The Natural Topography

including Drainage

Prepared By: Ms. Saba Afroz

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Topography:
Topography is the detailed study of the surface features of the land which includes both natural
and artificial features.

Topographic regions of Pakistan:

Pakistan is divided into six main topographical regions.
1. Northern mountains and North-Western mountains
2. The Western mountains
3. The Balochistan plateau
4. Potwar plateau and Salt range
5. The Indus Plain
6. Desert areas

Tharparkar

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The Northern and North-Western mountains

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 The Northern Mountains
• The Northern Mountains are divided into three main mountain ranges; the Karakoram,
Himalayas and the Hindu Kush.
• These three have a dominating physical presence in the northern areas of Pakistan.
• The Karakoram runs from South East to North-West.
• The Himalayas run from South-East to North-West.
• The Hindu Kush runs from North East to South West.
The Karakoram Range:
• Karakoram meaning ‘black gravel’ named by Central Asian traders, early European
traders named it ‘Muztagh’ (Ice Mountain).
• Average altitude 6000 meters.
• Bounded on North-east by Tibetan plateau, north by Wakhan corridor and the Pamir
Mountains.
• Southern boundary is formed by the Gilgit, Indus and river Shyok.
• The Western end of Karakoram lies in Pakistan.
• World’s second highest peak K.2 (8610m) is located here.
• Deep narrow valleys and sharp peaks forming a rugged landscape.
• Precipitation in the form of snowfall because of high altitude.
• Glaciers instead of rivers
o Siachin glacier(78 km long)
o Biafo glacier (67 km long)
o Baltoro glacier (63 km long)
o Batura glacier (57 km long)
• Low population density due to severe climatic conditions.
• Nomadic and semi-nomadic way of life.
• Agricultural activities depend on availability of plentiful water.
• Cattle breeding is common.
• Apple, barley and millet are the main products.
• Attracted scientists and mountaineers because of its challenging geography and scenic
beauty.
• Karakoram highway linking Pakistan and China opened a new era in the cultural and
economic progress of the region.
• Some of the highest peaks of Karakoram are:
o K2 Mount Godwin Austin (8,611m)
o Gasherbrum I (8,080 m)
o Broad Peak (8,047 m)
o Gasherbrum II (8,035 m)

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The Himalayas:

• Himalayas means ‘land of snow’ as it has some of the tallest snowcapped peaks.
• Average altitude 4000 meters.
• Himalayas stretched across 2500 km East to West.
• Passes through the countries of India, Pakistan, China, Bhutan and Nepal.
• North West border by the mountain Hindu Kush and north by the Karakoram.
• The height increases towards North.
• The Himalayas comprises of three ranges:
1. Siwaliks Hills or Outer Himalayas located near Attock
Average altitude (600-1200 m)
2. The Lesser or Lower Himalayas
Average altitude (1800-4500 m)
• covers the districts of Batagram, Mansehra and Abbottabad as well as Azad Kashmir.
• These mountains are also home to Pakistan's important hill stations like Murree, Ghora
Gali and Nathia Gali.
3. The Central Himalayas:
• Average altitude 6000m
• Located between Pir Panjal Range & the Karakoram Range.
• Mostly lies in Kashmir.

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The Himalayas:
• Snowcapped and steep sided peaks.
• Huge glaciers causing deep erosion.
• Rich natural vegetation.
The Hindu Kush Range:
• It starts near Pamir in the north of Gilgit extending in the southwest deep into
the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
• On the west of this range is Wakhan corridor of Afghanistan which
separates Gilgit Agency Pakistan from Tajikistan.
• Average altitude 5000 meters.
• Resembles with Karakoram ranges having glaciers and high peaks e.g. Trich
Mir (7690m).
• High, steep valley sides and fast flowing rivers occupies most of the valley
floor.
Drainage:
• Rivers that flow from the mountain system include the Helmand River, the Hari Rud River
and the Kabul River.
• Helmand River: The longest river in Afghanistan.
• Hari Rud River is a river flowing 1100 kilometers from the mountains of central
Afghanistan
• to Turkmenistan.
• Kabul River: It is the main river in the eastern part of Afghanistan. It flows 700 km
before joining the Indus River near Attock.

• Mountains are mostly bare of vegetation.

• Rich forests are found on the hills of Swat, Kohistan, Panjokara valley and Dir district.
• Rice cultivation by means of terraced fields in areas of Swat, Chitral and Dir.

