2.

SYSTEM MODEL REPRESENTATION

2.1 TRANSFER FUNCTION

Transfer function is the classical way of modelling linear systems to show input-output relations
between variables. Transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and
the input by assuming that the initial conditions are all zero.

Y (s) b s m  b s m1  ...  bm

 n 0 n11
U (s) s  a0 s  ...  an1s  an

Consider a closed loop control system shown below;

R(s) Y(s)
E(s)
+
G(s)
-
H(s)
3
The transfer function of the above block diagram is
Y ( s) G( s)

U ( s) 1  G( s) H ( s)
This transfer function can also be written as
m

Y ( s)
k A s
k 0
k
k

 n
nm
A s
U ( s) k
s k
k 0

The classifications of the transfer functions are based on

Order: the highest power of s in denominator, n

Type: the power factor s in the denominator, l
Rank: the difference between the highest power of s denominator, n and the highest power of s in
the numerator, m , n  m  1

Characteristic Equation

The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. Thus, the characteristic equation of the
system describe above is
s n  a0 s n1  ...  an1s  an  0

Or simply;

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1  G(s) H (s)  0
This characteristic equation characterizes and describes the behaviour of the system, while the roots of
the characteristic equation give information regarding the system’s stability.

2.2 STATE SPACE REPRESENTATION

The trend of modern engineering systems is towards greater complexity and may have many input and
many output (MIMO) which targeted to achieve high precision and accuracy. To analyse such system,
it is essential to reduce the complexity of the mathematical expression, as well as to employ computers
for most of the tedious computations necessary in the analysis. The state-space approach is develop to
meet and satisfy the need of current trend and provides a best method for analysing complex control
systems.

GENERAL CONCEPTS

The state-space method generally derived from the input-output relationship where it is quite similar to
previous approach but represented in vector-matrix form which greatly simplifies the mathematical
representation of systems equations. The increase in the number of state variables, the number of
inputs, or the number of output does not increase the complexity of the equations.

Before any analysis can be carried out, we need to understand some basic terminologies, such state
variables, state vector, and state-space

State variables: the state of a dynamic system is the smallest set variables which describes the
behaviour of the system when inputs are known.

State vector: if n state variables are needed to completely describe the behaviour of a given
system, then these n state variables can be considered as the n components of
a vector x(t). Such a vector is called a state vector and it determines uniquely
the system state x(t) for any given time t and inputs.

State space: the n dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of the x1 axis, x2 axis, .
. . , xn axis, where x1, x2, ….,xn are state variables is called state space.

STATE SPACE GENERAL REPRESENTATION

For any particular control system, the state equation can be describes as;
x  Ax  Bu

And the output equation is;

y  C x  Du

Where A is state matrix, B is input matrix, C is output matrix and D is direct transmission matrix.

State matrix describes the behaviour of the control systems, i.e.; system stability, response conditions,
controllability, observability, and so forth. In matrix form, stability of a particular system can be

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derived from state matrix eigenvalues at which it represent the characteristic equation and thus,
provide the location of the roots for that system.

Meanwhile, the relationship between state matrix and input matrix gives rise to system controllability
factor as they relate the ability of system’s actuator. A system is controllable if it is possible to transfer
any state with any set of initial conditions to any final state in some finite time period. Alternatively, a
system is only controllable if every mode (or state) is connected to the control input. A system is
referred to as “stabilizable” so long as we can state control all unstable modes. This might mean that
there are some stable uncontrollable states.

Consider the following equation of motion;

𝑚1 0 𝑥̈ 1 𝑐11 −𝑐12 𝑥̇ 1 𝑘11 −𝑘12 𝑥1 0

[ ] [ ] + [−𝑐 𝑐22 ] [𝑥̇ 2 ] + [−𝑘21 ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
0 𝑚2 𝑥̈ 2 21 𝑘22 2 𝑓(𝑡)

Where 𝑐11 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
𝑘11 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑐12 = 𝑐21 = 𝑐2
𝑘12 = 𝑘21 = 𝑘2

State Space Representation of the above equation can be determined using the following process;

i. Define the state parameters, namely;

State variables Derivative of State variables

𝑧1 = 𝑥1 𝑧̇1 = 𝑥̇1 = 𝑧2
1
𝑧2 = 𝑥̇1 𝑧̇2 = 𝑥̈1 = [𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑧4 − 𝑧2 ) − 𝑐1 𝑧2 − 𝑘1 𝑧1 ]
𝑚1 2 3
𝑧3 = 𝑥2 𝑧̇3 = 𝑥̇ 2 = 𝑧4
1
𝑧4 = 𝑥̇ 2 𝑧̇4 = 𝑥̈ 2 − [𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑧4 − 𝑧2 )]
𝑚2 2 3

ii. Rearrange the expression according to state and output equations;

