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Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define what individual differences
 Describe learning traits
 Explain how different learning style influences learning
 Differentiate between FI and FD learners
 Differentiate between the four types of learners according to Kolb
 Assess the role of personality in affecting learning
 Differentiate between the different taxonomies of learning

My Two Dogs
I have two dogs, Astro and Dino who are sisters born at the same time from
the same parents. Physically, Astro is white and fat while Dino is black and
thin. Besides being physically different, they behave differently. The
following are some examples of their behaviour:
 Dino will bark non-stop at strangers nearing the house while Astro will
bark a few times and stop.
 Each morning a slice of bread is given to each dog. Astro will eat the
bread immediately while Dino will eat it much later and this behaviour
is repeated every morning.
 If the bread is not given on time, Astro will bark demanding to be to
given the bread while Dino remains quietly.
 When the dogs hear the sound of fire-crackers, Dino will quietly
creep into the house while Astro remains outside and appears less
bothered.
 Each night, when they are given their food, Astro will not eat until
Dino eats first, despite the former being bigger in size.
 When anyone in the house screams in pain or raises their voice, it is
Dino who comes immediately to investigate while Astro will follow
rather grudgingly.

1
8.1 WHAT IS INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES?

If two dogs can behave differently, imagine the differences in a class of 40

students. Each student brings to the classroom his or her own knowledge, skills and
values which may account for differences in attitudes, interests, aptitudes, abilities
and knowledge about a certain subject area. Plato stated more than 2000 years ago;
“No two persons are born exactly alike, but each differs from the other in natural
endowments, one being suited for one occupation and the other for another”. As
educators, we often wonder:

 Why some students find it difficult to learn whereas others find it easy?
 Why some students are better equipped to learn some skills but not others?
 Why can’t all students learn equally well?

Psychologists have identified two main factors that may explain individual
differences; namely the learning traits that a student brings when confronted with a
learning task, and the thinking and learning skills that are activated as demanded by
the task (Jonassen and Grabowksi, 1993). See Figure 8.1.

 Learning style
LEARNING  Personality
TRAITS  Prior
that the knowledge
Learner
brings to the
Task

LEARNING
TASKS
to be
performed

Figure 8.1 A Learner Approaching a Learning Task

1. LEARNING TRAITS refer to aptitudes for learning, willingness to learn,

styles of learning, preferences for learning and the prior knowledge of the
student. These traits impact the learning process and determine how well an
individual is able to learn.
2. LEARNING TASKS determine the thinking and learning skills demanded.
For example, if the task requires the learner to go beyond the information
given in the text, than the student will have to make or draw inferences.

2
8.2 DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING TRAITS

When the learner approaches a situation where he or she has to learn

something such as listening to the teacher or writing an essay or reading a chapter
from a book; he or she comes with a broad range of LEARNING TRAITS. In biology
a trait is a distinguishing character that is a genetically inherited by an organism. For
example, hair colour, facial features and so forth. In psychology a trait is a
characteristic way in which an individual perceives feels, believes acts, behaves or
approaches a task. For example, an introvert is usually pretty shy and loves privacy.
In this chapter, we will focus on three kinds of learning traits that explain
individual differences in learning, namely; Learning Styles, Personality and Prior
Knowledge (see Figure 8.2).

1. Learning style relate to the preferences for different types of learning and
instructional activities. These styles are generally measured by self-report
techniques (paper and pencil tests) that ask individuals how they prefer to
learn. For example, ‘Do you prefer to learn alone or in groups?’ The learning
style of Student A may be different from the learning style of Student B which
may explain the differences in the way the two individuals learn.
2. Personality describes how an individual interacts with his or her environment
and especially with other people. Personality is the mental disposition to
behave in certain ways or inclination to behave in certain ways. In this
chapter, we will focus on those personality types that more directly affect
learning.
3. Prior Knowledge refers to what the learner already knows and how what is
known is organised. Besides the facts and concept of a particular body of
knowledge, it also includes the skills and learning abilities that individuals
have previously acquired.

Learning
Style

LEARNING
TRAITS

Prior
Knowledge Personality

Figure 8.2 Components of Learning Traits

3
 SELF-CHECK
a) What is the difference between learning traits and learning
tasks?
b) Identify the types of individual differences you have observed
among students in your class.