Historical importance:
• These ranges have been important due to historical and military significance.
• Many invaders crossed Hindu Kush through its Historical passes.
o Alexander the Great
o Mahmud of Ghazni
o The Ghauris
o Timurlane
o Babar

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Northern mountain valleys:
• Hindu Kush: Swat, Chitral and Dir.
• Karakoram: Gilgit, Hunza and Baltistan.
• Himalayas: Murree and Kaghan.
Important Mountain passes

o The Shandur Pass: Gilgit & Chitral

o The Shangla Pass: Swat valley and the upper parts of the Indus valley
o The Lawarai Pass: Chitral to the Swat valley and the vale of Peshawar
o Khunjerab Pass: Pakistan and China
o Babusar Pass: KPK and Gilgit Baltistan
Importance of northern mountains
• Snowcapped peaks melt during summer to drain water into River Indus and its tributaries
which irrigate vast Indus plain.
• Historical passes connects Pakistan to China and Afghanistan.
• A natural border to China and Central Asian Republics. A land route through Karakoram
highway to carry out trade.
• A source of valuable minerals, timber and fruits.

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 • Provides raw material to several industries e.g. furniture, paper, chipboard industry,
chemical industry etc.
• Scenic beauty promotes tourism which is a source of income for local people during
summers.
• Mountain peaks provide protection to Pakistan against the cold winds from Central Asia.
Climate remains tolerable throughout the year in upper Indus plains.
Topographical/ Relief features of Northern Mountains:
• Parallel ranges run mainly from West to East.
• Height of ranges increase from South to North.
• Attain high altitude-rising over 6000m.
• High Mountain passes.
• Snow fields / glaciers.
• Snowcapped peaks / steep slopes.
Drainage pattern of Northern Mountains:
• ‘Natural drainage’ means the natural run off of water from an area in rivers and streams.
• The river Indus and its tributaries dominates the drainage pattern of the Northern
Mountains.
• The journey of river Indus starts from Manasarovar Lake in Karakoram ranges, passing
through Hindu Kush to north-west, River Kabul joins River Indus at Attock.
• After forming deep valleys and gorges River Indus takes a Southern turn at Kalabagh and
enters into Plain areas.
• The Southern slopes of the Himalayas are drained by Eastern tributaries of the River
Indus; Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas.
• The Southern and Northern slopes of Karakoram are drained by River Indus and some of
its Western tributaries like River Gilgit.

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Drainage pattern of Northern Mountains:

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 Western mountains

• This region consists of the mountain ranges, namely; the Waziristan hills, the Safed Koh
range, the Sulaiman range and the Kirthar range.
• All of these ranges run in the North-South direction except the Safed Koh, which runs
from East to West.
• The Safed Koh mountain range is the only range, which has some existing snowcapped
peaks, therefore named ‘Safed Koh’. Other ranges are quite dry.
• These mountains generally have bare rocks due to low rainfall and in some cases very
high temperatures (which leads to high rate of evaporation).
• Abundant mineral resources in Waziristan hills.
• Sulaiman range composed of Limestone, sandstone and Shale rocks.
Drainage
• The Safed Koh range is drained by River Kabul, which runs in West to East direction.
• The Waziristan hills are drained by small seasonal rivers like Kurram, Tochi and Gomal.
• The Sulaiman range is drained by small hill torrents and small seasonal rivers such as the
Bolan and Mula.
• These rivers usually lead to small inland lakes, where the water collects and then dries up.
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 • The Kirthar range on the other hand is drained by the River Hab (seasonal river), which
flows in a North to South direction and eventually joins the Arabian Sea.
Important passes:
• Khyber Pass
• Kurram Pass
• Tochi Pass
• Gomal Pass
• Bolan Pass
Lifestyle of Western Mountains:
• The unfavorable climate, relief and rugged landscape do not support farming.
• Due to mountainous terrain and rugged landscape canal irrigation is impossible.
• Limited transportation facilities.
• Except few urban centers like Peshawar and Kohat, most of the areas are not connected by
means of air and rail networks, only accessible by means of unmetalled roads.
• High cost for supplying infrastructure.
• Mining activities, industries and educational facilities have not been established.
• The inhabitants are deprived of basic necessities of life.
• Nomadic lifestyle.
• Sheep and goat rearing is the main occupation.
• Low population density
• Difficult to extract the mineral resources, most of the deposits have not been explored yet.

