Basic Aerodynamics

INTRODUCTION Static Pressure

An understanding of the basic principles of aerodynam-
ics is as important to the aviation maintenance techni-
cian as it is to the pilot and the aerospace engineer. The
technician is concerned with the strength of an aircraft
because of the stresses applied through the forces of
aerodynamics when the aircraft is in flight. Often re-
sponsible for the repair or restoration of aircraft struc-
tures, the technician must know that the repair work
will restore the required strength to the parts that are
being repaired. There are certain physical laws which
describe the behavior of airflow and define the various
aerodynamic forces acting on a surface. These principles
of aerodynamics provide the foundations for a good un-
derstanding of what may be termed the "theory of
flight."
The study of moving air and the force that it pro-
duces is referred to as aerodynamics. As studied by the
engineer or scientist, aerodynamics involves the use of
advanced mathematics and physics; however, this chap-
ter presents only the basic principles of the subject and
their application to the flight of aircraft, without the ne-
cessity of advanced mathematical analysis. The subject
can therefore be more easily understood by you, the
student whose primary concern lies with the mainte-
nance, operation, and repair of the aircraft.
The atmosphere is the whole mass of air extending upward
hundreds of miles. It may be compared to a pile of blankets.
The air in the higher altitudes, like the top blanket of the
pile, is under much less pressure than the air at the lower al-
titudes. The air at the earth's surface may be compared to
the bottom blanket because it supports the weight of all the
layers above it. The static pressure of the air at any altitude
results from the mass of air supported above that level.
The term pressure may be defined as force acting upon a
unit area. For example, if a force of 5 lb is acting against an
area of 1 in, there is a pressure of 5 psi (pounds per square
inch); if a force of 20 lb is acting against an area of 2 in, the
pressure is 10 psi. Air is always pressed down by the weight
of the air above it. The atmospheric pressure at any place is
equal to the weight of the column of air above it and may be
represented by a column of water or mercury of equal
weight. If the cube-shaped box shown in Figure 3-2 has di-
mensions of 1 in 2 on all sides and is filled with mercury, the
weight of the mercury will be 0.491 lb [222.72 g], and a
force of 0.491lb will be acting on the square inch at the bot-
tom of the box. This means that there will be a pressure of
ARGON, C0 2
AND OTHER GASES-We

Atmosphere
The aerodynamic forces acting on a surface are due in great
part to the properties of the air mass in which the surface is
operating.
Air is a mixture of several gases. For practical purposes, NITROGEN-78%
it is sufficient to say that air is a mixture of one-fifth oxygen
and four-fifths nitrogen. Pure, dry air contains about 78%
(by volume) nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 0.9% argon. In ad-
dition, air contains about 0.03% carbon dioxide and traces
of several other gases, such as hydrogen, helium, and neon .
The distribution of gases in the air is shown in Figure 3-1. FIGURE 3-1 Distribution of gases in the atmosphere.

56
 the end of the tube. Some of the mercury immediately
flowed out of the tube into the container, leaving a vacuum
in the upper end of the tube, as indicated in Figure 3-3. The
height of the column of mercury remaining in the tube was
measured and found to be approximately 30 in [762 mm] .
At sea level under standard conditions, the height of such a
1" column of mercury is 29.92 in [760 mm]. Therefore we say
[2.54 em] that standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 29.92 in

1 high. Barometers and sensitive altimeters are scaled to pro-

FIGURE 3-2 Weight of a 1-i n cube of mercury.
0.491 psi on the bottom of the box. If the height of the box
were extended to 4 in with the cross-sectional area remain-
ing at 1 in 2, the pressure at the bottom would be 4 X 0.491
psi, or 1.964 psi. The pressure, as measured, per square inch
exerted by a column of mercury does not change with the
area of the cross section . If a 1- in column of mercury has a
cross-sectional area of 10 in 2, the pressure will be 0.491 psi
even though the total volume of mercury weighs 4.91 lb.
Likewise, if the 1 in column of mercury has a cross-sectional
area oft in 2, the pressure will still be 0.491 psi.
A "standard" atmosphere was adopted by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (now the National
eronautics and Space Administration, or NASA). This
tandard atmosphere is entirely arbitrary, but it provides a
reference and standard of comparison and should be
know n by all persons engaged in work involving atmos-
pheric conditions.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level under standard condi-
tions is 29.92 inches of mercury (inHg), or 14.69 psi. Re-
member that 1 in of mercury produces a pressure of 0.491
psi; therefore 29.92 inHg will produce a pressure of 14.69
psi (0.491 X 29.92 = 14.69).
Atmospheric pressure may be designated by a number of
different units. Those more likely to be encountered are
inches of mercury, millibars (mbar), pounds per square
inch, kilopascals, and millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
Standard atmospheric pressure at 59°F [15°C] is approxi-
vide pressure information in inches of mercury.
As just mentioned, in Figure 3-3 the space above the
mercury in the tube is a vacuum; this means that the pres-
sure at this point is 0 psia. Psia indicates "pounds per square
inch absolute." Any gauge marked for psia measures pres-
sure from absolute zero rather than from ambient pressure
zero.
Atmospheric pressure pressing down on the surface of
any liquid will cause the liquid to rise in an evacuated tube
in the same manner as mercury; however, the height to
which a liquid will rise depends upon the density or specific
gravity of the liquid. For example, water will rise to approx-
imately 33.9 ft [10.34 m] in a completely evacuated tube.
Sometimes pressure gauges are scaled for inches of water
(inH 20) rather than for inches of mercury because such a
gauge is more sensitive and will measure lower pressure
differences.
A mercury barometer is essentially a mercury-filled
glass tube scaled to show the height of a mercury column.
The upper end of the tube is sealed, and the lower end is ex-
posed to the pressure being measured. The barometer can
be scaled for pounds per square inch, inches of mercury, or
other unit of pressure. On weather maps, the unit of pres-
sure is the millibar (mbar), which is approximately one-
thousandth of a bar. For standard purposes, the sea-level
pressure is set at 1013 mbar (standard conditions). T-Ire bar
is therefore the approximate atmospheric pressure at sea
level. 1 inHg equals 33.86 mbar.
29.92"
[760 mm]

mately as follows in the units just described:

29.92 inHg
10 13 mbar (0°C)
14.69 psi
101.04 kPa (60°F) [15 .56°C] NORMAL ATMOSPHERIC
760 mmHg PRESSURE AT SEA LEVEL

The effect of atmospheric pressure was demonstrated

early in the seventeenth century by the Italian mathemati-
T
....
ian and scientist Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647). Torri-
celli had worked with Galileo and had noted his theories
regarding the "law" that nature abhors a vacuum. To ex-
plore the idea, Torricelli filled a long glass tube, having one
end closed, with mercury. He then placed his thumb over
me open end of the tube. Holding the tube in a vertical posi-
tion with the closed end up, he placed the open end of the
ru be in a container of mercury and removed his finger from FIGURE 3-3 Torricelli's experiment.

Physical Properties of the Air 57

 ---------------50 000 FT 3.425 PRESSURE INHG
--------------- [15, 245 m 11 .57 kPa] .

30 000 FT 8.89 PRESSURE INHG

[9145 m 30.02 kPa]

5 000 FT 24.90 PRESSURE INHG

[1525 m 94.09 kPa]

t - - - - - - - j - - - + - - - - - - - - 20 000 FT 13.75 PRESSURE INHG

[6100 m 46.43 kPa]

FIGURE 3-4 Pressure of the earth's atmosphere at various altitudes. (Note: Metric equivalents given in round figures.)

