TUGAS KELOMPOK

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY II

Disusun Oleh:

KELOMPOK 8

1. ARISTOTELES WAMBRAUW
2. ISNAENI
3. JUHRA NASIR
4. LISA AMELIA
5. MARSIANA MBARU
6. WENING WIDY ASTUTY

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN (FKIP)

UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH SORONG (UMS)

 2016

CHAPTER 19

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH:

INTEGRATING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: DEFINITION AND PURPOSE

Mixed methods research designs combine quantitative and qualitative approaches by

including by including both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study. The purpose of
mixed methods research is to build on the synergy and strength that exists between
quantitative and qualitative research methods to understand a phenomenon more fully.

TYPES OF MIXED METHODS RESEARCH DESIGNS

There are three common types of mixed methods research designs:

1. The QUAL – Quan Model

The QUAL-Quan Model. In the QUAL-quan model, also known as the exploratory
mixed methods design, qualitative data are collected first and are more heavily weighted
than quantitative data. A qualitative study (or phase in a study) comes first and is typically
an "exploratory" study in which observation and open-ended interviews with individuals
or groups are conducted and concepts and potential hypotheses are identified. In a second
study or phase, variables are identified from concepts derived from the qualitative analysis
and hypotheses are tested with quantitative techniques. The QUAL-quan approach is
useful for researchers who obtain results from multi-item scales to measure phenomena.
The validity of the qualitative results can be enhanced by quantitative results obtained
from the second study or phase.

2. The QUAN-Qual Model

In the QUAN-qual model, also known as the explanatory mixed methods design,
quantitative data are collected first and are more heavily weighted than qualiitative data. In
the first study or phase, the researcher formulates a hypothesis, collects quantitative data,
 and conducts data analysis. The findings of the quantitative study determine the type of
data collected in a second, qualitative study or phase. This study or phase is comprised of
qualitative data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The researcher can then use the
qualitative analysis and interpretation to help explain or elaborate on the quantitative
results.
3. The QUAN-QUAL Model
In the third type of mixed methods design, the QUAN-QUAL model, also known as the
triangulation mixed methods design, quantitative and qualitalive data are equally weighted
and are collected concurrently throughout the same study—the data are not collected in
separate studies or distinct phases, as in the other two methods. One method may be
dominant over the other (QUAN - qual or QUAL - quan), or the two methods may be
given equal weight throughout. When quantitative methods are dominant (QUAN-qual),
for example, researchers might enliven their quantitative findings by collecting and writing
case vignettes. When qualitative methods are dominant (QUAL-quan), qualitative
researchers might decided to include survey, census, and Likert-scale data along with
narrative data. The fully integrated QUAN-QUAL approach is the most challenging type
of mixed melhods research.

Three characteristics that differentiate types of mixed methods designs

1. The priority given to either qualitative or quantitative data collection. The researcher has
three choices about the priority given to qualitative and quantitative data, qualitative and
quantitative data are of equal weight, quantitative data are of greater weight than
qualitative data, or qualitative data are of greater weight than quantitative data.
2. The sequence of collecting qualitative or quantitative data. The researcher can't collect
quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously. Quantitative data are collected first,
followed by qualitative data: qualitative data are collected first, followed by quantitative
data: or, in a QUAN-QUAL approach both types of data are collected during the same
time period.
3. The data analysis techniques used to either combine the analyses of data or keep the two
types of data separate. As we have discussed throughout this text, one of the most difficult
aspects of any research endeavor is the analysis of data. This problem is showcased when
we attempt to analyze quantitative and qualitative data sources concurrently or in sequence
 and attempt to find points of intersection as well as discrepancies. Creswell provides a
comprehensive overview of mixed methods design data analysis and interpretation
procedures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXED METHODS DESIGNS

The following characteristics will help you identify a study as a mixed methods design:

1. The title of the research includes terms that suggest more than one method is being used

● Mixed methods

● Integrated

● Triangular

● Quantitative – qualitative

2. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used in the study

3. The researcher describes the kinds of mixed methods being used

4. The data collection section indicates narrative, numerical, or both types of data are
being collected

5. The purpose statement or the research questions indicate the types of methods being
used

6. Questions are stated and described for both quantitative and qualitative approaches

7. The researcher indicates the preference given to qualitative or quantitative data

collection techniques

8. The researcher indicates the sequencing of collecting qualitative and/or quantitative

data (i.e., QUAN-Qual, QUAL-Quan, or QUAN-QUAL)

9. The researcher describes both quantitative and qualitative data analysis strategies

10. The writing is balanced in terms of quantitative and qualitative approaches

EVALUATING A MIXED METHOD STUDY

 You will be able to use the following questions to help you evaluate a mixed methods
study.

● Does the study use at least one quantitative and one qualitative data research method?

● Does the study include a rationale for using a mixed methods research design?

● Does the study include a classification of the type of mixed methods research design?

● Does the study describe the priority given to quantitative and qualitative data collection
and the sequence of their use?

● Was the study feasible given the amount of data to be collected and concomitant issues of
resources, time, and expertise?

● Does the study include both quantitative and qualitative research questions?

● Does the study clearly identify qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques?

