Scaling of Transport Problems

Order of Magnitude Estimation

Order of Magnitude Definitions:
• x 1 means 0.3 < x < 3
• x << 1 means x < 0.1
• x >> 1 means x > 10
“” means “order of”

• In order-of-magnitude analysis the goal is to place a

dimensionless quantity x in one of the three
categories.
• Doing so helps us judge whether the quantity is large
enough to merit retention in a model.
2
 Scaling
• Any physical quantity can be made dimensionless by
dividing it by another quantity that has the same units.
• Expressing a result in dimensionless form is usually
desirable, in that doing so minimizes the number of
variables.
• Scaling is a particular way of defining a dimensionless
variable such that it becomes order of 1 in some
region or time interval of interest.
• Importance of Scaling
– Simplifies problem greatly,
– Teaches us much about the physics of the
problem.
3
 Scaled Variables
Physical Variable Characteristic Quantity Dimensionless Variable
v U v*  v U
r L r*  r L
t  t*  t 
P Dynamic
pressure  P*  P 
( ) 1/ L  * ( )  L( )
2 ( ) (1 / L) 2  *2 ( )  L2 2 ( )

• The scale of a variable is its maximum order of

magnitude.
• A scaled dimensionless variable is constructed by
dividing the dimensional variable by its scale.
• Sometimes a reference value is subtracted. 4
 Scaled Variables
• Scale factor is deliberately chosen to be the largest
value for a given variable so that the dimensionless
variable is  1 or “order 1“ or O(1).
• Therefore, a dimensionless derivative also typically
has a maximum value of 1.
v x
Example-1: Consider
x
Let’s scale this vx  Uvx* & x  Lx*
dvx  Udvx* & dx  Ldx*
The magnitude of the dvx u dvx *
right hand side is 
determined by (u/L) dx Ldx
*
1 5
Navier-Stokes Eqns in Rectangular Coordinates
Newtonian Fluid with Constant  and 

 vx vx vx vx  p   2 vx  2 vx  2 vx 

  vx  vy  vz    2  2  2    gx
 t x y z  x  x y z 

 v y v y v y v y  p   2v y  2v y  2v y 
  vx  vy  vz       2  2  2    g y
 t x y z  y  x y z 

 vz vz vz vz  p   2 vz  2 vz  2 vz 

  vx  vy  vz    2  2  2    gz
 t x y z  z  x y z 

 v  Let’s scale N-S

ρ  v  v   p  μ v  ρg
2
Equations
 t 
6
 Scaling of Navier-Stokes Equations
Dimensionless Groups and Flow Regimes
• The contunuity and N-S equations form a set of coupled,
non-linear, PDEs.
• Obtaining analytical or even numerical solutions sometimes
requires simplifications that are valid for specific geometric
and/or dynamic conditions.
 v 
   v  v  P  2 v
 t 

determines magnitude of the gradient

 v U v* U
 v  * v *
t τ t* L order of 1

U 2  
v  v   v *  * v * P  *P*
 L  L 7
 Scaling of Navier-Stokes Equations
U  v * U 2  U
 v *  * v*    * P *  2  *2 v *
 t * L L L

ρL2  v* ρLU L
 v*  * v*   *P*  
 *

2
v*
τμ t* μ μU

      O 1
 Re  O  Re   L 
O  O  
 Sr   U 
Exact equation
Navier-Stokes equation in nondimensional form (nonlinear)

τ ρLU UL inertial stress

Sr  Re   
Strouhal #
L/U  Reynolds #
μ  μ/ρ viscous stress
8
Scaling of Navier-Stokes Equations

9
 More about choice of length scale L
• Geometric:

r R
z

Lpipe

– Two length scales here – which should be chosen for scaling?

– Typically, we should choose the length scale over which the
velocity varies from minimum to maximum; in above case,
from r = 0 to r = R, i.e. “L” = R

10
 More about choice of length scale L
• Dynamic: Example of suddenly accelerated flat plate
y y y
u x ( y, t )

U0 U0

t 0 t 0 t 0
1/ 2
 t 
L  2 
 
Length scale of diffusion of momentum in time “t”

11
 Choice of velocity scale U
Typically chosen to be maximum velocity Umax or something
proportional to it.
volumetric flow rate Q
Example: for pipe flow U
area
1
average velocity  U max
2
where Umax = maximum velocity at the centerline of pipe

Choice of pressure scale 

How should  be defined? We will examine this later by looking
at limiting cases of Re number.
12
 Choice of time scales
L
• Convective c 
U
L2  L2
• Viscous v  
  Kinematic viscosity

