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Cases and solutions

Rehabilitation of industrial areas:


case histories from England
and Germany
F.G. Bell 7 D.D. Genske 7 A.W. Bell

Abstract Contaminated and possibly hazardous but an attempt to reduce energy consumption in an
ground represents a problem in all of the indus- attempt to effect the concept of sustainable devel-
trialized countries of the world. The investigation opment of an urban area. The last example deals
of a site that is suspected of being contaminated with the abandoned site of the Minister Achenbach
differs somewhat from a routine site investigation. mine at Lünen, where the ground conditions were
Sampling of soils, groundwater and gas-producing further complicated by the presence of old bomb
material may be required. Various precautions may craters that had been filled with a variety of mate-
be necessary in doing this and operatives may have rials. In addition, because of the suspected presence
to wear protective clothing. Four case histories of former foundation structures in the ground an
have been chosen to illustrate different aspects of electromagnetic survey was carried out across part
the rehabilitation of abandoned contaminated land, of the site, the areas of high conductivity suggest-
namely, investigation, assessment, ground treat- ing their presence.
ment and redevelopment. The first comes from
Leeds in West Yorkshire, England, and outlines Keywords Contamination 7 Dereliction 7 Desk
how a site investigation was undertaken and the studies 7 Foundation remnants 7 Rehabilitation 7
nature of the contamination present, together with Site investigation
a note on the suggested redevelopment. The re-
maining three case histories are taken from the
heavily industrialized district of the Ruhr in Ger-
many, where extensive mining of coal and asso-
ciated industries were developed from the mid-19th Introduction
century onwards. The first considers the site of the
former Graf Moltke mine near Essen. In this in- One of the legacies of the past in industrialized countries
stance, the somewhat novel methods of data assess- is that land has been contaminated. Contaminated land
ment and ground treatment are dealt with. The has been defined by Anon (1988) as land, that, because of
Mont Cenis site at Herne-Sodingen is one of the its nature or former uses, may contain substances that
more notable old mining/industrial sites undergo- could give rise to hazards likely to affect a proposed form
ing redevelopment in the state of North Rhine of development. Anon (1995) included harm in its defini-
Westphalia. Hence, the case history concentrates of tion, referring to the health of living organisms or to in-
this aspect of rehabilitation. This involves not only terference with the ecosystem. In the case of humans,
the construction of new and interesting structures harm also referred to their property. Contaminated land
frequently has been brought about by industry and socie-
ty disposing of waste with little regard for future conse-
quences. It is normally associated with derelict areas.
Received: 15 September 1999 7 Accepted: 14 March 2000 Such areas are often associated with high unemployment.
F.G. Bell (Y) As a consequence, there is a pressing need for these areas
Department of Geology and Applied Geology, to be redeveloped. In fact, land recycling in urban areas
University of Natal, Durban, South Africa can be advantageous because the infrastructure generally
e-mail: brackley6geology.und.ac.za is still in place and such recycling improves, as noted, the
Tel: c27-31-2602516 economic well-being of the community concerned.
Fax: c27-31-2602280 Contamination can take many forms and can be variable
D.D. Genske in nature across a site, and each site has its own charac-
Laborataire D’Ecotechnique et de Génie Sanitaire, teristics. The increasing scarcity of acceptable land for
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland development in many western countries means that poor-
A.W. Bell er quality sites are considered. However, there are few
Melia, Smith and Jones, Vinery Court, Leeds, UK geotechnical tasks that are as complex as the remediation

