Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Learners strongly associate the subjects they studywith the people who
teach them. So any pleasure a student feels when they contemplate their
studies will depend in part on their üew of their teacher. Students who like
their teacher may also make efforts to please them byworking hard at their
subject. Awell-liked teacher is therefore a motivating teacher, This means we
have to find ways to relate to students and engage them on a personal level.
Welcoming students
Of course, if a student alreadyhas negative feelings towards English, or
towards working in an L2, it maybe difficult to establish relationships with
them while learning activities are taking place. Teachers may sometimes
need to take time out from actual teaching to develop rapport.
Starting work
Making a transition from being relaxed and informal with students to being
purposeful and earnest is important. A teacher's commitment to their
subjectwill raise interest and curiosity, After all, 1f we don'ttake our subject
46
seriously, why should students? But it is essential that we manage this shift
without losing rapport.
Many teachers maintain their appeal by injecting enthusiasm or dramatic
intensity to proceedings, as a magician might. A fictional character who
exemplifies this approach is the English teacher Mr Keating in the hlmDead
Poets SocieLyr. He starts his first class bywalking calmlyto the back of his
classroom and out of the door, whistling as he goesJ and inviting the boys to
joinhim.
FIGURE 5.I The'why, how, what' appro ach. to introducing learning aims
41
l- :,f."1'.....:._",-:1.::,.,1.'.
Demotivation
Although it's important to consider howwe can increose motivation, we
must also ensure we don't cause motivation levels to fall. Many students
who experience demotivation identify their teacher as the reason. We
needn't necessarily take this personally - sometimes a student may simply be
redirecting personal frustration at an easy target - but when faced with the
pressure of getting a group of learners to do something they'd prefer not to
do, we sometimes fail to maintain rapport.
Humour
Injecting humour into the classroom can help maintain rapport. Visual
humour works particularly well with low-level learners, as it can be
understood immediately. Using irony (in the sense of creating unexpected
contexts for tasks) when instructing students can help release tension and so
make teaching seem less forceful; there are a number of ways we can do this.
Loss of rapport may also happen when students think that the teacher has
failed to meet certain needs, such as making them feel valued. Perhaps
the mostbasic of these esteem needs is the need for attention. An excuse
frequently given by srudents for not putting effort into a class is: 'The teacher
doesn't care about me, so why should I care about herlhis lesson?' The effort
teachers put into planning and teaching may help students feel more valued
to some extent, but it is important to make sure the attention paid to their
needs continues during student-centred actiüties.
Monitoring
Monitoring of students is not just necessary for giving timely feedback, It also
demonstrates that teachers care about students'needs, and can help identify
problemswith task design (e.g. level of challenge), unclearinstructions, or
tension between students, before it turns into resentrnent towards the teacher,
48
,TEA{HER BfHeVlöü*
§cemíngítríghÉ.llfcnitorl*r§. .:
,
betweengroups,J,3hawycu wer€ lis*e*ing by-fued.ing,baektgthewhálegfass ,
of the classroom, and the amount of timeyou spend in each part of the class.
Then compare the results with the seating plan and identify any unevenness in
your attention. You mayfind that louder or less well-behaved students are being
given a greater share of attention, whereas students who seem passive and
unengaged are receiving less.
Control
Perhaps the biggest threat to student motivation is a feeling on their part that
they are being judged unfavourably and unfairly. Sometimes the pressure
we feel to reach teaching objectives can make us a little impatient when
we correct or discipline students. However, students will rarely see their
or,rm behaviour as inappropriate and are likely to conclude that the teacher
doesn't understand them, or even dislikes them.
A sense of unfairness may also develop if students feel their efforts have not
been recognized. Teachers must be sure to take students' efforts seriously,
even if they do not appear to have made much effort. It is also likely that the
quality of their contributions will increase if theybelieve they are going to be
taken seriously.
49
l- TEACHER BEHAVlOUR
sentence a nd tha nk them, Thereafte1 refer to the sentence usi ng the student's
name:
The reason l like Nawar's sentence is that she's used a great adjective ...
Pacing
Motivation may also be at risk when students feel time is not being used
appropriately. Manywilllook for praise when they finish tasks quickly, and
maybe resentful if they are made to wait for slower students. At the same
time, slower students may resent not being allowed enough time to complete
tasks.
