mil I II I: N (J 1'1 - 1.

1 I: S I (; ~I I: I : , I) I: S I (; 1'1 I: I) IJ I:

The Foup basiic pPiinciiples

The following is a brief overview of the principles. Although I discuss
each of these separately, keep in mind they are really interconnected.
Rarely will you apply only one principle.

Contrast
The idea behind contrast is to avoid elements on the page
that are merely siJlliiar. If the elements (type, color, size, line
thickness, shape, space, etel are not the saJlle, then make
them very different. Contrast is often the most important
visual attraction on a page.

Repetition
Repeat visual elements of the design throughout the piece.
You can repeat color, shape, texture, spatial relationships,
line thicknesses, sizes, etc. This helps develop the organiza-
tion and strengthens the unity.

Alignment
Nothing should be placed on the page arbitrarily. Every
element should have some visual connection with anothe,-
element on the page. This ueates a clean, sophisticated,
fresh look

Proximity
Items relating to each other should be grouped close
together. When several items are in close proximity to
each other, they become one visual unit rather than
several separate units. This helps organize information
and reduces clutter.

umm .. .
When culling these principles from the vast morass of design theOty,
I thought there must be some appropriate and memorable acronym within
these conceptual ideas that would help people remember them. WelL uh,
there is a memorable-but very inappropriate-acronym. Sorry.
Proximity
Very often in beginners' designs, the lVards and phrases and graphics are
strung out all over the place, Alling corners and taking up lots of room
so there won't be any empty space. There seems to be a fear of empty
space. When pieces of a design are scattered all over, the page appears
unorganized and the information may not be instantly accessible to
the reader.

The principle of proximity states that you group related items

together, move them physically close to each other, so the related items
are seen as one cohesive group rather than a bunch of lUll"elated bits.
Items or groups of information that are IJOI related to each other should
1101 be in close proximity (nearness) to the other elements, which gives

the reader an instant visual clue as to the organization and content of

the page. The following pages illustrate this principle.
m r II I !) E :; I (; I'J I: {) () !<

Tuke a look at this lypical business carel, below. How many separate
elements do you see in that sma!! space? How many times docs your eye
stop to look at something?

T Does your eye stop five times? Of course-there are five

separate items on this little card. Where do you begin
reading? In the middle. probably. because that phrase is
boldest. What do you read next-left to right (because
you read English)? What happens when you get to the
bottom right corner. where does your eye go? Does it
wander around making sure you didn't miss any corners?

Reilly Pickett (7'171555-'1212

Toad Hall

Red River, NM
9-16 Old River Road

T And what if I confuse the issue eVen further:

Reilly picke~t (7'l7) 555-1212

Toad Han

Red River, NM
916 Old River Road

Jt.. Now that there are two bold phrases. where do you begin?
00 you start in the upper left? 00 you start in the center?
After you read those two items. where do you go? Perhaps
you bounce back and forth between the bold words.
nervously trying to catch the other words in the corners.
00 you know when you're finished? Does your friend follow
the same pattern you did? No?
 2 I' I! () .'\ 1 ,\ l i T \' m

\IVhcn severa! it-ems are in dosE proximity to each other, they become 1I11L'
visual unit rather thall severalscJlllnllr unHs. As in life, the proximity. or
the closeness, implies a relationship.

By grouping similar elements into one unit, several things instanliy

happen. The page becomes more organized. You understand where to
begin reading the message, and you know when you are finished. And
the "white space" (the space around the letters) becomes more organized
as well.

" A problem with the previous oard is that not

one of the items on the oard seems related to
any other item. It is not olear where you should
begin reading the oard, and it is not olear when
you are finished.
If I do one thing to this business oard-
if I group related elements together, into
closer proximity-look what happens:

Toad Hall
Reilly Pickett

916 Old River Road

Red River. NM
(717)555-'1212

A Is there any question now about where you

begin to read the oard? About where you end?
Do you know when you've gotten to the end?
With that one simple oonoept, this oard is now
organized both intelleotually and visually.
El'.l I II I hi () i'l - U E S ! (, hi r!\ ) n I: ~, ! C N 1\ () (I K

summary 01= proximity

VVhen severc:d items are in close proximity to each other, they become
O[1e visual unit ral-J-1tr than severa! separdte units. Items relating to each
other should be gl"Ouped together. Be conscious of where your eye is
going: where clo you start looking; what path do you follow; where do
you encl up; after you've read it, where does your eye go next? You
should be able to follow a logical progression thl"Ough the piece, from a
definite beginning to a definite end.

The basic purpose

The basic purpose of proximity is to organize. Other principles come
into playas well, but simply grouping related elements together into
closer pl"Oximity automatically creates organization. If the information is
organized, it is more likely to be read and more likely to be remembered.
As a by-product of organizing the communication, you also create more
appealing (more organized) whilr SpliCC (designers' favorite term).

