Mobile Communications

Chapter 2: Wireless Transmission

•Frequencies Signals, antennas, signal propagation (2.2, 2.3,2.4)

•Multiplexing (2.5)
•Cellular systems (2.8)

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Frequencies for communication
• VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
• LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
• MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
• HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
• VHF = Very High Frequency

• Frequency and wave length

•  = c/f
• wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f

• Frequency Spectrum
twisted coax cable optical transmission
pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

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Example frequencies for mobile
communication
• VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
• simple, small antenna for cars
• deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable
connections
• Frequencies in UHF to SHF are used for Wireless LANs
• some systems planned up to EHF
• limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
• weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall
etc.
• SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
• small antenna, beam-forming
• large bandwidth available

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Frequencies and regulations
• In general: ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency
bands worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
• 3GPP specific: see e.g. 3GPP (2013-03)
Examples Europe USA Japan
Cellular GSM 880-915, 925- AMPS, TDMA, PDC, FOMA 810-888,
960, 1710-1785, CDMA, GSM 824- 893-958
networks 1805-1880 849, 869-894 PDC 1429-1453,
UMTS 1920-1980, TDMA, CDMA, GSM, 1477-1501
2110-2170 UMTS 1850-1910, FOMA 1920-1980,
LTE 791-821, 832- 1930-1990 2110-2170
862, 2500-2690

Cordless CT1+ 885-887, 930- PACS 1850-1910, PHS 1895-1918

932 1930-1990 JCT 245-380
phones CT2 864-868 PACS-UB 1910-1930
DECT 1880-1900

Wireless LANs 802.11b/g 2412- 802.11b/g 2412- 802.11b 2412-2484

2472 2462 802.11g 2412-2472

Other RF 27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868

868
systems
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Signals
• It is the physical representation of data, through which
the users can communicate.
• It is a function of time and location. y = f(t)
• signal parameters represents the data value
• classification
• continuous time/discrete time
• continuous values/discrete values

• analog signal = continuous time and continuous values

• digital signal = discrete time and discrete values

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• Signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude
A, phase shift 
sine wave as special periodic signal for a
carrier:

g(t) = At sin(2  ft t + t)

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Example of an arbitrary signal

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 Fourier representation of periodic signals
if g(t + T) = g(t), for all t; then g(t) is said periodic over period T,
otherwise it is said a periodic
 
1
g (t ) = c +  an sin(2nft ) +  bn cos(2nft )
2 n =1 n =1

1 1

0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)

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 Formation of square pulse
An electromagnetic signal will be made up of
many frequencies. For example, the signal
g(t) = (4/π)X[(sin(2 π ft)+(1/3)sin(2π (3f)t)]
is depicted in the figure. From the figure, we
can deduce that:
The second and forthcoming frequencies are
integer multiple of first frequency. Here,
the first frequency is called Fundamental
Frequency, while rest of them are called
harmonics. The period of the total signal
is equal to the period of the fundamental
frequency.
That means more harmonic, the more
signal will become closer to square wave
signal (ideal).
That is why to transmit a square wave, an
infinite bandwidth (frequencies) is required.

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Fourier Series
Any periodic signal can be expressed as a
linear combination of fundamental frequency
and its harmonics (integer multiples). From
this we can readily deduce another definition.
That is, “any electromagnetic signal can
be shown to consist of a collection of
periodic analog signals at different
amplitudes, frequencies, and phases”.
Phenomenon is known as Fourier Analysis.
From the above discussion, we can have a
clear view of both time and frequency domain
representation. Also, s(t) shows the amplitude
of the signal at any given time and S(f) shows
the peak amplitude of constituent frequencies.
Fig (b) is Fourier representation of the square
wave example.
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Some Important Concepts
Spectrum
It is the range of frequencies a signal contains. In above case spectrum extends from f to 3f.
Absolute Bandwidth
Absolute Bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum it contains.
For example, in above case
B.W. = 3f – f = 2f (Hz)
For a complete pulse
S (t) = (4A/ π ) [sin(2 π ft) + (1/3) sin(2 π (3f)t + (1/5)sin(2 π ft) + …..]
Spectrum: f, 3f, 5f, 7f, ………, ∞
And accordingly, bandwidth = ∞ - f
Effective Bandwidth (Bandwidth)
It is the band of frequencies in which most of the signal energy is lying. However, most of the
signal energy is contained in a relatively narrow band of frequencies.