Since air has weight, it is easy to recognize that the pres-
sure of the atmosphere will vary with altitude. This is illus-
trated in Figure 3--4. Notice that at 20 000 ft [6097 .56 m] the
pressure is less than half the sea-level pressure. This means
that more than half the atmosphere lies below the altitude of
20 000 ft even though the "outer" half extends hundreds of
miles above the earth. Table 3-1 shows the pressures and
temperatures at various altitudes above the earth. This table
is based upon standard conditions established by the Inter-
national Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The table also
shows the density of the air in slugs and the speed of sound
at each altitude.
Air Temperature
Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at ap-
proximately 1.98°C for each increase of I 000 ft [304.88 m]

TABLE 3-1 ICAO Standard Atmosphere

Altitude p
p X 10',
ft m F c inHg kPa lb/frZ slugs/ft' c" ft/s

-- 2 000 - 609.76 66 . 1 18.9 32.100 I 08.40 2273.70 2.520 1124.54

0 0.0 59.0 15.0 29.920 I 01.04 2116.20 2.380 1116.89
I 000 304.88 55.4 13.0 28.860 97.46 2040.80 2.310 1113.05
2 000 609.76 51.9 11.0 27.820 93.95 1967.70 2.240 1109.19
3 000 914.63 48.3 9. 1 26.820 90.57 1896.60 2. 180 1105.31
4 000 219.51 44.7 7.1 25.840 87.26 1827.70 2.110 1101.43
5 000 I 524.39 41.2 5.1 24.900 84.09 1760.80 2.050 I097 .53
10 000 3 048. 78 23.3 - 4.8 20.580 69.50 1455.30 1.760 I077.81
I 5 000 4 573.17 5.5 - 14.7 16.890 57.04 1194.30 1.500 1057.73
20 000 6 097.56 -12.3 - 24.6 13.750 46.43 972.50 1.270 1037.26
25 000 7 62 1.95 - 30.2 - 34.5 I l.l ()() 37.46 785.30 1.070 1016.38
30 000 9 146.34 -48.0 -44. 4 8.890 30.02 628.40 0. 890 995.06
36 089 II 002.74 - 69.7 - 56.5 6.680 22.56 472.70 0.710 968.46
40 000 12 195.12 -- 69.7 -56.5 5.540 18.71 391.70 0.5850 968.46
50 000 15 243.90 - 69.7 56.5 3.425 11.57 242.20 0.3620 968.46
60 000 18 292.68 -69.7 -56.5 2.118 7.15 149.80 0.2240 968.46
70 000 21 341.46 - 69.7 - 56.5 1.322 4.46 93.52 0. 1388 968.46
1 Standard temperature
I' Pressure, l h/ ft ~ or inHg
fl Density
c, Standard speed of sound

58 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics

of altitude until an altitude of 38 000 ft [11 585.44 m] is
reached. Above this altitude the temperature remains at ap-
proximately -56.5°C. ·
Textbooks on meteorology often state that the tempera-
ture normally decreases with altitude at a rate of approxi-
mately 0.5°C per 100 m, or about 1°F per 300 ft. This
amounts to a decrease of about 1.52°C for each increase of
1000 ft, which is different from the decrease under standard
conditions. Remember that the textbooks using the forego-
ing values are discussing average rather than standard
conditions.

Adiabatic Lapse Rate

As shown in Table 3-1, the temperature of the air decreases
as pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. This de-
crease of temperature with altitude is defined as the lapse
rate. An adiabatic temperature change means that the tem-
perature of the air has changed, but the air has neither
gained nor lost heat energy. The temperature change in such
a case is due to a change in pressure.
Atmospheric pressure differences cause the air to flow
fro m an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.
Thus air may flow up and over mountains or from higher el -
evations down into valleys. As air flows to higher altitudes,
it becomes cooler, and as it flows to lower altitudes, it be-
comes warmer. This is in accordance with Charles' Jaw (ex-
plained in Chapter 2). The adiabatic lapse rate is the
increase or decrease in the temperature of the air for a given
change in altitude. The adiabatic lapse rate varies from 3°F
[1.67°C] per 1000 ft [304.88 m] for moist air to more than
5°F [2.78°C] per 1000 ft for very dry air. The standard rate
hown in the ICAO chart is approximately 3.5°F per 1000 ft.
Keep in mind that the temperature of the air often does
not conform to standards. For example, sometimes the air
temperature 1000 ft or more above the surface of the earth is
higher than it is at the surface. This condition is called an in-
version. Mountains, clouds, surface winds, bodies of water,
and sunshine all affect the temperature of the air.
Density
The density of the air is a property of great importance in
the study of aerodynamics. Density has been defined previ-
ously; however, additional discussion is given here to relate
density to the study of aerodynamics. Air is compressible,
as illustrated in Figure 3-5. As the air is compressed, it be-
comes more dense because the same quantity of air occupies
Jess space. Density varies directly with pressure, with the
temperature remaining constant. In Figure 3-5, the air in
cylinder B has twice the density of the air in cylinder A.
For the purposes of aerodynamic computations, air den-
ity is represented by the Greek letter p (rho), indicating
mass density in slugs per cubic foot. The slug is a unit of
mass with a value of approximately 32.175 lb [14.59 kg]
under standard conditions of gravity. The word mass desig-
nates the pull in standard gravitational units exerted by the
earth upon a piece of matter. The difference between mass
FIGURE 3-5 Air expanded and compressed.
and weight is explained in Chapter 2. Since the slug is used
to indicate the density of air, it is sufficient for the techni-
cian to know that the value of p can be found in standard at-
mospheric tables.
Air at standard sea-level conditions weighs 0.0765 lb/ft 3
and has a density of 0.002378 slug/ft3 . At an altitude of
40 000 ft [12 192 m], the air density is approximately 25%
of the sea-level value.
The general gas law defines the relationship of pres-
sure, temperature, and density when there is no change of
state or heat transfer. Simply stated, this law says that den-
sity varies directly with pressure and inversely with tem-
perature. On a hot day, air expands, becoming "thinner," or
less dense; conversely, on a cold day, the air contracts, be-
coming more dense.
Changes in air density affect the flight of an airplane.
With the same thrust, an airplane can fly faster at a high alti-
tude, where the density is low, than at a low altitude, where
the density is greater. This is because the air offers less re-
sistance to the airplane when it contains a smaller number of
particles of air per unit volume. This concept is illustrated in
Figure 3-6. However, an often-encountered problem is an
inability to hold the thrust constant as altitude increases.
Generally, engine performance will decrease with altitude.
Humidity
The condition of moisture or dampness in the air is called
humidity. The maximum amount of water vapor that the air
can hold depends on the temperature of the air; the higher
the temperature of the air, the more water vapor it can ab-
sorb. By itself, water vapor weighs approximately five-
eighths as much as an equal volume of perfectly dry air.
Therefore, when air contains 5 parts of water vapor and 95
parts of perfectly dry air, it is not as heavy as air containing
no moisture. This is because water is composed of hydrogen
(an extremely light gas) and oxygen. Air is composed prin-
cipally of nitrogen, which is almost as heavy as oxygen.
Assuming that the temperature and pressure remain the
same, the density of the air varies with the humidity. On
damp days the density of air is less than it is on dry days.
Physical Properties of the Air 59

