Seabed Hazard Based on Quantitative Analysis Using
Seismic and Well data in Bundi Field.
Puteri Shahirah Nazihah Binti Salihan
Bachelor of Technology (Hons)
Universiti Teknologi Petronas
Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan
Email: shahirah.salihan@gmail.com
Abstract— Bundi-1 and South Bundi-1 wells was set up and
drilled in 1990 by Esso Production Inc. (EPSI) to test the
hydrocarbon potential and reservoir quality within Bundi field
area. Unfortunately, at significant depth they encountered with
abnormal pressure from the logging reading and finally these
wells have been unplugged and abandoned till now. Thus, hazard
assessment in this area is essential to identify all possible
constraints and hazards from natural and geological features
which may affect the operational or environmental integrity of a
proposed drilling operation. Plus, this study was conducted with
aim to evaluate and assess potential hazard in seabed and Group
A/B quantitatively whereby this technique was still not well
developed. Geological parameters such as geomorphology, fault,
shallow gas, porosity, and buried channel were selected as a main
indicator for hazard identification throughout this study which
each of these geological parameters were interpreted through
TWT map and dip map that has been produced through horizon
picking using Petrel. Other than that, five geological parameters
for this hazard study were further correlated using SPSS software
to see the relation between each parameter either dependent or
independent variable plus evaluate the percentage of hazard
occurrence in this field.
Keywords- quantitative, geomorphology, buried channel, shallow
gas.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Offshore geological hazards refer to any geologic features
or process, existing or potential that would prevent the
exploration and development of petroleum resources. Once
offshore hazards have been identified, special procedures may
be required for bottom-founded structures and facilities and
proposed drilling sites need to carefully be assessed. There are
a lot of potential geologic hazards that has been faced in oil and
gas industry such as active faulting and seismicity, slope
instability, mass wasting process, buried and filled channels,
hydrocarbon seeps, shallow gas, gas hydrate and complex
seabed morphology. Sometimes drilling delays caused by pipe
stuck in difficult formations which lead to expensive
proposition.
This study is the first step in making a census of the
geohazard-bearing features present in Bundi field. Indeed, well
in that field was unplugged and abandoned after drilled at
certain depth due to abnormal pressure detected.
In that case, further hazard study on this area are needed to
quantify the risks posed present hazard that will impact and
cause adverse effect on any upcoming exploration and
development drilling operation. A few of geological parameters
will be used and played as main variables for identification,
evaluation and analysis of presence seabed hazard. From the
tittle itself, ‘quantitative analysis’ refer to use numerical
method to observe and interpret the presence of hazard, define
its probability and measure its real extent and thickness.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Quantitative analysis on hazard present in Bundi area have
not yet being well developed. Most from the previous study,
their proposed model mainly focused on qualitative analysis of
the geological hazard in that area. From these statistical results,
it has the advantage of being able to withstand the supervision
of technical experts and can produce the hazard results in a
format that stating the qualities of uncertainty and possibility,
both of which are fundamental components of risk assessment.
Throughout geohazard assessment, few geologic variables
will be used to determine the degree of hazard including the
location of hazard characteristic, potential magnitude and rate
of occurrence (recurrence) of hazard event. However,
geological parameters such as structure and morphology will be
mainly used in this study to show the features of seabed hazard
clearly.
1.3 OBJECTIVE
The objectives of this project are (1) to generate seabed map
and subsurface of Bundi field, (2) to identify accurate
geological parameters for hazard analysis, (3) to produce
statistical analysis of geological hazard in Bundi and (4) to
propose a hazard map from correlation of qualitative and
quantitative analysis. Ultimate goal for this research is to
evaluate and assess potential hazard qualitative and
quantitatively in Bundi field for future development oil and gas.
