Power Transformer Short-Circuit Impedance and Leakage Reactance

Application Note
Power Transformer Short-Circuit Impedance / Leakage

Reactance
Author
Alexander Herrera | alexander.herrera@omicronenergy.com>
Lukas Klingenschmid | lukas.klingenschmid@omicronenergy.com>
Date
Feb 01, 2017
Related OMICRON Product

CPC 100
Application Area
Power Transformer Testing
Keywords
CPC 100, Power Transformer, Short-Circuit Impedance, Leakage Reactance, Sequencer
Version
V2.0
Document ID
ANP_10003_ENU
General information
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© OMICRON 2017. All rights reserved. This application note is a publication of OMICRON.
© OMICRON 2017 Page 2 of 41

Table of contents
1 Safety instructions ................................................................................................................................5

2 Using this Document .............................................................................................................................5
2.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards ...............................................................................6
2.2 Safety measures .............................................................................................................................6
2.3 Related documents .........................................................................................................................7
2.4 Safety Rules ...................................................................................................................................7
3 Used Symbols ........................................................................................................................................8
4 Safety Instructions for Connecting the CPC 100 to the Test Setup .................................................9
4.1 Before Starting ................................................................................................................................9
5 Recommended Output Settings ........................................................................................................ 10
6 Short-Circuit Impedance Measurements on Power Transformers ................................................ 11
6.1 Why Short-Circuit Impedance Measurements? ........................................................................... 11
6.2 Theory and background ............................................................................................................... 11
6.3 Short-circuit impedance test at rated frequency .......................................................................... 13
6.3.1 Comparison of Power Losses ......................................................................................................... 14
6.3.2 Comparison of Leakage Reactances .............................................................................................. 14
6.3.3 Difference between factory and on-side results .............................................................................. 14
6.3.4 Deviation Limits............................................................................................................................... 15
6.4 Frequency Response of Stray Losses (FRSL) ............................................................................ 16
7 Methods ............................................................................................................................................... 17
7.1 Short-circuit impedance measurement – three-phase injection .................................................. 17
7.2 Short-circuit impedance measurement – Single phase injection................................................. 18
7.2.1 Three-phase equivalent test ........................................................................................................... 18
7.3 Short-circuit impedance calculation for star winding configuration ............................................. 19
7.4 Per-phase test ............................................................................................................................. 22
8 Performing Measurements ................................................................................................................ 23
8.1 Preparing the Transformer Under Test ........................................................................................ 23
8.2 Cross-section of short-circuit lead ............................................................................................... 24
8.3 Estimation for the cross-section of the short-circuit lead ............................................................. 26
8.3.1 Example – Calculation based on FAT Report and/or nameplate values ......................................... 26
8.3.2 Winding resistance calculation ........................................................................................................ 26
8.3.3 Round conductor resistance calculation ......................................................................................... 27
8.3.4 Copper bar resistance calculation ................................................................................................... 27
8.4 Performing the Three-Phase Equivalent Test ............................................................................. 28

8.4.1 Connecting the Three-Phase Equivalent Test ................................................................................ 28
8.4.2 Connecting the Measurement Setup to the CPC 100 ..................................................................... 29
8.4.3 Preparing the CPC 100 Template ................................................................................................... 30
8.4.4 Starting the Test.............................................................................................................................. 32
8.5 Performing the Per-Phase Test ................................................................................................... 33
8.5.1 Connecting the Per-Phase Test ...................................................................................................... 33
8.5.2 Starting the Test.............................................................................................................................. 35
9 Interpretation of Measurement Results ............................................................................................ 36
9.1 Loading the Test Results into Excel ............................................................................................ 36
9.2 Test Results ................................................................................................................................. 37
9.2.1 FRSL / AC Resistance Sheet: Rk(f) ................................................................................................ 38
9.2.2 Short-Circuit Inductance Sheet: Lk(f) .............................................................................................. 39
10 Figures ................................................................................................................................................. 40

1 Safety instructions
This application note may only be used in conjunction with the relevant product manuals which contain all
safety instructions. The user is fully responsible for any application that makes use of OMICRON products.
Instructions are always characterized by a  symbol even if they are included in a safety instruction.
DANGER
Death or severe injury caused by high-voltage or current if the respective
protective measures are not complied with.
 Carefully read the contents of these instructions as well as the manuals of

the devices involved before taking them into operation.
 Contact OMICRON Support if you have any questions or doubts regarding
the safety or operating instructions.
 Follow the instructions listed in the manuals, particularly the safety
instructions, since this is the only way to avoid danger that can occur when
working on high-voltage or high current systems.
 Only use the equipment according to its intended purpose to guarantee safe
operation.
 Existing national safety standards for accident prevention and
environmental protection may supplement the equipment’s manual.
Only experienced and competent professionals who are trained for working in high-voltage or high current
environments may perform the applications in this document. In addition, the following qualifications are
required:
• Authorized to work in environments of energy generation, transmission or distribution and familiar
with the approved operating practices in such environments.
• Familiar with the five safety rules.
• Good knowledge of the CPC 100.
2 Using this Document

Using the Power Transformer Short-Circuit Impedance Template, you can quickly measure the short-circuit
impedance and hence also the leakage inductance or leakage reactance of power transformers.
Graphical display provides a well-arranged overview of the measured values. This document guides you
through the whole testing process.
Reading the AN CP0901 Application Note alone does not release you from the duty of complying with all
national and international safety regulations relevant to working with the CPC 100.
The regulation EN 50191 "The Erection and Operation of Electrical Test Equipment" as well as all the
applicable regulations for accident prevention in the country and at the site of operation must be fulfilled.