1. LEARNING STYLE
Learning style refers to the preferred ways in which a student processes
information. The key word is “preferred” which describes a person’s typical mode of
paying attention, organising information in the mind, and then retrieving or recalling
it. Learning style (or preference) should not be confused with ‘cognitive ability’.
Simply put, cognitive ability refers to a person’s ability to solve problems and use
logic (mathematical ability), the ability to visualise manipulation of shapes (spatial
ability), the ability to understand and use language (language ability), and the ability
to recall things (memory ability). A person’s ability can be enhanced if information is
presented in a way that matches with the person’s preference or learning style. Hence,
preference or learning style and ability are related. In other words, it is good if there is
a match between teaching and learning.
Why is learning style important? It is important because teaching in most
schools tends to be focussed toward the learning style of the majority of learners. This
results in a minority of learners being left out and unable to cope. While it may be
small in percentage but translated into numbers, it can be quite sizable. These are
students who will be housed in the 10th class and given names like ‘mawar’ or
‘anggerik’ or ‘kejujuran’ and so forth. Whatever name we give them, we all know that
they are the weakest group of students. Unconsciously, there seems to be an in-built
match between the learning style of the majority of students and the teaching methods
used.

ξςωϊϋљђ

4
 Imagine you have just arrived at a foreign country whose language you neither speak nor
read. You are at the airport and your contact person is not there to meet you. To make
matters worse, one of your bags is missing. It’s 2 A.M. and there are few airport staff, and
those that are present don’t speak English. What will you do? Your response to this situation
will depend largely on the “cognitive styles” you happen to bring to bear. Cognitive style is
your general disposition toward processing new information or challenges in a particular way.
For instance, if you are “ambiguity tolerant”, you will not get easily flustered by your
unfortunate circumstances. If you are “reflective”, you will exercise patience. If you are “field
independent”, you will be able to focus on the relevant details and not be distracted by
unnecessary detail.

[source: R. Wyss. 2002. Field Independent/Dependent Learning Styles and L2

Acquisition. ELT Newsletter, Article. 102. June]

The way we learn things in general and the particular approach we adopt when
dealing with problems is said to depend on somewhat mysterious link between
personality and cognition; this link is referred to as cognitive style. When cognitive
style is applied to an educational setting, it is generally referred to as “learning style”
which is made up of the cognitive, affective (feelings & emotions) and physiological
traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and
respond to the learning environment. Educators have always been reminded to adjust
teaching methods toward the learning styles of learners, but little has been achieved.
How is learning style related to learning? In theory, there exist as many learning
styles as there are learners but we will examine three well-known explanations of
learning style and how they are related to learning. They are: Field Independence &
Field Dependence and Kolb’s Learning Style.

a) Field Independence and Field Dependence

Field independence and field dependence (FI/FD) has been most extensively
researched learning style. FI/FD describes the extent to which a person is affected by
the surrounding environment. FD persons are global meaning that they are highly
influenced by the environment. They see the forest rather than the trees. On the other
hand, FI are more analytical and are more interested in details and more inclined
towards spotting discrepancies; i.e. the trees rather than the forest.

Field Independent (FI) Field Dependent (FD)

Analytical Global or Holistic
Generates structure & ideas Accepts structure & ideas as presented
Internally directed Externally directed
Individualistic & Intrapersonal Sociable & Interpersonal
Conceptually oriented Factually oriented

Table 8.1 Differences between FI/FD Students

This may explain why FI student tend to be better in mathematics, especially

for concept and application (Vaidya & Chansky, 1980). In a given learning situation,

5
the FI student is more likely to reorganise and restructure information to suit his or
her need or conception. The FD student tends to accept the given information as it is
presented without reorganisation or restructuring. He or she is happy with the
presented information.
The FI student will make an effort to generate new ideas or create new models
in an attempt to understand the given information. The FD student tends not to
generate new ideas and accepts the ideas given. The FI student is internally directed
and is more individualistic, aloof and reserved. On the other hand, the FD student who
is externally directed needs friendship, prefers to work in groups and is more sensitive
towards others. The FD student focuses more on factual information while the FI
student tends to extract the concepts.

Field Independent–Field Dependent: Implications for Teaching and

Learning
The differences in learning styles between FI and FD learners have distinct
implications for instructional strategies. According to Anderson and Adams (1992),
an initial approach is for teachers to understand the expectations of FI and FD
students and instructors bring into the classroom. Based on extensive research
conducted on FI and FS, Musser (2000) concluded that:
 FD learners are more likely to excel at learning tasks:
o that are group-oriented and involve collaborative work where
individuals need to be sensitive to social cues from others
o which situations where students must follow a standardised pattern of
performance
o which include tests requiring learners to recall information in the form
that was presented.
To maximise learning for FD students, teachers are encouraged to provide an social
learning environment (work with others), provide support that will enhance
understanding such as the use of advance organisers, outlines and others, give clear
and explicit directions to students, provide extensive feedback, give a lot of examples
and illustrations, materials should well-structured Lessons should be student-centred
emphasising positive reinforcement and extensive use of the discussion method of
teaching over the lecture method of teaching.