 1.4 SCOPE OF STUDY
The research will be focusing in assessing potential hazard
quantitative and qualitatively in Bundi field for future
development process. This project focused on Bundi field
which is located approximately 270 km NNE of Kemaman
supply. In this research, seismic and well interpretation road
will be conducted to produce an accurate seismic well tie. Few
seismic attributes were applied for possible hazard
identification. Quantitative analysis using SPSS was done to
evaluate the correlation of each geological parameters used.
Hazard zoning map will be produced as the last result for this
research which later will become as a reference for upcoming
development of oil and gas in that area.
Figure 1: Base map of study area
(modified from [1])
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF MALAY BASIN
AND BUNDI FIELD
The Malay Basin is located in the southern part of Gulf of
Thailand, between Vietnam and Peninsular Malaysia, which
estimated coverage area about 80,000 km2 and composed of
sediments deposit approximately 14km and approximately 250
km wide and 500 km long. The basin continues southeastwards
close to Indonesia’s Natuna Basin and northwestwards to merge
with Thailand’s Pattani Trough [1]. Extending from Bintang to
Bergading field, a major basement saddle which separates from
a smaller north-trending sub-basin from the main NW-trending
main Malay Basin in the Malaysia-Thai Joint Development
Area (JDA).
It runs almost perpendicular to the Penyu Basin in the east
and west and while West of Natuna Basin in the south and is
parallel to the Pattani Basin in the Gulf of Thailand to the north.
The Tenggol Arch and Pattani Basin by Narathiwat High has
been main boundary which separated Malay Basin with Penyu
Basin [2].
Exploration and development of petroleum within Malay
Basin started in 1968 and currently they already in mature
stage. Total oil and gas accumulations which have been
discovered so far were about 13 fields and still producing [1].
Early exploration activities within this basin in pre-1980s has
been reviewed by Armitage (1980), Ahmad Said (1982) and
Chua and Wong (1997). In this research, the well data was
coming from Bundi and South Bundi area which both are gas
fields. Bundi and South Bundi are wildcat well drilled by Esso
in Block PM 5 to test hydrocarbon and reservoir quality of
groups E, F, H and I. Bundi well is located approximately 280
km North-Northeast (NNE) direction from Kemaman Supply
Base meanwhile South Bundi well located 275 km North-
Northeast (NNE) direction from Kemaman Supply Base.
2.2 TECTONIC SETTING OF BUNDI FIELD
Bundi and South Bundi structures were formed by a
combination of structural events occurring during extensional
and compressional phase of the structural history of Malay
Basin. The early extensional phase during Oligocene gave rise
to the formation of half-grabens. These half-grabens are not
clearly seen on seismic at South Bundi due to poor seismic
resolution below the Group K level.
The later compressional phase of the Malay Basin resulted
in the structural inversion and east-west orientation of the
Bundi-South Bundi-West Bundi anticline [2]. Associated with
this tectonic movement is the formation of fault-bend-fold with
displacement of the major NW-SE trending basement involved
fault sometimes as reactivated pre-existing normal fault as seen
on seismic as the north bounding faults for South Bundi and the
east bounding fault of West Bundi [1].
The resulting closure is fault independent although an
additional fault splay from the southern bounding fault has
displacement up to 40 m in the group H and I within the
structural closure. Area and relief vary with increasing depth.
The shallower group E section has a 30 m vertical relief with
an area of 4450 acres, whereas the deeper group I section has a
65 m relief covering an area of about 3300 acres [3]. Dips are
gentle and do not exceed 5˚ even in the deeper sections. The
crest of the anticline shifts slightly to the south in the younger
section and the direction of critical closure changes from north
to east.
2.3 STRATIGRAPHY OF BUNDI FIELD
Bundi-1 is planned as a deep well to test porosity
development in a basin margin position on strike with, but
structurally deeper than the successful Larut-1 well, 45 km to
the southeast. On the other hand, South Bundi-1 well was
drilled primarily to test the hydrocarbon potential and reservoir
quality of groups E, F, H, and I sandstones found to be
hydrocarbon bearing in the Bundi-1 well. It was also drilled to
further evaluate Bundi prospect and provide useful geologic