2.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards
Working on HV devices is extremely dangerous. Measurements must only be carried out by qualified, skilled
and authorized personnel. Before starting any work, clearly establish the responsibilities. Personnel
receiving training, instructions, directions or education on the measurement setup must be under the
constant supervision of an experienced operator while working with the equipment.
The operator is responsible for the safety requirements during the whole test. Before performing tests using
high-voltage, read the following:
• Do not perform any test without having carefully read the CPC 100 User and Reference Manuals.
• In particular, read all safety instructions and follow them.
• Do not use the test equipment without a good connection to ground.
The measurement must comply with the relevant national and international safety standards listed below:
• EN 50191 (VDE 0104) "Erection and Operation of Electrical Equipment".
• EN 50110-1 (VDE 0105 Part 100) "Operation of Electrical Installations".
• IEEE 510 "Recommended Practices for Safety in High-Voltage and High-Power Testing".
• LAPG 1710.6 NASA "Electrical Safety".
Moreover, additional relevant laws and internal safety standards must be followed.
2.2 Safety measures
Before starting a measurement, read the safety rules in the CPC 100 User, as well as the Reference,
Manuals and observe the application specific safety instructions in this application note when
performing measurements to protect yourself from high-voltage hazards.

2.3 Related documents
The following documents complete the information covered in this Application Note:
Title Description
Provides basic information on the CPC 100 test system and relevant
CPC 100 User Manual
safety instructions.
Contains information on how to use the CPC 100 test system and
CPC 100 Reference Manual
relevant safety instructions.
Provides basic information on the CPC 100 test system used with the
CPC 100 PTM User Manual
Primary Test Manager software.
AN CP0711: Test Templates General information about working with templates for the CPC 100
IEEE C57.12.90 Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Power Transformers.
IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power

IEEE C57.152
Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors
IEEE 62 Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus
IEC 60076-1 International Standard for Power Transformers
2.4 Safety Rules
Before starting a measurement, read the safety rules in the CPC 100 User- and Reference Manual carefully
and observe the application-specific safety instructions in this Application Note when performing
measurements to protect yourself from high-voltage hazards.
General
Always observe the five safety rules:
 Disconnect completely
 Secure against re-connection
 Verify that the installation is dead
 Carry out grounding and short-circuiting
 Provide protection against adjacent live parts
CAUTION
Minor or moderate injury may occur if the appropriate safety instructions are
not observed.
 Caution: Never touch any terminal without a visible ground connection!

3 Used Symbols
DANGER
Death or severe injury will occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.
WARNING
Death or severe injury can occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.
CAUTION
Minor or moderate injury may occur if the appropriate safety instructions are
not observed.
NOTICE
Equipment damage or loss of data possible.

4 Safety Instructions for Connecting the CPC 100 to the Test
Setup
4.1 Before Starting
DANGER
Death or severe injury will occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.
 Do not enter the high-voltage area while working with the CPC 100
 Do not enter the high-voltage area if the red warning light of the CPC 100 is
on since all outputs carry dangerous voltage current.
 Never touch any terminal without a visible ground connection.
 Always obey the five safety rules and follow the detailed safety instructions
in the respective user manuals.
 Always establish a proper ground connection for the CPC 100 and the
device under test (Power Transformer).
 Beware of nearby parallel systems which are not disconnected. They can
induce hazardous loads in floating segments of a substation.
 Always touch the leads and terminals with a grounding hook first.
WARNING
observed.
 Make sure that both sides of the transformer are completely disconnected
 Use a short-circuit lead of an appropriate cross-section to prevent an
unwanted heat production of the short-circuit lead
 Be aware of hot short-circuit lead surfaces

5 Recommended Output Settings
WARNING
observed.
 For the test current supply, use the 6 A / 130 V AC output in 3 A AC mode
by default. However, in this mode the output voltage can rise up to 240 V.
Consequently, be careful when you switch on the CPC 100.
The recommended test current is 2 A.
Depending on the measured voltage, higher current values can be set.

The maximum specified voltage settling range of the 6 A / 130 V AC output is 150 V.
Note: The measured impedance increases with the frequency. If the injected current is too high, the output
voltage exceeds the maximum output voltage, and the CPC 100 indicates an overload.
However, the test results are valid because the CPC 100 still measures the correct impedance values.
Impedance [Ω] Recommended test current [A] Expected test voltage [V]
0.0 Ω - 20 Ω 6A 0 V (@ 0 Ω) – 120 V (@ 20 Ω)
20 Ω - 30 Ω 5A 100 V (@ 20 Ω) – 150 V (@ 30 Ω)
30 Ω - 50 Ω 3A 90 V (@ 30 Ω) – 150 V (@ 50 Ω)
50 Ω - 75 Ω 2A 100 V (@ 50 Ω) – 150 V (@ 75 Ω)
75 Ω - 150 Ω 1A 75 V (@ 75 Ω) – 150 V (@ 150 Ω)
150 Ω - 300 Ω 0.5 A 75 V (@ 150 Ω) – 150 V (@ 300 Ω)