Feedback
Self-esteem is particulaü at risk during feedback, when struggling, lower-
level students may feel they are being compared unfavourably to others, or
that their efforts aren't being valued. The risk that students will jump to such
conclusions is greatest when the teacher provides written comments, which
can'tbe delivered with an encouraging tone of voice.
Iffeedback can be given orally, this will make it more encouraging since we
can give positive non-verbal signals, such as smiling.
50
TEÁcHER BEí.lAylsu§
TrythisG Videofeedback
lfyour students submit work electronically, record one minute's video feedback
for each of them, using screencasting software such as Jing, Screencasting
allowsyou to record what is visible on your screen, along with your spoken
com menta ry. You wi l l receive a l in k to each recordi ng wh ich you ca n sha re
with students, for exa m ple by copying a nd pasting to the class's Learn ing
Management System,
Although feedback can sometimes put motivation at risk, it also provides an
opportuniry to show that the teacher cares; and assuming we have managed
to create and maintain rapport through our feedback, the thought of our
reaction and the desire to please us may even drive students to try harder.
For this reason, Ieacting openly to any of our students' efforts, either with
pleasure or even (uncritical) disappointment, is always a good idea.
Ending lessons
At the end ofthe lesson, teachers can strengthen the students' sense of
obligation towards them by making them aware of the care that has been put
into the preparation of their lesson. We can do this subtly by asking students
what theythoughtof the class. This mayalso proüde an outlet for anyill
feeling before it threatens motivation.
How much do you agree? Circle the face that matches your opinion.
52
§ t.il§a]llr
The lea rnin8 environment
In the 1940s, the educator Loris Mal,aguzzi claimed there were three
teachers in every classroom. There is the teacher, of course. Then there are
the students, who learn from each other. And finally, there is the learning
environment itself. Malaguzzi's point was that classrooms, just like teachers,
can draw students to them and encourage learning.
Using §pace
Experts argue that on entering the class students should gain a sense that
they are free to move and come together. Well-spaced tables, or'horseshoe'
arrangements, in which students can face each other, will help promote
collaborative learning and interaction. Of course, we may not have a say in
classroom furniture arrangements, or want students to talk in every class,
butwhere possible we shouid use furniture to ensure students are motivated
to interact in the waywe intend them to,
TrythisG Self-organization
Outline planned activities to students atthe beginning ofthe class.Then, on
the board, draw squares representing desks and ask students to suggest an
appropriate arrangement of thefurniture. Be prepared to intervene if you feel
their idea won't work foryou r pla ns. Once a plan is agreed, ask students to move
thefurniture into placethemselves.This willgivethem a 5ense of controlover
their environ ment a nd create a wiIlingness to try out the a rra ngement they have
created.
53
l- TÉEL§ÁBNl N:G ENVtfi §N MENT
TrythisG Leavingtheclassroom
Take students out of the classroom and the school building as much as possible.
Use the space outside to have them do 'run ni ng dictations' (i.e. fix a text on
a wall and have one memberof each pair go back and forth reporting itto
the other, who sits at a distance with a notebook). Set up conversations at a
distance, or drills in which theythrow a ball between them in a circle as they say
months, days of the week, and so on.
TrylhisG Selfiedisplay
Bring a camera into class. Th in k of a sentence that students cou ld complete
to reveal something aboutthemselves, such as l'm crazy about ,., or lwant to
be a .... Have each studentwrite a word to completethe sentence on a large
piece of pa per (or a sma ll board) a nd ta ke a selfie. Print the selfies and create a
wall display, usingthe sentence opening as a header.You could linkthe sentence
to current la nguage you're studyi ng.
54
THE LEARNlNc ENVlRoNMENT
TtythisG Celebrities
Startthe lesson by making someone a celebrity. Saythey've becomefamous
becauseof theirexcellent homeworkortheirEnglish skills. lnvitethemtocome
a nd sit in the 'celebrity chai/ (the teacher's chair) while peers a ppla ud, a nd
Grouping students
'r'vhen it comes to grouping students, teachers face a dilemma. Friends may
be happier if they can sit near each other, and may even resent a teacher who
tries to separate them. What's more, students may not enjoy coming to class
if they are made to sit with someone they feel uncomfortable working with.
However, friends often distract each other in class if their priorities are to
bond socially, and their behaviour can be seen as cliquey and resented by
other students.