and stratigraphic controls in this northern part of Malay Basin.
The group E section in Bundi-1 and South Bundi-1 is made
up of sandstones interbedded with shales and siltstones. Coaly
bed can be scattered throughout the section. The sandstones
thickness ranges from 3 m to 20 m in Bundi-1 whilst in South
Bundi-1 the sandstones thicknesses vary from 3 m to 15 m.
They are made up of channel and point bar sandstones
deposited in lower coastal plain environment. The age of this
group is Late Miocene and is about 370 m of thickness in be produced. Reflection coefficient then needs to be convolved
Bundi-1 and 399 m thick in South Bundi-1[3]. with wavelet to produce synthetic seismic trace.
The drilling of Bundi-1 and South Bundi-1 is terminated
shallower than targeted end due to severe abnormal pressure.
The development of the overpressure has been described by
Madon (2007) as disequilibrium compaction being the main
mechanism and was generated when burial and sedimentation
rate is high during syn-rift phase at the centre of the basin. It
was also described that the overpressure at the basin flanks are Figure 2: Synthetic seismogram (Theory)
generated due to lateral transfer of the excess pressure into
permeable rocks [1]. 3.1.2 3D Seismic Interpretation
Table 1: Stratigraphic section of Bundi field
Fault interpretation is the first step in seismic interpretation.
Faults are interpreted before horizons because horizons are
displaced by faults. This means that by marking the faults first,
it allows a clearer view of the horizon displacement shown in
seismic. Meanwhile, horizons interpretation is the second and
final step in seismic interpretation before producing TWT
maps. Horizon interpretation is done based on well tops data
that interpreted during well log correlation.
TWT maps or Time maps are maps that are produced
through the horizon interpreted during seismic interpretation.
Producing TWT Maps is done simultaneously with Quality
Control (QC) of seismic interpretation. In the majority (99%)
METHODOLOGY of cases, mis-ties mostly occurred at the crossing point between
Inline and Crossline interpretation which result in “Bull’s Eye”
By using two complementary provided sources which are 3D event in which the presence can be seen in TWT maps and thus,
seismic data and 2 wells data from Bundi-1 and South Bundi-1 the QC process is done only after TWT maps are produced
wells, hazard assessment was conducted quantitative and
qualitatively on a produced TWT maps based on 5 geological 3.2 HAZARD STUDIES
parameters that were selected for hazard identification.
Purpose of any hazard survey is to determine all constraints
3.1 GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES that may arise man-made, natural and geological features which
3.1.1 Well Interpretation may affect operational or environmental integrity of a proposed
drilling operation, and to allow appropriate operational
Well correlation used to correlate structural or stratigraphic practices to reduce any risk identified [5]. As such, hazard
units between two wells which have equal in time, age or identification conduct at every major step to improve
stratigraphic position. To distinguish stratigraphically critical performance and reduce the risk of a major accident. Few
markers, the cored well along with several neighboring wells geological parameters have been selected which act as main
were utilized to interpret the first order stacking pattern and indicator in identifying potential hazard:
depositional environment. Table 2: Description of geological parameters
In general, correlation logs usually focus on transgressive
and regressive cycles that will be observed through well logs.
Transgressive is a regressive cycle faced by the maximum flood
surface, so the order pattern based on log correlation is usually
selected on the surface of the maximum flood. Seismic well tie
aims to bridge the gap between the time and depth domains by
first introducing a synthetic seismogram. A ‘tie’ between the
changes in the rock properties in a borehole and seismic
reflection data at the same location is essential in providing an
accurate horizon picking for seabed and formation tops.
Synthetic seismogram is the seismic traces at a wellbore
generated from wireline log data by collecting the density and
velocity values of the lithologies, it is possible for a user to
generate a synthetic seismic trace by combining sonic log
(velocity) and RHOB log. After combining the sonic and
density logs by multiplication, reflection coefficient will then
 3.3 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS Table 4: Hazard status based on dip angle classification

