given composition, and the
inherent conservatism of the aerospace industry.
Interestingly, the high specific strength of TiAl alloy
led to the installation of a turbocharger wheel in a
2.4 liter automobile engine. Mitsubishi Ltd. is now
producing a TiAl turbocharger wheels in commercial
quantities (Fig. 3). ABB and BMW have also success-
fully tested TiAl turbochargers and exhaust valves,
respectively (Stoloff et al. 2000). The potential appli-
2
Table 1
Current and potential applications of TiAl-base alloys.
Aircraft engine
Low pressure turbine blades: CF6-80C2, GE90
Carbon seal supports: F414
Transition duct beams: GE90
Blade dampers: high pressure turbine
Compressor blades: Allison 14th stage
Diffuser casting: advanced engine
High speed ciŠil transport
Divergent flap
Nozzle sidewall facesheet
Hot ducts and chute doors
Honeycomb
AutomotiŠe engine
Turbocharger wheel
Exhaust valve
Biomedical applications
Knee and hip implants
Heart valves
cations for TiAl alloys in aerospace, automotive, and
biomaterials market are summarized in Table 1.
While a greater understanding on the alloy design,
heat treatments, and microstructure led to several
excellent compositions for cast and extruded products,
very little R&D has been carried out on the cost-
effective manufacturing of cast and wrought products
and, specifically, thin sheets of TiAl. The processing
cost associated with TiAl products is rather high at the
present stage, but innovative processing approaches,
based on rapid prototyping and investment casting,
will ultimately bring down the cost of TiAl products.
Cost-effective manufacture of nanosize and 10–40 µm
TiAl alloy powder with a low oxygen content, and
novel powder processing approaches such as roll
compaction\tape casting followed by cold rolling (as
in the case of FeAl, Deevi 2000) are necessary to
obtain a thin sheet of ductile TiAl. In addition, further
alloy design must be carried out to increase the
maximum service temperatures of TiAl alloys from
760 mC to
850 mC. Such alloys will greatly improve
the likelihood of replacing superalloys in a variety of
critical applications.
1.2 Nickel Aluminides Based on Ni Al and NiAl
$
Among the aluminides of nickel, Ni Al is one of the
most extensively studied intermetallic $ compounds
from both fundamental and practical points of view.
The dramatic improvement in tensile ductility (35–
45%) of Ni Al at room temperature by boron addition
$
sparked a great interest in this material and in bulk
intermetallic compounds in general. The advantages
of Ni Al include (see Intermetallics: Nickel Alumin-
ides): $
(i) resistance to oxidation and carburization up to
1100 mC;
 Intermetallics: Applications

Table 2 (ii) good tensile and compressive yield strengths in

Current and potential applications of Ni Al alloys.
$ the temperature range 650–1100 mC;
Steel (iii) superior creep and fatigue resistance;
Furnace rolls (iv) excellent wear resistance at high temperatures
Casting rolls (
600 mC); and
Radiant burner tubes (v) good chemical compatibility for many environ-
Heat Treating
ments.
Fixtures for carburizing, furnaces, and air Furthermore, the development of the Exo-Melt
Link belts for heating treating furnaces process made melting and casting of Ni Al alloys more
$
cost effective and easily controllable (Deevi and Sikka
Furnace muffles
Radiant burner tubes 1996). A variety of current applications, and an-
ticipated potential applications of Ni Al are sum-
Chemical $
marized in Table 2. The commercial applications of
Reaction vessels for higher temperatures
Tube hangers Ni Al alloys include (Sikka et al. 2000):
$(i) transfer rolls for austenitizing furnaces in steel
Pallet tips for phosphate ore calcination
Pump impellers for slurries mills (Fig. 4);
Forging
(ii) heat-treating trays and fixtures for operation in
Forging dies air and carburizing environments (Fig. 5);
Die repair as weld overlay (iii) radiant burner tubes for heat-treating furnaces;
(iv) muffles for heat-treating furnaces in hydrogen
Chemical or inert gas; and
For ethylene crackers
Air deflectors for burning of high sulfur fuel
(v) forging dies for closed die forging of steel
components.