DESERT AREAS

• A desert is a place that receives very low amount of precipitation (less than 250mm).
• It is an area that can support almost no vegetation. Deserts can be cold as well as hot (have
a high rate of evapotranspiration).
• Pakistan has 3 main deserts; the Thal, Thar and the Kharan desert, all of which are hot
deserts.
• Thal is found in Punjab between Jhelum and Indus Rivers.
• Thar is divided into 3 parts; Cholistan is found in Southern Punjab, Nara in Eastern Sindh
and Tharparker in the South East of Sindh.
• Kharan is found in Western Balochistan.
• Wind is the most important agent changing the landscape of desert area constantly.

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Topographical/relief features of Thar Desert:
• Sand Plains/Strips of sand formed by the action of wind.
• Gentle undulating plains.
• Longitudinal/latitudinal sand dunes.
• Wide interdunal valleys.
• Barren rocks due to lack of water.
• Cracks due to weathering.
• Rolling sand hills.
Lifestyle in desert areas:
• No productive human activities due to lack of water and constant erosion of land.
• Farming activities can be carried out if irrigation facility is provided.
• E.g. Canals from Sukkur barrage built on Indus are source of irrigation for Thar desert.
• Underground water storage tanks for domestic uses.
• Nomadic lifestyle.

THE BALOCHISTAN PLATEAU

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 • A plateau is a high flat land little higher than normal level of land.
• The vast tableland of Balochistan, on the basis of its topography and drainage features can
be identified with these areas.
a) Basins of Northern Balochistan
b) Basins of Western Balochistan
c) Mountain ranges
d) The coastal areas
e) Economic wealth
(a) Basins of Northern Balochistan
• Irregular depression between Loralai and Zhob basins located between Toba Kakar and
Sulaiman ranges.
• Quetta valley is located in south-west of Loralai basin.
• When it rains the river form narrow channels and deposit the gravels and boulders at
foothills.
(b) Basins of Western Balochistan
• These basins are present between mountain ranges such as the Chagai hills, Raskoh range,
Siahan range and central Makran range.
• This area is bare of vegetation and receives very little rainfall.
• These basins have no outlet to sea therefore named as inland drainage basins.
• On receiving infrequent rainfall, water drains into temporary rivers and streams which
flows into the basins or either soak into ground or collected in temporary lakes called
Hamuns.
(c) Mountain ranges:
• Barren mountains with an altitude of 600-3010 m.
• Rich in mineral deposits e.g, Chagai hills with copper, gold and silver deposits.
• Ras Koh Range
• Hala Range
• Makran coast range
• Central Brahui range
• Toba Kakar range
• Siahan range

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(d)Coastal areas of Balochistan plateau:
• Divided into eastern and western coastal areas.
• Eastern part is Lasbela plain
• Western part is Makran coast
Important Rivers:
• Hub, Porali, Hingol and Dasht River flowing into Arabian Sea.
• Among which Hingol is the longest river.
Economic wealth of Balochistan:
Rich mineral deposits are found in Balochistan plateau.
Saindak Copper-Gold project in Chagai running by Metallurgical Corporation of China
(MCC).
Coal mines in Balochistan operated by Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation (PMDC).
Antimony and gold deposits in Punjgore and Kharan districts.
Crude oil and natural gas deposits.
The barren lands of Balochistan can be used for date palm plantations.
Main fruits grown are dates, grapes, apples, almonds, plums, peaches, melons and pomegranates.
Good opportunities for the export to the Gulf States due to their good quality.
Uplands with long and cold winters has best opportunity for growing vegetable seeds.
Warm and dry summers to support flowering and formation of high quality seeds.
Nomadic livestock farming is common due to scarce water conditions and lack of irrigation
facilities.
Livestock products are wool, goat hair and skins.
The coastline supports fishing activities for subsistence and commercial purpose.
Main fishing ports are Gwadar, Pasni and Ormara.
Major part is exported to Srilanka.
Limitations:
Balochistan plateau has eroded landscape and ridges with scanty vegetation.
Dry climatic conditions due to less rainfall.
Vast untapped mineral resources.
Lowest population density, in south-western part it is less than 10 people per sq.km
Scarcity of water due to absence of major water resources.
Underground water resources e.g. Karez system and small number of tube wells are also used.
Limited areas are covered by railway networks.
Absence of link roads between the producing areas and main roads.

