Physics of Magnetism and

Magnetic Materials
by
Prof. Dr. Magdy El-Hagary
Prof. of Materials Physics
Head of Physics Department
Faculty of Science
Helwan University
 History of Magnetism
 Magnets have been known for Centuries. The Chinese
and Greeks knew about the “magical” properties of
magnets.

 The ancient Greeks used a stone substance called

“magnetite” a natural magnetic material Fe3O4. They
discovered that the stone always pointed towards
north.

 Later, stones of magnetite called “lodestones” were

used in navigation.

 Term magnet comes from the ancient Greek city of

Magnesia, at which many natural magnets were found.
 Pliny (23-79 AD Roman) wrote of a hill near the river
Indus that was made entirely of a stone that attracted
iron.
 Chinese as early as 121 AD knew that an iron rod which
had been brought near one of these natural magnets
would acquire and retain the magnetic property. when
this rod is suspended from a string it would align itself in
a north-south direction.
 Use of magnets to aid in navigation can be traced back
to at least the eleventh century.
 William Gilbert, an English physician, first proposed in
1600 that the earth itself is a magnet, and he predicted
that the Earth would be found to have magnetic poles.
Magnetism:
Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion of a magnetic
material due to the arrangement of its atoms, particularly its electrons.

A large electromagnet
used to lift scrap metal
MAGNETIC DIPOLE:

The ends of a magnet are where the magnetic effect is the strongest.
These are called “poles.” Each magnet has 2 poles – 1 north, 1 south.

Any two opposite poles separated by a finite distance constitute a

magnetic dipole.
For Every North, There is a South

S N S N S N

No Monopoles Allowed

S N
Like pole
repels!

Opposite poles attract!

Magnetic dipole moment or magnetic moment (μm):
It is defined as the product of pole strengh (m) and the
distance between dipoles (2l).

 m  m  2l
Magnetic moment due to a current (I) carrying circular wire of
area of cross-section (A).
m  IA

UNITS: Am2
 Magnetic Field

Magnetic field:
The space surrounding the magnet upto which
its influence felt is known as magnetic field.

Michael Faraday
Magnetic susceptibility (  ):
Magnetic susceptibility is the degree of magnetization of a
material in response to an applied magnetic field.
M H
Where M H
M is magnetization,
H is magnetic field intensity
The proportionality constant is called susceptibility. Its value may be
zero, positive or negative.
The magnetic induction and magnetic field intensity are related by

B  0 ( H  M )

In vacuum B  0 H , Since M=0

In a medium BH

Since,   r 0

B  0 ( H  M ) M H

B  0 (1   ) H
where  r  (1   ) Relative permeability
 SI Units SI Units CGS Units
Quantity Symbol
(Sommerfeld) (Kennelly) (Gaussian)
Field H A/m A/m Oersteds
Flux Density
(Magnetic B Tesla Tesla Gauss
Induction)
Flux f Weber Weber Maxwell
Magnetization M A/m - erg/Oe-cm3

Conversion between CGS and SI magnetic units.

The magnetism is originated from the motion of electrons
Atom has two kinds of electrons
• Localized electrons
Localized magnetism of free ions
• Free electrons
Band Magnetism or itinerant magnetism
 Origin of Magnetism
Magnetism arises from two types of motions of
electrons in atoms:

Orbital Motion
The motion of the electrons in an orbit around the
nucleus, similar to the motion of the planets in our
solar system around the sun,
Spin Motion
The spin of the electrons around its axis, analogous
to the rotation of the Earth about its own axis.
The orbital and the spin motion independently impart
a magnetic moment on each electron causing each
of them to behave as a tiny magnet
1. Orbital Motion - Orbital magnetic moment
2. Spin motion – Spin magnetic moment
Orbital magnetic moment
The revolving electron in circular orbit establishes a current given by
I= charge/time period= -e/(2π/ω)= - ωe/2 π
The current establishes a magnetic field around the circular orbit, so
that upper surface act as South pole and lower surface acts as North
pole.

Then orbital magnetic moment is given by

e e r 2
orbital  IA    r 2  
2 2
Angular momentum = linear momentum x radius
=mvr
=mωr2 μorb

- I
 e r 2
 orbital  
2
e
 (mr 2 )
2m
e
  orbital angular momentum
2m

Angular momentum associated with orbital quantum number l is lh

2
e lh
orbital   
2m 2
  Bl
elh
B  is the fundamental unit of magnetic moment known as Bohr
4 m
magneton and its value is 9.27 x 10-24 A/m2
 Spin magnetic moment

e
 spin g S
2m
Where, g is dimensionless number and is called g-factor.
This number depends upon the particle. For electron its value is ~2

 An atom is said to be magnet if it carries a permanent dipole

moment.