● Does the study use appropriate data analysis techniques for the type of mixed methods
design?
 CHAPTER 20

ACTION RESEARCH

ACTION RESEARCH: DEFINITION AND PURPOSE

Action research educational is any systematicinquiry conducted hy teachers. Principals,

school counselors,or other stakeholders in the teaching -learning environment, to gather
informationabout the ways in which their particular schools operate, the teachers teach,and
the students learn.This information is gathered with the goals of gaining insight, developing
reflective practice, effecting positive changes in the solvers school environment (and
educational practices in general), and improving student outcomes and the lives of those
involved.

The purpose of action research is to provide teacher researchers with a method solving
everyday problems in schools,in order to improve both student learning and teacher
ellectiveness. Action research is research done by teachers. for themselves; it is not imposed
on them by someone else.Action research is largely about developing the professional
disposition of teachers, that is, encouraging teachers to be continuous learners-in their class-
rooms and of their practice.In conducting research in their own classrooms and schools,
teachers have the opportunity to model for students not only the skills necded for effective
learning but also curiosity and an excitement about gaining new knowledge.

Action rescarch is also about incorporating into a teacher's daily routine a reflective
stance-awillingness to look critically at one's own teaching so that it can be improved or
enhanced. Action research significantly contributes to the professional stance that teachers.
Adopt because it encourages them to examine the dynamics of their classrooms, ponder the
actions and interactions of students, validate and challenge existing practices, and take risks
in the process. When teachers gain new understandings about both their own and their
students behaviors through action research, they are empowered to do the following:

● Make informed decisions about what to change and what not to change.
● Link prior knowledge to new information.
● Learn from experience(even failures).
● Ask questions and systematically find answers.

This goal of teachers to be professional problem solvers who are committed to improving
both their own practice and student outcomes provides a powerful reason to practice action
research.

THE ACTION RESEARCH PROCESS

The basic steps in the action research process are: (1) identilying an area of ocus, (2) data
collection, (3) data analysis and interpretation, an (4) action planning. This four-stephas been
termed the Dialectic Action Research Spiral and illustrated in Figure 20.1 it provides teacher
researchers with a practical guide and illustrates how to proceedwith inquiries. It is a model
for research done by teachers and for teachers and students, not research done on them, and
as such is a dynamic and responsive model that can be adapted to different contexts and
purposes. It was designed to provide teacher researchers with “Provocative and constructive
ways” of thinking about their work.

For example, a high school teacher confronted with the challenges ofteaching unmotivated
students critically rellects on her teachingpractices to determine which specific stragies are
most effective in improving student outcomes. Teaching students who are unmotivated and
apathetic can be a difficult challenge for any teacher overcome. This example illustrates the
power or action research to empower the teacher to try diferent teaching strategies and to
systematically collect student outcome data(e.g test scores, student attitudes, and on-task
behavior) to help detemine which teaching strategy works bestforthe unmotivated students in
her classroom.

TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH

 In this section we will briefly review the two main types of action rescanh: critical (or
theory-based) action research andpractical action research.

Critical Action Research

Critical action research is action research in which the goal is liberating individuals
through knowledge gathering: for this reason, it is also known as emancipatory action
research. Critical action research is so named because it is based on a body of critical theory,
not because this type of action research is critical. as in"faultfinding” or “important”,
although it may certainly be both!

The values of critical action research dictate that all educational research should not only
be socially responsive but should also exhibit the following chracteristics:

1. Democratic- enabling participation of people

2. Equitable-acknowledging people's equality of worth

3. Liberating-providing freedom from oppressive, debilitating conditions

4. Enhancing-enabling the expression of people's full human potential

Although this critical theory-based approach has been criticized by some for lack of
practical feasibility," it is nonetheless important to consider because this perspective provides
a helpful heuristic, or problem-solving approach. For teachers who are committed to
invesigate through action research the taken-for-granted relationships and practices in their
professional lives.

Practical Action Research

Ascompared to critical action research, practicalaction research emphasizes more of a

how- to approach to the processes of action research and has a less philosophical hent. It
assumes. to some degree. that individual teachers or teams teachers are autonomous and can
determine the nature ofthe investigation to be undertaken. It also assumes that teacher
researchers are committed to continued professional development and school improvement
and that they want to systematically reflect on their practices. Finnaly, the practical action
research perspective assumes that as decision makers, teacher researchers will choose their
own areas of focus, detemine their data collection techniques.Analyze and interpret their data,
and develop action plans based on their findings.

LEVELS OF ACTION RESEARCH

Educational action research can be undertaken at three levels. the individual teacher level
the single school or department level, in which small teacher groups or teants conduct the
research; or the schoolwide level. It is important to note that teachers rarely carry out action
research involving multiple because of the organizational complexity and the uniqueness of
the many settings schools.

It also is likely that in a single school, action research is carried out by groups of teachers,
rather than an individual teacher, who all seek to understand and improve a common issue.
For example, a group high school math teachers might wish to work together to implement a
promising"hands-on” math strategy for students who are lagging in math performance and
then determine its impact on student math performance. Similarly, shared goals are surely
voiced by teachers in other content areas as well. This does not imply that teachers never
collaborate across subject areas, just that it more common and interesting for teachers to
focus their action research in their own disciplines. Asanother example, elementary teachers
might form a small group and design a study to answer questions about such varied strategies
as inclusion of special education students, inquiry-based learning, or literary clubs, which
cross content area and grade lines. Or some teachers might be involved in collaborative or
participatory research by working with university-based researchers in their classrooms. For
example, teachers may study their own research questions along with similar or related
questions that the university researcher has.

