Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-018-3727-z

Effect of Water Table Depth on Nutrient Concentrations

Below the Water Table in a Spodosol
A. Muwamba & P. Nkedi-Kizza & K. T. Morgan

Received: 12 September 2017 / Accepted: 30 January 2018 / Published online: 23 February 2018
# Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract Water table depth manipulations as imple-
mented in sugarcane fields of Southwestern Florida,
USA, were hypothesized to influence the nutrient con-
centrations below the water table. Concentrations of
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), nitrogen (N), and bro-
mide (Br−) were monitored above and below the water
table using a column leaching experiment. Three col-
umns were packed with Immokalee soil (A, E, and Bh
horizons) classified as a spodosol and fertilizers (NPK)
were applied on the soil surface as solids using rates of
11 kg P ha−1, 166 kg K ha−1, and 200 kg N ha−1. A
fourth column where fertilizer mixture and bromide
were not added acted as a blank. Potassium was also
applied as KBr with bromide used as tracer for water
movement. Water table was maintained at 30 cm for
6 weeks and lowered to 50 cm deep for another 6 weeks.
Samplers were placed in A, E, and Bh horizons and
outlets were placed at 30 and 50 cm deep to obtain
solutions for monitoring nutrients and tracer. Solution
samplers placed in E and Bh horizons were located
below the water table. Slightly elevated P, N, and K
concentrations in E horizon for a 50-cm water table
depth treatment were observed. For both water table
treatments, minimal loss of applied N, P, and K below
A. Muwamba (*) : K. T. Morgan
Southwest Research and Education Center, University of Florida,
Immokalee, FL 34142, USA
e-mail: mati@ufl.edu
P. Nkedi-Kizza
Soil and Water Science Department, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
the water table was observed. The results of the study
have shown that movement of nutrients below the water
table is slow, and depends on the type of nutrients
applied and the water table depth.
Keywords Spodosol . Water table . Leaching . Nutrient .
Tracer
1 Introduction
Elevated water table is currently used for managing
water within the root zone of sugarcane plants in
Southwestern Florida (Obreza et al. 1998). In order
for the newly planted seed pieces to adequately
utilize moisture, water table depth in sugarcane
fields is first set at approximately 30 cm deep and
later lowered to 50 cm as the crop roots are
established deep (Glaz and Morris 2010). Good aer-
ation within the root zone and more rain is accom-
modated when water table is lowered to 50 cm
(Obreza et al. 1998). Soil moisture content and
water table fluctuations were reported to play an
important role in determining soil oxygen concen-
tration, movement of nutrients, and release of phos-
phorus (P) from soil into solution (Obour et al.
2011; Hefting et al. 2004; Pant et al. 2002; Martin
et al. 1997). In sugarcane fields of Southwestern
Florida, fertilizer mixture (nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium) is applied as solid on soil surface
(Obreza et al. 1998). The natural rain and water that
moves by capillarity (Shokri and Salvucci 2011)
83 Page 2 of 14
from elevated water table dissolve the applied fertil-
izer. The dissolved nutrients in solution are then
taken up by cane plants over time.
In southwestern Florida, Immokalee fine sand
(Sandy, siliceous, hyperthermic Arenic Alaquods), a
mineral soil, is a spodosol that is dominantly used for
sugarcane production (USDA-NRCS 1995). For soil
horizons in Immokalee fine sand, leaching and reactiv-
ity of phosphorus (P) followed the trends E > A > Bh
and Bh > A > E, respectively (Li et al. 1997). Spodosols
have Bh horizon that have greater potential to sorb P due
to the accumulation of organic matter and greater Al or
Fe concentrations. During leaching events, the magni-
tude of nutrients that moves through the non-retentive E
horizon will determine the concentrations recorded in
Bh horizon. Pant et al. (2002) reported that P is more