H IGH ALTITUDE
LESS DENSITY
\JJII~\~·IOL-.---'.'~' t
) SAME HORSEPOWER
LESS SPEED
LESS DISTANCE
LOW ALTITUDE
GREATER DENSITY
r:}t>~~""'·~?"~~~~f1l
FIGURE 3-6 Effect of air density on an aircraft in flight.
LIFT
The unique feature of an aircraft as compared with all other
types of transportation vehicles is its ability to lift into the
air. The force of gravity acts on all bodies on or near the
surface of the earth and results in the weight of an object. In
order for an aircraft to fly, a force must be created that will
overcome the force of gravity. This force is called lift.
The Physics of Lift
Some basic principles of physics can be used to understand
how lift is created. The physical forces that support an air-
craft in flight may be explained principally by two basic
Jaws of physics: Newton's third law of motion and Bernoul-
li's principle.
As a wing moves through the air, the airflow will be di-
vided to flow over and under the wing, as is shown in Figure
3-7. When there is a positive angle between the wing and
the direction of the airstream, the air is forced to change di-
rection. If the wing is tilted upward against the airstream,
the air flowing under the wing is forced downward. The
wing therefore applies a downward force to the air, and the
60 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
LIFT
AIR DEFLECTED DOWNWARD
FIGURE 3-7 Wing deflecting the air downward .
air applies an equal and opposite upward force to the wing.
This is the creation of lift and can be explained by Newton's
third law of motion, which states: For every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction. The angle through which an
airstream is deflected by any lifting surface is called the
downwash angle. It is especially important when control
surfaces are studied, because they are normally placed to the
rear of the wings where they are influenced by the down-
ward-deflected airstream known as the downwash.
The lift or support the airfoil receives from deflecting the
air downward can vary from 0 to 100% of the total lift re-
quired. On the other hand, if the wing is nosed downward, it
may scoop the air upward, causing a down load to be placed
on the wing.
Lift can also be created by the way that the air flows
around an airfoil. In order to understand how this lift is cre-
ated, it is first necessary to understand Bernoulli's princi-
ple. Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist of the eighteenth
century, discovered that as fluid (air) velocity increases, the
pressure decreases, and as the velocity decreases, the pres-
sure increases.
This principle can be written mathematically as
p+ IPV2 = constant
where
p =pressure
p = air density in slugs
V =velocity
The equation can be simplified as the following:
pressure +t X density X velocity squared = constant
Actually, in technical language, Bernoulli's principle
states that the total energy of a particle in motion is constant
at all points on its path in a steady flow. In the preceding
equation, the term pressure refers to the static pressure of
the air. The term f X density X velocity squared is referred
to as the dynamic pressure. The term static means "still,"
and the term static pressure refers to the pressure exerted
by a mass of stationary air equally on all of the walls of a
container. Dynamic pressure is the pressure associated
with moving air (velocity). The dynamic pressure is the
pressure that would be exerted if the moving air were
brought to a stop. The most appropriate means of visualiz-
ing the effect of airflow and the resulting aerodynamic pres-
sures is to study the fluid flow within a closed tube.
 tential energy, which is related by the static pressure, and a

t:t
STATIC
t:t
STATIC
kinetic energy, represented by its dynamic pressure (veloci-
ty) . Because the total energy is unchanged, an increase in
-DYNAMIC_. ~ -DYNAM IC+ velocity (dynamic pressure) will be accompanied by a de-
STATIC STATIC crease in static pressure (velocity). Therefore, it can be said
t:+ INCREASED VELOCITY
+:+ ~
that the sum of static and dynamic pressure in the flow tube
remains constant.
' DECREASED PRESSURE

cb ® ® static pressure + dynamic pressure = constant

Figure 3-9 illustrates the variation of static, dynamic,

FIGURE 3-8 Fluid flow within a closed tube.
Suppose a stream of air is flowing through the venturi
tube shown in Figure 3-8. The airflow at station 1 in the
tube has a certain velocity and static pressure. As the
airstream approaches the constriction at station 2, certain
changes must take place. According to the law of conserva-
tion of matter, the mass flow at any point along the tube
must be the same, and the velocity or pressure must change
to accommodate this continuity of flow . As the flow ap-
proaches the constriction of station 2, the velocity increases
to maintain the same mass flow. As the velocity increases,
z ately adjacent to a curved surface will increase. According
100 KNOTS 70 KNOTS
and total pressure of air flowing through a closed tube. Note
that the total pressure is constant throughout the length and
that any change in dynamic pressure produces the same
magnitude change in static pressure.
In Figure 3-1 Oa the air streams moving through a venturi
tube are indicated by arrows. Notice that close to the venturi
wall the air flow conforms to the shape of the walls. In the
center of the tube the airflow is straight. In Figure 3-1 Ob the
walls of the venturi have been moved farther apart. Notice
that the airflow streams close to the walls still follow the
wall contours and that those farther away gradually straight-
en out. Before the airflow enters the venturi tube, the
streamlines are equally spaced, indicating a uniform flow
velocity. Adjacent to the wall of the tube the streamlines
come closer together, indicating that the velocity of the flow
is greater at that point. In Figure 3-1 Oc the upper wall has
been removed. The flow lines immediately adjacent to the
bottom wall still follow the contour and are spaced closely
together. It is therefore indicated that the velocity immedi-
to Bernoulli's principle, this increase will bring about a sim-

W~/;;;;/7~ ~~
ilar decrease in pressure. Notice the similarity between the
shape of the remaining wall of the venturi in Figure 3-1 Oc
\"'///~mf ~~z and the shape of a wing.
The effect produced by a wing moving through the air is
STATIC PRESSURE= 2116 PSF 2014 PSF 2133 PSF illustrated in Figure 3-11 . When the air strikes the leading
DY NAMIC PRESSURE= 34 PSF 136 PSF 17 PSF
(VELOCITY) edge of the wing, the passage of the air is obstructed and its
TOTAL PRESSURE= 2150 PSF 2150 PSF 2150 PSF velocity is reduced. Some of the particles of air flow over
the upper surface and some flow under the lower surface,
FIGURE 3- 9 Bernou ll i's principle. but all separating particles of air must reach the trailing edge
of the wing at the same time. Those particles that pass over
the static pressure will decrease. The total energy of the the upper surface have farther to go and therefore must
airstream in the tube is unchanged . However, the airstream move faster than those passing under the lower surface. In
energy may be in two forms . The airstream may have a po- accordance with Bernoulli' s principle, the increased velocity

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 3- 10 Airf low in a venturi.