In schoolwide action research, the majority of the school community identifies a problem
and conducts research together with a common, focused goal in mind. For example, a
schoolwide emphasis on reading is a common goal of many elementary schools. Or
counselors, teachers, and administrators may band together in a middle school and try
strategies to integrate cliques or other groups ofstudents to create a more cooperative
environment.

Although a group of teachers working together is more common, individual teachers can
conduct action research to improve their understanding and practice in their own classrooms.
Quite often, individual teachers seek to study aspects of their classrooms that are unique to
them and thcir students. As an example of carrying out action research individually a teacher
may gather information by observing students to better understand their interests or behaviors
in a particular subject area. Alternatively the teacher may select or constract simple
instnuments or tests to collect student information pertainingto the issue or topic understudy
individual teacher action research can be a useful tool for solving educational problems in
one’s own setting.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH

The key characteristics of action research can be derived from the research sudies of the
connections between research and practice and the apparent failure ofeducational research to
affect teaching. This research has provided the following insights:

● Teachers do not find research persuasive or authoritative.

● Research has not been relevant to practice and has not addressed teachers' questions.
● Findings from research have not been expressed in ways that are comprehensible to
teachers. and Eusceptible to fads. is uriable to change, or conversely, inherently
unstable
● The education system itself is unable to change, or conversely, it is inherently
unstable and susceptible to fads.

Given these insights, action research exhibits five characteristics, each discussed next.

Action research is persuasive and authoritative

Research done by teachers for teachers involves collecting persuasive data. Because
teachers are invested in the legitimacy of the data collection, they identify data sources that
provide persuasive insights into theimpact ofan intervention on student outcomes.
Similarly,the findings of action research and the recommended actions are authoritative for
teacher researchers.

Action Research Is Relevant

The relevance of research published in journals to the real world of teachers is perhaps the
most common concern raised by teachers when asked about the practical applications
ofeducational research. Either the prohlems investigated by researchers are not the problems
teachers really have, or the school or classrooms in which the research was conducted are not
evenclose to the teachers' own school environments. These findings were that classroom life
was characterized by:

● Crowds. Students are always grouped with 20 or 30 others, which means that they
must wait in line, wait to be called on, and wait for help.
● Power. Teachers control most actions and events and decide what the group will do.
● Praise. Teachers also give and withhold praise so that students know which students
are Davored by the teacher.
● Uncertainty. The presence of 20to 30 children in a single classroom means there are
20 to 30 possibilities for an interruption in ones work.

Action Research Is Accessible

Kennedy also hypothesizes that the apparent lack of connection between research and prac
tice is due to teachers' poor access to research findings. She contends that rescarch does not
affect teaching because it does not address teachers' prior beliefs and values, and even if
teachers were informed of the results of studies, most would be unlikely to change their
practices. Herein lies the beauty, power, and potential of action research to positively affect
practice. As an action researcher, you challenge your taken-for-granted assumptions about
teaching and learning. Your research findings are meaningful to you because you have
identified the area of focus. You have been willing to challenge the conventional craft
culture. In short, your willingness to reflect on and change your thinking about your
teaching has led you to become successful and productive member of the professional
community.

Action Research Challenges the Intractability of Reform of the Educational System

The final hypothesis offered by Kennedy is that the lack of connection between research
and practice can be attributed to the education systemitself, not the research. The
educational sys term has been characterized as follows:

● Asystem for which there is a lack of agreed-on goals and guiding principles
● A system that has tuo central authority to settle disputes
● A system that is continually bombarded with new fads and fancies
● A system that provides limited evidence to support or refute any particular idea
 ● A system that encourages reforms that are running at cross-purposes to each other
● A system that gives teachers(in the United States) less time than those in most other
countries to develop curricula and daily lessons.

Action research gives teacher researchers the opportunity to embrace aproblem-solving

philosophy and practice as an integral part of the culture of their schools and their
professional disposition and to challenge the intractability of educational reform by making
action research a part of the system.

Action Research Is Not a Fad

Action research is decidedly not a fad for one simple reason: Good teachers have always
systematically looked at the effects of their teaching on student learning, They may not have
called this practice action research, and they may nou have thought their reflection was
formal enough to be labeled research, but it was action research!

ACTION RESEARCH TECHNIQUES

Action research techniques can be viewed in terms ofthe Dialectic Action Research Spiral
presented in this chapter identifying an area of focus, collecting data, analyzing and
interpreting data, and action planning. In this section we wil discuss specific action research
techniques related to model.

Identifying an Area of Focus

Finding an area of focus car be hard work for teacher researchers who, confronted with
many “problems” in their classrooms and schools, are not sure which one to choose! it
iscritical in the early stages of the action research process that the researcher take time to
identity a meaningful, engaging question or problem to investigate. One technique that can
help in identifying an area of focus is to ensure that the following criteria are satisfied:

● The area of focus should involve teaching and leaming and should focus on your own
practice.
● The area of focus is something within your focus of control.
 ● The area of focus is something you feel passionate about.
● The area of focusis something you would like to change or improve

The next important step in the action research process is reconnaissance, or preliminary in
formation gathering. More specifically, reconnaissance is taking time to reflect on your own
beliefs and to understand the nature and context of your general idea. Doing reconnaissance
involves gaining insight into your area of focus through self-reflection, descriptive activities
and explanatory activities.