 Every substance is formed from an assembly of atoms which can be

either non-magnetic or magnetic.
 Classification of Magnetic Materials
The magnetic materials are classified into five groups depending
on their response to the magnetic field.

1. Diamagnetic Materials
2. Paramagnetic Materials
3. Ferromagnetic Materials
4. Anti Ferromagnetic Materials
5. Ferri Magnetic materials
 DIAMAGNETISM

 Diamagnetism characterizes the substances that have only non-

magnetic atoms (lack of permanent diople moment).
 Origin:
• An electron moving around the nucleus results in magnetic
moment.

• Due to different orientations of various orbits of an atom, the

net magnetic moment is zero in diamagnetic materials.

• When an external field is applied the motion of electrons in

their orbits changes resulting in induced magnetic moment in a
direction opposite to the direction of applied field.
 The magnetization induced by the applied magnetic field is very
weak and the magnetic lines of force are repelled.

 This magnetism is also exist in substances with magnetic atoms,

but very weak and completely masked by the contribution of
magnetic atoms.

 Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.

 The magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic

field strength.
Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples
susceptibility

Small & negative Independent Organic materials,

light elements
Intermediate & Below 20K varies with field and Alkali earhs,
negative temperature Bismuth

Large & Negative Exists only below critical Superconducting

temperature (Meissner effect) materials
 PARAMAGNETISM
 The paramagnetic substances consists of magnetic atom that
posses permanent dipole moment

 Origin

 Each electron in an orbit has an orbital magnetic moment and a

spin magnetic moment.
 When the shells are unfilled there is net magnetic moment.
 In the absence of the external field the net moments of the
atoms are arranged in random directions because of thermal
fluctuations. Hence there is no magnetization.
 When external magnetic field is applied, there is tendency for the
dipoles to align with the field giving rise to an induced positive
dipole moment.
 The induced magnetism is the source for paramagnetic behaviour.
 Paramagnetic susceptibility is small and positive and is
independent of applied field strength.
 Spin alignment is random.

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility

Small & positive Independent Alkali metals,

transition
Large & positive Curie law 
C
T
metals, rare
C earths
Curie-Weiss law 
T 
Magnetic ordering Systems
 FERROMAGNETISM

 Even in the absence of external applied field, some substances

exhibits strong magnetization.

 This is due to a special form of interaction called exchange coupling

between adjacent atoms that results in spontaneous magnetization
of the substance.

 When placed inside a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines

of force very strongly.

 Each ferromagnetic material has a characteristic temperature

called the ferromagnetic Curie temperature Tc. Below this
temperature the spontaneous magnetization exists.
 Spin alignment is parallel.

 Ferromagnetic materials exhibit Hysteresis.

 They Consists of a number of small regions which are called domains.

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility

Very large & C Fe, Co, Ni, Gd

positive 
T 

For T>Tc paramagnetic behavior

For T<Tc ferromagnetic behavior
 ANTI-FERROMAGNETISM
 Antiferromagnetism macroscopically similar to paramagnetism, is
a weak form of magnetism.

 In certain materials when the distance between the interacting

atoms is small the exchange forces produce a tendency for
antiparallel alignment of electron spins of neighboring atoms.

 The magnetic susceptibility increase with the increase of

temperature and reaches maximum at a certain temperature.
This temperature is known as Neel temperature (TN). Above this
temperature the susceptibility again decreases.
Spins are aligned antiparallel

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility

small & positive  T when T>TN Salts of

transition
C when T<TN metals

T 
 FERRIMAGNETISM

 This is a special case of antiferromagnetism.

 The net magnetization of magnetic sublattices is not zero, since

antiparallel moments are of different magnitudes.

 Hence ferrimagnetic materials possesses a net magnetic moment.

 This moment disappears above a Curie temperature analogous to the

Neel temperature.

 Above TC, thermal energy randomizes the individual magnetic

moments and the material becomes paramagnetic.
 Ferrimagnetic domains become magnetic bubbles to act as memory
elements.
 Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes.

Magnitude of Temperature dependence Examples

susceptibility
Very large & C when T>TN Ferrites

positive T 

when T<TN behaves as paramagnetic

material
 HYSTERESIS LOOP

Hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials refers to the lag of

magnetization behind the magnetizing field.

Residual M
 A hysteresis loop is a curve Magnetization P Ms
showing the change in magnetic Saturation
Mr Q Magnetization
induction of a ferromagnetic
material with an external field. -Hs R Hc
o
Coercivity
Hs
 When the external magnetic field H
is increased the magnetic
induction increases. S -Ms
Ferro Magnetic Material
 Once magnetic saturation has been achieved, a decrease in the
applied field back to zero results in a macroscopically permanent
or residual magnetization, known as remanance, Mr. The
corresponding induction, Br, is called retentivity or remanent
induction of the magnetic material. This effect of retardation by
material is called hysteresis.