How to get it
Squint your eyes slightly and count the number of visual elements on
the page by counting the number of times your eye stops. If there are
more than three to five items on the page (of course it depends on the
piece), see which of the separate elements can be grouped together into
closer proximity to become one visual unit.

What to avoid
Avoid too many separate elements on a page.

Don't stick things in the corners and in the middle.

Avoid leaving equal amounts of white space between elements unless

each group is part of a subset (see the example on page 211.

Avoid even a split second of confusion Over whether a headline, a

subhead, a caption, a graphic, etc., belongs with its related material.
Create a relationship among elements with close proximity.

Don't create relationships with elements that don't belong together!

If they are not rdlllrd, move them apart from each other.
Alignment
Design beginners tend to put text and graphics on the page wherever
there happens to be space, often without regard to any other items on
the page. What this creates is the slightly-messy-kitchen effect-you kno\\',
with a cup here, a plate there, a napkin on the Ooor, it pot in the sink, a
spill on the noor. It doesn't take much to clean up the slightly messy
kitchen, just as it doesn't take much to clean up a slighty messy design
that has weak alignments.

The principle of alignment states that nothing should be placed on the

page arbitrarily, Every item should have a visual connection with
something else on the page, The principle of alignment forces you to
be more conscious-no longer can you just throw things on the page
wherever there happens to be room.
\Nhen items are aligned on the page, it creat-es a stronger cohesive unit.
Even when elements are physically separated from each other, if they are
aligned there is an invisible line that connects them, both in your eye
and in your mind. Although you might have separated certain elements
to indicate their relationships (following the principle of prmcimity), the
principle of alignment is what tells the reader that even though these
items are not close, they belong to the same piece. The following pages
illustrate this idea.

.~.
Ell! I II I I: {) (I L

Take il look dt Ihis business cdI'd. Ii'll' Sdl1il' UI1l' YOLI Sll\V in the Idst
chapter. ParI of its pmblelll is Ihal- nothing is dligncd with dll}'\-hing eL'ic.
In I-his little space, there are clements aligned 10 Ihe left edge, the right
edge, alld the cellter. Neither Ihe text ill Ihe Lipper l\Vo corners or Ihe
bottom two corners are aligned across on the same baseline, nor are they
aligned 011 the left or right edges.

Reilly Pickett (717) 555·'12'12 ...

The elements on this card
look like they were just
thrown on and stuck. Not
Toad Han one of the elements has
any connection with any
other element on the card.
9'16 Old River Road Red River, NM

...
Toad Han By moving all the elements
Reilly Pickett over to the right and giving
them one alignment, the
information is instantly
more organized. (Of
916 Old River Road
Red River, NM course, you realize I also
(7"ln 555-'1212 grouped related elements
into closer proximity.)
The text items now have
a common boundary,
connecting them together.
Ill! r II I I') () - I) I

Nothing should be plclCed on the page arbitrarily. Every element should

have SOIlIC Visual COl1nEcl"iOI1 with another elemen!- on the page.

lIl1il)' is an important concept in design. To make all the clements on the

page appeal' to be unified, connected, and interrelated, there needs to be
some visual tie between the separate elements. Even if the separate
elements arc not physically close on the page, they can <11'1"'<1r connected,
related, unified with the other information simply by their placement.
Take a look at designs you like. No matter how wild and chaotic a well-
designed piece may initially appear, you can always find the alignments
within.

The basic purpose

The basic purpose of alignment is to unify and organize the page. The
result is kind of like what happens when you pick up all the baby toys
that were strewn around the living room floor and put them all into one
toy box,
It is often a strong alignment (combined, of course, with the appropriate
typeface) that creates a sophisticated look, 0[' a formal look, a fun look,
or a serious look.

How to get it
Be conscious of where you place elements. Always find something else
on the page to align with, even if the two objects are physically far away
from each other.

What to avoid
Avoid using mOl'e than one text alignment on the page (that is, don't
center some text and right-align other text),
And please try very hard to break away from a centered alignment unless
you are consciously trying to create a mare formal. sedate (often dullll
presentation. Choose a centered alignment consciously, not by default

?
m I II ,- N () N - I) I: 1\ () () I·:

Here is the same busincss Glrcl we worked wil"!1 l'drlier. In the second
example, I have added a repelilive element, the slrong, bold typeface.
Take u look at- iI, and notice INhere your eye moves. VVhen you gel- to the
phone numbel', where do you look next' Do you go back to the begin-
ning, the other bold type, This is a visual trick designers have always
used to control a reader's eye, to keep your attention on the page as long
as possible.

... When you get to the

Toad Han end of the information.
Reitly Pickett does your eye just
wander off the card?