released by Bh horizon under aerobic than anaerobic
conditions due to the reduction in electrode potentials
(Eh) and precipitation of P as calcium phosphate during
anaerobic conditions. Diffusion of P is inversely propor-
tional to distance from the source of P (Bouldin and
Black 1954). Lowering water table was reported to
enhance a greater release of P by Martin et al. (1997)
due to the increase of aerobic decomposition and faster
breakdown of labile pools of organic P. Using different
water table depths to study P dynamics in a spodosol
will give valuable information that can be related to
other soils with retentive horizons like Bs, Bhs, Bt,
and Bw underlying E horizon. We hypothesized that
lowering the water table depths from 30 to 50 cm will
increase nutrient concentrations below the water table.
Nitrogen dynamics have also been reported to vary
with moisture regimes. Under saturated flow, ammoni-
um (NH4+) adsorption by soil will decrease with in-
crease in velocity of water (Jellali et al. 2010). Oxidation
of NH4+ in the aerobic layer (unsaturated conditions) to
nitrate (NO3-N) by aerobic autotrophs has been reported
by Reddy et al. (1976). Nitrate-nitrogen diffuses from
aerobic to anaerobic layer, unlike NH4+ that diffuses to
aerobic layer from anaerobic layer (Reddy et al. 1976).
Hefting et al. (2004) documented that denitrification can
occur when average water tables between 10 and 30 cm
are maintained and that rainfall events promoted deni-
trification. Studying the nutrient dynamics under vary-
ing water table depths will give farmers the valuable
information related to the leakage of applied nutrients
below the water table.
Researchers have employed tracers to study hydro-
dynamic behavior of porous media and to characterize
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83
water flow (Lawrence and Richard 2008; Divine and
McDonell 2005; Fortin et al. 2002; Shinde et al. 2001;
Kookana et al. 1993). For unsaturated flow, preferential
flow has been reported to play an important role in water
movement (Lawrence and Richard 2008; Kelly and
Wilson 2000). When studying tracer movement, the
clay content of soil and bulk density affected the flow
velocity (Poulsen et al. 2006). In a column leaching
experiment used for this study, we monitored nutrients
and tracer concentrations using solutions collected from
water table outlets and porous ceramic cups inserted at
the end of A, E, and Bh horizon depths. The ceramic cup
inserted in A horizon was located above the water table
and the cups inserted in E and Bh horizons were located
below the water table. This study investigated the effect
of lowering water table from 30 to 50 cm on concentra-
tions of bromide (Br−), P, nitrogen (N), and potassium
(K) below the water table.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Soil Sampling
The soil horizons, A, E, and Bh, were sampled in
triplicates by digging three pits and a composite of the
three for each horizon was obtained. The soil was sam-
pled at Southwest Research and Education Center
(SWREC) at Immokalee, Florida (26.5 N, − 81.4 W).
The soil horizon samples were air dried at 45 °C. Field
bulk densities determined for each soil horizon were
used to pack soil in the columns. The average bulk
densities for A, E, and Bh horizons used for the column
leaching experiment were 1.54, 1.49, and 1.60 g cm−3,
respectively. The depths of A, E, and Bh for Immokalee
soil packed in columns were 18, 48, and 14 cm thick,
respectively. The depths of A and E horizons were
similar to average depths in the field.
2.2 Column Design
Columns made of plexiglass were designed to have
dimensions, a length of 100 cm, and a diameter of
15 cm (Fig. 1). The moisture sensors (Decagon Devices,
Inc., 2365 NE Hopkins Court, Pullman, Washington
99163, EC-5) that were connected to data loggers
(Decagon, EM50) were installed at 8-, 41-, and 71-cm
depths to continuously record moisture content for A, E,
and Bh horizons, respectively (Fig. 1). Outlets were
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83 Page 3 of 14 83