 The magnetic field strength needed to bring the induced

magnetization to zero is termed as coercivity, Hc. This must be
applied anti-parallel to the original field.

 A further increase in the field in the opposite direction results in

a maximum induction in the opposite direction. The field can once
again be reversed, and the field-magnetization loop can be closed,
this loop is known as hysteresis loop or B-H plot or M- H plot.
 Below the ferromagnetic Curie temperature ferromagnetic
substances exhibit hysteresis.

 The phenomenon of hysteresis can be explained with domain

theory.

 A region in a ferromagnetic material where all the magnetic

moments are aligned in the same direction is called a domain.
 Each of these domains is separated from the rest by domain
boundaries / domain walls.

 Boundaries, also called Bloch walls, are narrow zones in which the
direction of the magnetic moment gradually and continuously
changes from one domain to that of the next.
 Block wall transition (B) between domains (A) and
(C) with 180° difference

The increase in the value of the resultant magnetic moment of the

specimen under the action of the applied field can be attributed to

1. The motion of domain walls

2. Rotation of domains
 When a weak magnetic field is applied, the domains that are aligned
parallel to the field and in easy direction of magnetization grow in size
at the expense of less favorably oriented ones. This results in the
Bloch wall movement.

 When the weak field is removed the domains reverse back to their
original state. Shown by the curve OA.
 When the field becomes stronger the Bloch wall movement
continues and it is mostly irreversible movement. Shown by the
curve AB.

 At the point B all domains have got magnetized along their easy
directions.

 Field is further increased the domains rotate in the field direction

which is away from the easy direction thereby storing anisotropy
energy.

 Once the domain rotation is complete the specimen is saturated.

 On the removal of the field the specimen tend to attain the

original configuration by the movement of Bloch walls. But this
movement is hampered by impurities, lattice imperfections etc.
 A Coercive field is required to reduce the magnetization of the
specimen to zero.

 The amount of energy spent in this regard is a loss.

 Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic

body through a complete cycle of magnetization and this loss is
represented by the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
Based on the area of the hysteresis loop the magnetic materials are
classified into two types

1. Hard magnetic materials

2. Soft magnetic materials

Hard magnets soft magnets

 Hard magnets
o Hard magnets are characterized by high remanent inductions and high
coercivities.

o These are also called permanent magnets or hard magnets.

o These are found useful in many applications including fractional

horse-power motors, automobiles, audio- and video- recorders,
earphones, computer peripherals, and clocks.

o They generally exhibit large hysteresis losses.

o Ex.: Co-steel, Tungsten steel, SmCo5, Nd2Fe14B, ferrite Bao.6Fe2O3,

CuNiFe (60% Cu 20% Ni-20% Fe), Alnico (alloy of Al, Ni, Co and
Fe), etc.
 SOFT MAGNETS

 Soft magnets are characterized by low coercive forces and high

magnetic permeabilities; and are easily magnetized and de-
magnetized.

 They generally exhibit small hysteresis losses.

 Application of soft magnets include: cores for electro-magnets,

electric motors, transformers, generators, and other electrical
equipment.

 Ex.: ingot iron, low-carbon steel, Silicon iron, superalloy (80% Ni-5%
Mo-Fe), 45 Permalloy (55%Fe-45%Ni), 2-79 Permalloy (79% Ni-4%
Mo-Fe), MnZn ferrite / Ferroxcube A (48% MnFe2O4-
52%ZnFe2O4), NiZn ferrite / Ferroxcube B (36% NiFe2O4-64%
ZnFe2O4), etc.
Applications of Magnetism
 Medical Application of
magnetism
Currents in nerve cells and the heart create magnetic fields
like any other currents. These can be measured but with
some difficulty since their strengths are about 10-6 to 10-8
less than the Earth’s magnetic field.
• Recording of the heart’s magnetic field as it beats is
called a magnetocardiogram (MCG),
• while measurements of the brain’s magnetic field is
called a magnetoencephalogra MEG
MEG can be used to identify abnormal electrical
discharges in the brain that produce weak magnetic
signals. Therefore, it looks at brain activity, not just
brain structure. It has been used for studies of
Alzheimer’s disease and epilepsym (MEG).
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is one of the most useful and
rapidly growing medical imaging tools.
• It non-invasively produces two-dimensional and three-dimensional
images of the body that provide important medical information with
none of the hazards of x-rays.
• MRI is based on an effect called nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) in which an externally applied magnetic field interacts with
the nuclei of certain atoms, particularly those of hydrogen (protons).
These nuclei possess their own small magnetic fields, similar to
those of electrons and the current loops discussed earlier in this
chapter.