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Drill bits come in a broad range of types that fall into two basic categories: roller cone bits and fixed cutter bits.
FIGURE 1
The two main types of roller cone bits are defined by their types of cutting elements. A milled steel tooth bit, like one
shown in Figure 1, consists of cutting elements that are fabricated as part of the cones. An insert or "button" bit
consists of separate cutting elements, pressed into specially machined holes in the cone (Figure 2: Example of a
roller cone bit insert bit —Varel A-Force, designed for air-drilling applications. Courtesy of Varel International. All
rights reserved.
FIGURE 2
Today, the most widely used fixed cutter bit types are polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits and natural
diamond bits (Figure 4 and Figure 5, respectively. Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved).
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
2
Series Formations Type
compressive strength
2
4
The third number indicates bearing type and whether or not the bit is gauge-protected:
1. Standard roller bearing
2. Roller bearing (air)
3. Roller bearing (gauge protected)
4. Sealed roller bearing
5. Sealed roller bearing (gauge protected)
6. Sealed friction bearing
7. Friction bearing (gauge protected)
The fourth character designates additional special features and applications as follows:
A. Air application
B. Special bearing seal
C. Center jet
D. Deviation control
E. Extended jet
F. Extra gauge/body protection
G. Horizontal/steering application
H. Jet deflection
I. Lug pads
J. Motor application
K. Reinforced Welds
L. Standard Steel Tooth
M. Two cone
N. Enhanced cutting structure
O. Predominantly chisel inserts
P. Predominantly conical inserts
Q. Other Insert Shape
Example:
The Varel L2 bit shown in Figure 1 has an IADC classification of 211:
21 indicates that the Varel L2 is a steel-tooth bit designed for medium to medium hard formations
with high compressive strength.;
1 indicates that the cones on this bit have standard roller bearings.
In this case, there is no fourth character to indicate special bit features.
First code
Body material, cutting elements
character
O Other
The second character, a digit from 1 to 9, identifies the bit shape, or profile. This indicates its durability
and the type of cutting action it provides:
Second
code Profile
character
Third
code Hydraulic features
character
1 Bladed/changeable jets
2 Bladed/fixed ports
3 Bladed/open throat
4 Ribbed/changeable jets
5 Ribbed/fixed ports
6 Ribbed/open throat
10 Alternative codes:
a. radial flow
b. cross-flow
c. other
The fourth character identifies the size (large, medium, small) and density (light, medium, heavy) of the
bit's cutting elements.
Bit Hydraulics
Roller cone and PDC bits are designed to accommodate nozzles of varying diameters (Figure 6 : 17 12-inch TCI bit
showing nozzle directly below cones. Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved.). These nozzles serve as
the conduits through which drilling fluid passes at high velocity to clean the bit's cutting elements and remove drilled
formation particles from the bottom of the hole. Nozzles are made of hard metal to resist erosion.
FIGURE 6
Bit nozzle diameters typically are expressed in 32nds of an inch. For example, if the bit nozzles are described as “12-
13-13,” this denotes that the bit contains one nozzle having a diameter of 1232 in. and two nozzles having a diameter
of1332 in. (note that for diameters of 2032 inch and above, only "even" numbered sizes are available,
e.g., 2232, 2432 and so on). When calculating the flow through nozzles, a nozzle discharge coefficient of 0.95 is
normally recommended.
Flat-Bottom Bits
Flat-bottom bits (Figure 7: Impax ® percussion bit. Courtesy of Smith Technologies) are sometimes used in air or gas
drilling with air hammers. These tool combinations are employed in extremely hard formations to allow for fast drilling
with low weight on bit. They are also used for drilling surface rocks in the mountains before enough drill collars are
added to obtain weight on bit. Sometimes they are used to drill straight holes in crooked-hole areas with low weight
on bit.