Gaining Insight Through Sell-Reflection

You can begin reconnaissance by exploring your own understandings ofthe following:

● The theories that impact your pracuice

● The educational values you hold
● How your work in schools fits into the larger context of schooling and society
● The historical contexts ofyour school and schooling and how things gou to be the way
they are
● The historical contexts ofhow you come to believe what it is that you believe about
teaching and learning.

Gaining Insight Through Descriptive Activities

To continue in the reconnaissance process. you should try to describe as fully as possible the
situation you want to change or improve by focusing on who, what, where and when.
Grappling with these questions to clarify the focus area for your action research efforts will
keep you from moving ahead with an investigation that was too murky to begin with. For
example. in this stage, you might answer these questions:

● what evidence do I have that this(the problem-solving skillsofmath students) is a

problem?
● which students are not able to transfer problem-solving skills to other mathematics
tasks?
● How is problem solving presently taught?
● How often is problem solving taught?
 ● What is the ratio of time spent teaching problem solving to time spent teaching other
mathematics skills?

Gaining Insight Through Explanatory Activities

In this case, you might hypothesize that students are struggling with the transfer of
problem-solving skills to other mathematics tasks because they are not getting enough
practice, because they lack fundamental basic math skills, or because the use of math
manipulatives has been missing or not used to its full potential. Given these possible
explanations for why children have not been successfully transferring problem-solving skills
to other areas or mathematics, you might develop the following h ypotheses:

● There is a relationship between the use of a mathematics curriculum that emphasizes

the children’s ability to know what to do and why to do it and children's abilities to
transfer problem-solving skills.
● There is a relationship between the use of a mathematics curriculum that emphasizes
the use of manipulatives(to help children create meaning) and children’s abilities to
transfer problem-solving skill.

These reconnaissance activitics(self-reflection. description. and explanation) help

teacher researchers clarify what they already know about the proposed focus of the study
what they believe to be true about the relationships of the lactors, variables, and contexts
that make up their work environment and what they believe can improve the situation.

Collecting, Analyzing, and Interpreting Data

The decision about what data are collected for an action research study is largely
determined by the nature of the problem. Teacher researchers must determine what data will
contribute to their understanding and resolution of a given problem. Hence, data collection
associated with action research is largely an idiosyncraric approach fueled by the desire to
understand one's practice and to collect data that are a and accessible.

It is interesting to note that the literature on action research suppors assertion that
qualitative data collection methods (discussed in Chapter 15) are more appropriately applied
to action research problems than are quantitative methods and designs. In part, this can be
attributedto fact that teachers (and administrators) do not routinely assign children on a
random basis, or assign children within a class to an experimental or control group in order to
receive a “treatment”.

Action researchers do not-and should not-avoid numerical data, however. Clearly,there are
many quantitative data sources that are readily available for callection by teacher researchers.
For example, standardized test scores are an increasingly important accountability measure
used to justify state and federal funding of academic programs. For the most part, the kinds of
numeral data collected as part of an action research study will be appropriately analyzed
through the use of descriptive statistics for measures of central tendency(mean, mode,
median) and variability(standard deviation), (See Chapter 11for a comprehensive
discussionof descriptive statistics.) Our advice here is simple: count what counts! ifit makes
sense to tally and count events, cattegories, occurrences. test scores, and the like, use an
appropriate descriptive statistic. However, do not feel compelled to include elaborate
statistical measures simply to add to a perceived sense of rigor or credibility to your inquicy.

Action Planning

One of the final tasks of an action researcher is to share research findings with others,
inboth formal and informal settings. Results can be shared with other teachers, both in the
rescarchers school or in other schools. Asan action researcher, you may share information
verbally, in presentations and conversations, and also may write about yours results. Writing
can lead to further analysis, improved interpretation, and deeper understanding of the
problem-as well as how to act on your findings. Writing also creatos a permanent record of
the research thatothers may use. Follow teachers researchers and current or potential funders
for your program may be in a position to benefit from your results.

As the name suggests, action research is action oriented, and it is directed toward both
understanding and improving practice. Thus,the last step in the research process is deciding
what steps; i any;need to be taken alter or improve practice.

There are many techniques that can be used to implement action research results in
schools. Forexample, study results can be used in the classroom, school or district to improve
instruction, procedures. and outcomesof education, and aid teacher understanding
instruction and application. Often, action research leads to new questions to examine, thus
forging new forms of understanding and deeper insights in practice. It is the practical nature
of action research that fosters much ofthe teacher-based improvement in schools.
 CHAPTER 21

PREPARING A RESEARCH REPORT

GENERAL GUIDELINES

As noted in previous chapters, thepurpose and conduct of qualitative studiesin this chapter
we emphasize the general issues and practices assosiated with writing a research report.It is
important that you understand that all research reports address similar topics-for example, all
contain a description of the topic or studied, a view of literature, a description of procedures,
and a description of results.