Trylhis€ Groupnames
Esta blish grou ps at the begi nn i ng of the week a nd invite each grou p to give
themselves a tea m na me. They cou ld base the na mes on the lea rning topic;
for exa m ple, in a week when the topic is tra nsport, they cou ld choose 'rockets',
'submarines','double-deckers', etc. Encourage a spirit of cooperation by referring
to the team name5 during group activities, e.g. The double-deckers are writing
beautifully,
55
THE LEARN|NG,ENVíRONJ!ÁENT :
doors, drawer fronts, and desks with warm, bright colours and imaginative
displays, and they use boxes, trays, and holders to create neat, ordered
spaces. Attractive environments like these create a positive mood and
increase learners' willingness to engage.
learning dispositions
Wal1 displays are sometimes used to promote specific learning attitudes.
We might, for example, want to focus on the 'seven thinking dispositions'
identified by Harvard University- adventure, caution, clariry curiosity,
evaluation, planning, and self-awareness - or some of the learning
behaviours discussed in Chapter 4, such as reading for pleasure.
Aparticularlyimportant function of the language classroom is to raise
curiosiry towards target cultures by including maps, film posters, etc. The
priorities setwill depend on a number of factors, such as education policies,
your culture, and the age and gender ofyour students.
TrythisG Wallaudit
Listthe learning dispositions which are priorities foryour class. Consult with
department heads, colleagues, and students.You could use a survey likethe one
belowto see if students agreewithyour list.
This classroom encourages meto:
o ask questions to the teacher or myfriends
r make mistakes withoutfeeling embarrassed
o lookfor new ways to do things
r take pride and care in mywork.
Search the i nternet to see how other teachers encourage thei r ta rget dispositions
through displays.You might, for instance, find a poster entitled Asking questions'
with uestion openers such as How do you say ... ? Show students exa mples
q
you've found and ded icate a lesson to reproducing ones they like.
There are plenty of different ways to turn statements about dispositions into
poster-friendly texts. Examples include slo gans (to day's r e adery tomorrow's
leader) or lists (ten w ays to giv e examples). Figure 6. 1 shows an example of an
acrostic and a meme.
56
mffiffiffiKo
TrythisG Writeyourownacrostic
Cive your students an example of a n acrostic about lea rning dispositions (e.g.
ACE: Adventurous, Curious, Engaged|.rhen give them a short word and, in
grou ps, ask them to write their own acrostic. To ma ke the task Iess cha llengíng,
give them the fi rst few words of each line. You cou|d a lso give one suggestion i n
brackets. Here is an example of an acrostic with SHINE:
Sit_ (still)
Helpyour_ (peers)
lnsist on (neat work)
Never (give up)
Enjoy_ (study)
We can create positive moods and messages through the üsual decoration
We use. For instance, an 'enchanted forest' or'castle' decoraüon/poster at
the doorway ofyour classroom could represent the idea ofusing language
adventurously. Such decorations aíe particularly popular with younger
learners, but posters can workwell with all ages.
Gettíng ít ríglet
51
TH,E: {,§A,RNl N6] f NV+RúNM,E NT
MuItisensory space§
If you don't always teach in the same classroom or are unable to use
decoration, you might consider using background music, sound, or even
smell to create a stimulating enüronment. After all, the real world engages
all our senses, and we can use sound in particular to transport students into
realistic contexts and make lessons seem more relevant. Some sound effects,
such as a crowded bar or restaurant, even allow us to create an English-
language soundscape with chattering English voices.
Access to YouTube and a sound effects website, e.g. www.soundsnap.com,
proÜdes manyWays to create a sound-rich environment.
TrythisG Musicformotivation
As students enterthe classroom, play motivational music (e.g, the Rockytheme
tune) or sound effects (e,g. cheering).
§ettíng
When: usíng background, rnu§ [r, choo§e pieee* with few cha nges in te mpo,
,.volume;crpikh. Easy listeningotpiano rnusjiwitltend E*ttg.distra-ct.:Be
mindfulgf:eu]turalsensitivities, especíally with r*pectto Wtstern'musíc,
, and Videcs, and be awarethat same,stldents rna3find,the'sould-o{any '
.,,mu5icd,[stractirx§.,, ., ..-,]- , I
.....