 FI learners are more likely to excel at learning tasks:

o that involve structure problem solving, especially mathematics
o in which learners must figure out the underlying organisation of ideas,
such as concept mapping or outlining
o that involve the use of a lot of language such as information that is
ambiguous or disorganised
o that require predicting, generating metaphors and analogies
o that require learners to evaluate information
To maximise learning for FI students, provision should be made for an independent
learning environment using discovery and inquiry teaching methods. Students are
provided with large amounts of reference and resource materials to sort through with
minimal guidance and direction from the teacher.

6
Case Study:
Differences between FI and FD Learners in a Science Lesson

Topic: Metals and Heat

Field Independence Learner (FI Learner)

The student has a preference for detail, sometimes called “differentiation”. He or she prefers to start
with details or particular and move to the general. This is called inductive reasoning which involves
moving from the particular or specific to the general.
Rather than being given the general rule which governs a phenomenon, students are presented with
the particulars.
EXAMPLE: What happens when you hold metal over a flame? Why do some metals bend and not
others? The student finds the reasons, and pretty soon gets to the general rule that certain types of
metals are more responsive to heat.
Field Dependent Learner (FD Learner)
The student prefers a global approach. He or she prefers that the rule or principles be given first
followed by how metals react to heat. With this principle the students knows the limits of what is going
to be taught and is comfortable with it. This is deductive reasoning and it moves form the general to
the particular or specific.

Research Evidence
 In a test on nutrition, FD students scored higher after using highly structured
materials (presented in a logical order which provided written answers to
convergent questions) whereas FI students scored higher using low-structured
materials.
 FI students learned the most in mathematics lessons when given minimum
guidance and maximum opportunity for discovery, whereas FD students
gained most from maximum guidance.
 FI students learned more from an individualised, self-paced course than FD
students.
 FI students were more efficient at taking notes in outline format than FD
students, which improved their performance over FD students.

ACTIVITY
a) What do you understand by ‘learning style’?
b) What are the main differences between a field-dependent
learner and a field-independent learner?
c) Suggest how should teaching be organised to match FD
and FI students?

b) Kolb’s Learning Style

Kolb defines learning styles as one’s preferred method for perceiving and
processing information. He identified 4 types of learning styles: divergers,
assimilators, convergers and accommodators (see Figure 7.3).

7
 ASSIMILATORS
DIVERGERS

ACCOMMODATORS
CONVERGERS
Figure 8.3
Kolb’s Learning Styles

 Learners who are Divergers are:

o able to assimilate different pieces of information into an integrated
whole
o able to generate many ideas
o imaginative and intuitive
o open-minded
o able to relate to others

 Learners who are Assimilators are:

o logical and precise
o are scientific and systematic
o analytical and good at quantitative tasks
o good at theory building
o good organisers of information
o good at inductive reasoning

 Learners who are Convergers are:

o good at problem solving especially technical tasks
o good at deductive reasoning
o able to apply ideas to practical situations
o able to create new ways of thinking and doing
o pragmatic and unemotional
o able to influence others and situations
o focussed and able to make decisions

 Learners who are Accommodators are:

o action and results oriented
o opportunity seeking and seeking new experiences

8
 o risk takers and pragmatic
o intuitive and artistic
o open-minded and people oriented
o personally involved in what they do able to adapt to new situations.

Kolb’s Learning Style: Implications for Teaching and Learning

Kolb (1984) found that undergraduate business majors tended to be
accommodators, engineering majors tended to be convergers and history, political
science, psychology, economics and sociology majors tended to be assimilators.
Physics majors were very abstract and tended to be either convergers or assimilators.
Carrier, Williams and Dalgaard (1988) found that students with different learning
styles showed distinctly different preferences for note-taking. Students who were
accommodators and divergers did not practice note taking seriously. Students who
were assimilators and convergers copied verbatim information from the teacher.
Based on research and descriptions of Kolb’s learning styles, Jonassen and
Grabowski (1993) concluded the following implications for teaching:

 Divergers are more likely to excel at learning tasks such as:

o Gathering information in novel ways
o Open-ended assignments
o Individualised learning
o Making sense of situations that are ambiguous
o Sensitivity to values and feelings
Divergers are good at doing the following:
 searching for information
 evaluating information
 generating examples and metaphors
 imaging or illustrating knowledge
 inferring causes

 Assimilators are more likely to excel at learning tasks such as:

o Organising information
o Testing theories and ideas
o Designing experiments
o Analysing quantitative data
Assimilators are good at doing the following:
 selecting information sources
 validating information sources
 analysing key ideas
 predicting outcomes
 inferring causes

 Convergers are more likely to excel at learning tasks such as:

o Creating new ways of thinking and doing
o Experimenting with new ideas
o Choosing the best solution
o Setting goals
o Making decisions
Converges are good at doing the following:
 setting learning goals

9
  validating authenticity of information
 repeating material to be recalled
 predicting outcomes
 outlining