While you are conducting your study, you can profitabily use spare time to begin revising
or refining the introduction and method sections of your report. After all the dataanalyzed,
you can begin to write the report’s final section. The major guideline for all stages of writing
–presented to make an outline.The chances of you report being presented in an organized,
logical manner are greatly increased if you think the sequence through before you actually
write anything. Formulating and outline greatlyfacilitates this “thinking through to review
briefly, developing an outline involves identifiying and ordering major topics and then
differentiating each major heading into logical subheadings.

Getting Started : Overcoming Writing Obstacles

Writing is nothing more than putting thought to paper, yetmany writers hold irrational
beliefsabout the task or even insiston rituals that must be completed if writing sessions are
tobe successful.

Tips to Succeed at Writing

▪ Look for progress, not perfection

▪ Write whatever comes to mind. Then go back and hunt for what you are reallytriying
to say- it’s there.
▪ Have you ever though to yourself : I wish I had done that differently? With writing
you can do it differently, editing your own work is delight. Write boldly and then
sayit again- better.
 o Think about all the things atschool that I need to do before tomorrow
o Scan mydesk to see if someone has left me a note a meeting, sports practice,
birthday party that I need to go NOW.
o Check my voicemail
o Check my e-mail.
o Check my checkhook to see if it is balanced
o Callmy wife/ child/ colleague/ friend/ enemy toseewhat theyare doing.
o Walk downthe hallway tosee if I can find someone to talkto.
o Dream about winning the lottery.
o Make an appointment to see my dentist.

▪ Writing is an exercise in learning about your own work. Writing, then editing, then
rewriting,then editing again, clarifies thoughts into a coherent package.
▪ Editing evena gem needs to be mined toughly, cut ruthless, then buffed.
▪ Nobody know it when you’vediscussed it with your computer a few times.
▪ Write without consideration for grammar, syntax,or punctuation just write sometimes
editing is an evidence technique.
▪ Write at the same time every day at a time when you know you won’t be disturbed.
▪ Write up your research as though you’re sending e-mail to a friend. Pretend your
friend needs it explained simply.

GENERAL RULES FOR WRITING

Although the style of reporting may varyfor quantitative and qualitative studies, the focus
in al instances should be on providing accurate description for the reader. For example in
quantitative reports personal pronouns such as and we are usuallyavoided, and the passive
voice is used. In contrast, in qualitative report the researchers often adopts a more personal
tone, uses active voice, and shares the words of the participants. Study stylistic differences do
not after the need for accurate reporting.
 The reserch report should be written in a clear, simple, straightforward style and reflect
scholarship.You do not have to be boring, just concic. Inother words, convey what you wish
to convey, do it in an efficien way, avoid jargon , and use simple language.For example,
instead of saying, “The population comprised all students who matriculated for the fall
semester atEgghead University”. Obviously the report should contain correct spelling
grammatical construction and punctuation. Your computer probably has a spelling and
grammar cheeker. User it. Orconsult a dictionary it is also a good idea to have someone you
know, someone who is perhaps stronger in this areas, review yourmanuscript and indicate
errors.

Although different style manuals emphasize different rules of writing, there are several
common to most manuals. Use of abbreviations and contraction, for instances, is generally
discouraged in formal writing. For example, instead of “the American psychological
Assn.,”you would write “the American PsychologicalAssociation. “ Instead of shouldn’t,
write should not. Exceptions to the abbreviations commonly used and understood
abbreviations (such asIQ and GPA) and abbreviations defined by the researcher to promote
clarity, simplify presentation, or reduce repetition.If the same sequence of words is going to
be used repeatedly,the researcherwill often define an abbreviation in parentheses when
firstusing the sequences and there afteruse only the abbreviation. Authors of cited references
are usuallyreferred in the main bodyof the report bylast name only; first names, initials and
titles are not give. Instead of saying .”ProffesorDudlyQ. mestrudle (2002) concluded …..,you
normallywould say “Mestrudle (2002) concluded ……” These guidelines hold only for the
main body of the report.
The final report should be proofread carefully at least twice. Reading the report silentlyto
yourself will usually be sufficient to identify major errors. If you havea willing listener,
however reading themanuscript out loud often helps you to identify grammatical or
constructional errors.
Preparing a research report is greatly facilitated by computer word processing, which
commonlyprovides features suchas automatic page numbering and heading centering the
ability to rearrange words, sentences, and paragraphs and spellchecking.

FORMAT AND STYLE

 Format refers to general pattern of organization and arrangement of the report. The
number and types of heading and subheadings to be included in the report are determined by
the formatused. Style refers to the rules of grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation
followed in preparing the report. Formats may vary in terms of specific headings included,
and research reports generally follow a format that parallels the steps involved in conducting
a study. For example, although one format may call for a discussion section and another
format may require a summary or conclusion and recommendations section and another
format require a section in which the result of the study are discussed and interpreted. All
re4serach reports also include a condensed description of the study, whether it be summary of
a disertation or an abstract of journal article.

Do this before you begin writing, since rearranging a format after the fact istedious and
time-consuming.One manual that increasingly being required as guide for those writing
theses and dissertations is the ​publication manual of the American Psychological
Assosiation,​also called the APAmanual (currently in it is fifth editions).If you are not bound
by any particular format and style,if thatiswhat your institutions uses.