6 Short-Circuit Impedance Measurements on Power
Transformers
6.1 Why Short-Circuit Impedance Measurements?
There are typical problems inside a power transformer that can be detected with a short-circuit impedance
measurement, such as
 Winding movement or deformation caused by heavy-fault current.
 Mechanical damage during transportation.
 Broken fixation elements.
 Short-circuit between two or more parallel strands.
As the impedance values do not depend on the applied voltage, the measurement can be performed by
using a low-power source.
6.2 Theory and background
A conductor carrying an electrical current has a mechanical force which acts on the winding in a direction as
per the Lorenz force law (right-hand rule).
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
𝐹𝐿 = 𝐼 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 𝑥 𝐵
This force can be much higher during operation in the event of short-circuits. These forces can mechanically
deform windings, spacers and the core which do not immediately affect the performance of a power
transformer. Nonetheless, sooner or later it can lead to overheating and a breakdown.
For this reason, a short-circuit impedance test should be performed after short-circuits.
Equivalent circuit diagram:

effective resistance and reactance
Leakage flux Forces

Forces in a transformer,
10 kV 220 kV
winding especially in the case a
winding
short circuit, can damage
Figure 1 – Forces in a transformer
windings and the core

A solid short-circuit lead is used to connect all phases of one transformer together without the neutral point.
The impedance of the lead will add to the short-circuit impedance of the transformer and consequently
impact on the readings. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to use a low-ohmic and low-inductive short-
circuit lead to minimize its influence on the measurement results.
Figure 2 – Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer with a short-circuit on the LV side. The main compnents Xh and RFe are
neglected.
The elements 𝑅𝑘,1 and 𝑅𝑘,2 represent the resistive part of the short-circuit impedance whereas the elements
𝑋𝑘,1 and 𝑋𝑘,2 describe the stray-flux of the HV and LV side, respectively.
The impedance of the short-circuit cable is depicted as 𝑅𝑠𝑐 and 𝑋𝑠𝑐 .
2 2
𝑍𝐾 = √𝑅𝑘 2 + 𝑋𝑘 2 = √(𝑅𝑘,1 + 𝑅𝑘,2 ∗ + 𝑅𝑠𝑐 ∗ ) + (𝑋𝑘,1 + 𝑋𝑘,2 ∗ + 𝑋𝑠𝑐 ∗ )
Note: The short-circuit lead can be applied either to the LV or HV side. In contrast, the injection is always
done from the non-shorted side. In addition, the correct tap position of the OLTC has to be selected.

6.3 Short-circuit impedance test at rated frequency
A three-phase transformer can be tested using a single-phase power source by applying the voltage to each
of the two terminals of the non-short-circuited windings.
Three successive measurements have to be conducted for all three phases at rated frequency.
Figure 3 – Single-phase equivalent circuit of a power transformer
With the test result the overall impedance (%Z) of the transformer can be calculated by taking the average
of all three values, considering the vector group of the measured side.
The results can be compared to the rated impedance of the transformer (three-phase equivalent test), or
with former measurements. Additionally, the three phases can also be compared to each other (per-phase
test).

6.3.1 Comparison of Power Losses
The factory test of a power transformer, which determines the value on the nameplate, is usually carried out
by using three-phase excitation at 100% or 50% of the rated current.
Notably, the difference between the nominal current versus the lower test current with the CPC 100 during
the on-site test setup will highly affect the measured ohmic losses (Pk).
The sum of the I²R and stray losses will be lower compared to the short-circuit impedance test performed
with 50% or 100% of the rated current.
Therefore, it is hard to compare factory losses with losses measured in the field.
6.3.2 Comparison of Leakage Reactances
The leakage reactance test method is based on the comparison with only the reactive part (Lk) of the
impedances. Unlike the measured ohmic losses, which can highly deviate from the factory losses, the
reactance can deliver a reliable statement on the transformer condition.
The leakage flux path is going through the iron core and the unit permeability space (air/liquid). The
magnetic reluctance resp. magnetic resistance is mainly determined by the air/liquid space. This produces a
linear relationship between current and leakage flux.
The leakage reactance is mainly independent from the test current. A test current with some amperes
compared to the nominal load current will produce the same leakage reactance (within a margin of error).
This allows the comparison of factory-measured short-circuit impedance with on-side measured leakage
reactance.
Note: In most cases, information about the leakage reactance (%X) is not given on the power transformer
nameplate. You have to draw upon former measurements, or you can compare the phases with each other.
In some cases, %X can be identified with %Z when Rk is very small in comparison to Xk.
The tests needs to be performed on the same OLTC / DETC tap position to be able to compare the
measurement results indicated by the nameplate or the fingerprint results
6.3.3 Difference between factory and on-side results
Due to the influence of the various test instruments and measurements setups, as well the different flux
distribution between three- and single phase excitation, variances between factory and on-site measurement
results can be produced.
Nevertheless, you can use the factory impedance nameplate as a guideline for a fingerprint measurement
on-site.
Further measurements can be compared with the FAT report as well the fingerprint measurement in the
field. But it needs to be taken into account that the FAT measurement results may include possible results
deviations compared to the on-site test, especially in terms of the ohmic- and power losses.