 Accommodators are more likely to excel at learning tasks such as:

o Those that lack structure
o Committing to objectives
o Seeking and exploring opportunities
o Influencing and leading others
o Being personally involved and dealing with people
Converges are good at doing the following:
 generating personal examples
 providing concrete examples to apply
information
 using a concrete to abstract sequence

In this chapter we have only discussed two classification of learning styles; i.e.
Field-Dependence and Field-Independence and Kolb’s learning styles. There are other
classification of learning styles that you may want to explore. Among them are Dunn
& Dunn Learning Styles conceived by R. Dunn and K. Dunn; Grasha-Riechmann
Learning Styles by A. Grasha and S. Reichmann; Gregorc Learning Styes by A.
Gregorc; and Hill’s Cognitive Style Mapping conceived by Joseph Hill,

ACTIVITY
a) What are the main differences between convergers,
divergers, accommodators and assimilators?
b) How should teaching be organised to match students who
ar convergers, divergers, accommodators and assimilators?
c) How would you describe yourself?

2. PERSONALITY AND LEARNING

Personality has been described as another dimension accounting for individual
differences. We often hear people comment on the personality of others based on the
behaviours exhibited. For example, we describe a person as having a “pleasant
personality” if he or she is gentle, kind and friendly. Alternatively, we describe a
person as having an “aggressive personality” if he or she exhibits aggressive
behaviour. Lately, we hear of the term “towering personality”! Personality has often
been defined in terms of the characteristics of human behaviour or in terms of the
inherited mental qualities. Both philosophers and psychologists agree that there are
many different types of personality and have attempted to provide various
classifications of personality. For example, early Greek philosophers classified human
behaviour as consisting of 4 temperaments or personality types based on the amount
of different “bodily fluids”:

10
 1. Sanguine (people who are sociable, enthusiastic, contended),
2. Melancholic (people who are sad, anxious, worried, serious),
3. Choleric (people who irritable, hot-headed) and,
4. Phlegmatic (people who passive, calm, controlled).

More recently various psychologists have provided their own classification of

personality types. For example, Digman (1990) identified 5 personality types (see
Figure 7.4). Each of the five types are described as two extremes of a continuum. For
example,
 ‘Surgency’ refers to people who on one end are ‘talkative’ and on the other
end are ‘silent’.
 With regards to ‘Emotional Stability’, people can be classified on a
continuum from ‘calm’ to ‘anxious’.
 The personality type ‘Intellect’ consists of people who range from being
‘imaginative’ to ‘simple’.
 ‘Conscientiousness’ is person who is dependable on the one extreme and
irresponsible on the other hand; who preserves on the one hand and quits on
the other hand.
 ‘Agreeableness’ is a person who is good natured on the one hand and irritable
on the other hand.

Surgency
 talkative–silent
 social–reclusive Conscientiousness
 adventurous–cautious  responsible–undependable
 persevering–quitting
 tidy–carelessness

Intellect
 intellectual–non-reflective
 imaginative–simple
 artistic–nervous

Emotional Stability Agreeableness

 calm–anxious  good natured–irritable
 composed–excitable  mild–headstrong
 poised–nervous  cooperative–negativistic

Figure 8.4 The Five Personality Types Identified by Digman (1990)

Another well-known classification was proposed by Miller (1991) who identified 4

distinct personality types:

11
  Reductionist are individuals who are scientific, impersonal, precise, value-
free, realistic, controlled and sceptical.
 Schematist are individuals who are as conceptual, theorist, imaginative,
value-free, ambiguous and speculative.
 Gnostic are individuals who are artistic, personal, value-based, non-rational, ,
involves, biased and have personal knowledge.
 Romantic are individuals who are political, personal, value-based, uncertain,
imaginative and speculative.

ACTIVITY

“I am” exercise
Write 10 honest statements beginning with “I am………..”
Share them with someone.
Does this sum your personality? Why or why not?

The personality types proposed by Greek philosophers, John Digman and

Allan Miller are merely indictors that are descriptive of different types of individuals.
These differences affect how individuals perceive themselves and the world. Research
has shown that different personality types react differently to different types of
learning and different instructional techniques. For purposes of this chapter THREE
selected characteristics of personality are discussed in terms of their direct influence
on learning. They are Anxiety, Locus of Control and Achievement Motivation.

a) Anxiety
Anxiety is an emotional state that is characterised by
feelings of tension, apprehension and nervousness. This
emotional state can cause negative effects such as disrupting
learning. Anxiety is manifested in sweating hands, increase
heart rate, high blood pressure, distress, and even anger.
Anxiety also has a positive side in that it enhances interest
and excitement. It can help a person deal with a tense
situation such as encouraging a student to study harder for an
exam. Among the earliest research on anxiety was conducted
by Mandler and Sarason (1952) who presented evidence that
when anxiety becomes excessive it has a detrimental effect
on test-taking and learning. Anxiety is best described as a
continuum from High Anxiety to Low Anxiety (see Table 8.2).