Lift 61
 INCREASED
V E LOCITY
HIGHER
PRESSURE
FIGURE 3-11 Pressu re differential created by a w ing in flight.
above the wing results in a lower static pressure than that
existing below the wing.
If an area of low pressure can be produced on the top of a
wing, the higher pressure below the wing will create an up-
ward force, which is lift. This pressure differential is quite
small, perhaps as small as 1%. Even this small difference,
however, can provide adequate lift, as demonstrated by the
following example: Assume that we have an atmospheric
pressure of 14.70 pounds per square inch on the under sur-
face of a wing and a wing curvature and airspeed combina-
tion producing a pressure of 14.49 pounds per square inch
on the upper surface of the wing. This situation provides a
pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces
of 0.21 psi, acting upwards. This pressure is equal to 30.34
pounds per square foot (psf) (0.21 X 144), a wing loading
that is fairly common for many types of aircraft. The total
lift produced by the wing can be calculated by multiplying
30.34 psf by the square footage of the total wing area.
AIRFOILS . The shape of the mean camber line is very important in
The structure which makes flight possible is the airfoil. An
airfoil is technically defined as any surface, such as an air-
plane aileron , elevator, rudder, or wing, designed to obtain a
useful reacti on from the air through which it moves. An air-
foil section is a cross section of an airfoil, which can be
drawn as a silhouette. If the wing of an airplane were sawed
through from the leading edge to the trailing edge, the side
view of the section through the wing at that point would be
its airfoil section. An airfoil profile is merely the outline or
shape of an ai1foil section. The word airfoil is often used
when "airfoil section" or perhaps "airfoil profile" is meant.
FIGURE 3-12 Airfo il termin ology.
62 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
Airfoil Terminology
Since the shape of an airfoil and its angle to the airstream
are so important in determining its performance, it is neces-
sary to understand airfoil terminology . Figure 3-12 shows a
typical airfoil and illustrates various airfoil-related terms.
The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading
edge (the forward-most tip) and the trailing edge of the air-
foil. The distance between the leading edge and the trailing
edge is referred to as the chord.
Notice that in Figure 3-12 there is more area above the
chord line than below it. This is typical of most airfoils. The
mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between
the upper and lower surfaces. This line is also referred to as
the mean line or mid line. Any point on this mean line
should be the same distance from the upper and lower sur-
faces . The mean camber is the curvature of the mean line of
an airfoil profile from the chord.
Camber is defined as the curvature of an airfoil surface
or an airfoil section from the leading edge to the trailing
edge. The perpendicular distance between the chord line
and the mean camber line is camber. The degree or amount
of camber is expressed as the ratio of the maximum depar-
ture of the mean camber line from the chord to the chord
length. Figure 3-12 shows an airfoil that has a double con-
vex curvature, which means that it has camber above and
below the chord line. Upper camber refers to the curve of
the upper surface of an airfoil, and lower camber refers to
the curve of the lower surface. Camber is positive when the
departure from the straight line is upward, and negative
when it is downward. When the upper and lower camber of
an airfoil are the same, the airfoil is said to be symmetrical.
determining the aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil
section. The maximum camber (the maximum displace-
ment of the mean line from the chord line) and the location
of the maximum camber help to define the shape of the
mean camber line. These quantities are expressed as frac-
tions or percentages of the basic chord dimension. A typical
low-speed airfoil may have a maximum camber of 4% lo-
cated 40% aft of the leading edge. The maximum camber is
sometimes referred to simply as the camber.
The thickness and thickness distribution of the profile
are important properties of an airfoil. The distance between
the upper and lower surfaces is called, simply, the thickness.
The maximum thickness and the location of the maximum
thickness are expressed as fractions of the percentage of the
chord. A typical low-speed airfoil may have a maximum
thickness of 12% located 30% aft of the leading edge.
The leading-edge radius of the airfoil is the radius of
curvature given the leading-edge shape. It is the radius of
the circle centered on a line tangent to the leading-edge FIGURE 3- 14 Airfoil in moti on.
camber connecting tangency points of upper and lower sur-
In Figure 3-14 a symmetrical airfoil is shown with its
faces with the leading edge. Typical leading-edge radii are 0
chord extended through the leading edge. As the airfoil
(knife edge) to 4 or 5%.
moves through the air, a relative wind is created which
Figure 3-13 illustrates five airfoil profiles of different
flows opposite the flight direction of the airfoil. The veloci-
shapes together with their chords. In the figure, profile A has
ty of the relative wind is in direct proportion to the velocity
a double convex shape. The chord is simply the straight line
at which the airfoil is being moved through the air. Figure
from the leading edge to the trailing edge. Profile B, which
3- 14 also shows that an acute angle is formed between the
is designed to produce high lift, has a convex upper curva-
chord of the airfoil and the relative wind. This angle is
ture and a concave lower curvature. The chord is the straight
called the angle of attack (AOA). The Greek letter a
line connecting the imaginary perpendiculars erected at the
(alpha) is used to denote this angle.
leading and trailing edges. Profile C has a flat lower surface;
A cambered airfoil can produce lift at 0° AOA because
therefore the chord is the straight line connecting the lead-
there is more cross-sectional area above the chord line than
ing and trailing edges. Profile D resembles profile B, and
below it, resulting in a greater velocity and lower static
again the chord is the straight line connecting imaginary
pressure of the airflow above the airfoil. At 0° AOA, the air-
perpendiculars erected at the leading and trailing edges.
flow will divide at the leading edge. With a positive angle of
Profile E is designed for supersonic flight and is almost
attack, such as is illustrated in Figure 3- 15, the airflow no
symmetrical.
longer divides right at the tip of the leading edge but at a
point farther down on the nose. The point where the airflow
divides is called the stagnation point. The stagnation point
Airfoils in Motion is shown in Figure 3-15 with a small x. Immediately in front
When an airfoil is moved through the air, a stream of air of the stagnation point the air separates, with the upper part
flows around the airfoil. If the airfoil is set at the proper of it forced to flow up over the top of the leading edge, and
angle and has sufficient velocity, enough lift will be pro- the lower part flowing under the wing. In Figure 3-15 the
duced to sustain the heavier-than-air craft in flight. In exam- shaded arrow shows the direction of the relative wind, and
ining the flow of air around the airfoil, assume that this is a airflow lines are shown steaming over and under the airfoil.
no-wind day. Any airflow, or wind, will be a relative wind, The distance A that the air must flow from the point of im-
that is, a wind created by the movement of an object through pact to the trailing edge over the top of the airfoil is much
still air. A relative wind flows opposite the direction of the greater than the distance B that the air must flow from the
object in motion. The velocity of its flow around or over the point of impact to the trailing edge. According to Bernoul-
object in motion is the object's airspeed. li's principle, this greater distance on the top surface will re-
sult in the creation of lift. As the angle of attack increases,
the stagnation point moves farther down on the airfoil.

·A-~ - - -­
Critical Angle of Attack
Beginning with small angles of attack, the lift increases as

c-E - 3?=,--- the angle of attack increases, until an angle of attack is

reached where the lift has a maximum value. This angle is
the angle of attack at which the streamline flow of air begins

cf= ====I CIIORO LINL

to break down over the upper surface of the airfoil and bur-
bling begins at the trailing edge of the airfoil. This break-
down and separation of the airflow is attributed to the fact
that as the stagnation point moves further down on the lead-
ing edge, the airflow over the top has an increasingly longer

FIGURE 3- 13 Airfo il profiles of different shapes. FIGURE 3-15 Airflow around an airfoil.

Airfoils 63
 FIGURE 3- 16 Ai rfoi l in a stall.
path to traveL As air flows over a surface, a certain amount
of friction is developed. As the path gets longer, the friction -
al force continues to build until the energy available in the
airstream is no longer sufficient to overcome it At this
point, the airflow will detach itself, as is shown in Figure
3-16. With the loss of a smooth airflow over the top surface,
pressure is no longer being reduced to create lift This angle
of attack is called the stalling angle. At angles greater than
the angle of maximum lift, the lift decreases rapidly, as is
shown in Figure 3-17.
For each critical angle of attack there is a corresponding
airspeed, assuming that other conditions, such as wing area
and air density, remain constant As the critical angle of at-
tack increases, the corresponding airspeed decreases; there-
fore, the lowest possible airspeed exists at the angle of
maximum lift (the stalling angle). Thus another name for
the angle of maximum lift is the angle of minimum speed.
The stalling speed of an airplane is the minimum speed at
which the wing will maintain lift
Velocity and Lift
A positive angle of attack causes increased velocity and de-
creased pressure on the upper surface of a wing and de-
creased velocity and increased pressure on the lower
surface. If the air flows slowly around the airfoil, a certain
amount of lift is generated. If the velocity of the airstream
increases, the pressure differential increases and the lift in-
creases. Lift does not vary in direct proportion to speed; lift
varies as the square of the speed. An aircraft traveling at 100
knots has four times the lift it would have at 50 knots.
MAXIMUM
I-
LL
::::i
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FIGURE 3-17 Critical angle of attack.
64 Ch apter 3 Basic A erodynamics
Air Density and Lift
You have seen that the amount of lift generated depends
upon the shape ofthe airfoil, the angle of attack, and the air-
speed. Another factor that affects lift is the air density. Lift
varies directly with air density. At 18 000 feet, where the
density of air is just half as much as at sea level, an aircraft
would have to travel 1.414 (the square root of 2) times as
fast as it would at sea level to maintain altitude.
On hot days, the density of the air is less than on cold
days; on wet days, the density is less than on dry days. Also,
density decreases with altitude. When the density is low, the
lift will also be comparatively lower.
If an airplane flies at a certain angle of attack at sea level
and then flies at the same angle of attack at a higher altitude,
where air density is less, the airplane must be flown faster.
On hot days, when the density is less, the airplane must be
flown faster for the same angle of attack than on cold days,
when the density is greater. Therefore, the airspeed must in-
crease as the density decreases in order to maintain the air-
plane at the same angle of attack in level flight.
Area and Lift
One of the factors that determines the total lift of an airfoil
is the area of the surface exposed to the airstream. Lift
varies directly with the area, other factors being equaL A
wing with an area of 200 square feet will lift twice as much
as a wing of only 100 square feet, providing other factors re-
main the same. Later in this text, we will explain why more
lift can be obtained from a long, narrow wing than from one
in which the width more closely approaches the length.
As explained previously, air has mass. When an airplane
flies through air, the air is moved. When any mass is moved
or accelerated, force is required, and the application of force
produces an equal and opposite force. This is in keeping
with Newton's law of motion. The impact of the air against
the surfaces of the airplane applies force, which tends to
hold the airplane back. This is drag. Specifically, drag is a
retarding force acting upon a body in motion. There are sev-
eral different types of drag, which are classified according
to their origin.