58
T;F| É.' L ARI§].N § E,N:V t R,S N.M §,Ní
59
Learner roles: independence
and res pon sibility
basic human need, and we will be dravtrn to activities that we can control and
which we can carry out at a time and place of our choosing. In theory, the
same applies to learning tasks. If learners are able to succeed while theyhave
a signiÁcant degree of control, they should feel a sense of mastery,
which wil1
sustain their motivation.
However, givinglearners complete independence is not always appropriate
or straightforward. Inexperienced learners do not necessarilyknow
how to learn effectively, and may not have developed the habits and self_
confidence necessary to tackle learning independently. These skills and
habits must be taught and nurtured if they are to flourish. Furthermore,
handing over complete control of the learning process is clearly impractical
in typical teaching contexts. Many responsibilities will inevitably remain the
teacher's _ particularly in terms of ensuring syllabus objectives are met or
maintaining discipline - and we may feel our abiliry to fulfil these obligations
is compromised if we give learners too much independence. There may also
be some barriers to promoting independence, including a lack of willingness
on the part ofthe students.
60
LEARN E R ROLE§: rND€PEN DE NCE AN D RE§PON§I8t LlTY
We can extend this approach to error correction, making sure our language
remains positive.
A student's background (see Chapter 11) may also influence their attitude
to independence. The presence of strong authority figures in some students'
lives can lead to learned heIplessness, or a tendencyto submit to control.
Other students may still be struggling to gain a sense of independence from
adults, and may see a teacher's attempt to give them autonomy as an excuse
to challenge authoíity, Recent experiences of teacher control can sometimes
contribute to these problems, reinforcing learned helplessness and the idea
that the teacher is only there to 'force' students into learning. In both cases, a
sudden removal of classroom restrictions can be met with incomprehension,
and students mayfind it difficult to adjust.
TtythisG self-study
Set aside sim pler sections of you r sylla bus for self-study. At the sta rt of term,
provide students with a version of the exa m sylla buses in sim ple terms they will
u ndersta nd, ma rking where you'd like them to d irect their own lea rn ing. Arra nge
for students to have self-study sessions period ica lly, prefera bly with access to
internet resource5.
So many classroom tasks are considered the teacher's responsibility (setting
deadlines, organizing classrooms, etc.) that we may expose ourselves to
criticism if we don't perform them. In addition, we may actually enjoy
sharing our knowledge directly, instead of allowing students to discover
61
lE LFARNER RóLE§: lNDf PENDENCE AND RESPüNStBtLlTY , ,:,: ,l
Developin g i ndependence
Discovery learning
Consider for moment the difference between learning and discovering.
a
When we learn, we gain knowledge about something that others, for
example teachers, already know about. They ask the questions and we
attempt to answer them. when we discover, we ask the questions for
ourselves. Therefore, if we can make learning more like a process of
discovery, by training srudents to ask questions, we will give them a feeling
ofindependence.
own. ln reading and listening lessons, give students topics and askthem to
write what theyU like to know and, for speaking lessons, ask students to write
questions for discussion. ln grammar lessons, elicit questions about structures.
Write the topic on the boa rd, e.g. Present perfect vs past simple, a nd have stude nts
brainstorm questions (in their L1 if necessary) such as Which tense is more
common? Atthe end of the lesson, decide which questions have been answered;
the rest can be explored for homework. (See also Asking questions,on page 43.)
We can extend the discovery approach to methods of learning too. Teaching
study skills (such as note-taking, using a dictionaryJ or vocabulary learning)
already promotes independence, but we risk undermining this when we
adüse students on the bestWays to learn. Having students share ideas and
discuss approaches will give them a sense of freedom and the confidence to
find their ovrn strategies.
Peer-teaching
We may even try to involve learners directly in teaching and assessment.
Aside from giving a greater sense of independence, this will improve levels
of feedback and interaction, which in turn will build mutual trust and
cooperation.
on the boa rd and have Student As elicit the correct a nswer from their partner,
without saying the a nswers themselves.
criteria that students can understand and apply.For example,you could tell
them to score one pointfor everyadjective used, orfor everyattemptto usethe
pa st contin uou s. As k them to grade their own work, or that of their peers, before
ha nding it in to you for checking.