12
 High Anxiety Low Anxiety
Restlessness Calmness
Better performance on simple tasks Better performance on complex tasks
Difficulty in communicating Good communication skills
Shy Adventuresome
Negative self-image Positive self-image
Insecure Secure
Submissive Independent
Lack of ambition Ambitious
Underachievement Achieving
Hides emotions Shows emotions
Tense posture Relaxed posture

Table 8.2 Characteristic Differences in Anxiety

Anxiety: Implications for Teaching and Learning

The large amount of research on anxiety has revealed that anxiety has an
effect on learning. For example, Eysenck (1985) found that storage of information
involving complex tasks was lower among high anxiety learner compared to low
anxiety learners. High anxiety learners were less likely to explore unknown and
unfamiliar situations. Testing procedures such open-book examinations helped high
anxiety learners. Based on studies investigating the relationship between anxiety and
learning, Jonassen and Gabrowski (1993) listed the following implications for
teaching and learning:

 High Anxiety Learners are more likely to do better at learning those:

o tasks that are simple and less complex
o tasks that are mechanical and structured
o tasks that are repetitive
o tasks that require shallow processing
o task that are supported with visual aids

 To help High Anxiety Learners, teaching should:

o use more extensively audio-visual aids such as TV, multimedia.
o use more frequently graphic organisers, overviews
o use open book evaluation techniques
o provide positive feedback and praise
o provide for gradual transition from one chunk of information to another
o break down information into smaller chunks
o reduce the importance of test taking

13
 ACTIVITY

Do you have Mathematics Anxiety?

(1) Disagree …….. (5) Agree

1. I become afraid when it is the mathematics period. 1 2 3 4 5

2. I am scared to ask questions in the maths class. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I am always worried about being called to answer questions in class. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I fear maths test more than any other test. 1 2 3 4 5
5. I don’t know how to study for maths test. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I’m afraid I won’t be able to keep up with the rest of the class. 1 2 3 4 5
7. It’s clear to me in class, but when I go home it’s like I was never there. 1 2 3 4 5
8. I tend to block out my mind in maths class. 1 2 3 4 5
9. I am uneasy about going to the blackboard in maths class. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I sometimes wonder why everyone has do such high level maths. 1 2 3 4 5

Rate your answers from 1 to 5, add them up and check your score below.

CHECK YOUR SCORE

40-50 Sure thing, you have maths anxiety.

30-39 No doubt! You’re still fearful about mathematics
20-29 On the fence!
10-19 Wow! You sure are cool!

[source:
Ellen Freedman. 2006. mathpower.com. http://www/mathpower.com/anxtest.htm]

b) Locus of Control
The word ‘locus’ comes from the Latin word for ‘place’. Therefore, locus of
control refers to an individual’ feelings about the placement of control over his or her
life events, and who is responsible for those events. Locus of control describes an
individual’s belief regarding the causes of his or her experiences, those factors to
which an individual attributes his or her successes and failures. The person may
attribute his or her success or failure to luck, chance, skill, competence, ability, effort
and so forth. Locus of control in relation to teaching and learning is an affective
learning style, specifically an expectancy or incentive style. Locus of control affects
learning outcomes through the learner’s expectation of success and the motivation to
perform.
Like most personality characteristics, it is best represented as a continuum:
Internals and Externals. Learners classified as Internals tend to attribute the cause of
success to themselves such as effort, ability or competence. Failure is attributed to the
lack of these attributes. Externals, on the other hand, tend to attribute their successes
and failures to external forces that control an individual’s performance such as luck,
chance or competence. Failure is attributed to the lack of help, bad luck or because the

14
task was too difficult. See Figure 8.3 which presents individual differences related to
locus of control.

Internal External
Self Other
Open-minded Dogmatic
Goal-driven Fear of failure
Self-assured Anxious
Negative self-image Positive self-image
Persistent Frustrated
Reflective Impulsive
Risk takers Cautious
Organised Distracted
Verbal Visual /kinesthetic
Analytical Global

Table 8.3 Characteristic Differences in Locus of Control

Locus of Control: Implications for Teaching and Learning

In a review of 36 studies on locus of control and academic achievement, 31
studies showed that students with high internal locus of control achieved more
because of their greater persistence, effort and better use of task relevant information.
Also found is a significant relationship between students who had an internal locus of
control and higher grade point average. Similarly, ‘internals’ has better study habits
and more positive academic attitudes. ‘Internals had a better attitude toward
mathematics and performed better.