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 POTWAR PLATEAU AND SALT RANGE
• Salt Range is the series of hills and low mountains between the valleys of the Indus
and Jhelum rivers, located in the northern Punjab.
• Potwar Plateau is situated in Rawalpindi, Attock, and Jhelum districts.
• It lies between the Indus and Jhelum rivers and is bounded on the north by the Hazara
Hills and on the south by the Salt Range.
• The salt range in the south separates Potwar from the Indus plain.
The Potwar Plateau
• The land of Potwar was attributed as golden sparrow by EIC.
• The height of the Potwar plateau mainly varies from 300 to 600 meters above sea level.
• The Soan River forms channels and alluvial plains, mainly used for agriculture.
• The Potwar plateau is rich in minerals like gypsum, limestone, coal, oil and rock salt.
The Salt Range:
• The range covers Jhelum, Chakwal, Kalabagh and Mianwali districts. It is mainly known
because of the famous salt mines at Khewra.
• Its average height is 2,200 feet. Its highest altitude point is at Sakesar Mountain which is
4,992 feet (1,527m).
• In addition to the salt deposits, the Salt Range contains coal, gypsum, limestone and other
minerals.
• Kallar kahar and Khabeki lakes add scenic beauty and major tourists attractions
Khewra Salt Mines:
• Economically salt and coal mines are the most important as it is Pakistan’s largest and world’s
2nd largest salt mines.
• The mine is part of salt range that originated 800 million years ago, by the evaporation of
shallow sea followed by tectonic movement.
• Salt reserves were discovered by the horses of Alexander’s army, when they were found
licking the stones.
• Trading of the salt started during the Mughal era. After Mughals British took over the territory
and developed the mine and introduced the better excavation of salt.
Topographic and Drainage Features of Potwar Plateau:
• Relief Features
• Badland Topography
• Dissected / eroded landscape
• Flat Floored valleys with deep slides
• Ravines / Gullies
• Flat undulating surfaces
• Ridges and Residual hills
Drainage:
• Tributaries of Indus
• Notably Soan river
• Salty lakes e.g Kallar Kahar
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Economic potential:
• On the southern slope of the Salt Range are located the largest deposits of rock salts at
Khewra, Warchha, and Kalabagh.
• Coal deposits are found at Dandot, Pidh, and Makarwal. Traces of petroleum are
associated with limestone and sandstone deposits in the western part of the Salt Range.
• Large deposits of high-grade gypsum are found near Jilalapur.
Economic Activities:
• Potwar Plateau and salt range are rich in non-metallic minerals which provide raw
materials to the cement, ceramics and chemical industries.
• A number of oil and gas fields are also located in this region. Attock Oil Refinery has
been set up to refine oil from the oil fields of Potwar Plateau.
• Farming in this region depends on rainfall. The rugged landscape does not allow canal
irrigation. Mostly wheat, barley, maize and gram are cultivated here.
• Some areas are developed (like Islamabad, Jhelum, and Chakwal) which encourage high
population density and are accessible by road, rail and air transport.

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 The Indus Plains
• The Indus plain drained by River Indus and its tributaries is located in Punjab and Central
part of Sindh.
• The Indus Plain is divided into two regions;
➢ the Upper Indus Plain
(from Attock to Mithankot)
➢ the Lower Indus Plain
(from Mithankot to Thatta)

Location of Upper an d lower Indus plain:

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Relief/Topographical features of Indus Plains:
• Active flood plains
• Old flood plains
• Alluvial terraces
• Piedmont plains
• Tidal Delta
• Rolling sand plains
• Cuestas
Upper Indus Plains:
In the upper Indus plain there are doabs (a doab is a land between two rivers at the confluence)
e.g. Bari Doab.

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Formation of Levees:
A natural or artificial embankment of a river which confines the river within its channel and
prevents flooding.
Levees are raised banks of a river with deposited material.

The Active Flood Plains:

• Active flood plain is a flat area with alluvial deposits adjacent to a water body which is
regularly flooded.
• Active flood plains are narrow strips of land along Indus and its tributaries varying from
24 to 40 km in width.
• They are inundated almost every year, covered with rich Alluvium and are suitable for
agriculture.
• These plains have fertile top soil formed by the annual deposition of fresh alluvium.
• The top fertile soil is carried to infertile areas to make them fertile.
The Old Flood Plains:
• Old floodplain is opposite to active floodplain it is only flooded when there is heavy
monsoon rainfall and are covered with old alluvium (alluvium deposited in the past).
• Meanders and cover flood plains covers this area located between the alluvial terraces and
Old flood plains.
Meanders and the covered Flood plains:
• Meander:
• A loop like bend in the course of a river developed in the process of erosion and
deposition.