Peer-teaching of grammar can be made possible by focusing on grammar
words or chunks, rather than structures (for example, since rather than the
presentperfect), as these are easier for learners to identify and discuss by
themselves. With enough examples, they may then be able to work out rules
independently.
TrythisG ExamplesIfound
Askstudentstorunaninternetsearchforsentencescontainingtargetgrammar,
e.g. if Iwere or in two days.rhen write up the examples theyfind. Check the
mea nin g of each sentence is clea r by discussing who sa id it a nd why. Then
encourage them to com plete their own ru le, e.g. We use'if lwere'when we want
to... , before d iscussing their ideas.
*flcuttinExngt*
st§dent§ {Tlay necd guidancetó he_fpthem:ret§rnh! .quélity.§€afch,tesults. .,
Invocabulary classes, students may be given even more scope for peer-
teaching, since word meanings can often be communicated more easily than
grammar knowledge.
TrythisG VocabularyVenns
Cet students to rawVenn diagrams showing how lexical concepts overlap
d
63
lE ,tÉARN E R §'§LE5: rN D§PEN üEN.CÉ. AN D, & E§,PON§tBttl TY
TFAIN 9ul
,towns
on rails in
can hire
crabs
stats go baci
gorillas
cD^Lá
$lALK
TrythisG Photo-sourcing
Whenever you plan to sta rt a lesson with photos, ask students to fi nd examples
on their sma rtphones (if they a re permitted), or to fi nd pictu res from magazines
at home. For example, when doing lessons on describing appearance, have
them select images of people to describe. This will show students that they a re
not dependent on the teacher for fi ndi ng prom pts that wi l l hel p them prod uce
la nguage.
same time (with each enclosed in speech marks) and see how many results
are returned.
F
qF 6eÉfiraE it rigÉliControl of mobile devices
Banning rnobile devices may underrainethe students'sense of
independence. lf allowing mgbíle devices in the,classroom is not practical,
however, consider creating rotes that allow certain students to use them
provided the!keepthem visible and on their desks.You m.ight, forexample,
a}low somecn,e to check spelling {using a speech-to-textfunction}, f nd
photos io illustrate newvocabulaly, oI even make a video ofthe lessan so
that students can review it lateron,
Motivating materia ls
Nowadays, teachers are spoiled for choice when it comes to lesson materials.
Coursebooks still provide the backbone for many language cotlrses, but they
are now just one of many possible resources. In particular, many teachers
will exploit authentic materials online, which have made it far easier to
tailor content to individual interests, As regards motivation, the assumption
is often that authentic texts are more stimulating, proüded we are able to
,grade,them appropriatelyfor the level of our students. However, the secret
is more likelyto lie in the careful andvaried use of materials,
coursebooks
Coursebooks are particularly important in English classes. Few other
subjects demand such careful graded exposuíe to material, or such regular
reviewing and testing. And of course they are often part of a package of
materials that includes supportwebsites and teacher resource packs. But
although coursebooks offer learners valuable support, they can also put
motivation at risk. Table B.1 shows how they can both strengthen and
weaken motivation.
Tirrning the pages, recycling, and testing give Topics and references date quickly and so seem
students a sense ofprogress. unconnected to the student's world.
Grading oflanguage allows students to feel Repetitive sryle and format of lessons can reduce
they've mastered texts. expectation of pleasure/interest.
Carefully staged lessons make lesson aims feel Unnatural language, e.g. scripted dialogues, makes
achievable. tasks seem less useful for the real world.
Connected resources make choice and novelry Non-authentic material doesn't provide
possible. opportunities for integration with a community of
Ownership ofa coursebook (that students can English 1anguage users,
explore) puts students in control oflearning. Failing to finish the coursebook can cause
frustration.
66
MoTlVATlNG M,ATERlAL§ ill
*Fg**t*s ii r§§i?t Choosing coursebooks
" you
lf are
J-" "' able to choase between coursebooks, consider their ",--,/ impact
-,,-" likely ""T,
on motivation byaskingwhetherthey: :
Trythis G Testingbeforeteaching
Cive students a grammar exercise from the accompa nying workbook or unit
test beforethey sta rt the cou rsebook lesson/u n it. Students discuss the a nswer5
in grou ps a nd write them on a sepa rate sheet of pa per (one for each grou p). As
groups fi nish, col lect their sheets. Write the n u m ber of correct a nswers at the
bottom ofeach sheet and ask each group to calculate their percentage score.