916 Old River Road

Red River, NM
{7171 555·12'l2

... Now when you get to

Toad Han the end of the informa-
Reilly Pickett tion. where does your
eye go? Do you find
that it bounces back
and forth between the
9'\6 Old River Road bold type elements?
Red River, NM
(717) 555-1212
m T II I, N (J j'-! - U I~ ~l I C; HER S D I: S ! C N JI () () I(

SurnrnaflY of: Repetition

A repetition of visual elemenls throughout the design unifies and strengthens
a piece by tying together otherwise separate parts. Repetition is very
useful on one-page pieces. and is critical in multi-page documents (where
we often just call it heillY collsislmil.

The basic purpose

The purpose of repetition is to unify and to add visual interest. Don't
underestimate the visual interest of a page-if a piece looks interesting. it
is more likely to be read.

How to get it
Think of repetition as being consistent. which I'm sure you are already.
Then push the existing consistencies a little further-can you turn some
of those consistent elements into part of the conscious graphic design. as
with the headline? Do you use a l-point rule at the bottom of each page
or under each heading? How about using a 4-point rule instead to make
the repetitive element stronger and more dramatic?

Then take a look at the possibility of adding elements just to create a

repetition. Do you have a numbered list of items? How about using a
distinctive font or a reversed number. and then repeating that treatment
throughout every numbered list in the publication? At first. simply find
e,tislillY repetitions and then strengthen them. As you get used to the idea
and the look. start to awle repetitions to enhance the design and the
clarity of the information.

Repetition is like accenting your clothes. If a woman is wearing a lovely

black evening dress with a chic black hat. she might accent her dress
with red heels. red lipstick. and a tiny red rose corsage.

what to avoid
Avoid repeating the element so much that it becomes annoying or over-
whelming. Be concious of the value of contrast (read the next chapter
and the section on contrasting type).

For instance. if she were to wear the black evening dress with a red hat.
red earrings. red lipstick. a red handbag. red shoes and a red coat. the
repetition would not be a stunning and unifying contrast-it would be
garish and the focus would be confused.
 r
tv
ii;

Contrast
Contrast is one of the most effective ways to add visual interest to YOlIr
page-a striking interest that makes you want to look at the page-and
to create an organizational hierarchy among different elements. The
important "rule" to remember is that for contrast to be effective, it must
be strong. Don't be a wimp.

Contrast is created when two elements are different. If the two elements
are sort of different. but not really, then you don't have conlTast, YOLI
have conflict. That's the key-the principle of contrast states that if two
items are not exactly the same, then make them different. Really
different.
Contrast can be created in many ways. You can contrast large type with
smalllype; a graceful oldstyle font with a bold sans serif font; a thin line
with a thick line; a cool color with a warm color; a smooth texture with
a rough texture; a horizontal element (such as a long line of text) with a
vertical element (such as a tall, narrow column of text); widely spaced
lines with closely packed lines; a small graphic with a large graphic.