Figure 4
Fabricated transfer-roll assembly from Ni Al pipe (6 m in length and 2270 kg in weight) and trunions cast by the Exo-Melt
process (Deevi and Sikka 1996). $

3
Intermetallics: Applications
Figure 5
Cast Ni Al heat-treating fixtures and posts cast by the Exo-Melt process (Deevi and Sikka 1996).
$
It is interesting to note from the above list that most
of the applications are based on the strength of the
material together with at least one functional property
of the material, such as carburization resistance or
hardness. The applications of Ni Al suggest that a
wide variety of applications can be$ found based on a
combination of strength and functional properties
such as oxidation and carburization resistances, as
compared to the strength of the alloys alone.
NiAl has long been studied for gas turbine applica-
tions. This material has a low density of 5.9 g cmV$,
a high melting temperature of 1638 mC, excellent oxi-
dation resistance and high thermal conductivity (Mir-
acle and Darolia 1994). However, the low toughness,
inadequate impact resistance, and lack of ductility at
low temperatures have limited their use as gas turbine
components. These are serious shortcomings, and it
appears unlikely that these shortcomings can be
overcome in the near future. Fortunately, NiAl has
many other potential applications, including injection
molds, various furnace components, dies for steel
wool manufacture, high-temperature heat exchangers,
and high-temperature sensors and actuators (Noebe
and Walston 1997). Extensive research is still needed
on the physical and mechanical properties of NiAl
alloys before the above potential applications are
realized.
1.3 Iron Aluminides Based on FeAl and Fe Al
$ changer tubes in indirectly fired turbine systems,
Iron aluminides based on FeAl and Fe Al alloys are
$
notable for their low cost, ease of fabrication, and
good corrosion, sulfidation, and oxidation resistances.
In addition, FeAl exhibits good resistance to catalytic
coking, carburization, sulfidation, and wear (Liu et al.
4
1998). Therefore, they are particularly suitable for
applications in aggressive and corrosive environments
up to 900 mC. Iron aluminides based on chromium-free
and nickel-free FeAl alloys are nonmagnetic, and also
possess excellent strength and ductility and an elec-
trical resistivity 50–100% higher than those of com-
mercially available heating-element materials (Lilly et
al. 1998). Chromium-free, FeAl-based sheets of 0.2
mm have been successfully manufactured by a roll
compaction technique (Deevi 2000), and over six tons
of FeAl sheets have been manufactured by Chrysalis
Technologies, Inc. (CTI). Figure 6(a) shows 0.2 mm
FeAl sheets before and after stamping them into
individual microheater elements; Fig. 6(b) shows a
cold-formed coil of FeAl sheet produced by CTI.
Plates and sheets of FeAl are useful as combustion
liners, as substrates for catalytic converters, and for
the manufacture of honeycomb filters for automotive
applications. Chromium-free resistive heating ele-
ments from CTI based on FeAl are shown in Fig. 7.
They can replace a wide variety of heating elements
due to their high electrical resistivity and superior
oxidation and creep resistance. Figure 8(a) shows an
extruded tube of chromium-free FeAl alloy; Fig. 8(b)
shows a co-extruded tube of chromium-free FeAl
alloy with 304 SS on the outside. The applications of
iron aluminides are summarized in Table 3. Iron
aluminides based on chromium-free FeAl find applica-
tions as resistive heating elements in consumer and
industrial products, exhaust manifolds, heat ex-
porous metal gas filters for coal gasification systems,
heat-treating trays in carburization environments,
ethylene crackers, and air deflectors for burning of
high sulfur coal. Iron aluminides based on FeAl are
useful for operation in demanding applications such
 Intermetallics: Applications

(a)

(b)

Figure 6
(a) Chromium-free FeAl sheets of 0.2 mm (manufactured by roll compaction and cold rolling) before and after stamping
them into microheaters at room temperature. (b) Illustration of ductility and room temperature formability of chromium-
free FeAl formed at room temperature.

as incinerators, solid waste processing, and in the
power and petrochemical industry, and can replace
stainless steels and other nickel- and iron-based
superalloys containing 10–20 wt.% of chromium. In
addition, net shape products of chromium-free FeAl
can be used where the toxicity of chromium and nickel
are of major concern, as in the case of biomedical
implants and wrist watches. Porous foams and net
shape powder metallurgical products of FeAl alloys
find applications in corrosive environments due to
their high hardness coupled with their corrosion
resistances. Plasma-sprayed coatings of FeAl are being
tested by CTI to protect materials such as INCO 800,
9Cr-1Mo, and other stainless steels against aggressive

5
Intermetallics: Applications

(a)

Figure 7
Chromium-free resistive heating elements of FeAl
manufactured by CTI.

environments. Several products based on cast,

wrought, and powder technologies are currently being
pursued by CTI. The product utilization will be (b)
improved when a variety of casting, welding, and
brazing technologies are developed for bulk structural
components.