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Cases and solutions

of contaminated land. It is not only the spectrum of pos- framework allows proper characterization and evaluation
sible pollutants and their migration behaviour, but also of a site, selection of appropriate remedial strategies, ef-
the variety of boundary conditions that makes this prob- fective reduction or control of defined risks, and thereby
lem so challenging. Hence, remediation of contaminated effective technical and financial control of a project. Risk
land is not a standard task and requires an interdiscipli- assessment requires the acquisition of data by a site in-
nary effort. vestigation so that hazards are identified and evaluated.
The presence of potentially harmful substances at a site The assessment should ensure that any unacceptable
may not necessarily require remedial action, if it can be health or environmental risks are identified and dealt
demonstrated that they are inaccessible to living things with appropriately.
or materials that may be detrimentally affected. However, If any investigation of a site that is suspected of being
consideration must always be given to the migration of contaminated is going to achieve its purpose, it must de-
soluble substances. The migration of soil-borne contami- fine its objectives and determine the level of data re-
nants is primarily associated with groundwater move- quired, with the investigation designed to meet the spe-
ment, and the effectiveness of groundwater to transport cific needs of the project concerned. This is of greater
contaminants is largely dependent upon their solubility. importance when related to potentially contaminated
The quality of water can provide an indication of the mo- land than an ordinary site. As Johnson (1994) main-
bility of contamination and the rate of dispersal. For ex- tained, all investigations of potentially contaminated sites
ample, in an alkaline environment, the solubility of heavy should be approached in a staged manner. This allows
metals becomes mainly neutral because of the formation for communication between interested parties, and helps
of insoluble hydroxides. Providing groundwater condi- minimize costs and delays by facilitating planning and
tions remain substantially unchanged during the develop- progress of the investigation. After the completion of
ment of a site, then the principal agent likely to bring each stage, an assessment should be made of the degree
about migration is percolating surface water. On many of uncertainty and of acceptable risk in relation to the
sites the risk of migration off-site is of a very low order proposed new development. Such an assessment should
because the compounds have low solubility, and fre- be used to determine the necessity for, and type of fur-
quently most of their potential for leaching has been ex- ther investigation.
hausted. Liquid and gas contaminants, of course, may be Contaminated sites may pose a health hazard to the per-
mobile. Obviously, care must be taken on site during sonnel involved in the investigation, and exposure to cer-
working operations to avoid the release of contained con- tain contaminants could have serious consequences. Ac-
taminants (e.g. liquors in buried tanks into the soil). cordingly, Clark and others (1994) proposed that contam-
Where methane has been produced in significant quanti- inated sites should be categorized according to the poten-
ties, it can be oxidized by bacteria as it migrates through tial level of risk, thereby providing an indication of the
the ground with the production of carbon dioxide. How- safety and protective precautions required throughout the
ever, this process does not necessarily continue. investigation process, including the laboratory testing
According to Genske and Thein (1994), the key to effec- programme. In this way some appreciation of the poten-
tive rehabilitation of contaminated land involves the har- tial hazards that may exist can forewarn those involved.
monized management of ground investigation, risk as- They suggested three categories. The first was the least
sessment and clean-up strategies. However, the accumu- hazardous and applied primarily to inert materials. The
lation of large amounts of data from a major site can second category contained substances that were unlikely
represent a problem of processing. They went on to point to cause serious impairment of health but nevertheless
out that such data is derived from different sources and represented some degree of risk. Sites where contami-
as such has to be sorted, simplified and represented on nants could endanger health, even leading to death, rep-
plans, profiles and three-dimensional models. Digitization resented the third category. Clark and others (1994) also
of data for the production of various site plans can be ac- recommended that a safety plan should be prepared prior
complished by a regular CAD application or a geographi- to commencement of work on site. An assessment should
cal information system (GIS). Although the GIS approach be made as to whether protective clothing should be
is more sophisticated, CAD systems can be used to gen- worn by operatives and a decontamination unit should
erate the necessary site plans for most remediation pro- be provided on hazardous sites. If unidentified sub-
jects. In addition, data can be represented in three-di- stances are encountered, then the investigation should be
mensions with the aid of a suitable work-station. suspended until a specialist can visit the site and deter-
A fundamental objective of risk assessment and risk mine the nature of the substance, and whether it poses a
management is the need to define whether risks are real hazard.
or are perceived. The nature of the relationship between The first stage in any investigation of a site suspected of
the source of the contaminants, the pathway(s) and the being contaminated is a desk study supplemented by a
receptor(s) determines the degree of risk (Smith 1998). In land-quality appraisal. The desk study should identify
fact, contamination is site specific in that the variation of past and present uses of the site and the surrounding
contaminants and the host media are peculiar to the par- area, and the potential for, and likely forms of, contami-
ticular site. Accordingly, a prescriptive solution generally nation. Its objectives are to identify any hazards and the
is inappropriate and so adoption of a risk management primary targets likely to be at risk; to provide data for

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Cases and solutions

health and safety precautions for the site investigation; ter Achenbach mine complex was somewhat more com-
and to identify any other factors which may act as con- plicated by the presence of bomb craters on site that had
straints on development. been filled with a range of miscellaneous materials. In
As with a normal site investigation, one that is involved addition, an attempt was made to locate the presence of
with the exploration for contamination needs to deter- old foundation structures by carrying out an electromag-
mine the nature of the ground. Sampling procedures, in- netic survey over part of the site.
cluding those for volatile contaminants or gas producing
materials, are of particular importance and the value of
the data obtained therefrom is related to how representa-
tive the samples are. Some materials can change as a re- Case history 1
sult of being disturbed when they are obtained or during
handling. Hence, sampling procedure should take account From the early part of last century light industrial foun-
of the areas of the site that require sampling; the pattern, dry work has taken place in the southern part of the city
depth, types and numbers of samples to be collected; of Leeds, England. Over the years, various plots of land
their handling, transport and storage; as well as sample were developed to suit the needs of the factories existing
preparation and analytical methods. Guidelines on how at the time. With the advancement of casting and ma-
to conduct a sampling and testing programme are pro- chining technologies, as well as economic changes gener-
vided by the United States Environmental Protection ally, many of these buildings became redundant and
Agency (USEPA, 1988), Anon (1988) and Sara (1994). The some were subsequently demolished, often only to
site exploration must establish the location of the water ground level. An additional problem associated with
table, as well as determining the chemistry of the water many of these sites is that of ground contamination. The
on site. In addition, it needs to assess the ability of the latter need not only present a hazard to the construction
ground to transmit any contaminants either laterally or of foundations, but it can also mean hazardous condi-
upward by capillary action. tions for operatives to work in. Hence, it is necessary to
Once completed, the site characterization process, when establish whether or not precautionary measures are re-
considered in conjunction with the development propo- quired when such sites are redeveloped.
sals, will enable the constraints on development to be One such old foundry site required rehabilitation in or-
identified. These constraints, however, cannot be based der to make it available for light industrial development.
solely on the data obtained from the site investigation Accordingly, a desk study was undertaken in order to es-
but must take account of financial and legal considera- tablish as accurately as possible the previous usage of the
tions. If hazard potential and associated risk are regarded site, as well as to gain some data regarding the site con-
as too high, then the development proposals will need to ditions. It revealed a plan of the last layout of buildings
be reviewed. When the physical constraints and hazards on the site, indicating areas where manufacturing took
have been assessed, then a remediation programme can place. These areas represented areas of potential under-
be designed that allows the site to be economically and ground hazards in that man-made obstructions, and both
safely developed. It is at this stage that clean-up stand- ground and groundwater contamination, may be present.
ards are specified in conjunction with the assessment of The site exploration programme consisted of a number of
the contaminative regime of the surrounding area. boreholes, sunk by light cable and tool rig, to a maxi-
Four case histories are dealt with, one from England and mum depth of 12.5 m below ground level. These were
three from Germany. Each of the case histories considers supplemented by the excavation of trenches and pits
differing aspects of the rehabilitation process from inves- (Fig. 1). The subsurface exploration confirmed the pres-
tigation to redevelopment. The first case history outlines ence of a number of underground obstructions (Fig. 2).
a routine investigation of a site in Leeds that was known In fact, some of the boreholes had to be sunk from the
to be contaminated, but not to what extent. Sample anal- bases of pits dug through rubble and old foundations.
ysis showed that it was not contaminated nearly as badly The exploration revealed some 2–4 m of formed-ground
as feared. Even so, the site has not been redeveloped as overlying a layer of sand with gravel, the maximum
yet, because of the cost involved. The other three case thickness of which was 6 m. The formed-ground consist-
histories are taken from the Ruhr district of Germany. All ed of ashes, cinders, slag, foundry sand and brick rubble.
were abandoned mine sites on which associated indus- Depending on the position within the site either mud-
tries had been developed, their origins dating back into stone or siltstone, belonging to the Coal Measures, oc-
the 19th century. The case history concerned with the curred beneath the sand with gravel. Both rock types
Graf Moltke site deals with the methods used to assess were highly weathered. Standard penetration tests were
data gained by the investigation and then goes on to carried out within the sand with gravel, indicating N-val-
mention the manner in which the ground was treated. ues increasing from as low as 8 (loosely packed) to 32
The primary aspect considered in the case history from (densely packed). The degree of compaction tended to in-
the old mine site at Mont Cenis is its redevelopment, es- crease with depth and most of the sand with gravel was
pecially some of the novel features associated with the medium dense (angle of friction 35–407). Groundwater
idea of sustainable development of urban areas. Lastly, levels were recorded in boreholes at the beginning and
the contamination associated with the abandoned Minis- end of each working day. The water-table tended to occur