6.3.4 Deviation Limits
According to IEEE Std. C57.152, there are two methods for performing impedance tests on three-phase
power transformers: the three-phase equivalent test, which compares the measured values with the
nameplate, and the per-phase test, which compares the windings with each other. The three-phase
equivalent test should be within 3% of the nameplate value.
The per-phase test should be within 3% of the average value of all phases.
A change in the short-circuit impedance of the transformer indicates a possible winding movement.
A change of ± 2% is usually not considered as significant.

If the short-circuit impedance changes from 6% to 6.5%, then this could be considered as significant as this
corresponds to a change of around 8%.
Another interpretation possibility for the deviations is given in the following flow chart.
Figure 4 – Interpreting the test results

6.4 Frequency Response of Stray Losses (FRSL)
With the CPC 100 the impedance measurement can be performed at several frequencies up to 400 Hz. A
frequency response analysis of the short-circuit impedance provides more information about the condition of
the windings.
The short-circuit impedance of a transformer at different frequencies can be modelled with an
inductance Xk = w * Lk, a DC resistance Rk,DC of the windings, and an additional resistance Rk,AC
connected in series.
The transformer windings are exposed to stray flux, which induces eddy currents in the windings. These
additional losses can be modelled with an additional AC resistance, which is proportional to the frequency.
Rk,AC (f) Rk,DC Xk

Ik(f)
~ Uk
Figure 5 – Single-phase equivalent circuit at several frequencies
Unlike the normal impedance test, the FRSL

diagnosis is based on a comparison of the AC
resistance curves. The comparison can be
established with a similar transformer or with a
previous test performed on the same
transformer. High deviations between the phases
can be an indication of faults in the winding, such
as a short-circuit between two parallel strands.
Figure 6 – Frequency sweep of the short-circuit measurement

7 Methods
7.1 Short-circuit impedance measurement – three-phase injection
The three-phase short-circuit impedance measurement is performed to obtain the relative short-circuit
voltage 𝑢𝑘 [%]. A short-circuit should be prepared on one side of the transformer as described above. In
contrast to the single phase measurement [1] a three-phase current system is applied to the transformer
terminals. Thus, the three impedances 𝑍𝐴 , 𝑍𝐵 and 𝑍𝐶 are obtained which represent the positive (and
negative) sequence impedances of each phase (Figure 7 - Three-phase current injection while a short-circuit
is applied at the LV side of transformer).
The impedances 𝑍𝐵 and 𝑍𝐶 can be calculated analogously. Finally, the relative short-circuit impedance can
be calculated to:
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐶 𝑆𝑁
𝑢𝑘 [%] = ∗ 2
3 𝑈𝑁
Where 𝑆𝑁 represents the nominal apparent power and 𝑈𝑁 the nominal line-to-line voltage of the
transformer. If the measurement is performed on the HV side (namely the LV side is shorted) 𝑈𝑁 is the
nominal HV voltage on the specific tap position. For a measurement performed on the LV side, the
corresponding voltage rating of the LV side has to be entered.
Figure 7 - Three-phase current injection while a short-circuit is applied at the LV side of transformer

7.2 Short-circuit impedance measurement – Single phase injection
7.2.1 Three-phase equivalent test

In general, one side of the transformer is short-circuited during this test.
From the other side of the transformer a test current is injected to measure the impedance.
The test can be performed at a wider frequency range (for example, from 15 - 400 Hz) which provides further
information.
1U 2U
A
~ V
1V 2V
1W 2W
1N 2N
Figure 8 – Three-phase equivalent test
Comparison to factory test results. Injection from phase-phase.
Only phases are short circuited!

7.3 Short-circuit impedance calculation for star winding configuration
For a star system, the line current is the same as the phase to phase current and the line voltage is the
phase voltage divided by √3.
𝑈𝑝ℎ 𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ = = 𝑈𝑝ℎ =
𝑍𝑏 √3∗𝑍𝑏 √3
Uph
IL = Iph
UL
Figure 9 - Current and voltage distribution for a star winding configuration
From the voltage and current values, the apparent power can be calculated. √3 needs to be added as the
formula is based on a three-phase system.
𝑈𝐿 𝑈𝐿2
𝑆 = √3 ∗ 𝑈𝐿 ∗ 𝐼𝐿 = √3 ∗ 𝑈𝐿 ∗ =
√3∗𝑍𝑏 𝑍𝑏
In the power systems analysis field of electrical engineering, a per-unit system (pu) is the expression of
system quantities as fractions of a defined base unit quantity. Calculations are simplified because quantities
expressed as per-unit do not change when they are referred from one side of a transformer to the other.
𝑍′
𝑍𝑝𝑢 =
𝑍𝑏

On each of the three measurements, the impedance values of two phases are determined.
Z’
A
~ V Z’
Z’
Figure 10 – Single-phase measurement setup
1
𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 = 2 ∗ 𝑍 ′ → 𝑍 ′ = ∗ 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠
2
Due to the fact that the three-phase-equivalent measurement is performed on a star winding, the average
impedance of the three measurement results is calculated.
1 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑈1𝑉) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑉1𝑊) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑊1𝑈)