FIGURE 3-18 Skin fr iction .
Skin Friction and Air Viscosity
Figure 3- 18 illustrates skin friction . In the figure, a thin,
flat plate is held edgewise to an airstream. The particles of
ai r separate at the leading edge and flow over the upper sur-
face and under the lower surface, reuniting behind the trail-
ing edge. The resistance of skin friction is caused by a
tendency of the particles of air to cling to the surface of the
plate. There are two reasons for this tendency. First, the
plate has a certain amount of roughness, relatively speaking.
It is impossible to make it perfectly smooth.
The second reason why air tends to cling to the surface is
the viscosity of the air. Technically, viscosity is the resis-
rance offered by a fluid to the relative motion of its parti-
les, but the term is most commonly used to describe the
adhesive or sticky characteristics of a fluid . Even though it
i not always apparent, air does have "thickness," as does
oi l. Viscosity may best be visualized by thinking of the dif-
ference between syrup and water: the syrup is considerably
more viscous than water. The viscosity of gases is unusual
in that the viscosity is generally a function of temperature
alone; a decrease in temperature increases the viscosity
thi ckness). Therefore, viscosity will generally increase
~·i th altitude.
Boundary Layer
The term laminar flow describes the situation when air is
flow ing in thin sheets, or layers, close to the surface of a
ving with no disturbance between the layers of air; that is,
there is no cross-flow of air particles from one layer of air to
another. Also, there is no sideways movement of air parti-
cles with respect to the direction of airflow.
Laminar flow is most likely to occur where the surface is
extremely smooth and especially near the leading edge of an
FREE STREAM
30UNDARY
LAYER
EDGES
IGURE 3-19 In creas ing airspeed velocities in a boundary layer.
airfoil. Under these conditions the boundary layer will be
very thin. The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent
to the airfoil surface. The air velocity in the boundary layer
varies from zero on the surface of the airfoil to the velocity
of the free stream at the outer edge of the boundary layer.
This is illustrated in Figure 3-19. The boundary layer is
caused by the viscosity of the air sticking to the surface of
the wing and the succeeding layers of air.
Ordinarily, the airflow at the leading edge of a wing will
be laminar, but as the air moves toward the trailing edge of
the wing, the boundary layer becomes thicker and laminar
flow diminishes. The area where the airflow changes from
laminar to turbulent is called the transition region. This is il-
lustrated in Figure 3-20. It is desirable to keep a laminar
flow over the airfoil as much as possible.
Reynolds Number
Osborne Reynolds studied the flow of liquids in pipes and
found that at a low speed the flow is smooth but at a high
speed the flow is turbulent. By experimenting with pipes of
various sizes and with different liquids, he found a value
which he called the critical Reynolds number (Re). The
flow was laminar (smooth) for values below the critical Re
and turbulent for the values above the critical Re.
Whether a laminar or turbulent boundary layer exists
around an airfoil depends on the combined effects of veloci -
ty, viscosity, density, and the size of the chord. It is the com-
bined effects of these important parameters which produce
the Reynolds number.
While the actual magnitude of the Reynolds number has
no physical significance, the quantity is used as an index to
predict various types of airflow. At low Reynolds numbers,
the flow is laminar, and at high Reynolds numbers the flow
becomes turbulent. High Reynolds numbers are obtained
with large chord surfaces, high velocities, and low altitudes;
low Reynolds numbers result from small chord surfaces,
low velocities, and high altitudes. Since a different
Reynolds number would be obtained for each location
downstream from the leading edge, it is common to specify
a characteristic length and airspeed to define the Reynolds
number for a particular airfoil. The length commonly used
TRANSITION REGION
LAMINAR FLOW TURBULENT FLOW
FIGURE 3-20 Boundary layer airflow.
Drag 65
is the average wing chord. The formula used for calculating
the Reynolds number is
V X d
v al force on the body. This force is called skin friction drag.
where
V = fluid velocity
d = the distance downstream from the leading edge
v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
Using this formula, an airplane with a 60-in average wing
chord, an airspeed of l 00 mph, operating at sea level on a
standard day would have a Reynolds number of 4 700 000.
For transport-category aircraft, a Reynolds number in the
millions is very common.
A term frequently used in discussing airplane design is
scale effect. This is the change in any force coefficient, such
as a drag coefficient, due to a change in the value of a
Reynolds number.
Parasite Drag
The term parasite drag describes the resistance of the air
produced by any part of the airplane that does not produce
lift. Parasite drag can be further classified into pressure
drag, skin friction drag, and interference drag.
One type of drag, pressure drag, is caused by the frontal
area of the airplane components being exposed to the
airstream. A similar reaction is illustrated in Figure 3-21,
where the side of the airfoil is exposed to the airstream. The
pressure against the front side is much greater than that
formed on the back side, in the wake. This drag is caused by
the form (shape) of the airfoil and is the reason streamlining
is necessary to increase airplane efficiency and speed.
----Jo·~/ ) ~
~ 9~
)~
--J
~
..
.
..__,
\ )
FORM DRAG
SKIN FRICTION DRAG
FIGURE 3-21 Form drag and skin friction drag.
66 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
Figure 3-21 also illustrates that when the leading edge of
the airfoil is parallel to the airstream, the pressure drag is re-
duced. However, this does not eliminate all of the drag. The
air flowing along the surface of the airfoil creates a friction -
Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the air-
plane's surfaces, and it increases considerably if the air-
plane surfaces are rough and dirty .
Most parts of an airplane, such as the fuselage, cowlings,
landing-gear struts, and other components, will have both
thickness and surface area, resulting in both pressure and
friction drag.
Pressure drag and friction drag are both components of
parasite drag. However, in calculating the total parasitic
drag force of an aircraft, another type of drag must also be
considered. This type of drag is called interference drag
and is caused by the interference of the airflow between ad-
jacent parts of the airplane, such as the intersection of wings
and tail sections with the fuselage. Fairings are used to
streamline these intersections and decrease interference
drag.
Several factors affect parasite drag. When each factor is
considered independently, it must be assumed that the other
factors remain constant. These factors are ( 1) the more
streamlined an object is, the less the parasite drag; (2) the
more dense the air moving past the airplane, the greater
the parasite drag; (3) the larger the size of the object in the
airstream, the greater the parasite drag; and (4) as speed in-
creases, the amount of parasite drag increases.
Induced Drag
The term induced drag describes the undesirable but un-
avoidable by-product of lift. The pressure differential between
the upper and lower surfaces of the wing result in a vortex
being formed at each wing tip, causing a downward push on
the air leaving the trailing edge. This downward component
is termed downwash and produces a rearward component to
lift. The lift component is most effective acting vertically.
When the lift vector is tilted rearward due to the downwash,
lift is lost. This loss of lift is induced drag.
Since induced drag is the direct result of wing-tip vor-
tices, the aspect ratio (the wingspan to chord ratio), which is
discussed in Chapter 4, has a great effect on the amount of
induced drag produced. Induced drag increases in direct
proportion to increases in the angle of attack. The greater
the angle of attack, up to the critical angle, the greater the
amount of lift developed and the greater the induced drag.
The amount of air deflected downward increases greatly at
higher angles of attack; therefore, the higher the angle of at-
tack, the greater the induced drag. However, an important
point to remember is that induced drag decreases with
velocity.
Total Drag
The sums of both the induced drag and the parasite drag is
the total drag.