 To help students with an External Locus of Control do well:

o instruction should be highly structured with clear goals and directions,
work checked often and important information indicated to the learner
o teaching material should be more visual and graphic and less verbal
o instruction should incorporate movement and kinesthetic activities
o teachers provide praise and rewards after learner responses, i.e. need for
reinforcement
o provide more individual attention; work under observation rather than in
isolation
o could introduce the ‘contract-for-grade’ plan
o develop ‘learning to learn skills’ to increase internal locus of control
o gradually reducing structure and cueing so that learners can proceed on
their own with more difficult tasks

 To develop further students with an Internal Locus of Control:

o provide inductive experiences
o ask students to provide their own structure for the information given
o provide tasks that require analytical thinking

15
 o provide problem solving situations, especially where learners must select
and apply relevant information
o provide involves and complex tasks that require persistence

ACTIVITY
a) Would you classify yourself as a person with an internal
locus of control or an external locus of control? Why?
b) Do you see evidence of internal and external locus of
control among students in your class or among your colleagues?

c) Extroversion-Introversion
The classification of people as extroverts or introverts has been extensively
researched and the results seem to be quite consistent. As the words imply,
extroversion describes people whose thinking and behaviour are directed outward or
to the surrounding environment while introversion describes people whose thinking
and behaviour are directed inward or to oneself. As a personality trait, level of
introversion and extroversion is relatively constant, although some studies have
indicated that environment may influence thinking and behaviour. An individual may
be extremely introverted, but in exceptional case, show extroverted behaviour.
However, there are certain characteristics that are prevalent.

Extroverts
Look to the outside world
Sociable and friendly
Desire excitement and takes chances
Impulsive
Energetic and enthusiastic
Easily distracted
Dislike complicated procedures
Task oriented
Influenced by public opinion
Skilled at short-term retention
Tolerant of frustration
Good at physical activities
Introverts
Look inward
Quite and aloof
Contemplative and reflective
Nonimpulsive & plans ahead
Prone to fatigue
Less distracted
Concentrates longer on tasks
Conceptually oriented
Influenced by personal values
Skilled at long-term retention
Intolerant of frustration
Prefer to read more

Table 8.4 Characteristic Differences between Extroverts & Introverts

There is also evidence to suggest that as people mature, they tend to become
more introverted. In addition to describing and predicting social behaviour, this
personality trait (extroversion-introversion) has shown to some extent predict learning
and the way in which individuals’ process information (see Table 7.4). The
extroversion-introversion personality trait has been explored by many people, but
probably the individual most noted for his work in this area is H.J. Eysenck. He was

16
born in Berlin in 1916, studied at the University of London and developed an
appreciation for the analysis of human behaviour through experimentation.

Extroversion-Introversion: Implications for Teaching and Learning

Research on the relationship between extroversion-introversion and academic
performance has been inconclusive. Introversion was strongly related to academic
success across many different cultures. On the other hand, students high in
extroversion had higher academic scores than others. Art and education and music
education majors tended to be more extroverted. Creativity in the arts was positively
related to introversion.
Besides relating extroversion-introversion to academic performance, there are
many studies that examined other characteristics of extroverts and introverts that may
indirectly influence academic performance. Introverts had better study habits than
extroverts. Extroverts selected places to study that were more stimulating compared to
introverts who preferred quite places). Also, extroverts were more willing to
communicate compared to introverts who preferred to listen. Despite the conflicting
opinions, Jonassen and Grabowksi (1993) suggested that:

 Extroverted Learners are more likely to excel at:

o learning tasks that require rapid processing of information
o tasks that present large amounts of information that are muliti-modal and
multi-image
o tasks that involve social and behavioural assessment (e.g. group
participation are assessed)
o tasks that are group-oriented involving collaborative activities
o tasks that provide learners with examples, nonexamples, illustrations
o tasks conducted in open-spaced classroom with discovery
o information that is presented in small chunks
o tasks that provide graphic cues, mind maps, outlines, concept maps,
colours

 Introverted Learners are more likely to excel at:

o learning tasks that are visual, imaginal or involve spatial manipulation
o tasks that require organising and structuring information for recall
o learning tasks involving analysis for problem solving
o tasks that require learners to evaluate information
o tasks that require paraphrasing and summarising information
o tasks that require imagining or illustrating knowledge
o tasks that arouse learners with novelty, uncertainty or surprise

ACTIVITY
a) Would you classify yourself as an extrovert or an introvert?
Why?
b) Do you see evidence of extroversion and introversion
among students in your class or among your colleagues or
friends?
c) How do you get your best ideas? Do you like to talk about them with others
or think about them alone?
 Do you usually "wear" your emotions or keep them to yourself?
 Make a list, draw, mindmap, talk to a partner, or write about a
situation in your life where you think you show or feel your extrovert
or introvert style. 17
d) Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is a personality trait that describes an individual’s
willingness to achieve. Defined broadly motivation is described as what energises or
pushes us to action or do something. Why did you come to class even though you are
sick? Achievement motivation has been described in many ways; however, in this
chapter, achievement motivation is confined to the type most relevant to learning and
teaching, that is, need achievement. Need is defined as a lack of something that by
doing something the need can be fulfilled. Achievement motivation is the need to
accomplish something difficult such as completing all the problems given in the
mathematics class. It includes the desire to excel and surpass others. It is the
determination to be the best and focus on winning. The person who is high on
achievement motivation will make an attempt to overcome obstacles and enjoys
competition.