𝑍′ = ∗[ ]
2 3
1 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑈1𝑉) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑉1𝑊) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑊1𝑈)

∗
𝑍 ′
2 [ 3 ]
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = =
𝑍𝑏 𝑈𝐿2
𝑆
𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑈1𝑉) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑉1𝑊) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑊1𝑈)

𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝑆 ∗
6 ∗ 𝑈𝐿2

If the value is to be expressed as a percentage, it needs to be multiplied with 100.
𝑍 [%] = 𝑍𝑝𝑢 ∗ 100
If using SN in kVA and UN in kV, then the following formula shall be used:
1 𝑆𝑁
𝑍 [%] = ∗ [𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑈1𝑉) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑉1𝑊) + 𝑍𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 (1𝑊1𝑈) ] ∗
60 𝑈𝐿2
Note: For delta windings, the end formula is exactly the same, but the mathematical derivation is slightly
different.
Three phase short-circuit impedance measurement
𝑍𝐴𝐵 − 𝑍𝐵𝐶 + 𝑍𝐶𝐴

=
2
Calculation impedances (𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵) − (𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐶) + (𝑍𝐶 + 𝑍𝐴)
=
2
2 ∗ 𝑍𝐴
= 𝑍𝐴
2
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑍𝐶 𝑆𝑁
Relative short-circuit impedance 𝑢𝑘 [%] = ∗ 2
3 𝑈𝑁

7.4 Per-phase test
For the per-phase test, it’s important to only short the corresponding terminals (vector group!). Otherwise the
winding components of the other phases will falsify the result.
1U 2U
A
~ V
1V 2V
1W 2W
1N 2N
Figure 11 – Phase per phase connection diagram
For winding diagnosis (phase to phase comparison)
Only the corresponding transformer leg is shorted!
The per-phase test shall initially be performed for a phase to phase comparison as it should provide a
fingerprint for future analysis.
It can be very useful to examine the individual windings.
The three-phase equivalent test calculates the average of all three phases and compares them with the
nameplate values. Due to averaging, it may be possible that certain results are masked.
The difference between the single per-phase results and the average of the three per-phase results should
be in the range of 3%.

8 Performing Measurements
8.1 Preparing the Transformer Under Test
WARNING
observed.
 Make sure that the transformer is not connected to the mains supply
 Touch every single terminal first with a grounding hook prior connecting any
measurement cables
 Use a short-circuit lead with an appropriate cross-section
Note: The tap changer has to be set on the right side in order to achieve a correct measurement.
During factory test, the current is normally applied to the high-voltage side of the transformer by a three-
phase power source, whereas the three line leads of the low-voltage windings are short-circuited. According
to IEEE Std. C57.152, an on-site test can be performed with a single-phase power source by feeding two of
the three line leads at a time, and measuring the impedance. The test has to be repeated for every
combination of pairs of line leads.
It has to be considered that the winding resistance of the transformer can be very low (µΩ to mΩ).
The contact between the leads and the terminals must have a very low resistance.
Figure 12 – Overall resistance of a short-circuit connection between two terminals

8.2 Cross-section of short-circuit lead
The required cross-section of the short-circuit cable depends on the transformer size or voltage level.
It can be observed during a measurement whether the conducted short-circuit is appropriate or not.
Power transformers are more or less of an inductive nature.
This corresponds to a phase shift between applied current and measured voltage which should be in the
range of +90°.
If the phase angle is becoming more resistive (for example, + 70°), the measurement results may be heavily
influenced by the short-circuit cable as the resistance value of the short-circuit cable could be higher
compared to the power transformer winding resistance.
Increased Rk and watt losses values can also be an indication of an inappropriate short-circuit lead cross-
section.
Figure 13 – Short-circuit impedance results
Phase A & C – 2.5 mm² cross-section
Phase B – 50 mm² cross-section
Figure 14 – Short-circuit impedance plot view

Phase A & B –Cross-section = 2.5 mm² Phase B – Cross-section = 50 mm²
Figure 16 – SB1 2.5 mm² short-circuit cable

Figure 15 – 50 mm² short-circuit cable
Note 1: Generally, the higher the cable cross-section, the smaller the resistance of the short-circuit lead. The
longer the length of the short-circuit lead, the higher the resistance.
Note 2: The IEEE C57-152 standard recommends the following in section 7.2.12.2 “Leakage reactance:
three-phase equivalent test for short-circuit impedance:
Preparation: Conductors used for short circuiting the transformer windings should be low-impedance
conductors having a cross-section equal to, or greater than No. 1 AWG. They should be as short as possible
and be kept away from magnetic masses. Contacts should be clean and tight. These precautions are of
importance in avoiding extraneous impedance voltages and losses that might otherwise be introduced into
the measurements.
1 x AWG corresponds to a cross-section of 42.4 mm².
Recommendation: In most cases a short-circuit lead with a cross section between 50 mm² and 90 mm²
should be sufficient. As an alternative, a copper bar can also be used for the short-circuit connection. This
results in an even lower resistance value (in most cases), due to the bigger overall volume.
Note 3: The application guide from ABB “Test of power transformers and shunt reactors – Routine, type and
special tests” recommends the following:
The short-circuit connection lead shall be short and cross-section large (rule of thumb: 1-2 A / mm²).
8.3 Estimation for the cross-section of the short-circuit lead
To estimate the required short-circuit lead cross-section, the winding resistance of the affected terminal side
is necessary. There are several options to obtain this information:
 From the Factory Acceptance Test Report (FAT Report).
 From Test reports.
 From (previous) measurement results.
 Calculation based on FAT Report and/or nameplate values.
8.3.1 Example – Calculation based on FAT Report and/or nameplate values
Often the RI² losses are stated in the FAT report for 20°C, such as:
RI² losses in primary windings at 20°C = 21675 W