Quantitative analysis was applied to observe the correlation

between each of geological parameters used for this hazard
assessment. First step in data analysis is to truly screen each of
these 5 variables or geological parameters to get a univariate
analysis by performing Normality Testing. This testing was B) Porosity:
done to determine whether the data population has been drawn RMS amplitude was applied on a seismic volume and the
from normally distributed since most of the statistical data hazard was assessed via time slice (Z-slice) approximately
analysis required normal distributed data. Normality of data close to surface map. High porous sediment can lead to failure
was tested using Shapiro-Wilk W Test and Kolmogorov- sediment flow.
Smirnov Test. Table 5: Hazard status based on RMS amplitude classification
Correlation is one of the statistical methods which indicate
how strongly two variables are related to each other or the
degree association between the two. This correlation is
measured by the correlation coefficient, r. Correlation analysis
can be divided into two which are Spearman and Pearson
correlation. The Pearson correlation requires normal distributed C) Shallow gas:
data to evaluates the linear relationship between two continuous Shallow gas-charged sediments were assessed via time slice (Z-
variables. A relationship is linear when a change in one variable slice) of seismic volume after applying sweetness attributes.
is associated with a proportional change in the other variable. Gas accumulation within shallow area may cause blow event
Meanwhile, The Spearman’s correlation requires non-normal throughout drilling operation.
distributed data and it is the nonparametric version of the
Table 6: Hazard status based on sweetness amplitude
Pearson product-moment correlation
Table 3: Guildford rule of thumb

D) Fault and buried channel:

Shallow buried channel considered as hazardous due to its
tendency to trap biogas and deposits of sediment within the
channel may form unstable base. Next, active fault can result in
ground rupture. These two parameters were not distributed in
such other parameters does, thus the classifications were as
follows:
Table 7: Hazard status based on presence of fault
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS and buried channel

4.1 QUANTITATIVE HAZARD ASSESSMENT

Through this analysis, these two TWT maps produced as

shown in were applied with surface and volume attributes such
as sweetness, coherence (variance), RMS amplitude and dip
angle for possible hazard identification. Once each attribute
was applied on the surface map and seismic volume, the surface
map or time slice (Z-slice) was overlaid by seismic grid (100
crossline x 100 inline) to evaluate the degree of possible hazard
within each grid. Once the hazard has been assessed for all grid,
normality testing was done as a preliminary step before testing
the correlation between all variables. However, the correlation
testing used must be depends on the data normality.
4.1.1 Normality Testing
From the result of normality test using Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Test and Shapiro-Wilk W Test, the significance value was less
than 0.5 which indicate the rejection of research hypothesis
of normal distribution and we conclude that the data was non-
normal distribution
Table 8: Result of data normality testing