1.4 Molybdenum Disilicide

MoSi has an outstanding oxidation resistance with a
# melting point of 2080 mC and a low density of
very high
6.2 g cmV$. Unfortunately, the lack of ductility and
fracture toughness of MoSi has limited its usage to
#
mostly nonstructural applications such as heating
elements for high-temperature furnaces, and as oxida-
tion-resistant coatings. MoSi has received more at-
tention as high-temperature #structural material for
advanced aerospace applications, and several ap-
proaches based on alloying and composites are under
investigation (Stoloff et al. 2000). Another recent
application for MoSi is in a hybrid direct energy
conversion system under # development in Japan (Fig.
9). This device aims to convert solar energy into
electricity by combining thermionic and thermo-
electric conversion stages in a single device. In another
Figure 8
application, CTI processed MoSi with Si N ceramic
#
to form a functionally graded material $ %
(FGM), and
Section of (a) an extruded tube of chromium-free FeAl,
and (b) a co-extruded tube of 304 SS with chromium-free
has shown that the material offers exceptional oxi- FeAl inside.
dation resistance with balanced properties at high
temperatures (Natesan and Deevi 2000, Sadananda heat sensors, and glow plugs. Due to the high
et al. 1998). The ability to form FGMs of conducting corrosion resistance of MoSi , tubes of MoSi with
MoSi with an insulating ceramic such as Si N allows #
alumina have been tested in closed-circuit #
monitoring
#
the designer to tailor properties such as$ electrical
%
systems for glass melters (Petrovic 2000).
conductivity, thermal conductivity, and creep resist-
ance of the composites. In addition, processing of the
composites is simpler since the processing tempera-
1.5 Other Intermetallic Compounds
tures and techniques are identical for both MoSi and
Si N materials. The MoSi –ceramic composites #have Other intermetallic compounds being developed for
$ % patented for use as #heating elements, igniters,
been high-temperature applications include Ti Al, Nb Si,
$ $
6
 Intermetallics: Applications

Table 3
Current and potential applications of iron aluminides.
Components for coal energy conversion systems
Cladding for boilers and heat exchangers
Combustion liners
Heating elements for various consumer and industrial
products
Structural components in carburizing environments
High temperature oxidation- and corrosion-resistant
coatings
Exhaust manifolds
Automotive honeycomb filters
Porous structural foams
Porous gas filters
Reinforcing phase in powder components
Net shape powder metallurgical components
Heat exchanger tubes for solid waste incinerators
containing chlorine
Structural components for processing of pesticides
containing sulfur
Various food industry parts (containing no hazardous Figure 9
elements such as Ni and Cr) The application of a functionally graded MoSi -ceramic
#
material in a hybrid direct energy conversion system
(Stoloff et al. 2000).
Mo Si , Ni Si, Ti Si , Laves phases such as Cr Nb,
and& their
$ composites.
$ & $ A significant amount of R&D
#
thermal conductivity for heat dissipation as compared
on alloy design and processing of the above com- to the conventional alumina substrates. Intermetallics
pounds will need to be carried out before any of the based on TiNi alloys are widely used for applications
above compounds find industrial applications. such as microvalves due to their shape memory
characteristics.