DC Component
If a signal includes a component of zero frequency, that is called a direct current (dc) or
constant component. Without a dc-component, a signal has average amplitude of zero. With a
dc-component, it has a non-zero average amplitude and a frequency term at f=0.

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Energy and Power of the signal
Energy of the Signal

Energy of the signal is given by the formula

E = 0∫T |f(t)|2dt = 0∫
T sin22πft dt = T/2

Power of the Signal

Energy per unit time is called power.

P = (1/T) 0∫T |f(t)|2dt = (1/T) 0∫T sin22πft dt = ½

For previous example, the total power of the signal discussed is given by

P = (4A/π)2[(1/2) + (1/9)(1/2) + (1/25)(1/2) + ….]

= (4A/π)2(1/2) [1 + (1/9)+ (1/25) + ….]

Since most of the power is contained in first three frequencies f, 3f, 5f.

Power Spectrum Density

It is the spectrum in which most of the signal power is lying. Its unit is
(watts/hertz).

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Signals II
• Different representations of signals
• amplitude (amplitude domain)
• frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
• phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase  in polar
coordinates)
A [V] A [V] Q = M sin 

t[s] 
I= M cos 

 f [Hz]

• Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using

Fourier transformation
• Digital signals need
• infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
• modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog
signal!)

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Antennas: isotropic radiator
• Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves,
coupling of wires to space for radio transmission
• Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions
(three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference
antenna
• Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically
and/or horizontally)
• Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an
antenna
z
y z

y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator

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Antennas: simple dipoles
• Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles
with lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
➔ shape of antenna proportional to wavelength

/4 /2

• Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z

simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

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Gain Formula
• Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe
compared to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the
same average power)

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Antennas: directed and sectorized
• Often used for microwave connections or base stations for
mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)

y y z
directed
x z x antenna

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
sectorized
x antenna

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

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Antennas: diversity
• Grouping of 2 or more antennas
• multi-element antenna arrays
• Antenna diversity
• switched diversity, selection diversity
• receiver chooses antenna with largest output
• Diversity combining
• combine output power to produce gain
• cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2

+ +

ground plane

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Signal propagation ranges

• Transmission range
• communication possible within certain radius with a low error
rate
• Detection range
• detection of the signal
possible but no communication sender

is possible
• Interference range
transmission

distance
• signal may not be detection
detected but the it can cause
disturbance to other signals interference

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Signal propagation
• Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
• Receiving power proportional to 1/d² in vacuum – much
more in real environments, e.g., d3.5…d4
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
• Receiving power additionally influenced by
• fading (frequency dependent)
• shadowing
• reflection at large obstacles
• refraction depending on the density of a medium
• scattering at small obstacles
• diffraction at edges

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

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Real world examples

www.ihe.kit.edu/index.php

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Multipath propagation
• Signal can take many different paths between sender and
receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

LOS
(line-of-sight)
signal at sender
signal at receiver

• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

• interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
• distorted signal depending on the phases of the different
parts
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 * Multi-path Signals:
1- Delay in time.
2- Less in strength.
3- Deshaped.

* Line of sight (LOS):

1- Well in time.
2- Well in strength.
3- More in strength.

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Effects of mobility
• Channel characteristics change over time and location
• signal paths change
• different delay variations of different signal parts
• different phases of signal parts
• ➔ quick changes in the power received (short term fading)

• Additional changes in power long term

fading
• distance to sender
• obstacles further away
• ➔ slow changes in the average
power received (long term fading)
t
short term fading

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Multiplexing
• Multiplexing in 4 dimensions channels ki
• space (si) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• time (t)
• frequency (f) c

• code (c) t c
t

• Goal: multiple use s1

f
of a shared medium s2
f
c

• Important: guard spaces needed! t

s3
f

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Frequency multiplex
• Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency
bands
• A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the
whole time
• Advantages
• no dynamic coordination
necessary
• works also for analog signals k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• Disadvantages c
• waste of bandwidth
f
if the traffic is
distributed
unevenly
• Inflexible
(limited number
Of users)
• Cross-Talk: due tto
Increasing in number of slots.
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Time multiplex
• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount
of time