Motive to Achieve Success Motive to Avoid Failure

Success orientation Failure orientation
Pride orientation Shame orientation
Confident Anxious
Independent Dependent on feedback and supervision
Energetic and enthusiastic Prone to fatigue
Persistent Reluctant
Perceives failure as a lack of effort Perceives failure as a lack of ability
Can handle long-term goals Prefer short-term goals
Ambitious Not ambitious

Table 8.5 Characteristic Differences between Motive to Achieving Success

and Motive to Avoiding Failure

McClelland (1961) and Atkinson (1958) designated two contrasting types of

personality traits with regards to achievement motivation: those with the motive
(need) to succeed, and those who have a motive (need) to avoid failure (see Table
7.5). Those who have a need to achieve expect to succeed and feel proud, whereas
those who fear failure expect to fail and feel shame as a result of it. Students with a
high motive to success are more comfortable with tasks that have a 50-50 chance of
success. These individuals have a realistic estimation of their ability and, therefore,
would not select a task that has a high probability of failure nor tasks that are deemed
too easy. Those with a need to avoid failure would be more comfortable with tasks
that are easy so their chances of success are enhanced to avoid failure. For those tasks
that are difficult, these students justify failure and avoid embarrassment by saying that
that the task was too difficult.
Students with high achievement motivation were able to sustain interest in a
task even when interrupted or extended over a long period. Achievement motivation
scores were positively correlated with grade point average among both male and
female undergraduates. Academic performance correlated positively with success-
oriented sixth graders. Those students with high achievement motivation selected
study partners based on their competency rather than their friendliness. Based on the

18
extensive research and descriptions of achievement motivation, Jonassen and
Grabowksi (1993) proposed that:

 Students with the Motive to Achieve Success are more likely to excel at:
o learning tasks that are very important
o tasks that require their attention
o long-term tasks
o tasks that require independent though and action
o tasks that allow them to assume leadership roles that capitalise on their
desire to control
o encourage more independent study
o provide for active experimentation
o use discovery learning
o providing lessons in large chunks
o using feedback as diagnostic information, especially success feedback

 To help students with the Motive to Avoid Failure do well:

o make available extra help
o provide for immediate feedback
o provide many opportunities for positive feedback
o help students select realistic goals
o provide opportunities for learners to experience success
o using tests for diagnostics rather than comparison
o inviting students to select their own goals and activities
o dealing with failure privately (not to ridicule learners in front of others)
o using a mastery approach

3. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
When you started with this course on Learning and Cognition, you have with
you a massive amount of prior knowledge regarding how humans learn. Not only do
you have a mass of knowledge and experiences; you also come equipped with many
cognitive skills and abilities. With regards to knowledge, you know that “rewards
encourage students to perform better”; with regards to abilities, “you are able to write
an essay on “Critical Thinking” by referring to sources from books, journals and
resources from the internet; with regards to skill “you are able to summarise
information” for your essay. In other words, you approach a learning task with a
substantial amount of prior knowledge. Prior knowledge consists of the knowledge,
skills or abilities that the student bring to the learning environment (Jonssen and
Grabowski, 1993). Knowledge refers to the prerequisite knowledge that is necessary
to understand the new information. Students lacking this information would not
significantly profit from instruction at all (Tobias, 1981). For example, if you had not
studied or at least read about psychology, you it is likely that you will have difficulty
with this course.
‘However, don’t panic!’ It is not the end. Psychologists have extended the
definition of prior knowledge more broadly to include the total existence of
knowledge and prior achievement that you bring to the learning environment which
can and will be activated when you read the material in this learning package. In other
words, your experiences (in your place of work and the home) and the knowledge you

19
 have gained from various sources (books, magazines, newspapers, TV, radio, movies,
discussion with friends, colleagues, family members and so forth) may be directly or
indirectly related to the content you are studying in this course. However, there is
evidence to suggest that instead of helping you understand new information, prior
knowledge (old information) can prevent the acquisition of new knowledge by
forming a barrier or preconceived ideas, which must be overcome before learning can
take place.
The existence of prior knowledge will likely enhance any learning task but
will be most helpful for:
 problem solving and transfer of learning
 comprehension of material to be learned
 retention and recall of material
 reasoning ability
 integration of knowledge
 paraphrasing and summarising
 comparing new knowledge with existing knowledge, beliefs
 generating metaphors and examples
 elaboration of knowledge

ACTIVITY
[Refer to Chapter 3 on Cognitive Theories, specifically
Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Leaning and Chapter 4
Information Processing Model. Examine how prior
knowledge influences learning and creates differences
between learners].