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Cases and solutions

ine. Total sulphate concentrations were very high in some


samples of rubble fill and would warrant the use of sul-
phate-resistant cement in foundations. More sophisti-
cated chemical testing was undertaken to determine the
concentrations of lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper, nickel,
zinc and chloride across the site because their levels
could be a cause of concern in relation to industrial red-
evelopment or landscaping. In general, the concentrations
of these materials within the formed-ground were below
levels likely to represent problems (Table 1). For an old
industrial area their occurrence in most cases was, sur-
prisingly, only in trace amounts. Elevated concentrations
of magnesium were found in certain locations on site
(e.g. over 0.9% at two locations, see Table 1). Threshold
concentrations are listed for selected contaminants in In-
terdepartmental Committee for Redevelopment of Con-
taminated Land (ICRCL 1987) but no reference is made
to magnesium. Neither is it listed among the contami-
nants in the more rigorous scheme used in the Nether-
lands. However, guidelines that were adopted by the
Greater London Council (Kelly 1980) suggest that these
values represent slightly contaminated or contaminated
soils. Reworking the site could mean that dust from such
Fig. 1 material could cause irritation to the eyes. Accordingly, it
Exploration of the site in Leeds with the use of trenches was recommended that eye protection should be worn
and that good eye wash facilities be available on site. If
dust irritates the eyes, it also could irritate the respira-
tion system, and so in such situations it is as well to rec-
ommend the use of face masks. Concentrations of phenol
high enough to permeate plastic water service pipes were
present in some foundry sands. Any piping involved in
subsequent redevelopment that would come in contact
with such deposits would therefore have to be either phe-
nol resistant (e.g. made of uPVC) or laid in trenches
backfilled with clean sand. Minor oily contamination was
exposed at two locations in trenches, but the volumes
were not large enough to be significant. Small fragments
of asbestos (chrysotile) sheeting were scattered across the
site and within the fill. Although this type of material has
low risk and does not generally release dangerous dust, it
would be better to remove it (which includes removing
the fill in which it occurs) rather than crush and recom-
pact it with fill during redevelopment.
A scheme for rehabilitation of the site was developed that
involved bulk excavation of material on site. The depth
of excavation across the site would have to be varied in
relation to the location of known obstructions. Specifica-
tions for the handling and selection of the excavated
ground, and its re-use as compacted backfill, incorporat-
Fig. 2 ing the above recommendations, were also included. Re-
Subsurface obstructions such as celllars revealed during the site using the formed-ground as rubble fill and compacting it
investigation in Leeds in lifts would cost ^£ 200,000 (US$ 355,000 approx.).
However, although this would rehabilitate the site as a
landscaped open space amenity it would not necessarily
at 3.5 or 4.0 m below the surface. Samples of formed- be suitable for subsequent industrial development be-
ground and groundwater were taken for chemical testing cause of the presence of old basements, cellars and foun-
to determine the degree of contamination. dations in the ground. Therefore, it was further recom-
The pH values obtained from testing the formed-ground mended that if the site was to be used for such develop-
ranged from 4.2 to 9.1, with most materials being alkal- ment, then the most economic method of enhancing the