Moisture
sensor
Water head

Water
distributor
A
Out let placed close to water
Water table (30 cm from surface)
table
height E
Out let placed close to water
table (50 cm from surface)

Bh
Ceramic porous cup
Porous
plate
Outlet

Leachate
collector

Fig. 1 Design of a column leaching experiment. The letters A, E, and Bh represent soil horizons of the spodosol

placed at 30 and 50 cm from the top to mimic perimeter
ditches implemented in sugarcane fields (Fig. 1). Porous
ceramic cups were installed at 13-, 60-, and 75-cm
depths to collect solutions from A, E, and Bh horizons,
respectively (Fig. 1). The length of each ceramic cup
was 8 cm. To monitor water table, glass tubing was
attached on the sides of columns to indicate the level
of water (water table) in the column (Fig. 1).
2.3 Column Leaching Experiment Setup, Solution
Sampling, and Laboratory Analyses
The soil horizons, A, E, and Bh, of the spodosol were
packed in the columns. Three columns and a fourth
column for a blank were used for the experiment. To
avoid an entrapment of air in the soil and for a complete
saturation, the columns were saturated with simulated
Florida rain from the bottom (Villapando and Graetz
2001). Simulated Florida rain was prepared to have
13.9, 30.7, 9.5, 21.7, 11.7, 18.3, and 1.1 μeq L−1 of
NO3−, SO42−, NH4+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+, respectively,
following rain water analysis by Villapando (1997).
After monitoring water table stabilization for 3 days,
the experiment was started by applying fertilizer mixture
(165 mg of KH2PO4, 350.5 mg KCl, 353 mg NH4NO3,
and 238 mg KBr) with KBr used as source for bromide
tracer. Application rates equivalent to those used by
farmers, 11 kg P ha−1, 200 kg N ha−1, and 166 kg K
ha−1, were used to apply fertilizers on the soil surface.
Rain added to the columns was calculated by obtaining
10-year (2001 to 2010) average daily values for June,
July, and August (Florida’s rainy season). Rainfall
values for days where there was a 50% chance or greater
of receiving rain were used for the experiment. For
83 Page 4 of 14 Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83

Fig. 2 Rain added to the column and moisture content for the sensor inserted in A horizon (A), E horizon (E), and Bh horizon (Bh)

example, for a given date, if it rained in 5 days or more,
then we got the average value and added rain. For dates
where it rained for less than 5 days in 10 years, we did
not add rain. The volumes of simulated rain added to the
column are shown in Fig. 2. The top of the column was
covered every after rain simulation event.
The experiment was run for 12 weeks. The first
6 weeks for a 30-cm water table depth treatment
approximates a typical period for a 30-cm depth used
by sugarcane growers in Southwestern Florida. The
column was sampled using the following steps every
after water addition during the 30-cm water table
depth treatment. (1) Cup A was opened until when
about 20 mL (enough volume for analyses) were
collected. (2) Water table outlet was opened until
when water table was restored to 30 cm deep. (3)
Cup E was opened until when about 20 mL were
collected. (4) Cup Bh was opened to collect about
20 mLs. After 6 weeks, water table was gradually
lowered to 50 cm by opening outlets at 50 cm deep
and the experiment continued for another 6 weeks.
During the 50-cm water table depth treatment,

Table 1 Properties for soil horizons

Soil horizon TOC Ox. Al Ox. Fe Total P pH %Sand (g kg−1) %Silt (g kg−1) %Clay (g kg−1) Kf (P) KD (K) KD (NH4-N)

A 9.1 0.25 0.08 0.07 7.3 96.3 2.2 1.5 3.28 0.33 0.30
E 1.3 0.06 0.01 0.01 8.3 98.8 0.4 0.8 NS NS NS
Bh 77.4 0.29 0.10 0.17 6.5 88.2 3.9 7.9 19.3 ND ND