8.3 DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING TASKS

So far we have examined the Learning Traits that a student brings to the
learning task. Learning traits includes the learning style of the student, the personality
of the student and the prior knowledge of the student. These learning traits will come
into contact and interact with the learning task creating further differences in the
classroom (refer to Figure 8.1). For example, student A is given the task to ‘List the
characteristics of the Malaysian rainforest’ while student B is given the task to ‘Give
her opinion on how to conserve the Malaysian rainforest’. Different sets of learning
traits might be used by the two students depending on the learning task. Student A is
required to “list” while student B is required to give her “opinion”. Obviously, the
mental processes required will vary between student A and student B. The types of
learning or learning tasks that are required in schools and other educational settings
have been conveniently described in terms of taxonomies of learning.
Taxonomy is a classification scheme that arranges objects or phenomena
hierarchically. That is, terms at the top of the taxonomy are more general

20
a) Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives

The Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives or Outcomes by Benjamin Bloom (1956) is

perhaps the best known. It describes the range of cognitive behaviours or intellectual
abilities or skills desired when a person interacts with a body of knowledge (see
Figure 8.5). A body of knowledge will have no meaning unless and until the learner
interacts with the facts, concepts and principles of the body of knowledge. How the
learner should interacts with the material will depend on what he or she is required to
do or the objectives of the task or the outcomes desired.

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis

Application

Comprehension

Knowledge

Figure 8.5 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives or Outcomes

 Knowledge: Learning at the knowledge level involves only the recall of facts,
terminology and methodology. The learner is required to merely recall and
state without interpreting or elaborating.
 Comprehension: It involves elementary understanding and use of knowledge,
such as translation and interpretation.
 Application: It requires the abstraction of a rule or generalisation from a body
of knowledge. The learner then applied it to solve a related problem.
 Analysis: It involves investigating a body of knowledge, breaking it down and
identifying its component elements and the relationship between those
elements. Analysis requires determining the structure or organisation of a set
of ideas.
 Synthesis: Knowledge that has been analysed is reassembled into a new form
of communication such as devising a new plan from different elements.
 Evaluation: The highest level of cognitive activity which involves making
judgement about some content based on a set of criteria.

21
b) Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning

Cognitive
Strategy

Higher
Order Rule
Figure 8.6
Rule Gagne’s Taxonomy of
Learning
Defined
Concepts

Concrete
Concepts

Verbal
Information

Robert Gagne (1985) identified different levels of learning for the purpose of
sequencing instruction. He believed that instruction should begin with the simplest
skills and proceed hierarchically to greater levels of difficulty (see Figure 8.6).

 Verbal Information: Verbal information is similar to Bloom’s knowledge

level and it requires learners to only memorise and recall information without
understanding or applying it.
 Concrete Concepts: Concrete concepts are based on discrimination between
members and nonmembers of a concept without extensive awareness of the
basis of classification.
 Defined Concepts: Defined concepts are understood though their definitions,
i.e. through their defining characteristics. They are the basis for most
understanding.
 Rule: Rules are the statement of relationships between two or more concepts.
Most often, they indicate cause-effect relationships. Using rules implies that
learners apply those statements in a new situation.
 Higher Order Rule: Higher order rules are more general statements of
relationships, usually referred to as principles. The use of higher order rules is
similar to problem solving. It requires the learner to select, interpret and apply
appropriate rules.
 Cognitive Strategy: Cognitive strategies or techniques for solving problems
or for acquiring new information. Learning to learn is a cognitive strategy.

22
c) Merrill’s Component Display Theory
Merrill (1973) developed his own taxonomy of learning through analysis of
school-based learning outcomes. He concluded that almost all learning activities
involve facts, procedures, concepts and principles.
 Facts are arbitrary associations
 Concepts are classes of objects or events
 Principles are generalised explanations that relate two or more concepts and are
used to predict, explain or infer.

The taxonomy of learning is classified as follows:

REMEMBER: USE: FIND

 Facts  Concept  Concept
 Concept  Procedure  Procedure
 Procedure  Rule  Rule
 Rule  Principle  Principle
 Rule

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Nostrand Company.

 Atkinson, J.; Feather, N. and Título, T. (1974). A theory of achievement

motivation. New York: Wiley.

 Carrier, C.A & Williams, M.D., & Dalgaard, B.R. (1988). College students'
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 Gagne, Robert M. (1985). The Conditions of Learning and the Theory of
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 Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-

Hall

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