State equation 𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢

0 1 0 0
𝑧̇ 1 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) 𝑘2 𝑐2 0
− 𝑧1 0
−
𝑧̇ 2 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑧2
[ ]= [𝑧3 ] + 0 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑧̇ 3 0 0 0 1 1
𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑧4
𝑧̇ 4 − − [𝑚2 ]
[ 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑚2 ]

where
𝑧̇ 1 0 1 0 0
(𝑘1 +𝑘2 ) (𝑐1 +𝑐2 ) 𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑧1 0
𝑧̇ − − 𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑧2 0
𝑚1 𝑚1
𝑥̇ = [ 2 ], 𝐴= , 𝑥 = [𝑧3 ], 𝐵 = [ 0 ] and 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑧̇ 3 0 0 0 1 1
𝑘2 𝑐2 𝑘 𝑐2 𝑧4
𝑧̇ 4 [ 𝑚2
− 2 −
𝑚2 ]
𝑚2
𝑚2 𝑚2

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 Output equation 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢

𝑧1
1 0 0 0 𝑧2
𝑦=[ ] [ ],
0 0 1 0 𝑧3
𝑧4
𝑧1
1 0 0 0 𝑧2
where 𝐶=[ ], 𝑥 = [𝑧3 ] 𝐷=0
0 0 1 0
𝑧4

State equation is given as

x  Ax  Bu
And the output is
y  Cx  Du

Taking Laplace transform of both above equations yield

sX ( s)  AX ( s)  BU ( s)
Y ( s)  CX ( s)  DU ( s)

Expressing state equation in term of output equation, we

X ( s )  ( s  A) 1 BU ( s )

Y ( s )  C ( s  A) 1 BU ( s )  DU ( s ) 
The transition matrix,   ( s  A) 1
Thus, the transfer function is
Y (s)  CB  DU (s)

 CB  D
Y ( s)
U ( s)
  s 0  2 0  1 1 
 1 1 
Y (s)
      0
U (s)  0 s   K 1  0 

  s  2 0   1 
1

 1 1 
Y (s)
     0
U (s)    K s  1  0 
 s  1 0  1 
 1 1
Y ( s) 1
   
U ( s)  ( s  2)( s  1)  K s  2 0 
s 1
Y ( s)

1
1 1 
U ( s) ( s  2)( s  1)  K 
Y (s) K  ( s  1)

U ( s) ( s  2)( s  1)

2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAMS MANIPULATION

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A control system can be represented in block diagrams to show the relationships that exist among its
various components and their functions. It can be used together with the transfer function to describe
the cause-effect relationships throughout the system. In general, block diagrams can be used to model
linear as well as nonlinear systems.

Transfer Function
Input, r(t) G(s)
Output, c(t)

Figure 3.1: Element of a block diagram

Simple Rules of Block Diagram Algebra

i. Transfer operator in series.

Consider a system with two blocks in series

α1 α2 α3
G1 G2
3
The simplified block diagram is

α1 α3
G1 G2

Mathematically,
 2  G11 (i)

 3  G2 2 (ii)
Substituting (i) into (ii) gives rise to;
 3  G2 G11 
3
 G1G2
1

ii. Transfer operator in parallel

Consider a system with two blocks in parallel

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 α1 α2 α4
G1(s)
+
+ α3
G2(s)
3
The simplified block diagram is

α1 α4
G1(s)+G2(s)

Mathematically,
 2  G11 (i)

 3  G21 (ii)

 4  2  3 (ii)
Substituting (i) and (ii) into (iii) gives rise to;
 4  G11  G21
4
 G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )
1

iii. Transfer operator in feedback

Consider a system with two blocks in feedback

α1 α4
+ α2
G(s)
- α3
H(s)
3
The simplified block diagram is

α1 α4
G (s)
1  G (s) H (s)

Mathematically,
 4  G 2 (i)

 3  H 4 (ii)
The error signal is
 2  1   3 (ii)

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 Substituting (iii) and (ii) into (i) gives rise to;
 4  G 1   3 
 4  G1  G 3
 4  G1  GH 4
1  GH  4  G1
4 G(s)

1 1  G ( s ) H ( s )

iv. Important rules for block diagram reduction

AG x1
A AG-B A AG-B
G(s) +- +- G(s)
B
1/G(s) B
3

A AG A AG
G(s) G(s)

AG AG
G(s)
3

A AG A AG
G(s) G(s)

1 A 1/G(s) A

A B A
X1 X2 B
+- G1(s) 1/G2(s) +- G1(s) G2(s)
3

G2(s)
3

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