MECH 215 - Instrumentation and

Measurement
Week 1, Lecture 2
Basic Concepts of Measurements Systems

January 3, 2009 Page 1

 Measurements, Sensors, and Measurement
Systems
How many of you used a measurement system
today?

Did you weight yourself this morning?

Did you look at the thermometer/thermostat?
Did you drive a car?
Did you look at your watch/alarm clock?

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 Measurements, Sensors, and Measurement
Systems
Measurement is the act of assigning a specific value
to a physical variable detected by a sensor.

A measurement system includes all the components

necessary for producing a measurement.

A measurement system is basically an extension of

our sensory systems, but are usually more
quantitative.
Example – How cold is it outside today?

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 Measurements, Sensors, and Measurement
Systems

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 Measurements, Sensors, and Measurement
Systems
Example: Bulb Thermometer

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 Experimental Test Plan

Effective measurements need a test plan:

(a) Parameter Design Plan

What question am I trying to answer? What needs to be
measured? What variable and parameters will affect the results?

(b) System and Tolerance Design Plan

How can I make the measurement? How “good” do the results
need to be?

(c) Data Reduction Plan

How will I interpret the resulting data? How will I use this data to
answer my question? How “good” is the answer? Does the
answer make sense?
Textbook example – estimate of car mileage.
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 Variables

Possible cause and effect relationships

If a change in one variable has no effect on another variable, then
these two variables are considered to be independent of one
another.
Independent Variable
A variable that can be changed independently of other variables.

Dependent Variable
A variable that is affected by changes in one or more other
variables.

Textbook example – estimate of car mileage.

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 Variables

Control of Variables
Variables that can be held (controlled) at a constant value. This is
used to find the relationship between independent and dependent
variables.

Extraneous Variables
Are not or cannot be controlled during an experiment. May affect
the measured variable and therefore confuse the relationship
between cause and effect (independent and dependent variables)
in the measurement.

Textbook example – estimate of car mileage.

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 Variables
Example: boiling point of water.

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 Variables

Dependent
Variable

Independent Variable

Extraneous Variable – Barometric Pressure (not controlled)

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 Noise and Interference

Noise
Random variation of a value of a measured signal.
Due to variation of the extraneous variables.
Increases data scatter.
Statistical methods can reduce the effect of noise.

Interference
Undesired deterministic trend in measured value.
Example: AC power source superimposed on electrical signal
Interference is often obvious, but if period is longer than
measured signal, it will appear as a false trend and this is harder
to detect. More than one test required

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 Noise and Interference

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 Noise and Interference

False trends in each measurement are only seen after several tests.
Multiple tests increase scatter of results (noise), but remember that
the effect of noise can be reduced by using statistics.

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 Random Tests

Random Test
A measurement matrix (set of tests) that imposes a random
order on the changes of the value of the independent variable.

Trends that may be introduced by the coupling of a relatively

slow and uncontrolled variation of an extraneous variable with
a sequential application of the independent variable will
be broken up.

Things to Randomize
Instruments used, test operators, testing conditions, samples, etc.

Example – determining the average height of MECH 215 students

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 Replication and Repetition

Repetition
In general the estimated value of a measured variable improves
with the number of repeated measurements.
Repetition helps to quantify variation in a measured variable.
Repetitions are repeated measurements made during any single
test run or on a single batch of items.

Replication
Replication is an independent duplication of a set of
measurements using similar operating conditions.
Replication allows the quantification of the variation in a measured
variable as it occurs between different tests (each having the
same nominal operating conditions).

MECH 215 student height measurements – Repetition vs. Replication.

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 Concomitant Methods

Concomitant Methods
Different methods for estimating the same result.
Can be compared to check for agreement.
May require additional variables to be measured.
May require analysis of measured data to calculate final value
desired.

Example: Measure volume of a solid cylindrical rod.

1. Measure length and diameter and calculate volume.

2. Measure weight and use known density of material to calculate
volume.
3. Submerge rod in water and measure volume of displaced water.

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 Calibration

Calibration: Establishing the relationship

between a known value of input and the
system’s indicated output
– Static calibration: The procedure above applied to static
signals
– Dynamic calibration: Same, applied to time-dependent
signals. Many different approaches possible

Sensitivity: The slope of the calibration curve

Standard: The known value used for calibration.

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 Calibration
Output Range

Input Range Static

Sensitivity

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 Accuracy and Error

True Value – exact value of a variable (never known)

Measured Value – value of variable as indicated by
measurement system
Accuracy – closeness of agreement between the
measured value and the true value.
Error (e) – difference between the measured value
and the true value of a variable.

e = measured value − true value

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 Accuracy and Error

Relative Error, A – estimate of error based on a

reference value used in place of a known “true
value” of a variable.

e
A= × 100
reference value

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 Random Errors, Systematic Errors and
Uncertainty
Random Error – a measure of the random variation
found during repeated
measurements of a variable.
Repeatability – the ability of a measurement system
to indicate the same value on
repeated measurements for a
specific input value.
Precision – repeatability.
Systematic Error – the portion of the absolute error
(bias error) that remains constant during
repeated measurements.
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 Random Errors, Systematic Errors and
Uncertainty

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 Random Errors, Systematic Errors and
Uncertainty

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 Random Errors, Systematic Errors and
Uncertainty

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Other
Errors

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 Random Errors, Systematic Errors and
Uncertainty

Overall Error, u – combination of all known errors.

[
uc = e + e + e + " + e
2
1
2
2
2
3 M ]
2 1/ 2

Example: an instrument with known hysteresis,

linearity, and sensitivity errors has the following
total “instrument” error.

[
uc = e + e + e
2
h
2
L K ]
2 1/ 2

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 Standards, Dimensions and Units

A primary standard is a “yardstick” that defines

the value of the unit in a certain jurisdiction.
A standard must be stable and usable.

A dimension defines a physical variable used to

describe some physical quantity.

A unit defines a quantitative measure of a

dimension.

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 Standards

In the past, standards of length included the king’s foot, the

emperor's forearm, etc. “Standards” for time included a
standard burning candle, a sundial...
Primary standard of time:
1 s = duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of cesium 133
radiation... (essentially “cesium clock” is the standard)
Primary standard of length:
1 m = path traveled by light in vacuum in
1/299,792,458 s
(i.e, speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s)

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 Hierarchy of Standards

Primary standards (a “standard kilogram” at

Sevres, near Paris, certain phase change
temperatures)

Secondary standards (other phase change

temperatures, standard RTD polynomials...)

Tertiary standards (calibration devices used in

engineering practice).

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 There are many “Standards”

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 Many more Dimensions

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 And even more Units

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January 3, 2009 Page 33
 Next Time

Data Acquisition

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