2. Intermetallics for Electronic, Magnetic, and

Battery Applications
2.1 Electronics and Sensors
Metal silicides have been widely used in the electronics
industry (Muraka 1995). Thin-film silicide layers are
used as ohmic contacts, interconnects, and as Schottky
barriers for integrated circuits in microelectronic
devices due to their low electrical resistivity and good
compatibility with silicon substrates relative to poly-
crystalline silicon. Some silicides with the A15 crystal
structure are attractive for use in thermonuclear
reactors, generators, and power transmission due to
their good superconductivity. The epitaxially grown
silicides can be used in high-speed devices such as
metal–base transistors and permeable-base transis-
tors. The infrared detectors and sensors based on
silicides have also received wide attention. Sputtering
targets of a variety of intermetallics such as MoSi ,
CoSi , and TiAl are widely used to deposit thin films #
# mercial permanent magnets. A large number of appli-
for electronics applications.
Several other intermetallics are currently being
investigated for electronics applications, e.g., NiAl
and Ni Al substrates are being used to produce an
$ alumina layer for attaching electronic com-
insulating
ponents (Deevi and Sikka 1999), and to provide a
high-strength alternative to brittle ceramics such as
alumina. The substrates based on NiAl and Ni Al
provide much better mechanical strength, and higher $
2.2 Magnetic Materials
Soft magnetic materials based on Fe–Co–V alloys
provide very high magnetic saturization value of 2.25 T
with a high Curie temperature of 950 mC. Addition of
vanadium imparts ductility to the Fe–Co intermetallic
without much sacrifice in its saturization magnetiza-
tion value. This is an excellent example of an inter-
metallic valued for a functional property such as
magnetization, as opposed to strength\ductility cri-
teria. Current soft magnetic intermetallic alloys are
based on Fe–Co and Fe–Co–V alloys. New inter-
metallic compounds based on Fe–Co–V with low
vanadium content are being developed. Some of the
applications for soft magnetic compounds are listed in
Table 4. Interestingly, several rare earth compounds
have been commercialized as permanent magnets,
among which Nd Fe B is the most successful. This
compound has the # highest
"% energy product of com-
cations have been exploited to date based on the
conventional permanent magnets (Stadelmaier and
Reinsch 1994).
2.3 Battery Materials
A number of hydride-forming intermetallic com-
pounds have the potential to be used in nickel–metal

7
Intermetallics: Applications
Table 4
Current and potential applications of soft magnetic
compounds.
Pole shoes with maximum flux density
Electromagnets with maximum force
Flux conductors with high induction
Actors for miniaturized valves
High performance motors
Generators
High speed dot-matrix printers
High performance transformers
Electrical engines and generators (200 mC)
hydride batteries (NiMH, Stoloff et al. 2000).
NiMH batteries have the advantages of higher storage
capacity than lead–acid and nickel–cadmium batter-
ies, less toxicity than lead and cadmium, and lower
cost than lithium-ion batteries. The NiMH batteries
occupy over 30% of a $6 billion market for recharge-
able batteries used in many portable electronic devices.
The disadvantages of the NiMH batteries are lower
energy density than lithium-ion and higher initial costs
than lead–acid and nickel–acid batteries. New inter-
metallic alloys based on (Zr, Ti)(Ni, Cr, V, Mn) have
been developed as hydrogen storage materials # for
possible use in electric cars.
3. Concluding Remarks
A number of current and potential applications of
intermetallic compounds have been briefly reviewed.
The applications extend from structural to corrosive
and oxidation-resistant applications. In addition, ap-
plications based on a unique functional property, such
as high electrical resistivity (as in the case of FeAl) or
a high saturization magnetization (as in the case of
Fe–Co–V alloys), have been exploited. The initial
motive of the research on intermetallic compounds
was mostly targeted at high-temperature structural
applications such as gas turbines. However, most of
the intermetallic products commercialized to date are
for nonaerospace structural applications. This is pri-
marily due to the stringent aerospace specifications
and, to a certain extent, the lack of good balanced
properties. Also, the lack of an extensive database of
intermetallic applications limits the ability of designers
to specify intermetallics for many applications where
their performance may be significantly better than that
of some superalloys. Therefore, continuing R&D is
necessary to further improve the properties of inter-
metallic compounds. Meanwhile, it is more important
to identify new applications for the existing intermetal-
lics such as Ni Al, Fe Al, FeAl, and Fe–Co–V alloys.
$
An excellent example $is the application of TiAl alloys
in automotive engines as turbocharger wheels. The
second successful application is the use of FeAl as a
resistive heating element which may lead to wide
application of chromium-free heating elements for
8
toaster ovens, furnaces, and as microheaters. Finally,
the ability to scale-up laboratory research to industrial
production and reduction of the cost of final products
should be the concern in further research aimed at
widespread applications of intermetallic compounds.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Professor D. H.
Sastry of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore,
for his valuable comments and suggestions while
working as a visiting scientist in Chrysalis Tech-
nologies, Inc.
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 Intermetallics: Applications

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Encyclopedia of Materials : Science and Technology
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