124 Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag


Table 1
Amount of contaminants present in, and pH values of, samples. Use codes, ICRCL. All values are for concentrations determined on ’spot’ samples based on adequate site
investigation. They do not apply to averaged, bulked or composited samples, nor to sites that have been developed. Threshold concentrations for air-dried soil.
Sample description Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Cl Total Phenol Toluene pH
lead cadmium arsenic magnes- copper nickel zinc cyanide sulphate extract
ium as SO3

1. Soils (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (%)
Grey soily slag fill 45 0.6 7.2 1481 78 45 27 – 18 270 ~1.0 0.224 8.49
Black ashy cindery fill 15 0.3 4.7 1014 83 46 14 – 28 1541 ~1.0 0.096 6.18
Black sooty fill 3 0.4 3.7 1441 7 9 26 – ~1 577 ~1.0 0.104 8.39
Red clayey silt 90 0.4 8.1 2148 33 36 110 – 26 521 ~1.0 0.312 7.22
Trench spoil, grey rubbly gravelly fill 83 0.2 10.3 1901 72 44 91 – ~1 19507 ~1.0 0.152 6.44
Trench spoil, black gravelly sooty fill 33 0.6 10.5 1788 53 27 51 – ~1 11856 ~1.0 0.048 4.22
Brown sandy silty fill 127 0.3 12.1 9810 111 31 120 – ~1 1098 ~1.0 0.248 8.16
Trench spoil, black oily silty fill 16 0.4 0.4 1527 14 13 79 – 29 448 ~1.0 0.688 7.78
Trench spoil, black ashy cinder fill 198 0.2 7.6 1448 68 37 79 – 18 443 ~1.0 0.288 7.89
Blue-grey silty fill 283 0.7 13.6 310 34 120 74 – ~1 1276 ~1.0 0.104 7.47
Red-brown slag fill 77 0.5 11.3 1148 94 39 34 - 16 361 ~1.0 0.016 6.59
Black sandy sooty fill 5 0.2 3.1 1509 6 5 23 – 26 8738 ~1.0 0.016 7.55
Black oily seepage – – – – – – – – 46 294 ~1.0 36% 6.92
Buff sand 4 0.4 2.3 1424 3 3 11 – 28 233 ~1.0 0.048 8.42
Trench spoil, black ashy sooty fill 64 0.8 2.9 6215 87 24 478 – ~1 933 ~1.0 0.160 9.07
Trench spoil, black ashy sooty fill 11 0.3 2.4 1516 17 10 79 – 21 375 ~1.0 0.012 8.16
Trench spoil dark brown sandy fill 13 0.5 1.3 576 57 22 65 – 21 310 11.7 0.224 7.59
Trench spoil, black sooty fill 16 0.3 0.7 1524 38 13 95 – 21 557 ~1.0 0.200 8.16
Buff sand 3 0.4 0.3 617 9 5 44 – 18 688 ~1.0 0.064 7.93
Black ashy cinder fill 36 0.3 4.5 9390 63 41 70 – ~1 753 ~1.0 0.224 8.82
Trench spoil crushed, red brick/fire brick 144 0.5 11.3 1670 81 36 102 – 19 832 ~1.0 0.152 7.89
White, blue-green limey material 41 2.4 3.2 2330 3380 163 823 ~0.1 2420 343 ~1.0 0.720 7.53
ICRCL 1987 a 1.500 1.3 1.10 – 3.130 3.70 3.300 3.25 – 1.2000 1.5 – 1.5
2.2000 3.15 2.40 – 4.130 4.70 4.300 5.25 – 3.2000 3.5 – 3.5
– – – – – – – 6.25 – – 5.5 – –
– – – – – – – – – – 6.5 – –
Greater London Council b S 500–1000 1–3 30–50 500–1000 100–200 20–50 250–500 1–5 – 2000–5000 2–5 5000–1% 5–6
C 1000–2000 3–10 50–100 1000–2000 200–500 50–200 500–1000 5–50 – 5000–1% 5–50 1–5% 4–5
H 2000–1% 10–50 100–500 2000–1% 500–2500 200–1000 1000–5000 50–100 – 1–5% 50–250 5–25% 2–4
UH 1 1% 1 50 1 500 1 1.0% 1 2500 1 1000 1 5000 1 100 – 1 5% 250 25% ~2
Dutch standards c A – 1 – – 20 – – 1 – – 0.05 – –
B 150 10 30 – 50 100 500 10 – – 1 – –
C 600 100 50 – 300 500 3000 100 – – 10 – –
2. Water (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (%) –
Groundwater ~10 ~10 ~10 30 10 20 10 – 34 80 ~10 – 7.44
Water in brick chamber ~10 ~10 ~10 29 10 20 10 – 18 835 ~10 – 9.30
Water from brick chamber ~10 ~10 ~10 333 10 20 60 – 14 570 ~10 – 7.77
Standards for drinking water quality d (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) – 9.5 max
50 5 50 50 3000 50 5000 50 400 250 0.5 – 5.5 min
Dutch standards c A – – – – – – – – 100 150 – – –
B 50 2.5 30 – 50 50 200 30 – – 15 – –
C 200 10 100 – 200 200 800 100 – – 50 – –
a
1 Domestic gardens and allotments; 2 parks, playing fields, open space; 3 landscaped areas; 4 any use where plants are grown (applies to contaminants that are phytotoxic but not normally
hazards to health; 5 buildings; 6 hard cover
b
S Slight contamination; C contaminated; H heavily contaminated; UH unusually heavy contamination
c
A Reference value, may be regarded as an indicative level above which there is demonstrable contamination and below which there is no demonstrable contamination; B an assessment value
above which contaminants should be investigated more thoroughly. Determine to what extent contaminants constitute a risk of exposure to man or the environment; C an assessment value

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Cases and solutions

above which contaminants generally should be treated


d
Statutory Instruments 1989. Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations, no. 1147, England and Wales
Cases and solutions

ground-carrying capacity after backfilling and compac-


tion, would be by using vibrocompaction (i.e. by placing
vibrated stone columns at given intervals across the site).
Vibrocompaction would cost ^£ 500,000. So far, the site
has not been redeveloped because of the cost involved.