TOC total organic carbon, pH pH (1:2 H2O), Kf the Freundlich sorption coefficient, KD linear sorption coefficient, NS no sorption, ND not
determined
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83
Fig. 3 Bromide, phosphorus, and potassium concentrations as a function of time at cup A (at 13 cm in A horizon), water table at 30 cm, and
water table at 50 cm. Error bars represent standard deviation
monitoring was conducted up to when bromide con-
centrations at 50 cm deep had reached background
levels. The following solution sampling steps were
followed after rain addition during the 50-cm water
table depth. (1) Water table outlet was opened until
when water table was restored to 50 cm deep. (2) Cup
E was opened until when about 20 mLs were collect-
ed. (3) Cup Bh was opened to collect about 20 mLs.
Page 5 of 14 83
Solutions at the end of the experiment were collected
using the bottom outlet. Solutions collected off the water
table and ceramic cups were analyzed for bromide, K, P,
and N (NH4+ and NO3−). The solutions were analyzed
for P and K using inductively coupled plasma (ICP)
(Perkin Elmer, Optima 7000DV). Ammonium-N,
NO3-N, and bromide were analyzed using segmented
flow analysis (lachat, Quikchem 8500). Soil horizons
83 Page 6 of 14 Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83

Fig. 4 Bromide, ammonium-nitrogen, and nitrate-nitrogen concentrations as a function of time at cup A (at 13 cm in A horizon), water table
at 30 cm (WT-30 cm), and water table at 50 cm (WT-50 cm). Error bars represent standard deviation

were also analyzed for nutrients at the end of the column
leaching experiment. Potassium chloride (2 M KCl) was
used to extract ammonium and nitrate nitrogen. The
ratio of wet soil to KCl was 1:10 was used and the soil
solution was shaken for 30 min using a reciprocating
shaker (manufacturer: Eberbach) at low speed. The soil
solution was filtered and the solution was analyzed for
ammonium and nitrate using rapid flow method (model:
Quikchem 8500; manufacturer: LACHAT). Phosphorus
and K were extracted using ratio of 1:4 (sieved air-dried
soil to Mehlich1 solution) coupled with shaking for
5 min at high speed using a reciprocating shaker
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83 Page 7 of 14 83

Table 2 Comparisons of mean concentrations and ranges in parentheses for bromide, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus during the 30-
cm water table treatment

Location Br (mg L−1) NH4-N (mg L−1) NO3-N (mg L−1) K (mg L−1) P (mg L−1)
Cup A 28.2 (3.9–169.0) 25.0 (11.4–79.4) 0.73 (0.21–1.78) 51.2 (8.69–116.1) 10.9 (2.2–29.2)
Water table 35.1 (2.3–108.4) 23.4 (2.2–42.6) 0.44 (0.18–0.90) 18.6 (1.02–42.5) 6.0 (0.24–14.6)
Cup E 2.31 (1.20–5.45) 3.12 (0.84–4.38) 0.69 (0.01–1.70) 0.72 (0.43–1.36) 0.07 (0.01–0.15)
Cup Bh 4.19 (2.84–4.84) 2.09 (0.46–5.90) 0.47 (0.03–1.21) 0.81 (0.48–1.41) BDL
Blank for all depths BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
Comparisons Br (mg L−1) NH4-N (mg L−1) NO3-N (mg L−1) K (mg L−1) P (mg L−1)
Cup A vs. water table NS NS S S S
Cup A vs. cup E S S S S S
Cup A vs. cup Bh S S S S S
Water table vs. cup E S S NS S S
Water table vs. cup Bh S S NS S S
Cup E vs. cup Bh NS NS NS NS S

Cup A solution sampler placed at 13 cm, cup E solution sampler placed at 60 cm, cup Bh solution sampler placed at 75 cm, S significant at
α = 0.05, NS not significant at α = 0.05, BDL below detection limit