HIGH ANG L E
OF ATTACK
FIGURE 3-22 The resultant force.
total drag = induced drag + parasite drag
In designing or repairing an airplane, the drag forces ex-
erted on the structure of the airplane should be considered.
As the airplane flies through the air, the effect is as if mil-
lions of tiny particles were striking against the forward parts
of the airplane. If the total force of these particles becomes
too great for the strength of the structure, damage will re-
sult. It is therefore necessary to make sure that the leading
edges of the wings, the leading edges of the stabilizers, and
the forward parts of the engine cowling are constructed of
material with sufficient strength to withstand the maximum
impact forces that will ever be imposed upon them. Further-
more, the devices by which the parts are attached to the
main structure must have sufficient strength to withstand
maximum drag forces.
Lift and Drag Components
Lift and drag are components of the total aerodynamic force
acting upon the wing. This total force is called the resul-
tant. Each tiny portion of the wing in flight has a small
force acting upon it. The force acting on one small portion
of the wing is different in magnitude and direction from all
the other small forces acting upon all the other portions of
the wing. By considering the magnitude, direction, and lo-
cation of each of these small forces, it is possible to add
them all together into one resultant force. This resultant
fo rce has magnitude, direction, and location with respect to
the wing.
The resultant force on an airfoil flying at a specified
peed and angle of attack can be shown as a single entity
possessing both magnitude and direction, such as in Figure
3-22. It is also possible to break the resultant down into two
LIFT
Jf
VECTOR / of attack is increased. The center of pressure is generally lo-
/-__RESULTANT
~ VECTOR
./
FI GURE 3-23 Relationship between relative wind, lift, and drag
DRA G
-- WIND
CENTER OF PRESSURE
FIGURE 3-24 Cente r of pressure.
major components (lift and drag), with magnitudes in two
directions. In aerodynamics these forces are discussed as
having directions perpendicular and parallel to the relative
wind. The component of the resultant force which acts per-
pendicular to the relative wind is lift. The component of the
resultant force which acts parallel to the relative wind is
called drag. Figure 3-23 illustrates the resultant force bro-
ken down into the separate component forces. The lengths
of the component arrows are in proportion to the magni-
tudes of the forces they represent. For example, if lift is two
times as great as drag, the arrow representing lift must be
drawn twice as long as the arrow representing drag.
Center of Pressure
The center of pressure (CP) is the point at which the resul-
tant force intersects the chord of an airfoil. The center of
pressure is shown at A in Figure 3-24. Lift acts from the
center of pressure, or, stated another way, the center of pres-
sure is the center of lift.
The location and direction in which the resultant will
point depends upon the shape of the airfoil section and the
angle at which it is set to the airstream. Throughout most of
the flight range, that is, at the usual angles of attack, the CP
moves forward as the angle of attack increases and back-
ward as the angle of attack decreases . As is illustrated in
Figure 3-25 the resultant intersects the chord line or center
of pressure at progressively forward locations as the angle
cated at approximately the 25% chord position for most air-
R1 (LOW ANG LE OF ATIACK)
Rz (HIGHER ANGLE OF ATIACK)
R (HIGH ANGLE OF ATIACK)
3
CHORD
FIGURE 3-25 Center of pressure travel.
Drag 67
foils. On an airfoil with a 60-inch chord, this would locate
the center of pressure at 15 inches aft from the leading edge.
While the CP travel will generally be restricted to the 25%
(±10%) chord area, the CP can travel forward or backward
from these usual positions. For example, at a low angle of
attack, the CP may run off the trailing edge and disappear
because there is no more lift.
The pressure distribution is different on the top and bot-
tom of an airfoil. This results in the center of pressure being
different on the two surfaces, with the center of pressure on
the lower surface generally being forward of that on the
upper surface. Because the resultant forces on the two sur-
faces are not acting at the same chordwise location, a rota-
tion of the airfoil will result. This rotation situation is
illustrated in Figure 3-25 by the letter M and the corre-
sponding arrow. This tendency for rotation is called the
pitching moment. Due to the pitching moment, most airfoils
are unstable by themselves and require some additional
method to stabilize them, such as the installation of a hori-
zontal stabilizer.
One of the reasons for studying CP travel is that the CP is
the point at which the aerodynamic forces can be considered
to be concentrated; therefore the airplane designer must
make provisions for the CP travel by preparing a wing struc-
ture that will meet any stress imposed upon it. Technicians
and inspectors cannot change the design, but they can per-
form their duties better if they know the characteristics and
limitations of an airplane.
So far we have discussed airflow and aerodynamic princi-
ples with respect to subsonic airspeeds only. Developments
in aircraft and power plants, however, have produced high-
INCOMPRESSIBLE
(SUBSONIC)
CONVERGING
INCREASING VELOCITY DECREASING VELOCITY
DECREASING PRESSURE
CONSTANT DENSITY
INCREASING PRESSURE
CONSTANT DENSITY
COMPRESSIBLE
(SUPERSONIC)
CONVERGING
DECREASING VELOCITY
INCREASING PRESSURE
INCREASING VELOCITY
DECREASING PRESSURE
INCREA SING DENSITY DECREASING DENSITY
FIGURE 3-26 Comparison of compressible and
incompressible airflows.
68 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
performance airplanes with capabilities for very high-speed
flight. The study of aerodynamics at these very high flight
speeds has many significant differences from the study of
low-speed aerodynamics. The behavior of an airfoil under
subsonic conditions is easily predictable. However, when
operating at transonic and supersonic speeds, the reaction of
an airfoil is altogether different from that which is found at
subsonic speeds. The reason for this difference is the reac-
tion of the air itself.
Compressibility
At low flight speeds, the study of aerodynamics is greatly
simplified by the fact that air may experience relatively
small changes in pressure with only negligible changes in
density. This airflow is termed incompressible since the air
may undergo changes in pressure without apparent changes
in density, as is shown in Figure 3-26. Such a condition of
airflow is similar to the flow of water, hydraulic fluid , or
any other incompressible fluid. However, at high flight
speeds, the pressure changes that take place are quite large,
and significant changes in air density occur, as is also illus-
trated in Figure 3-26. The study of airflow at high speed
must account for these changes in air density and consider
the fact that the air is compressible.
Speed of Sound
A factor of great importance in the study of high-speed air-
flow is the speed of sound. The speed of sound is the rate at
which small pressure disturbances will be spread through the
air. The aerodynamic effects of pressure are carried through
the air at the same rate as that of sound disturbances.
The speed at which sound travels in air under standard
sea-level conditions is 1116 ft/s [340.24 m/s], or 761 mph.
or 661 kn. The speed of sound is not affected by a change in
atmospheric pressure because the density also changes.
However, a change in the temperature of the atmosphere
changes the density without appreciably affecting the pres-
sure; therefore, the speed of sound changes with a change in
temperature. The speed of sound can be calculated with the
equation
a= 49.022 VT
where
a = speed of sound, ft/s
0
T = absolute temperature, R
The temperature of the air decreases with an increase in
altitude up to an altitude of about 37 000 ft [11 280m], and
it is then constant to an altitude of more than 100 000 ft
[30 488 m]. Therefore, under standard atmospheric condi-
tions, the speed of sound decreases with altitude to about
37 000 ft and then remains constant to more than 100 000 ft.
For example, at 30 000 ft [9146.34 m] the temperature of
standard air is - 48°F [-44.44°C], and the speed of sound is
995 ft/s [303.35 m/s], or 589 kn . Table 3-2 illustrates the
variation of the speed of sound in the standard atmosphere.
 The flight Mach numbers used to define these areas of
TABLE3-2 Variation of Speed of Sound with flight are approximate. A more accurate way to define these
Temperature
ranges for a particular aircraft is
Temperature
Speed of Subsonic. The aircraft maximum Mach number that all
Altitude, ft OF oc sound,kn local speeds will be less than Mach 1.
Sea level 59.0 15.0 661.7 Transonic. The regime where local speeds are greater and
5 000 41.2 5.1 650.3 less than Mach 1.
10 000 23.3 ~4.8 638.6
15 000 5.5 - 14.7 626.7 Supersonic. The aircraft's minimum Mach number when
20 000 - 12.3 --24.6 614.6 all local speeds are greater than 1.
25 000 - 30.2 -- 34.5 602.2
30 000 -48.0 -- 44.4 589.6
35 000 -·- 65.8 - 54.3 576.6 The airspeed when local flows start to reach Mach 1 is
40 000 69.7 -56.5 573.8 very critical to aircraft performance. For this reason, the
50 000 -69. 7 -- 56.5 573.8 free-stream Mach number that produces the first evidence of
60 000 69.7 --56.6 573.8
local sonic flow is called the critical Mach number. This is
shown in Figure 3-27. The critical Mach number is the
boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is an
important point of reference for all compressibility effects
encountered in transonic flight.
Mach Number
Because of the relationship between the effect of high-
peed air forces and the speed of sound and because the
peed of sound varies with temperature, it is the ratio of
the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound that is im-
portant, rather than the speed of the aircraft with respect to
the air. This ratio, called the Mach number (M), is the
true airspeed of the aircraft divided by the speed of sound
in the air through which the aircraft is flying at the time.
true airspeed
M = ----:-'---:: FIGURE 3~27 Critical Mach number.
speed of sound
Thus, Mach 0.5 at sea level under standard conditions
(558 ft/s [170 m/s]) is faster than Mach 0.5 at 30 000 ft (497
ft/s [151.52 m/s]).
Shock Wave Formation
Types of High-Speed Flight At speeds less than 300 mph [483 km], the airflow around
an aircraft behaves as though the air were incompressible.
Airflow speeds under Mach 1 are termed subsonic, airflow
Pressure disturbances, or pressure pulses, are formed ahead
at Mach 1 is considered sonic, and airflow speeds in excess
of the parts of the aircraft, such as the leading edge of the
of Mach 1 are called supersonic. It is important to note that
wing. These pressure pulses travel through the air at the
ompressibility effects are not limited to flight speeds at and
speed of sound and, in effect, serve as a warning to the air of
above the speed of sound.
the approach of the wing. As a result of this warning, the air
The speed of the air flowing over a particular part of the
begins to move out of the way. Evidence of this "pressure
aircraft is called the local speed. The local speed of the air-
warning" is similar to waves spreading across water. If peb-
flo w may be higher than the speed of the aircraft. For exam-
bles were dropped into a smooth pond at the rate of one per
ple, the speed of the air across the upper portion of the wing
second, at the same point, waves would spread out as is
i accelerated to produce lift. Thus, an aircraft flying in the
shown in Figure 3-28a. In Figure 3-28b, instead of drop-
Yicinity of Mach 1 will have local airflows over various
ping the pebbles in the water at the very same location, the
parts of the aircraft at speeds both above and below Mach 1.
point of dropping is slowly moved to the left each time.
ince there is the possibility of having both subsonic and su-
Each pebble still produces a circular wave, but the spacing
personic flows existing on the aircraft, it is convenient to
between the rings is no longer uniform and is more closely
define certain regimes of flight. These regimes are defined
spaced in the direction of movement. As already described,
as follows:
these wave disturbances provide a warning of the approach-
ing aircraft. Notice that the warning time (the distance be-
Subsonic. Mach numbers below 0.75.
tween the waves), however, will decrease as speed
Transonic. Mach numbers from 0.75 to 1.20. increases. If the speed of movement continues to increase
Supersonic. Mach numbers from 1.20 to 5.00. between dropping the pebbles, a wave pattern such as is
Hypersonic. Mach numbers above 5.00. shown in Figure 3-28c will develop. Notice that no advance
High-Speed Flight 69
 WAVE DUE TO: warning is being sent out by the wave pattern. This is simi-
~ FIRST PEBBLE
¥ ~ SECOND PEBBLE
lar to an aircraft flying at the speed of sound. If the speed of
THIRD PEBBLE movement continues to increase between dropping the peb-
FOURTH PEBBLE
bles, the smaller wave circles are no longer completely in-
side the next larger ones. The circles are now within a
wedge-shaped pattern, such as is shown in Figure 3-28d.
This is similar to an aircraft flying at speeds above Mach 1
and illustrates how a shock wave is formed.