SECTION OF THESES AND DISERTATIONS

Standard preliminary pages, components that directly parallel the research process, and
suplementary information, which is included in appendexis. A report on a quantitative study
and that for a qualitative study would have similar contents expect that method section in the
qualitative studyreports would emphasize the description and selection of the research site
thesampling approach, and the process of data collection.

Preliminary Pages

The preliminary pages contain the title pag, acknowledgements pages, table of contents,
list of the table and figures, and abstract.

The title should communicate what the study is about. Recall when you reviewed the
literature and made initial decisions about the relevance of source based on its title.
After you write your title, apply the communication test: Would you know what the study
was about if you read the title in an index? Ask friend or colleagues to described what they
understand from your title.
 Most theses and dissertations include an acknowledgments page. This pagepermits the
writer to express appreciation to persons who have contributed significantly to the completion
of the report.
The table of contents is basically an outline of your report thatindicates the page on which
each major section (or chapter) and subsection begins.
An abstracts precedesthe main body of the report, and a summary follows the discussion
section. Abstracts often must belimited to a given a number of words, usually between 100
and 500 many institution require abstracts to be no more than 350 words, which is the
maximum allowed by Dissertation Abstracts International, a repository of dissertation
abstracts.
The purpose of thestudy was to determine the effect of curriculum that emphasized writing
on the reading comprehension of fourth-gradestudents who were reading at least on level
below grade level.

The Main Body

The body of the report contains information about the topic studied, literature
reviewed,hypotheses (if any) posited, participants,instruments, procedures,results,and
discussion.

The introduction section includes a description of the research problem or topic, a review
of related literature, a statement of hypotheses or issues, and a definition of uncommon or
important terms.

The statement of the problem or topic should be accompanied by a presentation of its

background, including a justification for the study in terms of its significance.

The review of relatedliteratureindicates what is known about the problem or topic. Its
function is to educated the reader about the area was studied.

A good hypothesis for a quantitative study clearly states theexpected relationship (or
differences) between two variable and defines those variables in operational, measurable
terms. The hypothesis (or hypotheses) logicallyfollows the review of related literature and is
based on implications of previous research.

Method
 The method section a description of participants, instruments, design,
procedure,assumptions, and limitations. A qualitative study may also include a detailed
description of the site studied and the nature and length of interactions with the participants.
The description of participants includes information about how they were selected and,
mainly for quantitative researchers, the population they represent. A description of the sample
should indicate its size and major characteristics of members suchas age, grade level, ability
level, and socioeconomic status. A good description of the sample enables readers of the
report to determine how similar study participants are to participants the readers are
concerned with.

Data collection procedureshould be described fully, be they test, questionnaires,

interviews, or observation. The description should be described indicate the purpose of the
procedure, its application, and its validity and reliability. If a procedure has been developed
by the researcher the description needs to be more detailed and should also state the manner
in which it was developed, its pretesting, revisions, steps involved in scoring keys, and other
pertinent data related to a newly developed test are generally placed as appendixes to the
thesis or dissertation proper.

The procedure action should described the steps followed in conducting the study in
chronological order, in sufficient detailto permit the study to be replicated by another
researcher.

The result section described the statistical techniques or the inferential interpretations that
were applied to the data and theresultsof these analyses.

The report should also discuss the theoretical implications of the findings and make
recommendations for future research or future actions. In this portion of the report, the
researcher is permitted more freedom in expressing opinions that are not necessarily direct
outcomes of data analysis.

The reference, or bibliography, section of the report list all the sources, alphabetically be
authors ‘ last names, that were directly used in writing the report. Every source cited in the
paper must be included in the references, and very entry listed in the references must appear
in the paper, in other words, the sources in the paper and the sources in the references must
correspond exactly.
 Appendixes are usually necessary in thesis and dissertations reports to provide information
and data that are pertinent to the study but are either too lengthyor not important enough to be
included in the main body of the report. Appendixes commonly contain materials especially
developed for the study (such as tests, questionnaires, and cover letters), raw, data, and data
analysis sheets.
 CHAPTER 22

EVALUATING A RESEARCH REPORT

GENERAL EVALUATING CRITERIA

Introduction

Problem

● Isthere a statement of the problem? Does the problem indicate a particular focus of
study?
● Is the problem"researchable”; that is, can it be investigated through collecting and
analyzing data?
● Is background information on the problem presented ls the educational significance of
the problem discussed?
● Does the problem statement indicate the variables orinterest and the specific
relationship between those variables that were investigated?
● When necessary are variables directly or operationally defined?
● Did the researcher have the knowledge and skill to carry out the research?

Review of Related Literature

● Is the review comprehensive?

● Are all cited references relevant to the problem under investigation?
● Are most of the sources primary(i.e., are there only a few or no secondary sources)?
● Have the references been analyzed and critiqued and the results of various studies
compared and contrasted? That is, is the review more than a series of abstracts or
annotations?
● Is the relevancy of each reference explained?
● Is thereview well organized? Does it logically flow in such a way that the references
least related to the problem are discussed first and those most related are discussed
last? Does it educate the reader about the problem or topic?
● Does the review conclude with a summary and interpretation of the literature and its
implications for the problem investigated?
 ● Do the implications discussed form an empirical or theoretical rationale for the
hypotheses that follow?
● Are references cited completely and accurately?