RI² losses in secondary windings(Delta connection) at 20°C = 25519 W
Total direct load losses at 20°C = 47194
From the FAT report or the nameplate, the nominal primary and secondary current values can be obtained
Nominal primary current = 212.2 A

Nominal secondary current = 11431 A
8.3.2 Winding resistance calculation
With the information regarding the RI² losses and the nominal current values, it is possible to perform a
calculation for the expected resistance values of the power transformer.
𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝐼2 → 𝑅 =
𝐼2
𝑃 21675 𝑊
Resistance primary winding − 𝑅 = = = 0.48Ω
𝐼2 212.2 𝐴 ∗ 212.2 𝐴
𝑃 25519 𝑊
Resistance secondary winding − 𝑅 = 2
= = 195 𝜇Ω
𝐼 11431 𝐴 ∗ 11431 𝐴

8.3.3 Round conductor resistance calculation
The calculated/stated winding resistance values can be compared with the usual resistance values for the
short-circuit lead depending on the cross-section.
For a solid round conductor, the following equation can be used to obtain an accurate estimation regarding
the expected resistance value of the short-circuit lead.
𝑙 𝑙
𝑅 = 𝜌∗ = 𝜌∗ 2
𝐴 𝑟 ∗π
For a 4 mm² short-circuit lead with a length of 1m, the resistance would be the following:
𝑙 −8
1𝑚
𝑅 = 𝜌∗ = 1.68 ∗ 10 Ω𝑚 ∗ = 𝟒. 𝟐 𝒎Ω
𝑟2 ∗ π 4 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
For a 70 mm² short-circuit lead with a length of 1m, the resistance would be the following:
𝑙 −8
1𝑚
𝑅 = 𝜌∗ = 1.68 ∗ 10 Ω𝑚 ∗ = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 µΩ
𝑟2 ∗ π 70 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2
Ω 𝑚2
Note 1: Copper has a resistivity ρ of 1.68 ∗ 10−8 .
𝑚
Note 2: The skin effect was not considered.
8.3.4 Copper bar resistance calculation
It can be seen from the equation above that, for example, a conductor with a cross-section of 70 mm² would
result in a resistance value of around 240 µΩ per m.
The short-circuit lead has a 20% higher resistance value compared to the calculated secondary winding
resistance value from point 1.
In such a case, a 70 mm² short-circuit lead would be inappropriate, because the results from the short-circuit
impedance measurement would be influenced by the high resistance of the short-circuit lead.
Either a higher cable cross-section could be used, which may not always be available, or alternatively a
copper bar.
With the copper bar length (for example, 1m), width (10 cm) and depth (for example, 5 cm), the expected
resistance value can be calculated as follows:
𝑙 1𝑚
𝑅 = 𝜌∗ = 1.68 ∗ 10−8 Ω𝑚 ∗ = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟖 𝝁Ω
𝐴 10 𝑚𝑚 ∗ 100 𝑚𝑚

8.4 Performing the Three-Phase Equivalent Test
The CPC 100 template provides two different tests, which can be performed independently from each other.
While the three-phase equivalent test is the common test used for comparing the results with the nameplate
values, the per-phase test provides more information about the condition of each winding.
8.4.1 Connecting the Three-Phase Equivalent Test
To short-circuit the three terminals on the low-voltage side, three equal and large leads have to be used.
Ideally, the leads are arranged radially from a common fixation. The fixation is not connected to any terminal
and this common point is not grounded. The neutral terminals, if any, are not used.
Figure 17 – Top view on a short-circuited power transformer

8.4.2 Connecting the Measurement Setup to the CPC 100
For the current supply, the 6 A / 130 V AC output is used. Connect the output with the I AC input as shown
in Figure 18 – Connecting the CPC 100 to the power transformer terminals: Connecting the voltage inputs to
the transformer terminals. Connect the current leads with clamps to the high-voltage winding terminals.
Connect the V1 AC input with the terminals using the four-wire measuring technique. Check the measuring
inputs for correct polarity.
High-voltage test area
Figure 18 – Connecting the CPC 100 to the power transformer terminals
Note: The distance between the device under test (DUT) to the edge of the high-voltage test area shall be a
minimum of 1.5 m / 5 ft.