(manufacturer: Eberbach). The filtered solution was an-
alyzed for P and K using inductively coupled plasma
(model: Optima 7000DV; manufacturer: Perkin Elmer).
2.4 Breakthrough Curves and Statistical Analyses
Bromide, N, P, and K concentrations measured during
30- and 50-cm water table depth treatments were plotted
as a function of time. The times for peak nutrients and
bromide concentrations were identified and the calcu-
lated ratio of time for a given nutrient to tracer time was
essentially a retardation factor. Paired t test was used to
identify significant (α = 0.05) differences in nutrients’
retardation factors. Repeated measures analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) test was used to test the significant
differences (α = 0.05) between mean concentrations
measured at different depths of the column.
that was added to the soil surface, reached a concentra-
tion peak, and decreased when solutions were diluted
with further additions of simulated rainfall (Figs. 3 and
4). The mean Br−, NH4-N, P, and K concentrations
decreased with column depth (Table 2). The mean P
and K concentrations measured at cup A (13 cm deep)
were significantly greater (p < 0.05) than concentrations
measured at the 30-cm water table depth (Table 3). The
mean NH4-N, P, and K concentrations measured at cup
A (13 cm deep) and/or at the 30-cm water table depth
were significantly greater (p < 0.05) than concentrations
measured at cup E (60 cm) and cup Bh (75 cm)
(Table 2). For the blank column, concentrations of Br−,
N, P, and K were below detection limits (Table 2).
For solutions collected from A horizon (inserted
13 cm from soil surface), the maximum bromide con-

Table 3 Peak times and retardation factors (ratio of nutrient to

3 Results and Discussion bromide tracer peak time) in parentheses for ammonium-nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium during 30 cm water table depth
treatment
3.1 Changes in Nutrient Concentrations at Different
Depths During the 30-cm Water Table Treatment Parameter Cup A peak Water table
times (days) peak times (days)
The soil properties for A, E, and Bh horizons are shown
Bromide 9 20
in Table 1. The changes in moisture content as a func-
NH4-N 11 (1.22) 22 (1.10)
tion of time for sensors inserted in A, E, and Bh horizons
K 12 (1.33) 27 (1.35)
are shown in Fig. 2. Solution concentrations of bromide,
P 23 (2.55) 37 (1.85)
NH4-N, NO3-N, P, and K at cup A and water table
outlets increased with time as water-dissolved fertilizer Cup A solution sampler placed at 13 cm
83 Page 8 of 14
Table 4 Mean and ranges in parentheses of bromide, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus concentrations, and concentration comparisons
for the 50-cm water table treatment
Location Br− (mg L−1) NH4-N (mg L−1)
Water table 8.50 (3.8–19.0) 13.4 (3.8–18.7)
Cup E 5.50 (2.33–8.70) 5.11 (2.61–9.75)
Cup Bh 4.11 (2.25–5.55) 1.87 (0.38–6.30)
Blank for all depths BDL BDL
Comparisons Br− (mg L−1) NH4-N (mg L−1)
Water table vs. cup E S S
Water table vs. cup Bh NS S S
Cup E vs. cup Bh NS S NS
Solutions were not collected at cup A during 50 cm water table treatment
Cup E solution sampler placed at 60 cm, cup Bh solution sampler placed at 75 cm, S significant at α = 0.05, NS not significant at α = 0.05,
BDL below detection limit
centration was observed after 9 days (Fig. 3; Table 3),
NH4-N concentrations were observed after 11 days, K
concentrations were observed after 12 days, and P was