A) Geomorphology:
Dip angle attribute was applied on surface map to evaluate any
distinct features with steep slope which may be cause “punch-
through” events for jack-up rigs during platform installation.
 4.1.2 Spearman Correlation
Since the data was composed of non-normality distribution,
further correlation statistical analysis was conducted using
Spearman correlation. The relationship between variables was
determined as in table 3.
A) Dip angle versus others:
From the correlation coefficient, the dip angle seems to have
moderate relationship with porosity and shallow gas variables.
From significance values show less than 0.5 indicate that there
is significant moderately relationship between dip angle with
porosity and shallow gas.
Table 9: Correlation dip angle with other variables
B) Porosity versus others:
From the correlation coefficient, the porosity seems to have
moderate relationship with dip angle and high relationship with
shallow gas variables. From significance values show less than
0.5 indicate that there is significant moderately relationship
between porosity with dip angle and porosity with shallow gas.
Unconsolidated sediments normally promote path for the gas to
escape from the deeper area. Other than that, unconsolidated
sediment may be easily be eroded by currents thus forming
scour or depression trough with moderate angle slope.
Table 10: Correlation porosity with other variables
C) Fault versus others:
From the correlation coefficient, the relationship of fault with
other variables seems to be negligible due to reflection
coefficient less than 0.2. However, fault may be correlate with
other variables such as tectonic. Fault is mainly dependent on
an active tectonic movement within particular area.
Table 11: Correlation fault with other variables
D) Buried channel versus others:
From the correlation coefficient, buried channels seems to have
no relationship with other variables. However, buried channel
can be correlate with other variables such as sea level and
sediment supply. When sea level static while sediment supply
was at the highest point, buried channel will be filled and
sometimes excess of sediment supply within a channel may
formed sediment deposits with steep slope.
Table 12: Correlation buried channel with other variables
4.2 QUALITATIVE HAZARD ASSESSMENT
This study was not only focused on seabed itself, however
one horizon from Group A & B was also consider since it
located around 250 m below seabed. In nowadays industry, the
hazard can be assessed up to 300 m using 2D High Resolution
in order to avoid any “punch-through” events which usually
occurred when the legs of jack-up rig penetrated within the
shallow gas zone and avoid any dealing with carbonate within
the shallow area which normally growth less than 100 m below
seabed. Carbonate outcrop at the shallow area considered as
geohazard because carbonate usually harder than clay which
resulted in slippage during jack-up rig installation and
sometimes can lead to problem in drilling process including
dredging and ploughing difficulties. In Bundi field, the
assessment was conducted using five geological parameters as
main indicator in hazard identification.
4.2.1 Geomorphology
From the seafloor of the study area exhibits distinct
morphological features that indicate scour. The scouring
features are hardly to be seen on a dip map which can only be
viewed in a cross section. These are highlighted in sub areas
where the following scouring features can be seen. From figure
3, we can clearly see that most of the features which promote
angle more than 8o are around the channel area.
A sediment scour is defined as ‘the removal or dissolution
of parts of the seabed by bottom currents, particularly those by
currents. Transportation by currents of the removed material
can result in significant movement of masses of sand, silt and
mud on the sea floor. This migration of sediment can "strand"
drilling platform supports or wellhead plumbing by erosion of
the surrounding support sediments. An unexpected seabed
scour may cause failure of a pile foundation, which should be
carefully checked for the design of tidal stream turbine. From
figure 3, we can clearly observe that the seabed which is first
reflector was relatively unstable due to scour features within
section A, B, C and D. Unstable seafloor may lead to “punch-
through” event for jack-up rig legs and cause free spans for the
pipeline which up to a certain limit can lead to breakage. Free
spans pipeline occurred when the seabed sediments have been
eroded or scoured away and the pipeline is no longer supported
on the seabed. From figure 4, we can see that scouring activity
within zone A, B and C are repetitive from the zone beneath the
seabed.
Figure 3: Map showing the features of seafloor based on
dip angle.
Figure 4: Cross section of crossline for each section from
0-300 ms.
4.2.2 Shallow gas and polygon fault
Identification of shallow gas zone was done by applying
sweetness attributes on the 3D seismic volume. The
accumulation of gas at shallow zone caused by gas seeping
from upward migration of deeper reservoir. The gas started to
migrate upward through small polygon fault which was
normally formed within siliceous sediment. Polygon fault are
irregular shape which the faults can be planar or listric and may
have triangular shapes which may taper downwards or
upwards. [6] Array of polygonal fault can be triggered
thermally within siliceous sediment. This is due to conversion
of opal A- to opal CT which resulted in differential compaction
and shear failure and thus fault initiation [7]. Gas-charged
sediment within unconsolidated area considered as hazardous
due to large differences in load bearing capacity between the
gas zone and surrounding area. Presence of gas can result in
liquefaction or cause the sediments to become more susceptible
to failure due to ground motion. The following section in figure
7 shows the chaotic reflector within 300-600 ms which caused
by accumulation of gas within that zone.
Figure 5: Z-slice after applying sweetness attribute. High
amplitude indicates the zone is accumulated with gas
Figure 6: Fault polygon around 0 – 300 ms formed within
Group A and B which act as a conduit for gas seeping
Figure 7: Cross section of crossline for each section from
300-600 ms
4.2.3 Presence of Buried Channel
Buried channels are classified as irregular erosional contact
between young and older sediments whereby these channels
were cut during sea level drop and have been subsequently
buried by transgressing sea. Buried channel may become an
interest in oil and gas industry if it is at deeper part. However,
buried channel at the shallower part may be hazardous since
sometimes the sedimentation within channel area may formed
steep slope and cause unstable seafloor. Apart from that,
shallow buried channel has a high tendency for gas
accumulation and if the channel fill is permeable, loss of
drilling fluid may be occurred. To view buried channel clearly,
application of coherence (variance) is a must to evaluate any
discontinuities of seismic traces.