8.4.3 Preparing the CPC 100 Template
First, you have to prepare the template "Transformer Short Circuit Impedance".
Load the template by clicking the File Operations button (1), choose the file "TR_Zk_50Hz.xmt" (2) for
transformers with 50 Hz, or "TR_Zk_60Hz.xmt" for transformers with 60 Hz as rated frequency, and click
Open (3).
(1)(1)
(2) (3)
Figure 19 – Opening the test template

The required blank test cards for the measurement will appear.
The transformer information has to be entered into the first test card TR Data. The information is needed for
the template to calculate the deviations from the nominal values.
Figure 20 – Opening the test
Note: For a correct calculation of the impedances, the following data entries are mandatory: S
[kVA]: kVA rating in kVA
 V HV [V]: voltage rating high-voltage side in V
 V LV [V]: voltage rating low-voltage side in V
 u_k [%]: (50 Hz template) / %Z [%]: (60 Hz template) impedance voltage / %Z in %
 P_k [W]: power dissipation during short-circuit test with rated current. Often, this information is not
available.
NOTICE
 Caution: The information can also be filled in afterwards but make sure you
have all the data about the transformer you need. You must not change the
abbreviations or the Excel template will not work properly.
 The other entries are optional but they will appear on the test report sheet of
the Excel template.

8.4.4 Starting the Test
Three successive measurements have to be performed for the test. Therefore, the template has prepared
three test cards Zk AB, Zk BC and Zk AC. For each card, a combination of two winding terminals have to be
chosen (for example: H1 and H2, H2 and H3, H1 and H3). The neutral terminals of the transformer are
normally not involved.
Figure 21 – Test card for the first measurement
After having connected everything properly, the measurement will take place at the rated frequency and at
several other frequencies for FRSL diagnostics.
By starting the measurement with the first measuring test card Zk AB the CPC 100 will perform the test at
1 A by default and at several frequencies automatically. The test will last 30 seconds.
After the test card has finished, the next two terminal combinations have to be connected, and the second
measuring test card Zk BC has to be chosen in the CPC 100. The same procedure has to be applied to
Zk AC.

NOTICE
 Caution: Do not forget to save your data once you have completed all
measurements and before you switch off the CPC 100.
 You can also skip this test and continue with the per-phase test if you only
want to perform the per-phase test.
8.5 Performing the Per-Phase Test
8.5.1 Connecting the Per-Phase Test
The per-phase test can be useful in further examining the individual windings. The test is performed by the
excitation and measurement of each individual winding on the high-voltage side, whereas the corresponding
winding on the low-voltage side is short-circuited.
Figure 22 – Short-circuit of one low voltage winding
Note: The differences to the three-phase equivalent test: only one winding at a time is short-circuited on the
low-voltage side and the neutral terminals are involved in the measurement.

High-voltage test area
Figure 23 - Connecting the CPC 100 to the power transformer terminals (Example is a YNd11 power transformer)
Note: The distance between the device under test (power transformer) to the edge of the high-voltage test
area shall be a minimum of 1.5 m / 5 ft.

8.5.2 Starting the Test
After the three-phase equivalent test cards, further test cards Zk A, Zk B and Zk C are prepared to perform
the per-phase test. The measurement configurations for the CPC 100 remain the same as in the
three-phase equivalent test cards. Perform the measurement for each winding as described.
NOTICE
 Caution: You can also skip the test if you only want to perform a
three-phase equivalent test.

9 Interpretation of Measurement Results
9.1 Loading the Test Results into Excel
To evaluate the test, a special Excel Template File Loader is available in your OMICRON folder.
Transfer your test file "…xml" from the CPC 100 onto your computer and open it with the Microsoft Excel
template from the Start Page.
Figure 24 – Locating the Microsoft Excel template in the CPC 100 Start Page
Figure 25 – Locating the Microsoft Excel template on the CPC Start Page

9.2 Test Results
Once you have loaded the test file into the Excel template, the results are shown on the first three Excel
sheets ‘Calculation of Zk, Rk(f) and Lk(f)’. If the transformer data has not yet been entered, it can be done in
the Excel Test Report sheet ‘Factory Test’ (see Figure 26: Test result - comparison with the factory test) or
on the TR Data sheet.
Figure 26 – Test results compared with the factory test
The Calculation of Zk sheet summarizes both the three-phase equivalent and the per-phase test results.
First, you have to configure the calculations by stating the vector group of the measured side at the top of
the report. If you know the measurement temperature and the reference temperature, you can also state the
values and the sheet considers a correction factor, according to IEC 76-1, for the measured winding
resistance.
The deviations of the measured impedances from the factory test are calculated. A change in the short-
circuit impedance of the transformer indicates a possible winding movement within the transformer.
Changes of ±2% of the short-circuit impedance are usually not considered significant. Changes of more
than ±3% of the short-circuit impedance should be considered significant.
If you have performed a per-phase test too, the sheet shows you the results with the maximum deviation
from the average of the three phases. Also refer to Figure 4– Interpreting the test results for assessment.

9.2.1 FRSL / AC Resistance Sheet: Rk(f)
The Rk(f) sheet shows the frequency sweep of the AC resistance. The phases can be compared with each
other. Significant changes between the curve progressions may indicate a short-circuit in parallel strands of
the windings.
Figure 27 – Example result for significant faults in Phase C
The figure above shows the test result of a faulty transformer. At higher frequencies, differences between
the curve progressions can be seen quite clearly.