• Imposed (if any) i

Examples:
– Time between heart beats for blood circulation
– Time for oscillatory period in rheometer

 actual process time scale

Thus Sr  
c convectivetime scale
– If there is no imposed time i , then  = c and Sr = 1
– If there is an imposed time, then  = i and then Sr = i / c 13
 Approximations Based on Re Number
Steady Flows
 Re  v*  L 
   Re v*  * v*   
 
*P*  * 2
v*
 Sr  t*  μU 
For steady flows N-S equation becomes:

 L 
Rev*  * v*    *P*  * 2 v*

     μU 
inertial or convective viscous terms
terms

Now, we will consider the cases for small, O(1)and large Re numbers

14
 Approximations Based on Re Number
Steady Flows
 L 
Rev*  * v*    *P*  * 2 v*
 μU 
Limit of Re  0 or Creeping Flow or Stokes Flow:

 L 
0    *P*  * 2 v*

μU

  order of 1
?
There are 3 possibilities:

 L   L   L 
   1    1    1
 μU   μU   μU 
15
 Re  0 (contd.)
 L 
Case I:    1 0  * v* 2

 μU 
This is not valid! Pressure term
cannot drop out for a pressure
driven flow.
 L 
Case II:    1 0  *P*
 μU  This is not valid! Velocity
disappears.

 L   L 
Case III:    1 0   *P*  * 2 v*
 μU   μU 
This is the correct scaling since at least pressure and a velocity
term must stay in the problem 16
 Re  0 (contd.)
 L  μU Note that we found the
Then    1   scale factor for viscous
 μU  L pressure

 L 
0   *P*  * 2 v*
μU

1

0   *P*  * 2 v* This equation is linear,

hence a unique solution
is guaranteed

17
 Approximations Based on Re Number
Steady Flows

 L 
Rev*  * v*    *P*  * 2 v*
 μU 
Limit of Re   or Inviscid Flow or Potential Flow :
 L 
Rev*  * v*    *P*
 μU 

1  L 
v
*
* v*    *P*
  Re  μU 
O (1)  
 1  L  
O    
 Re  μU   18
 Re   (contd.)
Using the same logic as in the Re  0 limit, we conclude that

1  L   μU  ρLU μU
   1    Re 
Re  μU   L  μ L
Inertial pressure scale, also
  ρU 2
called the “dynamic pressure”
by aerospace engineers

Therefore, for Re   limit, N-S equation becomes

Inviscid or potential flow
v*  * v*  *P* equation

Note the absence of viscosity effects here.

19
 Approximations Based on Re Number
Steady Flows

 L 
Rev*  * v*    *P*  * 2 v*
 μU 
When Re  1:
Neither the Re  0 nor the Re   limits apply, then the
governing flow equation remains same as above where either of
the scales for pressure will work.

μU
 or   ρU 2
L

20
 Approximations Based on Re Number
These approximations often hold for certain regions of the flow field.

Away from a solid boundary, the effect of viscosity is small and can be neglected.
Free stream Boundary Layer Theory
potential flow

inertia + pressure

viscous + pressure 21
 Boundary Layer Theory
Boundary layer theory is used for calculation of transfer coefficients:
• Friction factor
• Mass transfer coefficient
• Heat transfer coefficient

Free stream
potential flow
inertia + pressure

viscous + pressure

Note that potential flow is only a first order equation and can fit only
1 BC. Supplement with boundary layer equations where viscous and
pressure effects are important.
22
Approximations Based on Strouhal Number
Unsteady Flows

ρL2  v* ρLU L
 v*  * v*   *P*  * v*
2

τμ t* μ μU 

      O 1
 Re  O  Re  O (1)
O 
 Sr 

Limit of Re  0:
Re  v*
 
*P*
   *

2
v*
Sr t* O (1) O (1)

When  = i (imposed): Re  viscous time scale / convective time scale

Sr imposed time scale / convective time scale
Re viscous time scale L L /
 
Sr imposed time scale i 23
Approximations Based on Sr Number
Re  0 (contd.)
Re  v*
 
*P*
   *

2
v*
Sr t* O (1) O (1)

Re
 1  Imposed changes are so slow that viscous
Sr effects have time to quickly adjust. The
resulting flow equation is:

0   *P*  * 2 v*
• Pseudo-steady flow
• Time dependent effects enter through
the boundary conditions
24
Approximations Based on Sr Number
Re  0 (contd.)
Re  v*
 
*P*
   *

2
v*
Sr t* O (1) O (1)

Re
1  Then full unsteady equation must be solved.
Sr
 v*
 *P*  * 2 v*
t*
This equation is considerably more difficult to
solve than the pseudo case.