• Advantages
• Only one carrier in the
medium at any time
• Throughput high even k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
for many users
• Cheaper c
f

• Disadvantages
• Precise
synchronization
necessary t

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Time and Frequency Multiplex
• Combination of both methods
• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time
• Example: GSM

• Advantages
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• Better protection against
tapping c
• Protection against frequency
f
selective interference
• (Disadvantage) But:
Precise coordination
required
t

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Cognitive Radio
• Typically in the form of a spectrum sensing CR
• Detect unused spectrum and share with others avoiding interference
• Choose automatically best available spectrum (intelligent form of
time/frequency/space multiplexing)
• Distinguish
• Primary Users (PU): users assigned to a specific spectrum by e.g.
regulation
• Secondary Users (SU): users with a CR to use unused spectrum
• Examples
• Reuse of (regionally) unused analog TV spectrum (aka white space)
• Temporary reuse of unused spectrum e.g. of pagers, amateur radio etc.
f SU
SU PU SU

SU PU
PU
PU PU SU

PU PU PU PU
SU SU SU
PU PU
SU
SU
t
space mux frequency/time mux

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Code multiplex
• Each channel has a unique code k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
• Example: 3rd Generation (3G)
• All channels use the same spectrum c
at the same time
• Advantages
• bandwidth efficient
• no coordination and synchronization
necessary f

• good protection against interference

and tapping
• Disadvantages
• varying user data rates t
• more complex signal regeneration
• Implemented using Spread Spectrum Technology
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Modulation
• Digital modulation
• Digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
• ASK, FSK, PSK are some of the modulation techniques
• Differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
• Analog modulation
• Shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
• Motivation (why baseband signal cannot be directly
transmitted in a wireless system)
• smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
• medium characteristics
• Basic schemes
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)

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Modulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

Demodulation

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier

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2.8 Cell structure
• Cellular systems for mobile communications implement SDM
• Each transmitter, typically called a base station, covers a certain area,
a cell.
• (Mobile Telecommunication Systems), where a mobile stations
communicate only via the base station
• Advantages of cell structures
• Higher capacity, higher number of users
• Less transmission power needed
• More robust, decentralized
• Base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
• Problems
• Fixed network needed for the base stations
• Handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
• Interference with other cells
• Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the
country side (GSM) - even less for higher frequencies
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Frequency planning I
• Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the
base stations
• Standard model using 7 frequencies:
f3
f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f1 f4
f3 f7 f1
f2

• Fixed frequency assignment:

• certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
• problem: different traffic load in different cells
• Dynamic frequency assignment:
• base station chooses frequencies depending on the
frequencies already used in neighbor cells
• more capacity in cells with more traffic
• assignment can also be based on interference measurements

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Frequency planning II

f3 f3 f3
f2 f2
f1 f1 f1 f2 f3 f7
f3 f3
3 cell cluster f5 f2
f2 f2 f2 f4 f6 f5
f1 f1 f1 f4
f3 f3 f3 f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f6 f5 f2

7 cell cluster

f2 f2 f2
f1 f f1 f f1 f
h h
3
h1 2
3
g2 h3 g2 h3 g2
h1 2
3
3 cell cluster
g1 g1 g1
g3 g3 g3 with 3 sector antennas

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Cell breathing
• CDM systems: cell size depends on the current load:
current number of users in the cell.
• Additional traffic appears as noise to other users
• If the noise level is too high, users drop out of cells
(shrinking and squeezing).

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2.7 Spread spectrum technology
• Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent
fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of
the interference (certain number of users eliminated with
a frequency).
• Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band
signal using a special code
• protection against narrow band interference
power interference spread power signal
signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver

f f
• Side effects:
• coexistence of several signals without dynamic coordination
• tap-proof
• Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping
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Effects of spreading and interference

dP/df dP/df

user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df

iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver

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Spreading and frequency selective
fading
channel
quality

1 2 5 6
narrowband channels
3
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal

channel
quality
2
2 spread spectrum channels
2
2
2
1

spread frequency
spectrum

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