Hypotheses

● Are specific research questions listed or specific hypotheses stated?

● Does each hypothesis state an expected relationship or difference?
● If necessary, are variables directly or operationally defined?
● ls each hypothesis testable?

Method

Participants

● Are the size and major characteristics of the population studied described?
● Are the accessible and target populations described?
● If a sample was selected, is the method of selecting the sample clearly described?
● Does the method orsample selection suggest any limitations or biases in the sample?
For example, was stratified sampling used to obtain sample subgroups?
● Are the size and major characteristics of the sample described?
● If the study is quantitative. does the sample size meet the suggested guidelines for the
minimum sample size appropriate for the method of research represented?

Instruments

● Do instruments and their administration mect guidelines for protecting human

subjects? were needed permissions obtained?
● Is the rationale given for the selection or the instruments(or measurements) used?
● Are the purpose, content, validity, and reliability of each instrument described?
● Are the instruments appropriate for measuring the intended variables?
● Does the researcher have the needed skills or experience to construct or administer an
instrument?
● Is evidence prescnted to indicate that the instruments are appropriato for the intended
sample? For example, is the reading level of an insurument suitable for sample
participants?
 ● If appropriate. are suhtest reliabilities given?
● If an instument was developed specifically for the st arc the procedures involved in its
development and validation described?
● If an instrument was developed specifically for the study are administration, scoring
or tabulating, and interpretation procedures fully described?
● Was the correct type of instrument used for dala collection(or, for example, was a
normreferenced instrument used when a criterion-relerenced one was more suilable)?

Design and Procedure

● Are the design and procedures appropriate for examining the research question or
testing the hypotheses of the study?
● Are the procedures described in sufficient detail to permit replication by another
researcher?
● Do procedures logically relate to one another?
● Were instrument and procedures applied correctly?
● If a pilot study was conducted, are its execution and results described as well as its
effect on the subsequent study?
● Are control procedures described?
● Does the researcher discuss or account for any potentially confounding variable that
he or she was unable to control?

Results

● Are appropriate descriptive statistics presented?

● Was the probability level at which the results of the test of significance were
evaluated specified in advance of the data analyses? was every hypothesis tested?
● If parametric tests were used, is there evidence that the researcher avoided violating
required assumptions for parametric test?
● Are the described tests of significance appropriate, given the hypothesis and design
of the study?
● Was the inductive logic used to produce results in a qualitative study made explicit?
● Are the tests of significance interpreted using the appropriate degrees of freedom?
● Are the results clearly described?
 ● Are the tables and figures(if any) well organized and easy to understand?
● Are the data in each table and figure described in the text?

Discussion(Conclusions and Recommendations)

● Is each result discussed in terms of the original hypothesis or topic to which it relates?
● Is each result discussed in terms of its agreement or disagreement with previous result
obtained by other researchers in other studies?
● Are generalizations consistent with the results?
● Are the possible effects of uncontrolled variables on the results discussed?
● Are theoretical and practical implications of the findings discussed?
● Are recommendations for future action made?
● Are the suggestions for future action based on practical significance or on statistical
significance only(i.e..has the author avoided confusing practical and statistical
significance) ?

Abstract or Summary

● Is the problem restated?

● Are the number and type of subjects and instruments described?
● Is the design used identilied?
● Are procedures described?
● Are the major results and conclusions restated?

TYPE-SPECIFIC EVALUATION CRITERIA

In addition to general criteria that can be applied to almost any there are additional
questions you should ask depending on the type of research represented by the study in other
words, some concerns are specific to qualitatively oriented(narrative, ethno graphic),
quantitatively oriented research(descripuive, correlatiunal. causal-comparative experimental,
and single-subiect design), mixed methods research, and action research, and action
research.

Descriptive Research
 Questionnaire studies

● Are questionnaire validation procedures described?

● Was the questionnaire pretested?

● Are pilot study procedures and results described?

● Are directions to questionnaire respondents clear?

● Does each item in the questionnaire relate to one of the objectives of the study?

● Does each questionnaire item deal with a single concept?

● When necessary, is a point of reference given for questionnaire scales?

● What is the percentage of returns and how does this affect the study results?

● Are follow-up activities to increase returns described?

● If the response rate was low, was any attempt made to determine any major differences
between respondents and non-respondents?

● Are data analyzed in groups or clusters rather than a series of many single variable
analyses?

Correlation Research

Relationships

● Were variables carefully selected?

● Is the rationale for variable selection described?

● Are conclusions and recommendations based on values of correlation coefficients

corrected for attenuation or restriction in range?

● Do the conclusions avoid suggesting causal relationships between variables?

Prediction

● Is a rationale given for selection of predictor variables?

 ● Is the criterion variable well defined?

● Was the resulting prediction equation validated with at least one other group?

Causal-Comparative Research

● Are the characteristics or experiences that differentiate the groups (the independent
variable) clearly defined or described?
● Are critical extraneous variables identified?
● Were any control procedures applied to equate the groups on extraneous variables?
● Are causal relationships found discussed with due caution?
● Are plausible alternative hypotheses discussed?