Just don't be a wimp. You cannot contrast 12-point type with 14-point
type. You cannot contrast a half-point rule with a one-point rule. You
cannot contrast dark brown with black. Get serious.
m II E N () j,! - U E S \ C N E R
[f the two "newsletters" below came across your desk, vvhich one would
you read first? They both have the same basic layout They are bolh nice
and neat They both have the same information on the page. There is
realJy only one difference: the newsletter on the right has more contrast
ANOTHER NEWSLETTER!
Exciting Headline
l'Iilnt5 pilWrl urm d;lr~ W(lr5t~.~ L1Jl~
'.lull hoc hilt ~~arch putty yowl~r coil,
rld't. pimp" cold,r Guilty Loaks. Guilty
LOOt.5 lift inn~r hull, CDrdilg~ 5~tlJ·
r,1ted adda (;hirt. di£;~ld~c~ fjrm~r
va!! i1ori~t, arty Iildl~ '.lull orphan a"t"r
mlJrd~r toe l~tUr gon:: ~"tiLy florist oil
buyer ~Ildf.
fhriliing 5ubhead
*Gllilty Loob;!" crater murd~r i\n'.lU·
1.:"ly. "HomIny terms ar~a '.lilm"
a5~hmil ;;urure stooped qUit"chin?
Goiter door flori!;t7 Sordidly HUTl"
;Vi,,, nut. mllnkrT wirT~d Guilty lODb"
hoe dint P~Qr1y t~t15ion tore murda':;
5c,1Idinij5.
-Cil\)5~dDrBilllodge anl'>;~~~t b~er ,
inn~r Ilorist hoe orpl1On mol~;;~es
pimple. Ladle gulls shut (ipper ware
firm debt; c,1ndor ammonol, ,1n stare
ot;ter debt florist! Debt florist's mush
toe dentures fUrrj ladle gulll~
Another Exciting
Headline
Wlli~ pirnple oll'ware:; wtmder doe Wllrt
ud.:fer pimple dun wllmpum toe doe,
Debt;'s jest hormone nurture. Wan
A. This is nice and neat, but there is nothing that
attracts your eyes to it.
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9 9
mO;lnlnlJ. Gu,lty LookS di;;sipaUr
muder. .J,'
wm ~"t,ty norist
Fur lung, dis~ ;lvenqcress gull wetter-
putty yowler CDr's cllm tore mortlced
Illdle cordalJr. inhibited buyer hull
iirmly off beer-s- Fodder Beer (home
pimple, fur olllivious raisin". Coiled
"Brewi"'fl, l.1urder Beer, and ladle
BOrl: Bur. D,st mo,minlJ. orkr beus
hilt jeBt lifur corda"e, tiding 1a.1~
bllstinJ]'" ,In h.lt gun entity furi,;t
toe pec~ blocl·barriers lin rllsh-
Inlrriers. Guilty Loo~s ran<&r dOuJ]h
vali; bought, off cur~e, nor·bawdy
V.or,;-e hum, ~oda sully Illdle J]ull Win
baldly r;lt enti"y beds IlOr5c!
Boring Subhead.
Honor tipple inl1a drlmin;J rum, stud
tr~e vails fulkr Sop-w,ln J]rlld~ va'.!
boil~r sop, w~n muddle'Silsl1\7oil, lin
i
",.:In tawny 1.:1,!I~ boil. Guilty Lools
tuc~a spun ful!~r sop finn~r I)rade
brig boit-bushy 5purt~d art inner
hO<l!J'I"Arch,~ criltcr I)ull. "Deb ~or's
I
tp~ hart-bams milr mou:;ei" 1
Dingy traitor sop inner muddl~-:;:l::;h
bOil, witch worse to condo Butter
I
sop Inner til"tly ladle boil worse jest
nit, an GUilty Loot::; ilide.:! Oil lop.
Oingy nudist tree c~eers -wan
i1nomalous che~r. wan mu,;fdb:-silslt
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m T II I: I) Ie I ~ () () k

SurnmGIrY ofF ContlrGst

Contrast on a page draws our eyes to it; Ollr eyes like contrast. Ir you are
pu!-ting two elements on the page d1i:lt are not the same (such as two
typefaces or two line widths), they cannot be sill,illir-for contrast to be
effective, the two elements must be very differenl.

Contrast is kind of like matching wall paint when you need to spot paint-
you can't sari oj match the color; either you match it exactly 0" you
repaint the entire walL

The basic purpose

The basic purpose of contrast is two-fold, and both purposes are inextri-
cable from each other. One purpose is to create an interest on the page-
if a page is interesting to look at. it is more likely to be read. The other is
to aid in the OI'ganization of the information. A reader should be able to
instantly understand the way the information is organized, the logical
flow from one item to another. The contrasting elements should neve,'
serve to confuse the reader or to create a focus that is not supposed to
be a focus.

How to get it
Add contrast through your typeface choices (see the next section), line
thicknesses, colors, shapes, sizes, space, etc. It is easy to find ways to add
contrast, and it's probably the most fun and satisfying way to add visual
interest. The important thing is to be strong,

What to avoid
Don't be a wimp. If you're going to contrast, do it with strength, Avoid
contrasting a sort-of-heavy line with a sort-of-heavier line, Avoid
contrasting brown text with black headlines. Avoid using two or more
typefaces that are similar. If the items are not exactly the same, IIIIlke thelll
dijjerml'

t
 6 D I:: S [ (~ N I! E I' I I: IV Ell

Things to do to increase your visual awareness

In one of my beginning graphic design classes we coined the phrase VIP:
visually illiterate person. This appellation was usually applied to the
client. If you were recently a VIP, now that you've read this far you will
never be one again. Here are a few things you can do to increase your
visual awareness even more.

See it. Keep a swap file. Some people call this an idea file, or a morgue.
It is simply a file folder or even a box where you keep designs that have
impressed you-nyers, brochures, graphic images, calligraphy, Iype
arrangements, packaging, advertising-anything that strikes a chord in
you. Designers always have a swap file, and they use it for inspiration
and ideas. Before you start another project, look through your swap file.

Say it. When you see a design you like, spend a couple of minutes put-
ting into words why you like it. Consciously pick out the places wher'e
the principles of proximity, alignment, repetition, and contrast have been
used. Make a mental or written note of any bold and daring technique
that was used, such as extra large or small lype, a unique graphic treat-
ment, interesting spacing, etc.

Sketch it. When you come across a poorly designed piece, sketch a little
improvement. Or cut the pieces out and rearrange them. When }'OU
actually put pencil to paper, more ideas pop out than when you just
think about it. I never know what my books are going to look like until
I start producing them, until I see things growing on paper' (or monitor).