Then write the following on the board :
67
lN- M.óT,IVATINGMAT§'RIAL,§ ' :i,
First, the printed page reveals material to students al1 at once, so there is less
room left for arousing curiosiry. Compare that to the dramatic beginning of a
film, which reveals music, title, setting, and characters ín sequence.
§*efiing §r rÉgktBookgrlosadetart
lstabli§h]a need for the coursebook before using it in class. For example, after
íntro,dlcingalesson topic,you might sayThe rc's scme gaod informatian on
tbis,irst|ie,caursebook-shaílwe have a laak? or There are some goad exarnptes
af thist*nse'in the caurseboak-,
68
M$T|VATIN€.MAT§§IAL§ :
ill
be looking at, or stopping them going on to the next task. This battle to direct
their attention can make the teacher seem Very controlling,
TrythisG Addingemoji
students to add emoji to the ma rgins to show
Du ring reading tasks, encou rage
how theyfeel when reading. Afterwards they should explain their choices. For
example, a text about an adventure in the Amazon might produce:
O lthoughtthis rivertrip was cool because l love canoeing.
Digital media
Materials that are not specifically created for learners can appeal to their
desire to engage with the world beyond the classroom. Online materials
are particularly appealing since they are often up to date and include
stimulating videos, images, and recordings shared and discussed bymillions
of people around the world. They also give learners the chance to develop
the 21st century skills of media,/technologyliteracy, and so can make
learning seem highly relevant.
Difficulties with lesson preparation or grading can be overcome to some
extent by using semi-authentic materials that have been adapted for
teaching purposes, such as those at wvyw.breakingnewsenglish.com, or
authentic materials that have been worked into lesson plans, e.8. those at
http:/ /lessonstream.org. Another solution is to use authentic materials to
meet grammar and vocabulary teaching objectives rather than to develop
comprehension skills, since we can then help students understand meaning
using translation software while theylisten or read.
69
Nc
í- M,oTtVATl MATE R:lAL5
create a gap-fill exercise ofthe original English text. Ask students to add in the
missingwords usingtheir L] translationsto helpthem,then checktheiranswers
against the origina l text.
TrythisG Silentfi|ms
Use fi l ms that ca n be u nderstood visuaI ly, like the delightfu l F re nch Roast
a nimations, M r Bea n videol or cli ps from Aard ma n stud io fi l ms. Write up
eventsthat happen in thefilm and ask studentsto orderthem.Then askthem
to retell the story in the past tense. Alternatively, ta ke screenshots while you
watch. nsert the saved images into a Word docu ment a nd ask students to add
l
7o
MöT|V.ATi N,G MATE R lÁLs ill
Trythis G From infographicto paragraph
Select a sim ple infogra phic. You might choose one showing the benefi ts of
drinkingwater, such as Figure 8.t. Hidethe headlineforthe infographicand elicit
ideas from the students , e.g. lt is a good idea to drink water, Then ask lea rners
to choose the two or th ree pieces of information from the infograph ic that they
find most interesting and writethem as sentences beneath their picture, e.g.
t)There j5g of sugar in fizzy drinks; z)We need water to help us concentrate; etc.
is
Add linking words to form a paragraph,
Many foods
are more than
9o%water.
*€ wm**p":
rr?
{r1
h
F§
ffi
§l
§
s4
§ better skin +)
e o
ffi
§
*s s
u1
11
i- M üTLVAT]I *+§,, MÁTE *_tÁ.t§,,,:
TrythisG Timelinewebquest
Put u p a time|ine on the wa ll extending from the yea ryou r oldest student
was born tothe present day. Put students into pairs and give each pair a date
from the timeline. Cive them access to the internet (or they ca n use their own
mobile devices if a lowed) and have them fi nd a n event con nected to each yea r.
l
Students write up their fi ndings on the timeline a nd present them to the class.
It's important to remember, however, that CBLT and digital resources will
have greatest impact if used alongside regular course materials, to vary
lesson content.
new information - a trafFc light or street sign, for instance. Much about the
learning environment doesn't change and students' interest will naturaIly
decline over time. ln put materia ls are one of the few things we ca n va ry.
Taking risks with the new may not always lead to successful learning, but it
will help to keepyour students interested.
72