observed after 23 days (Figs. 3 and 4; Table 3). After
analyzing solutions collected from the 30-cm water
table, the maximum bromide concentration, NH4-N,
K, and P were observed after 20, 22, 27, and 37 days,
respectively (Figs. 3 and 4; Table 3). The retardation
factors (ratio of nutrient peak time to bromide tracer) at
cup A depth and the 30-cm water table depth followed
the trend, P > K > NH4-N (Table 3). The retardation
factor for P was significantly (p < 0.05) greater than
retardation factors for K and NH4-N (Table 3).
The Br−, N, P, and K solution concentrations de-
creased with column depth because solid fertilizer was
applied on the soil surface. The differences in retarda-
tion factors were likely due to the following: (1) greater
sorption of P (Li et al. 1997) than K and NH4+ and (2)
differences in elements solubility. The peak time for
bromide tracer was less than for nutrients because a
tracer moves at the same front as water. The bromide
and nutrient concentrations for solutions collected be-
low the water table (from cup E and cup Bh) were much
lower than concentrations for solutions collected off the
30-cm water table likely due to slow diffusion of nutri-
ents and tracer (Reddy et al. 1984). The differences in
NH4-N and NO3-N concentrations were consistent with
other studies that involved relating water table depths to
N cycling (Hefting et al. 2004; Reddy et al. 1984). For
example, the accumulation of NH4-N and denitrification
were associated to elevated water table depths by
Hefting et al. (2004).
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83
NO3-N (mg L−1) K (mg L−1) P (mg L−1)
0.48 (0.12–0.84) 12.2 (1.83–17.5) 3.6 (0.16–7.5)
0.34 (0.07–1.34) 2.50 (0.64–6.73) 0.21 (0.0–2.04)
0.25 (0.02–0.55) 0.92 (0.73–1.36) BDL
BDL BDL BDL
NO3-N (mg L−1) K (mg L−1) P (mg L−1)
NS S S
S S
S S
Although the symmetrical nature was observed for
the bromide breakthrough curves (Figs. 3 and 4), tailing
in some of the breakthrough curves was attributed to
physical non-equilibrium created by mobile and
immobile water flow zones as was documented by
Shinde et al. (2001) and Fisher and Healy (2008). Ac-
cording to Beigel and Di Pietro (1999), a symmetrical
breakthrough curve (approximation of a normal distri-
bution) was plotted for chloride data from an experiment
with homogeneous columns. The asymmetrical nature
of breakthrough curves for K, P, and NH4-N (Figs. 3 and
4) was likely due to sorption as noted by Shinde et al.
(2001). Chemical non-equilibrium was also reported to
cause the asymmetrical nature of breakthrough curves
for interacting solutes by Shinde et al. (2001) and Beigel
and Di Pietro (1999).
3.2 Changes in Nutrient Concentrations at Different
Depths During the 50-cm Water Table Treatment
Nutrient and bromide concentrations were monitored
only from solutions collected from the 50-cm water
table depth outlet, and solution samplers that were
inserted in E and Bh horizons during the 50-cm water
table depth treatment. The decrease in moisture content
for sensors inserted in A and E horizons (Fig. 2) when
water table was lowered to 50 cm was attributed to
lowering of the water table that reduces capillarity. The
mean concentrations of Br−, NH4-N, NO3-N, P, and K
decreased with a depth for the 50 cm water table treat-
ment (Table 4). The mean NH4-N, P, and K concentra-
tions at the 50-cm water table depth were significantly
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83 Page 9 of 14 83