FIGURE 7
Another application of the tools is to drill horizontal holes where limited weight on bit is available. The connection of a
flat-bottom bit to an air hammer is shown in (Figure 8: Impax 8 ® percussion hammer. Courtesy of Smith
Technologies).
Rock Failure Mechanisms
Bits are designed to induce rock failure. Because rock failure can occur in different ways, depending on the formation
and on downhole conditions, there are a large number of design variations among roller cone and fixed cutter bits. To
evaluate these design variations and select a bit, we first need a basic understanding of how rocks fail and how
formation conditions affect drilling performance.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 4
As shown, the sample was placed in a testing chamber and subjected to hydraulic compression.
At zero confining pressure (i.e., atmospheric conditions), the rock experienced brittle fracture at 12,000
psi compressive stress, with less than 1% strain.
Another limestone sample, identical to the first, was placed in the chamber and subjected to 3000 psi confining
pressure. The compressive stress was raised to 24,000 psi with no rock fractures; the sample experienced about a
12% length deformation, changing to a permanent "barrel" shape.
Experiments like these give some insight into the condition of rock in situ, or downhole, and how it affects drilling.
FIGURE 5
Penetration rate is also affected by a pressure-related phenomenon known as chip hold-down. Chip hold-down
occurs when a mud filter cake or fine solids block fractures produced by the bit. This prevents the liquid phase of the
mud from invading the fractures, and results in a positive pressure differential across the top surface of the chip. The
hold-down force is equal to the area of the chip times the differential pressure (Figure 6 ).
FIGURE 6
Underbalanced Condition
If the pressure exerted by the fluid column is less than the pore pressure of the formation, the differential pressure is
less than zero, and the well is being drilled in an underbalanced condition. This condition most often occurs when
drilling with air, fresh water or muds weighing less than 8.6 lbgal.
In underbalanced drilling, the rock exhibits brittle behavior — it has a relatively low failure strength and fractures very
easily. Because the rock surface is in tension, it virtually explodes under the compressive loads of the bit. There is no
downward pressure to promote chip hold-down, and so there is very little re grinding of already-drilled cuttings. This
helps attain very high rates of penetration.
Although its benefits are evident, underbalanced drilling is feasible only in areas where formation fluids can be easily
controlled and there is no danger of a blowout.
Balanced Condition
When the pressure of the fluid column is equal to the pore pressure, the hole is in a balanced condition. This
condition generally occurs when drilling with brine water or mud weighing 8.6 lbgal.
Under balanced conditions, the rock is still in the brittlestate and fractures relatively easily. The bottom of the hole is
in pressure equilibrium, so there is minimal stress concentration present to either enhance or slow penetration rates.
Penetration rates are generally slower than those experienced in an underbalanced drilling, because there is some
chip hold-down resulting from cohesive forces between the rock cuttings, along with interference due to fluid
viscosity.
Balanced drilling, like underbalanced drilling, presents blowout risks, and is an option only when there is no likelihood
of unexpected increases in formation pressure.
Overbalanced Condition
In overbalanced drilling, the pressure of the mud column exceeds the formation pore pressure. In areas with normal
pressure gradients, this condition occurs when the mud weight exceeds 8.6 ppg. For safety reasons, overbalanced
drilling is normal practice in most areas.
As the differential pressure increases in an overbalanced hole, the rock below the bit becomes increasingly strong
and ductile. The hole bottom is in a state of compression, thus retarding fracture propagation caused by the bit.
These factors, along with a high degree of chip hold-down, tend to slow penetration rates. If the differential pressure
is too high, the mud can fracture the formation, resulting in lost circulation and possibly a blowout.
Differential pressures ranging from 2,000 to 6,000 psi are not uncommon in south Louisiana, south Texas, the North
Sea, the Middle East and other deep basins. The induced rock strength and large chip hold-down forces created by
these high differential pressures can make roller cone bits drill very slowly in rocks that would normally be soft and
easily drilled. A plot of penetration rate versus differential pressure (Figure 7) shows the dramatic effect that
increasing overbalance has on drilling rates.