Case history 2
The former Graf Moltke mine and coking plant was lo-
cated in the Ruhr district near Essen. It covered an area
of some 230,000 m 2. The first shaft was sunk in 1873 and
three more followed within the next 30 years. A coking
plant was built in 1903–1904, followed by benzol and am-
monia factories. Over the next 50 years further industries
were established, turning the site into a multi-use indus-
trial complex. The mine was closed in 1971. In the suc-
ceeding years the Graf Moltke site became a typical was-
teland. However, because of the existing infrastructure it
was eventually decided to rehabilitate the site as a project
of the Internationale Bauaustellung and establish an in-
dustrial park. Funding was provided by the European
Fund for Regional Development, leaving about 50% of Fig. 3
the costs involved in the remediation to be found by the Geology of the Graf Moltke site
owners of the former mining site. The managers of Euro-
pean Fund for Regional Development required that in-
novative methods should be used to solve the problem of
contamination on-site.
The site consisted of waste rubble fill that contained large
remnants of foundation structures. This fill varied from 2
to 9 m in thickness beneath which there were sediments
of Quaternary age, which, in turn, overlay fractured chal-
ky marl of Cretaceous age. The water-table occurred at a
depth of F5 m (Fig. 3).
A historical analysis of the site was carried out in the
first phase of the rehabilitation process. This included ex-
amination of old building permits, plans and documents,
as well as the examination of old maps and aerial photo-
graphs. Its evaluation facilitated the planning of the site
investigation programme (Fig. 4). Analysis of samples to Fig. 4
determine the nature of the contamination on site Outline of sampling
showed that in the vicinity of the former coking plant, in
particular, both the unsaturated and saturated zones were
contaminated, especially with polycyclic aromatic hydro- parties involved in the project. This consisted of three
carbons (PAH). These dense non-aqueous phase liquids parts, namely, demonstration of the historical analysis,
(DNAPLs) obviously had migrated through the sediments three-dimensional visualization of the geology and the
into the fractured rock beneath where they migrated migration of contaminants into the substrata, and expla-
along the network of discontinuities. The grades of con- nation of the remediation concept. The first part, that is,
tamination of the sampling points were interpreted as re- the historical analysis, was accomplished by merging the
gionalized variables and a block kriging routine was ap- map of the present position of the site with historical
plied. In addition to a map depicting the contaminated building documents and aerial photographs. The second
zones (Fig. 5a), the prediction error was quantified on a part, three-dimensional visualization, was produced as an
second map (Fig. 5b). The site investigation programme animated idealization of the geological situation that
was further optimized in relation to the error map: zones could be viewed by means of a virtual camera performing
of high contamination and of large error indicating circuits around the three-dimensional image. Subsequent-
where additional investigation was necessary. ly, the migration of contaminants into the ground was
In order to help visualize the complex task of remediat- animated. As far as the rehabilitation process was con-
ing the site, a videotape was prepared for viewing by all cerned, the virtual camera intersected the three-dimen-

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Cases and solutions

Fig. 5
a Distribution of contamination (in
mg/kg). b Estimation of error in the
distribution of contamination (in mg/kg)

sional model and zoomed in on the rehabilitation system. aspect was particularly important in relation to the Graf
The latter consisted of a reinforced cover design accom- Moltke site as large massive remnant foundation struc-
panied by flushing wells. tures occurred within loose fill, which could have led to
The Environmental Protection Agency required that ex- differential settlement beneath structures subsequently er-
cavation was kept to a minimum at the Graf Moltke site. ected on the site. A novel composite soil-geosynthetic
The reason for doing this was that the tight budget did system was designed, and later patented, to take account
not allow for deposition off-site or on-site cleaning of of the three factors mentioned (Fig. 6). Basically, the sys-
contaminated soil. Indeed, deposition off-site, for exam- tem consisted of a lower reinforced supporting layer, a
ple, in a purpose-built landfill actually transfers the prob- draining and sealing layer incorporating geotextiles and
lem of contamination from one site to another, thereby geomembranes, and an upper reinforced foundation layer
violating the concept of sustainable development. Hence, to accommodate the structural loading.
a reinforced cover design, using geotextiles, was chosen As the technique was novel, it was decided to design and
for the heavily contaminated zones. The surface confine- construct a full-scale test on site. The aims of the field
ment of the contaminated ground had to meet three test were to study the feasibility of using geosynthetics, to
goals. First, it had to be waterproof in order to prevent establish quality control tests and measures to investigate
the penetration of precipitation into the affected zones. the potential for damage that occurs during construction,
Secondly, it had to be gas-proof to stop the migration of and to develop new design criteria for such structures.
any toxic gas to the surface. Thirdly, it had to be strong The location of the field test on site was chosen at an
enough to allow any construction to proceed. The third area where the subsoil conditions were representative of