Fig. 5 Bromide, phosphorus, and potassium concentrations as a function of time at cup E1 (water table set at 30 cm) and cup E2 (water table
set at 50 cm). Error bars represent standard deviation

greater (p < 0.05) than concentrations at cup E (60 cm)
and cup Bh (75 cm). After observing a drastic increase
in P concentration for the 50-cm water table data (Fig.
3), P concentration for solution collected from E horizon
increased soon after (Fig. 5). When water table was
lowered to 50 cm, NH4-N and K concentrations at cup
E continued to increase, unlike P concentrations that
reduced to below detection limits and increased after
30 days (Figs. 5 and 6). Bromide and nutrient concen-
trations for solutions collected at different depths of the
83 Page 10 of 14 Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83

Fig. 6 Bromide, ammonium-nitrogen, and nitrate-nitrogen concentrations as a function of time at cup E1 (water table set at 30 cm) and cup
E2 (water table set at 50 cm). Error bars represent standard deviation

Table 5 Soil nutrient concentrations at the end of the column leaching experiment

Horizon NH4-N (μg g−1) NO3-N (μg g−1) K (μg g−1) P (μg g−1)

A 24.7 39.4 24.8 BDL

E 15.5 27.8 8.3 7.8
Bh 15.9 4.4 8.6 3.1

BDL below detection limit

Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83
Fig. 7 Bromide and potassium concentrations as a function of time at cup Bh (water table set at 30 cm) and cup Bh (water table set at 50 cm).
Error bars represent standard deviation
blank were below detection limits. The measured soil
nutrient concentrations at the end of the column
leaching experiment are shown in Table 5. The greatest
K, NH4-N and NO3-N soil concentrations were mea-
sured in A horizon (Table 5).
The increase in nutrient solution concentrations be-
low the water table during the 50-cm water table treat-
ment was likely due to the following: (1) the increase of
unsaturated zone of non-retentive E horizon and (2) the
decrease in diffusion stretch from the water table to
solution samplers inserted below the water table. The
greater the E horizon depth in unsaturated zone, the
more nutrients that will move closer to the water table
because nutrients that pass through the retentive A ho-
rizon will partition more in solution than in the solid
phase of non-retentive E horizon. The increase in
Page 11 of 14 83
nutrient concentrations below the water table was
reflected in the increase in concentrations of solutions
collected using ceramic cup inserted in E and Bh
horizons. Bromide and nutrients might have diffused
below the water table and also moved by displace-
ment when solutions were subsquently sampled from
E and Bh horizons as was also explained by Reddy
et al. (1984). The concentration gradient that in-
creased when the distance from water table to solu-
tion samplers inserted in E and Bh horizons reduced
might have acted as a driving force for movement of
nutrients below the water table, as was also ex-
plained by Reddy et al. (1984). Barber et al.
(1963) also associated diffusion of plant available
nutrients to concentration gradient. Shackelford and
Daniel (1991) also documented that diffusion of
83 Page 12 of 14 Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83

Fig. 8 Bromide, ammonium-nitrogen, and nitrate-nitrogen concentrations as a function of time at cup Bh (water table set at 30 cm) and cup
Bh (water table set at 50 cm). Error bars represent standard deviation

reactive ions were determined by concentration gra- unlike P (Figs. 7 and 8), and this was likely due to much
dient that was affected by the solute concentration greater sorption of P by Bh as was documented by Li
and diffusion stretch. Potassium and NH4-N were et al. (1997). The rates at which NH4-N and K moved
analyzed in solutions collected from Bh horizon below the water table were probably greater than that of
Water Air Soil Pollut (2018) 229: 83
P or the low P concentrations might have partitioned in
the solid phase (Bh horizon).
The low NO3-N concentrations (Figs. 4, 6, and
8) during both water table depth treatments were
observed likely due to high moisture content that
was maintained (average moisture of 0.22 cm3 cm−3
for unsaturated zone) that promoted denitrification
of NO3-N as was documented by Elmi et al. (2002)
and Reddy et al. (1984). For example, subirrigation
that involved setting a 60-cm water table depth led
to reduction of NO3-N concentrations in the soil
profile due to creation of anaerobic conditions
(Elmi et al. 2002). Reddy et al. (1984) reported
that in flooded soils, NO3-N diffusion and denitri-
fication occur at a fast rate compared to nitrification
during nitrification-denitrification sequence. Ac-
cording to Kliewer and Gilliam (1995), denitrifica-
tion rates were independent of N application rates.
The denitrification rates, 0.17 to 4.23 kg N
ha−1 day−1 for 15-cm water table depth, 0.26 to
2.45 kg N ha−1 day−1 for 30-cm water table depth,
and 0.44 kg N ha−1 day−1 for 45-cm water table
depth, were recorded in the undisturbed cores of
clayey, mixed, thermic typic Umbraquult (Kliewer
and Gilliam 1995). Short-term flooding was report-
ed to decrease leaching of NO3− by Martin et al.
(1997) and that under saturated conditions, NO3− is
used as a terminal electron acceptor during micro-
bial respiration. Rainfall events were also linked to
denitrification by Hefting et al. (2004).
4 Conclusions
Results revealed that concentrations of N, P, and K
below the water table increased during the 50-cm water
table depth treatment. The low P, NH4-N, and K con-
centrations for solutions sampled below the water table
compared to the concentrations measured above the
water table showed that diffusion of nutrients below
the water table is a slow process. The findings of this
study have shown the role played by water table depth
on nutrient concentrations changes below the water
table.
Acknowledgements We thank Florida Department of Environ-
mental Regulation for funding the project.
Page 13 of 14 83
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