25
 Approximations Based on Sr Number
Creeping Flow Examples (Re << 1)
Compact disc manifacture

(Also rotating flow in parallel disks and cone-plate flow)

26
Approximations Based on Sr Number
Creeping Flow Examples (Re << 1)

Fiber spinning

In all cases, time dependent effectsenter through the BCs.

27
Approximations Based on Strouhal Number
Unsteady Flows

ρL2  v* ρLU L
 v*  * v*   *P*  * v*
2

τμ t* μ μU 

      O 1
 Re  O  Re  O (1)
O 
 Sr 

1  v*
Limit of Re  :  v*  * v*  *P*
Sr t*
1
If  1  v*  * v*  *P* Pseudo-steady
Sr

28
 Approximations Based on Sr Number
Re  

ρL2  v* ρLU L
 v*  * v*   *P*  * v*
2

τμ t* μ μU 

      O 1
 Re  O  Re  O (1)
O 
 Sr 
If there is no imposed time scale, then  = c  Sr = 1 and the
governing equations become:

 v* 
Re  v*  *v*   *P*  * 2 v* Π  μU/L
 t* 
 v*
Re

 v*  *v*  *P*   * 2 v* Π  U  2

 t* 
29
 Other Dimensionless Numbers
N-S equation we have written so far was in terms of dynamic
pressure. In problems involving free surfaces, where gravity and
pressure forces must be distinguished, additional groups will arise.
Recall the scale factors and choose factors for p and g

Physical Variable Characteristic Quantity Dimensionless Variable

v U v*  v U
r L r*  r L
t  Reference t*  t 
p Static
pressure
p0  p
pressure diff.
p*  p ( p0  p )
g Gravitational g
acceleration
g*  g g
( ) 1/ L  * ( )  L( )
2 ( ) (1 / L) 2  *2 ( )  L2 2 ( )
 Other Dimensionless Numbers (contd.)
U  v * U 2 ( p0  p ) U
 v *  * v*    * p *  2  *2 v *  g g
 t * L L L
Divide each term by the magnitude of the inertia term:

L v * (p  p )  gL
 v *  * v*   0 2   * p *   *2 v *  2 g
U t * U LU U

Strouhal number Euler number Inverse of Reynolds Inverse of Froude

number number squared

v * 1 1
Sr  v *  * v*   Eu * p *  * v* 2 g
2

t * Re Fr
Navier-Stokes equation in nondimensional form in terms of static pressure and gravity
31
 Approximations to N-S Equations
Why bother with developing solutions to the flow
equations when numerical solutions to the exact
equations can be obtained?
• The scaling of the flow equations and subsequent solutions
teach us much about the physics of the fluid flow.
• The exact solutions to the approximate equations provide
good starting points for the initial numerical solutions of the
exact equations.

Recall the exact equations are nonlinear  multiple solutions

with some solutions being unphysical. Therefore, it is important
to have good “starting point” for our numerical solutions.
The exact solutions to the approximate equations provide a
crucial check on the accuracy of our numerical solutions.
32
Order-of-One Scaling Analysis - Summary
1. Write the dimensional describing equations and their initial,
boundary, and auxiliary conditions.
2. Define unspecified scale factors for each dependent and
independent variable as well as appropriate derivatives
appearing explicitly in the describing equations and their
initial, boundary, and auxiliary conditions.
3. Define unspecified reference factors for each dependent and
independent variable that is not referenced to zero in the
initial, boundary, and auxiliary conditions.
4. Form dimensionless variables by introducing the unspecified
scale factors and reference factors for the dependent and
independent variables and the appropriate derivatives.

33
Order-of-One Scaling Analysis - Summary
5. Introduce these dimensionless variables into the describing
equations and their initial, boundary, and auxiliary conditions.
6. Divide through by the dimensional coefficient of one term
(preferably one that will be retained) in each of the describing
equations and their initial, boundary, and auxiliary conditions.
7. Determine the scale and reference factors by insuring that the
principal terms in the describing equations and initial,
boundary, and auxiliary conditions are ○(1); i.e., they are
bounded between zero and of order one.
8. The preceding steps result in the minimum parametric
representation of the problem (i.e., in terms of the minimum
number of dimensionless groups); appropriate simplification
of the describing equations now can be explored.
34