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 • Cover Flood Plains:
• These flood plains are often seen merging with meanders.
• These plains are formed only due to the variation in speed and decomposition.
Oxbow lakes:
• A crescent shaped lake formed when a river breaks across the loop of a well-developed
meander.

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 Alluvial Terraces

• A plain formed from the deposition of old Alluvium.

• Alluvial terraces or Bar uplands are the areas of higher ground formed between two rivers.
• These terraces are rich in alluvium and considered ideal for agriculture with the help
irrigation facilities.
Scarp:
• Scarp is a slope which separates the old flood plain from the bar upland.
• It is made when old alluvium on the bar upland is eroded thus, leaving a slope which
connects both old flood plain and the bar upland.
Doabs-suitable areas for Human activities:
• Doabs are ideal for a number of human activities such as:
• Farming
• Construction of settlements
• Building of transport links (rail tracks and roads)
• Industrial and business activities.
• The active flood plain is flooded nearly every year which is an ideal land for the crops
which requires plenty of water.

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 • Old flood plains are good locations for arable farming. The poor soil could be used for
human settlements.
• Well-developed link canal irrigation system in Doab areas leading to a continuous supply
of water throughout the year.
• Bar uplands being the higher lands are safe from floods, ideal for farming and human
settlements, transport links, industrial estate, storage of agricultural raw material and
markets.e.g, Bahawalpur plain.
Piedmont plains:
• A piedmont is an area at the base of a mountain or mountain range.
• The word piedmont comes from the Italian words pied and Monte, which mean "foot" and
"hill."
Alluvial fans:
• Alluvial fans are fan- shaped deposits of water-transported material (alluvium).
• They typically form at the base of topographic features where a fast flowing river or
stream flattens, slows, and spreads where there is a marked break in slope.

Lower Indus plains:

Cuestas:
• A ridge of limestone with a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the other side.
• Cuestas are the limestone ridges (mound).
• These ridges are the small variable height features.
• Rohri Cuesta attains the height of about 80 meters & is about 40 km long.
• These limestone ridges provide a firm foundation for the construction of barrages for
irrigation.
• Cuestas also provide scenic beauty to flat landscape.

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Tidal Delta:
• A delta is often triangular and fan shaped with the main distributaries branching out from
the main river like the ribs of a fan.
• When a river flows into the sea, its velocity decreases and its load of alluvium is dropped
on the sea floor.
• Sea water often fills up the troughs between the distributaries, resulting in swamps.

Settlements of Indus Delta:

• The Indus Delta located to the East of Karachi comprises Thatta, Keti Bandar, Jati, Ladian
and other small settlements.
• It has a low population density because the land is constantly exposed to action of sea
water.
• Limited agriculture due to swampy land covered with sea water, saline soil and a low
annual rainfall.
• Undeveloped infrastructure discouraging the growth of commercial and industrial
activities.
• E.g. un metalled roads connecting different parts of the area are not suitable for heavy
transport vehicles.
• Fishing is the most common occupation for local communities.
• Suitable for growth of Mangroves, used as fuel wood and their leaves as fodder for
animals.
• Tropical cyclones cause damage to farming and fishing areas and shanty homes.

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Drainage features of Indus plains:
• The Lower Indus plain is drained by the River Indus mainly flowing in the North-South
direction. Meanders and oxbow lakes also exist. Piedmont plains exist in-between the
river Indus and Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountain ranges.
• In the Upper Indus plain, River Indus and its Eastern tributaries flow in North- South
direction. Tributaries are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Meanders and oxbow lakes
also exist.
Economic activities in Indus plains:
• The Indus plain is the most productive region with favorable relief and drainage, which
encourages the growth of settlements.
• The population density varies from 50 to over 400 persons per sq. km
• Doab regions of upper Indus plains and active and old flood plain of lower Indus are
excellent areas for farming.
• More than 80 percent of Pakistan’s cultivated area is located in Indus plains.
• Crops are grown for the whole year e.g. cotton, rice and sugarcane in summers and wheat
in winters.
• Canal irrigation system is developed because of the favorable relief for canal construction.
• It is considered as the most developed region of Pakistan due to good infrastructure
facilities.
• Dense transport network (road, rail and airways)
• Electricity supply to most of the rural and urban areas e.g. Lahore, Faisalabad,
Gujranwala, Sukkur and Hyderabad.
• Number of industries have been established which consume raw materials e.g. cotton
textiles, sugar mills, chemical industry.
• Large domestic and foreign market for industrial goods.

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