Figure 8: Z-slice at -368 ms after applying variance
(coherence) attribute.
Schumm (1977, 1981) demonstrated that there is a strong
relationships between the channel pattern and the type of the
sediment transported by the channel, thereby allowing fluvial
channels to be classified into three types: 1) bed-load channels,
which are a straight or of very-low sinuosity; 2) mixed-load
channels, which are of moderate-sinuosity; and 3) suspended
load channels, which are of high sinuosity. Equal width sinuous
pattern suggests moderate to high lateral stability, and low bed
load to suspended load deposits. A wide bend sinuous pattern
suggests low to moderate lateral stability, and higher bed load
to suspended load deposits [8]. As in figure 8, we can clearly
observe that the seafloor consists of two buried channel which
(1) low sinuosity meandering (2) high sinuosity meandering
channel whereby both channels have an orientation from N-S.
The high sinuosity meandering channel have unequal width
ranging from 210 m to 185.75 m wide meanwhile low sinuosity
meandering channel have an equal width about 299.252 m
wide.
Figure 10: Cross section of each zone within channel [1] low
sinuosity meandering channel. The channel from Group A & B
seems to be preserved until seabed area (younger age).
Depression of a reflector indicate the erosion during channel cut-
off.
Figure 11: Cross section of each zone within channel [1] high
sinuosity meandering channel with orientation of channel N-S
4.3 HAZARD ZONING MAP
After completed quantitative and qualitative analysis for
hazard identification in this study area based on five geological
parameters, hazard zoning map is produced as shown in figure.
This hazard zoning map provide highlights area that may be
affected by or are vulnerable to a hazard which has been
discussed throughout hazard analysis. This map was zoned
according to the degree of possible hazard proportion within
each grid.
Figure 11: Hazard zoning map based on quantitative and
qualitative analysis of five geological parameters.
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, using Bundi and South Bundi well data and
3-D seismic data, 5 geological parameters were selected which
are geomorphology, fault, porosity, shallow gas and buried
channel to identify any potential hazards in Bundi field. Two
surface maps were produced which are seabed and Group A and
B. The interval distance between these two maps is
approximately 250 m. Hazard assessment was normally
conducted 300 m below seabed to avoid any area with gas
leaking and shallow carbonate growth during the installation of
jack-up rig. During seismic interpretation the horizon was
hardly picked as this field was a gas field. However, quality
checking (QC) was a crucial step in seismic interpretation to
avoid formation of bull eyes on the TWT structure map. Few
seismic attributes such as coherence (variance), sweetness, dip
and RMS amplitude were applied to assess the hazard more
clearly and accurately. Quantitative analysis using SPSS
software was conducted by applying normality and Spearman
correlation to evaluate the correlation between each of the
geological parameters used. Geomorphology, porosity and
shallow gas were high to moderately correlated meanwhile
correlation for fault and buried channel were having negligible
relationship. Once all the hazards have been identified
quantitative and qualitatively, hazard zoning map was produced
based on the degree of possible hazard within each grid. This
zoning map can be used for reference in upcoming exploration
oil and gas within Bundi field.
 FURTHER STUDY Society, London, Special Publications, vol. 277, no. 1,
pp. 205-222, 2007.
The statistical method used in correlation of the parameters
and hazard calculation could lead to not so accurate results
since this project only utilized well data as a source of
subsurface information from 2 wells only. Thus, for future
study, an area with more wells data present will have more
reliable impact towards this research. Other than that, this 3D
seismic volume needs to be reprocessed to remove any
unwanted signal since this seismic volume still contains some
noise in the shallow area. Apart from seismic and well data,
bathymetry data also can be used as additional source to support
this hazard assessment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Special acknowledgement to my devoted supervisor, Miss

Nur Huda Bt Mohd Jamin who patiently coached me
continuously without any judgements. Her tireless support and
encouragement keep me motivated to complete and improve
my FYP. Millions of thank you are also directed to my
colleagues and research assistants, Mr. Jamal and Mr. Mukhriz
for sparing their time in aiding me in certain tough aspects in
my project and Petrel software usage. Being here today would
not be possible without the encouragement and support from
my family. Thus, I would like to extend my special gratitude to
them.

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