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Cases and solutions

Fig. 8, which shows the effect of placing reinforcement


above the sealing geomembrane. The geomembrane de-
veloped very small strains (~0.05%) as compared with
the geogrid (maximum of 1.3%) in the 5-day period of
loading. Nonetheless, the geosynthetics remained more or
less undamaged. Furthermore, on unloading there was
little recovery of strain, it falling to 0.9%. Settlement re-
corded over the reinforced area only amounted to some
4 mm. Hence, the results indicated that geosynthetic ma-
terial could be used effectively in the rehabilitation proc-
ess. In addition, the quality of the groundwater was mon-
itored by sinking a number of observation wells. These
also could double as recovery wells if the groundwater
exceeded a certain degree of contamination.
Once the results of the field test had been evaluated spec-
ifications were developed for this new technology and ap-
Fig. 6
A geotextile reinforced sandwich system for the Graf Moltke proved by the North Rhine Westphalian authorities. It
site was estimated that this type of ground rehabilitation
would cost approximately $ 60 per square metre. Al-
though this appeared high, it had to be compared with
the whole site. An area 24!19 m was levelled and densi- the high cost of development land in this part of Germa-
fied for the test area. The lower reinforced layer was con- ny. Furthermore, the cost of disposal of contaminated
structed of two lifts of waste material (cup3.8 kPa; soil was minimized. Therefore, the system adopted was
Ccp1.7; 10% d 1 P120 mm) reinforced with a geogrid by no means cost prohibitive.
(Tensar SS35). Above this a non-woven sheet (Depotex Those areas of the site that were identified as slightly
515R) was installed as a protective layer over which a contaminated were covered with F0.5 m of granular soil.
geomembrane, 2.5 mm in thickness, was placed as a seal- A number of observation wells were installed, which are
ing layer. Then came the drainage layer (Secudrain) over not only used for groundwater monitoring but can also
which a further geogrid was laid. The upper layer was be used as recovery wells if a given degree of contamina-
subdivided into two parts, an unreinforced layer and a tion is detected in the groundwater. The tolerable con-
reinforced foundation layer using geogrids as reinforcing centrations were negotiated with the Environmental Pro-
elements. The area then was loaded up to a maximum tection Agency.
load of 2013 kN using steel plates (Fig. 7).
In order to monitor the stress-strain behaviour of the
reinforced foundation layers and the performance of the
waterproofing geomembrane, a number of earth pressure
cells, displacement transducers and horizontally installed
inclinometer rods for measurement of settlement were in-
corporated in the test set up. The results of the strains
developed in the geogrids with loading are illustrated in

Fig. 8
Fig. 7 Strain versus load for a geogrid and geomembrane in the field
Large-scale loading test test, Graf Moltke site

128 Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag


Cases and solutions

Case history 3
The Mont Cenis coal mine in the Ruhr district of Germa-
ny started in 1872 and gave rise to the community of
Herne-Sodingen (Fig. 9). In 1893, a washery was built and
20 years later the first coke oven facility was constructed.
The life of the mine extended over 100 years, closing in
1978 when the 26-ha site was abandoned. Not only were
there contamination and massive subsurface structures
associated with the site but also there were the effects of
acid mine drainage and subsidence.
In the northern part of the site, in particular, the soil was
contaminated (Fig. 10). The contamination consisted of
the typical spectrum of coal-mining-related contaminants,
notably, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Like the pre-
vious site, the authorities would not allow excavation and
removal of the contaminated soil because this would in-
volve the risk of uncontrollable release of contaminants, Fig. 10
an expensive off-site treatment procedure, and the stor- Mont Cenis site showing distribution of waste mine rock
age of non-degradable wastes in landfills that would oc- tailings ponds, contaminated zone and three abandoned shafts,
cupy further space and so contribute to land consump- together with the position of the planned oval vista
tion. Accordingly, the solution chosen for the site was to
line the contaminated area with a geomembrane over a
clay liner. A gravel and sand filter was to be placed on
Expo 2000. In 1991 an international competition was or-
top of the geomembrane to intercept infiltrating precipi-
ganized by IBA Emscherpark and Land North Rhine-
tation. Lastly, topsoil was to be laid over the gravel and
Westphalia for the rehabilitation of the site. The plan had
sand, in which a herb garden was to be established. The
to incorporate a state building for the Ministry of the In-
system, except for the top soil, was to be reinforced with
terior, which would be the dominating feature of the site.
geogrids to allow the construction of buildings at some
Other important public buildings would include civic ad-
future date.
ministration buildings, a library and a multi-purpose
In 1990, this site at Mont Cenis became one of the largest
meeting hall. In addition, there was to be a new shopping
and most ambitious remediation projects of the Land
centre, 250 housing units and a recreational park, with
North Rhine-Westphalia with a view to subsequently es-
associated infrastructure. Short distances for communica-
tablishing new industry on the site. The essential basis of
tion and transport, in order to save time and resources,
the project was to implement the concept of sustainable
were essential aspects of the project, as was the incorpo-
development of urban land as subsequently embodied in
ration of alternative energy concepts to reduce as far as
the Rio Earth Summit conference at Rio de Janeiro in
possible the consumption of energy.
1992. In fact, because of the innovative nature of the pro-
The winners of the competition proposed a tent-like
ject it became part of the Internationale Bauaustellung
structure constructed of glass and timber which would
Emscherpark, an international architectural fair that had
house the Ministry of the Interior, the library, a hotel,
commenced in 1989. The project will also form part of
the meeting hall, service and sports facilities, and housing
(Fig. 11). The tent-like structure is intended to save 23%
of energy costs and hence a net reduction of 18% in CO2
emissions. In other words, the microclimate created in
the building will enable its users to reduce energy con-
sumption, compared with conventional buildings, to 32
kWh per year per square metre. The largest roof-inte-
grated solar power plant in the world is to be installed to
cover the structure. It will consist of some 10,000 m 2 of
solar cells that will produce one megawatt per year, that
is, more than twice the energy needed to operate the cen-
tre. A special battery facility is to be constructed to cover
periods of peak consumption.
In addition to the use of solar energy, methane gas that
is being emitted from the three old shafts associated with
the former coal mine is to be utilized. This is the first
Fig. 9 time in the Ruhr area that this will happen even though
Mont Cenis site in the 1950s it is estimated that 120 million m 3 of methane escape an-

Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag 129


Cases and solutions

buffer peak consumption the installation is also con-


nected to the municipal supply, and the connection also
allows discharge of surplus energy produced from mine
gas.
The rainwater from the roofs of all buildings will be
stored in cisterns and ponds, and will be used for domes-
tic purposes. Excess water will only be allowed to infil-
trate into the ground if the contamination of the soil is
low enough so that the fractured chalk marl aquifer be-
neath will suffer no further pollution.
The total cost of the project will amount to some
$ 130 million. This will be shared between the Land North
Rhine-Westphalia, the city of Herne, the Herne power
company, the EMC (Mont Cenis Development Corpora-
tion) and the European Union. This type of financial ar-
rangement is characteristic of the rehabilitation projects
subsidized by the European Union that require active
participation of community and private investors. Indeed,
the Mont Cenis project combines all aspects of modern
site rehabilitation in Europe, namely, the sustainable
management of land, the introduction of innovative tech-
nology to achieve high efficiencies as far as energy and
Fig. 11 resource consumption are concerned, alternative architec-
Construction work at Mont Cenis in May 1998 tural concepts to attract consumers and investors, and a
financial plan based upon a public-private partnership
with active participation of the European Union.
nually from decommissioned coal mines in the area,
which is equivalent to 100,000 tonnes of fuel oil. At pres-
ent this gas is burnt without it being utilized, which re-
sults in the emission of approximately 8 million tonnes
of CO2. It is estimated that about 1 million m 3 of gas is Case history 4
available for use from Mont Cenis. This will convert to
2 million kWh of electrical energy and 3 million kWh of Coal mining at Lünen in the east of the Ruhr district has
heat for new buildings. However, the emission of gas is taken place for over 100 years. The Minister Achenbach
not constant, fluctuating according to atmospheric pres- was one of the largest mine complexes in Lünen (Fig. 13)
sure. Hence, gas will be collected in sealed chimney-like being founded in 1897. It was closed down in 1992 when
structures constructed at the top of each of the three some 6000 miners became unemployed. The city authori-
shafts from which it will be piped to a storage tank and ties, in association with the federal state of North Rhine
from the tank to the generator (Fig. 12). In this way a Westphalia, initiated a programme whereby new indus-
constant supply of gas will be supplied to the electricity tries were to be developed on the mine site that covers
generating plant. A supplementary natural gas plant of F54 h. A good transportation system, including auto-
1800 kWh, plus a hot water storage tank, will be con- bahn, regional roads, rail and canal offer access to the
structed to ensure a constant energy and heat supply. To site.

Fig. 12
Collection and storage of methane for
use in the generation of electricity