(a) STATIONARY WAVES

DIRECTION
OF MOTION
Transonic Flight
As has been previously discussed, an aircraft in the transon-
WAVE DUE TO:
ic flight area can be expected to have local velocities which
~
FIRST PEBBLE are greater than the free-stream airspeed. Therefore the ef-
~ --"SECOND PEBBLE
THIRD PEBBLE
fects of compressibility can be expected to occur at flight
FOURTH PEBBLE speeds less than the speed of sound.
Using a conventional airfoil shape, such as is shown in
Figure 3-29, and assuming the aircraft is flying at Mach .5,
the maximum local velocity will be greater than the free-
stream speed but most likely will be less than Mach 1. No-
tice that there is upwash and flow direction change well
ahead of the leading edge.
Assume that a speed increase to Mach .72 will produce
(b) WAVES FOR MOTION AT SUBSONIC SPEED the first evidence of sonic flow. This means that M = .72 is
the critical Mach number for this aircraft. As the critical
WAVE DUE TO: Mach number is exceeded, an area of supersonic airflow is
----- FIRST PEBBLE created and a normal shock wave forms as the boundary be-
_.--- --- SECOND PEBBLE
THIRD PEBBLE tween the supersonic airflow and the subsonic airflow on
FOURTH PEBBLE the aft portion of the airfoil surface. The acceleration of the
airflow from subsonic to supersonic is smooth and unac-
companied by shock waves if the surface is smooth and the
transition gradual. However, transition of airflow from su-
personic to subsonic is always accompanied by a shock
wave and, when there is no change in direction of the air-
flow, the wave formed will be a normal shock wave.
One of the principal effects of the normal shock wave is
(c) WAVES SIMULATING MACH 1.0 MOTION to produce a large increase in the static pressure of the
airstream behind the wave. If the shock wave is strong, the
WAVE DUE TO: / boundary layer may not have sufficient energy to withstand
FIRSTPEBBLE~ / the adverse pressure gradient of the wave, and airflow sepa-
SECOND PEBBLE / /

>0"'"" ""Z
THIRD PEBBLE

~
·

"' /

FLOW DIRECTION CHANGES WELL AHEAD

OF LEADING EDGE

«...
~

(d) WAVES SIMULATING SUPERSONIC MOTION

FIGURE 3-28 Wave formation. FIGURE 3-29 Typical subsonic flow pattern.

70 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics

SU PER SON IC ration will occur. At speeds that are only slightly beyond the
AIRFLOW critical Mach number, the shock wave formed is not trong
BLE SEPARATION enough to cause separation or any noticeable change in the
aerodynamic handling characteristics of the aircraft. Figure
M = .77
3-30a shows the normal shock wave being formed at Mach
(a) .77. As the Mach number continues to increase to Mach .82,
the supersonic flow area gets larger on the upper surface and
an additional area of supersonic flow and normal shock
wave forms on the lower surface.
As the flight speed approaches the speed of sound (Mach
= .95), the areas of supersonic flow enlarge and the shock
waves move nearer the trailing edge. The boundary layer
may remain separated or may reattach depending primarily
upon the airfoil shape.
The magnitude and location of these shock waves are
constantly changing. Airflow separation will occur with the
(b)
formation of shock waves, resulting in the loss of lift. Other
phenomena that may be associated with transonic flight are
aircraft buffeting, trim and stability changes, and a decrease
in control-surface effectiveness. These forces and the turbu-
lence that accompanies transonic flight may cause the pilot
NORMAL SHOCK to lose control, especially if the airplane is not designed to
operate under transonic conditions.
M = .95
When the flight speed exceeds the speed of sound (M =
1.05), the bow wave forms at the leading edge. The typical
flow pattern is shown in Figure 3-30d. If the speed is in-
creased to some higher Mach number, the oblique portions
of the waves incline more greatly and the detached normal
(c)
shock wave moves closer to the leading edge. At supersonic
speeds the aerodynamic control conditions become pre-
dictable and orderly again. A typical supersonic flow pat-
tern is shown in Figure 3-31. The airflow ahead of the
object is not influenced until the air particles are suddenly
forced out of the way by the concentrated pressure wave set
up by the object. Therefore the airflow does not change di -
rection ahead of the airfoil as occurred in the subsonic flow
"BOW shown in Figure 3-29.
WAVE" When supersonic flow is clearly established, all changes
in velocity, pressure, density, and flow direction take place
(d) quite suddenly and in relatively confined areas. The areas of

~" I GURE 3-30 Transonic flow patterns.