Experimental Research

● Was an appropriate experimental design selected?

● Is a rationale given for the design selected?

● Are sources of invalidity associated with the design identified and discussed?

● Is the method of group formation described?

● Was the experimental group formed in the same way as the control group?

● Were groups randomly formed and the use of existing groups avoided?

Single-Subject Research

● Are the data time constrained?

● Is a baseline established prior to moving into the intervention phase?

● Is the length of the treatment sufficient to represent the behavior within the phase?

● Is the design appropriate to the question being asked?

Qualitative Research (In General)

● Does the topic studied describe a general sense of the study focus?
● Does the researcher state a “guiding hypothesis” for the investigation?
 ● Is the application of the qualitative method choosen described in detail?
● Is the context of the qualitative study described in detail?
● Is the purposive sampling procedure described and related to the study focus?
● Is each data collection strategy described?
● Is the researcher’s role stated (e.g., nonparticipants observer, participants observer,
interviewer, etc)?
● Is the research site and the researcher’s entry into it described?
● Were the data collection strategies used appropriately, given the purpose of the study?
● Were strategies used to strengthen the validity and reliability of the data (e.g.,
triangulation)?
● Is there a description of how any unexpected ethical issues were handled?
● Are strategies used to minimize observer bias and observer effect described?
● Are the researcher’s reactions and notes differentiated from descriptive field notes?
● Are data coding strategies described and examples of coded data given?
● Is the inductive logic applied to the data to produce results stated in detail?
● Are conclusions supported by data (e.g., are direct quotations from participants used to
illustrate points made)?

Interview Studies

● Were the interview procedures pretested?

● Are pilot study procedures and results described?

● Does each item in the interview guide relate to a specific objective of the study?

● When necessary, is a point of reference given in the guide for interview items?

● Are leading questions avoided in the interview guide?

● Is the language and complexity of the questions appropriate for the participants?

● Does the interview guide indicate the type and amount of prompting and probing that
was permitted?

● Are the qualifications and special training of the interviewers described?

 ● Is the method used to record responses described?

● Did the researcher use the most reliable, unbiased method of recording responses?

● Did the researcher specify how the responses to semi-structured and unstructured items
were quantified?

Narrative Research

● Did the researcher provide a rationale for the use of narrative research?

● Is there a rationale for the selection of individuals to study the chosen phenomenon?

● Did the researcher describe data collection methods with particular attention to
interviewing?

● Did the researcher describe appropriate strategies for analysis and interpretation?

Ethnographic Research

● Did the written account (i.e., the ethnography) capture the social, cultural, and
economic themes that emerged from the study?

● Did the researcher spend a “full cycle” in the field studying the phenomenon?

Mixed Methods Research

● Does the study use at least one quantitative and one qualitative research method?

● Does the study include a rationale for using a mixed methods research design?

● Does the study include a classification of the type of mixed methods research design?

● Was the study feasible given the amount of data to be collected and concomitant issues
of resources, time, and expertise?

● Does the study include both quantitative and qualitative research questions?
 ● Does the study clearly identify qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques?

● Does the study use appropriate data analysis techniques for the type of mixed methods
design?

Action Research

● Did the teacher’s area of focus involve teaching and learning and focus on the teacher’s
own practice?

● Did the teacher state questions that were answerable given his or her expertise, time and
resources?

● Was the area of focus within the teacher’s locus of control?

● Was the area of focus something about which the teacher was passionate?

● Was the area of focus something the researcher wanted to change or improve?

● Did the teacher provide an action plan detailing the impact of the research findings on
practice?

Threats to Internal Validity in Qualitative Studies

● Did the researcher effectively deal with problems of history and maturation by
documenting historical changes over time?

● Did the researcher effectively deal with problems of mortality by using a large enough
sample?

● Was the researcher in the field long enough to effectively minimize observer effects?

● Did the researcher take the time to become familiar and comfortable with participants?

● Were the interview questions pretested?

● Were efforts made to ensure intra-observer agreement by training interview teams in

coding procedures?
 ● Were efforts made to cross-check results by conducting interviews with multiple
groups?

● Did the researcher interview key informants to verify field observations?

● Were participants demographically screened to ensure that they were representative of

the larger population?

● Was the data collected using different media to facilitate cross-validation?

● Were participants allowed to evaluate the researcher results before publication?

● Is sufficient data presented to support findings and conclusions?

● Were dependent and independent variables repeatedly tested to validate results?

Threats to External Validity in Qualitative Studies

● Were construct effects addressed adequately?

● Were both new and adapted instruments pretested to ensure they were appropriate for
the study?

● Did the researcher fully describe participants’ relevant characteristics?

● Does the report address researcher interaction effects by documenting the researcher’s
activities?

● Were all observations and interviews conducted in a variety of fully described settings
with multiple trained observers?

Threats to Reliability in Qualitative Studies

● Is the researcher’s relationship with the group and setting fully described?

● Is all field documentation comprehensive, fully cross-referenced and annotated, and

rigorously detailed?

● Were observations and interviews documented using multiple means?

● Is the interviewer’s training documented?

● Is construction, planning, and testing of all instruments documented?

● Are key informants fully described, including information on groups they represent
and their community status?

● Are sampling techniques fully documented as being sufficient for the study?