130 Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag


Cases and solutions

a plan of the critical sectors (Fig. 14). This report served


as a guideline for the city planners and, in December
1993, a master plan for the rehabilitation of the Minister
Achenbach was produced. During the rehabilitation pro-
gramme it became necessary to detect derelict founda-
tions and subsurface structures that remained in the
ground after the superstructures had been dismantled. As
a consequence, it was decided to use an electromagnetic
survey in a certain part of the site for this purpose. The
survey penetrated the ground to a depth of about 3 m
and detected remnants that were larger than 10 m 3. The
resulting map revealed zones of low conductivity that re-
flected the natural ground conditions together with zones
of high conductivity suggesting anomalies associated with
foundations, pipes and tunnels (Fig. 15).
The management of the redevelopment of the site in-
Fig. 13 volved a partnership between public and private enter-
A historical view of the Minister Achenbach coal mine prise. In order to minimize the financial risks involved,
the site was purchased by a public agency of the state of
North Rhine-Westphalia, which administers derelict sites
In order to accomplish the rehabilitation of the Minister and investigates their market potential according to the
Achenbach a thorough site investigation had to be con- degree of contamination. Because this state agency aids
ducted that would indicate the extent to which the soil the financing of such land-recycling projects, this stimu-
and groundwater in the area had been contaminated. In lates the re-use of sites that would be otherwise left aban-
fact, it was revealed that the site was heavily contami- doned because of the lack of financial resources needed
nated, contaminants having been leached into the ground for their redevelopment. The redevelopment of the area
continuously since the mine started. Aromatic hydrocar- is shown in Fig. 16.
bons, especially those that are non-volatile were wide-
spread in the unsaturated zone. Contaminants associated
with coking processes such as BTX (benzene, toluene, xy-
lene), were detected in the immediate vicinity of the cok-
ing plants. Some contaminants, notably from coal tar, Conclusions
had migrated through the overlying Quaternary sedi-
ments into the fractured chalk marl beneath. The coking Because in the past society and industry tended to dis-
process also had been responsible for elevated concentra- pose of their waste with little regard for the future, many
tions of arsenic present in waste. Furthermore, shallow areas in developed countries are now faced with the
contamination with heavy metals such as mercury, zinc, problem of contaminated land that presents problems
copper and cadmium were found locally across the site. when such areas are to be redeveloped. Increasing severi-
Yet another factor contributing to contamination was the ty of contamination involves some degree of hazard,
destruction of mining facilities during the World War II. which, in turn, involves a degree of risk to humans, ani-
In particular, bomb craters had been quickly filled with mals or plants. Accordingly, if a site that is contaminated
all kinds of material. Obviously, at that time no one paid is to be redeveloped, then some degree of remediation is
any attention to possible environmental hazards that involved. The degree of remediation not only varies ac-
might subsequently be caused by the fill. These fills often cording to the degree of contamination and the intended
represented serious sources of contamination. use of the site, but it can also vary according to the atti-
The site investigation programme was based primarily tudes of national governments towards clean-up in rela-
upon a historical analysis of the records, maps and aerial tion to redevelopment. Such attitudes can affect the cost
photographs of the site over its 95 years of existence. of clean-up operations significantly.
This indicated that two coking plants and a large number The presence of highly contaminated materials at a site
of chemical factories had been present on the site. An means that certain precautions have to be taken when it
important part of the historical analysis was the interpre- is investigated. Operatives need to be protected from the
tation of aerial photographs that were compared with old contaminants and modified or special methods may be
building documents and maps, with the aid of CAD and involved in sampling. A desk study, incorporating a his-
GIS programs (Genske and Thein, 1994). Data gained torical survey of site use, is frequently very important
from the historical analysis allowed the field investigation and precedes exploration of a site. Exploration makes use
to be more cost effective, with special attention being of trenches, pits and boreholes. The groundwater regime
paid to the critical sectors. should be determined. Once the investigation has been
The results obtained from the field investigation were completed, the site characterization should allow the con-
embodied in a risk assessment report. The latter included straints on development to be identified.

Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag 131


Cases and solutions

Fig. 14
A section of a risk map of the Minister
Achenbach depicting the former and
present use of the site, the field sampling
programme and the sectors identified as
contaminated

A site investigation in Leeds, West Yorkshire, primarily industries that frequently developed alongside the mines.
entailed taking samples of made-ground and groundwater Unfortunately, in the latter part of the 20th century,
for chemical analysis to ascertain the degree of contami- many of the mines were closed for economic reasons, as
nation. Fortunately, the degree of toxic constituents was did the associated industries. As a consequence, the sites
generally below those levels likely to cause problems, al- have become derelict and their redevelopment can be
though there were elevated levels of magnesium and phe- hampered by the occurrence of contaminants and rem-
nol at particular locations, which necessitated certain pre- nant structures in the ground. The rehabilitation of such
cautions being taken during site operations. In addition, brownfield sites involves additional expenditure, which
small fragments of asbestos sheeting were found on site can discourage private investment. Hence, some public
and they needed to be removed. If the site was to be res- funding generally is needed to initiate their re-use. None-
tored for development, then it would have to be bulk ex- theless, because these sites are located in urban areas
cavated, the material then being recompacted and its they have ready access to the existing infrastructure that
load-carrying capacity improved by vibrocompaction. green-field sites may not. In addition, recycling of brown-
Industrial development in the Ruhr district of Germany field sites in urban areas is a necessity not only to im-
was based upon the vast reserves of coal in the region prove the environment but to relieve the pressure on
that began to be exploited on a large scale in the mid- land, which, of course, is a vital resource. Three such
19th century. Mining gave rise to a number of associated sites have been used as illustration, the Graf Moltke near

132 Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag


Cases and solutions

Fig. 15 Essen, Mont Cenis at Herne-Sodingen, and the Minister


Suspected anomalies from multi-temporal analysis of an Achenbach in Lünen. Notable desk studies were under-
electromagnetic survey of the Minister Achenbach site taken at all three sites and, in particular, involved histori-
cal surveys and aerial photograph interpretation. The
data from the desk studies were analysed with the aid of
statistical methods, and CAD and GIS programs, which
allowed the subsequent site explorations to be more cost

Fig. 16
The development plan for Minister
Achenbach

Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag 133


Cases and solutions

effective. In the case of the Graf Moltke site, a videotape References


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and tested to overlie the contaminated areas on the Graf tice for the identification of potentially contaminated land
Moltke site. Those areas that were identified as only and its investigation. British Standards Institution, London
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taminated ground, with attendant problems, was avoided. Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London
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cover. The area is to be developed with public buildings, Genske DD, Thein J (1994) Recycling derelict land. In: Carrier
housing, a shopping centre and a park. At the Minister WD (ed)Proceedings of the First International Congress on
Achenbach site a risk map was prepared from the initial Environmental geotechnics, Edmonton. Bi-Tech Publishers,
studies and an electromagnetic survey was used to help Richmond, BC, pp 403–498
ICRCL (1987) Guidance note 59/83, guidance on the assessment
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2nd edn. Department of the Environment, Her Majesty’s Sta-
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Johnson AC (1994) Site investigation for development on con-
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134 Environmental Geology 40 (1-2) December 2000 7 Q Springer-Verlag

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