NO CHANGE OF
FLOW DIRECTION
APPARENT AHEAD
OF LEADING EDGE FIGURE 3-31 Typical supersonic flow pattern.

High-Speed Flight 71
I
FIGURE 3-32 Photograph of shock waves.
flow change are very distinct and these areas are referred to
as wave formations.
The wave formations formed at supersonic speeds are
not imaginary or theoretical, and in a suitably arranged
high-speed wind tunnel they can be photographed. Figure
3-32 is a photograph showing shock waves formed on a
wind-tunnel model at low supersonic speed.
Various types of waves can occur in supersonic flow, and
the nature of the wave formed depends upon the airstream
and the shape of the object causing the flow change. Essen-
tially , there are three fundamental types of waves formed in
supersonic flow : (I) the oblique shock wave, (2) the normal
shock wave, and (3) the expansion wave.
Oblique Shock Wave
A typical case of oblique shock wave formation is that of a
wedge pointed into a supersonic airstream. An oblique
shock wave will form on each surface of the wedge, as
shown in Figure 3-33. A supersonic airstream passing
through the oblique shock wave will experience these
changes:
I. The airstream is slowed down; the velocity and Mach
number behind the wave are reduced, but the flow is still su-
personic.
2. The flow direction is changed to flow along the sur-
face of the airfoil.
FIGURE 3-33 Shock waves at the edges of an airfoil.
72 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is
increased.
4. The density of the airstream behind the wave is in-
creased.
5. Some of the available energy of the airstream (indi-
cated by the sum of dynamic and static pressure) is dissipat-
ed and turned into unavailable heat energy. Therefore, the
oblique shock wave is wasteful of energy.
Normal Shock Wave
If a blunt-nosed object is placed in a supersonic air stream,
the shock wave which is formed will be detached from the
leading edge. Whenever the shock wave forms perpendicu-
lar to the upstream flow, the wave is termed a normal
shock wave, and the flow immediately behind the wave is
subsonic. Any relatively blunt object, such as is shown in
Figure 3-34, placed in a supersonic airstream will form a
normal shock wave immediately ahead of the leading edge,
slowing the airstream to subsonic so that the airstream may
feel the presence of the blunt nose and flow around it. Once
past the blunt nose, the airstream may remain subsonic or
accelerate back to supersonic, depending on the shape of the
nose and the Mach number of the free stream. This type of
normal shock wave which is formed ahead of an object in a
supersonic airstream is called a bow wave.
In addition to the formation of normal shock waves just
described, this same type of wave may be formed in an en-
tirely different manner. Figure 3-30 illustrates the way in
which an ai1ioil at high subsonic speeds has local flow ve-
locities which are supersonic. As the local supersonic flow
moves aft, a normal shock wave forms, slowing the flow to
subsonic. The transition of flow from subsonic to superson-
ic is smooth and is not accompanied by shock waves if the
transition is made gradually with a smooth surface. The
transition of flow from supersonic to subsonic without di-
rection change always forms a normal shock wave.
A supersonic airstream passing through a normal shoe'
wave will experience these changes:
FIGURE 3-34 Normal shock wave formation.
 1. The airstream is slowed to subsonic.
2. The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is
unchanged.
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is
increased greatly.
4. The density of the airstream behind the wave is in-
creased great! y.
5. The energy of the airstream (indicated by total pres-
sure, dynamic plus static) is greatly reduced. The normal
shock wave is very wasteful of energy.
Expansion Wave
If a supersonic airstream were to flow "around a comer" as
shown in Figure 3-35, an expansion wave would form. An
expansion wave does not cause sharp, sudden changes in the
airflow except at the comer itself and thus is not actually a
shock wave. A supersonic airstream passing through an ex-
pansion wave will experience these changes:
1. The airstream is accelerated; the velocity and Mach
number behind the wave are greater.
2. The flow direction is changed to flow along the sur-
face, provided separation does not occur.
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave is
decreased.
4. The density of the airstream behind the wave is de-
creased.
5. Since the flow changes in a rather gradual manner,
there is no shock and no loss of energy in the airstream. The
expansion wave does not dissipate airstream energy.
Drag Divergence
As previously described, the operation of aircraft can be
both unpredictable and unstable in the transonic flight area.
The formation of shock waves can create significant prob-
lems with airflow separations and the resulting rapid rise in
drag. At speeds only slightly above the critical Mach num-
ber, the shock wave formation is usually not strong enough
FIGURE 3-35 Expansion wave formation.
1-
z
UJ
0
U::: DRAG DIVERGENCE
~ MACH NUMBE~
u CRITICAL
~ MACH NUMBER ---.........._-,
0
0.5 1.0
MACH NUMBER
FIGURE 3-36 Drag divergence Mach number.
to cause flow separation, and therefore drag changes only
slightly. However, as the speed continues to increase and
the shock wave grows in strength, airflow separation will
occur. This separation will result in a rapid increase in the
airfoil drag coefficient. This point is called the drag diver-
gence Mach number. It is also sometimes referred to as the
critical drag Mach number. In referring to Figure 3-36,
note that from the drag divergence Mach number to Mach 1
the drag rises sharply and operation within this range is not
desirable. Also notice that at speeds higher than Mach 1 the
drag drops off sharply.
Sonic Booms
When an airplane is in level supersonic flight, a pattern of
shock waves is developed. Although there are many shock
waves coming from an aircraft flying supersonically, these
waves tend to combine into two main shocks, one originat-
ing from the nose of the aircraft and one from the tail.
If these waves (pressure disturbances) extend to the
ground or water surface, as shown in Figure 3-37, they will
be reflected, causing a sonic boom. An observer would ac-
tually hear two booms. The time between the two booms
and their intensity is primarily a function of the distance the
airplane is from the ground. The lower the aircraft is, the
closer together and louder the two booms will be.
TAIL WAVE
SHOCK WAVE
FORMATION
BOW WAVE
GROUND SURFACE
FIGURE 3-37 Sonic boom wave formation.
High-Speed Flight 73
Hypersonic Flight
When the speed of an aircraft or spacecraft is five times the
speed of sound or greater, the speed is said to be hyperson-
ic. Practical experience with such speeds has been gained by
engineers working in the space program under the direction
of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), with the result that certain hypersonic vehicles are
now practical, with others to be developed. The principal
hindrance to hypersonic flight is the extreme temperature
generated by air friction at hypersonic speeds. New materi-
als and cooling methods are being developed to overcome
this problem.
The high-velocity test of a space shuttle model is shown
in Figure 3-38. The shuttle enters the earth's atmosphere at
hypersonic speed. The model shown in Figure 3-38 was
tested in a Mach 20 helium tunnel at NASA' s Langley Re-
search Center. The configuration developed by the NASA
Manned Spacecraft Center is being tested at a 20° angle of
attack at simulated Mach 20 reentry speed. Row shock pat-
terns from the nose and fixed straight wing are made visible
by exciting the helium flow with a high-energy electron
beam.
FIGURE 3-38 Hypersonic wind-tunnel test. (NASA)
74 Chapter 3 Basic Aerodynamics
1. What are the approximate percentages of the
principal gases in our atmosphere?
2. What is the atmospheric pressure at sea level under
standard conditions in pounds per square inch and
inches of mercury?
3. What effect does temperature have on the density
of the air?
4. In simple terms, explain Bernoulli's principle.
5. Define airfoil.
6. Define chord line and chord.
7. Define camber.
8. Explain the term relative wind.
9. Explain angle of attack.
10. What is the stagnation point of an airfoil?
11. Discuss the effect of air density with respect to lift.
12. How does wing area affect lift?
13. What is the cause of skin friction on a surface
moving through the air?
14. What does the term viscosity mean?
15. Describe laminar flow .
16. What is the boundary layer?
17. Define parasite drag.
18. Define induced drag.
19. Define resultant force.
20. Explain what is meant by the term center of
pressure.
21. How does the angle of attack affect the CP on a
wing?
22. Define the term speed of sound.
23. What is a Mach number?
24. Explain the term critical mach number.
25. What are the three types of shock waves?
+