9.2.2 Short-Circuit Inductance Sheet: Lk(f)
The Lk(f) sheet shows the results of the inductance measurement. The value which must remain with only a
slight decrease in frequency may be an indication of whether the test has been proceeding correctly.
Figure 28 – Frequency sweep of the short-circuit inductance

10 Figures
Figure 1 – Forces in a transformer ...................................................................................................................11
Figure 2 – Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer with a short-circuit on the LV side. The main
compnents Xh and RFe are neglected. ...........................................................................................................12
Figure 3 – Single-phase equivalent circuit of a power transformer..................................................................13
Figure 4 – Interpreting the test results .............................................................................................................15
Figure 5 – Single-phase equivalent circuit at several frequencies ..................................................................16
Figure 6 – Frequency sweep of the short-circuit measurement.......................................................................16
Figure 7 - Three-phase current injection while a short-circuit is applied at the LV side of transformer ...........17
Figure 8 – Three-phase equivalent test ...........................................................................................................18
Figure 9 - Current and voltage distribution for a star winding configuration ...................................................19
Figure 10 – Single-phase measurement setup ................................................................................................20
Figure 11 – Phase per phase connection diagram ..........................................................................................22
Figure 12 – Overall resistance of a short-circuit connection between two terminals .......................................23
Figure 13 – Short-circuit impedance results ....................................................................................................24
Figure 14 – Short-circuit impedance plot view .................................................................................................24
Figure 15 – 50 mm² short-circuit cable ............................................................................................................25
Figure 16 – SB1 2.5 mm² short-circuit cable....................................................................................................25
Figure 17 – Top view on a short-circuited power transformer .........................................................................28
Figure 18 – Connecting the CPC 100 to the power transformer terminals ......................................................29
Figure 19 – Opening the test template .............................................................................................................30
Figure 20 – Opening the test............................................................................................................................31
Figure 21 – Test card for the first measurement ..............................................................................................32
Figure 22 – Short-circuit of one low voltage winding .......................................................................................33
Figure 23 - Connecting the CPC 100 to the power transformer terminals (Example is a YNd11 power
transformer) ......................................................................................................................................................34
Figure 24 – Locating the Microsoft Excel template in the CPC 100 Start Page ..............................................36
Figure 25 – Locating the Microsoft Excel template on the CPC Start Page ....................................................36
Figure 26 – Test results compared with the factory test ..................................................................................37
Figure 27 – Example result for significant faults in Phase C ...........................................................................38
Figure 28 – Frequency sweep of the short-circuit inductance .........................................................................39

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Application Note

Power Transformer Short-Circuit Impedance / Leakage

Lukas Klingenschmid | lukas.klingenschmid@omicronenergy.com>

Related OMICRON Product

© OMICRON 2017 Page 2 of 41

1 Safety instructions ................................................................................................................................5

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© OMICRON 2017 Page 4 of 41

 Carefully read the contents of these instructions as well as the manuals of

2 Using this Document

© OMICRON 2017 Page 5 of 41

• In particular, read all safety instructions and follow them.

• Do not use the test equipment without a good connection to ground.

• EN 50191 (VDE 0104) "Erection and Operation of Electrical Equipment".

• EN 50110-1 (VDE 0105 Part 100) "Operation of Electrical Installations".

• LAPG 1710.6 NASA "Electrical Safety".

2.2 Safety measures

© OMICRON 2017 Page 6 of 41

IEEE C57.12.90 Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Power Transformers.

IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power

IEEE 62 Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus

IEC 60076-1 International Standard for Power Transformers

2.4 Safety Rules

Always observe the five safety rules:

 Caution: Never touch any terminal without a visible ground connection!

© OMICRON 2017 Page 7 of 41

Equipment damage or loss of data possible.

© OMICRON 2017 Page 8 of 41

4.1 Before Starting

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The recommended test current is 2 A.

Depending on the measured voltage, higher current values can be set.

75 Ω - 150 Ω 1A 75 V (@ 75 Ω) – 150 V (@ 150 Ω)

150 Ω - 300 Ω 0.5 A 75 V (@ 150 Ω) – 150 V (@ 300 Ω)

© OMICRON 2017 Page 10 of 41

6.1 Why Short-Circuit Impedance Measurements?

6.2 Theory and background

Equivalent circuit diagram:

Leakage flux Forces

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Figure 3 – Single-phase equivalent circuit of a power transformer

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6.3.2 Comparison of Leakage Reactances

measurement results indicated by the nameplate or the fingerprint results

6.3.3 Difference between factory and on-side results

© OMICRON 2017 Page 14 of 41

A change of ± 2% is usually not considered as significant.

Figure 4 – Interpreting the test results

© OMICRON 2017 Page 15 of 41

Rk,AC (f) Rk,DC Xk

Figure 5 – Single-phase equivalent circuit at several frequencies

Unlike the normal impedance test, the FRSL

Figure 6 – Frequency sweep of the short-circuit measurement

© OMICRON 2017 Page 16 of 41

7.1 Short-circuit impedance measurement – three-phase injection

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7.2.1 Three-phase equivalent test

Comparison to factory test results. Injection from phase-phase.

Only phases are short circuited!

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Figure 9 - Current and voltage distribution for a star winding configuration

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Figure 10 – Single-phase measurement setup