FIGURE 7
Rotary rpm: 80
The only condition that changed during this experiment was the differential pressure, which was 700 psi for the first
set of bit runs, 1,200 psi for the second set of bit runs and 2,500 psi for the third set of bit runs. Table 1 and Figure
8summarize the test results.
Table 1. Effect of Differential Pressure on Bit
Performance
Test ΔP,
ROP,fthr Bottom-hole Pattern (Figure 8)
No. psi
FIGURE 8
Note that with all other conditions held constant, the increase in differential pressure resulted in dramatically reduced
penetration rates and increased chip hold-down.
Normal drilling practice calls for maintaining mud weight 0.2 to 0.4 lbgal higher than the equivalent mud weight of the
formation. While this practice provides a safety factor for well control, it can also result in high differential pressures
(Figure 9) which, in turn, can severely limit drilling rates.
FIGURE 9
Roller Cone Bit Geometry
The shape and profile of a bit depends partly on hole-size constraints and partly on the type of cutting action desired.
The one unalterable constraint on overall bit design is the diameter of the hole to be drilled. Bit components must be
of the proper sizes and proportions to fit within this limited space. Hole size determines which design variations are
possible, and sometimes makes it necessary to enhance one design element at the expense of another. The larger
the hole size, the more flexible designers can be in developing a well-balanced, optimum-performing bit.
FIGURE 1
Journal Angle
The journal angle, by definition, is the angle formed by the intersection of a line perpendicular to the axis (or center
line) of the journal and the center line of the bit.
Soft formation bits (Figure 2) have smaller journal angles than hard formation bits (Figure 3). For example, a soft or
medium formation bit may have a journal angle of 32.5°, while a medium hard or hard formation bit may have a
journal angle of 36°. Some specialty bits have a 39° journal angle.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
Offset
Offset is the horizontal distance between the center line of the bit and a vertical plane through the center-line of the
journal.
Figure 4 shows this offset as a positive displacement in the direction of rotation (some bit companies measure offset
in inches, while others measure it in degrees. Typical bit offsets range from 0º to 5º).
FIGURE 4
In general, the greater the offset distance on a bit, the higher the degree of gouging/scraping cutting action it has.
Soft formation bits generally have offsets that are considerably larger than those of hard formation bits (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5
All bits are designed with some amount of positive offset. If a bit were to have a negative offset, it would produce a
skidding and trailing action in the cutting structure, resulting in reduced penetration rates, abnormal wear of the
cutting structure and premature failure.
The following bit parameters depend on offset:
In-thrust load: The greater a bit's offset, the more the gauge contact between the cone and the borehole
wall is reduced and, therefore, the greater the in-thrust loading (remember that by design geometry, all
three-cone bits load in an out-thrust manner).
Shape of the gauge teeth: The greater a bit's offset, the more aggressive (i.e., gouging/scraping) is its
cutting action. To facilitate this cutting action in soft formation bits, the cutting structures are made as long
and thin as possible. Hard formation bits with less offset use shorter, broader teeth or inserts to increase
resistance to breakage and wear;
Degree of reaming action and gauge tooth wear: The greater the offset, the less the amount of contact
between the gauge face of the cone and the borehole wall-bits with zero offset would have maximum hole
contact.
This is important to understand because as offset increases, the tooth round decreases and tooth space increases. It
is therefore necessary, when gauging a soft formation bit, to position a gauge tooth at the gauge point. Otherwise, a
gauge ring can be passed over the cutting structure, creating the illusion that a new bit is out of gauge.
The amount of contact that the cutter has with the borehole wall will, of course, influence the degree of wear and the
life of the gauge tooth.
Cutting Elements
The two basic categories of rolling cutter bits are defined by their cutting elements. A bit may either have milled steel
teeth or tungsten carbide inserts.
FIGURE 1
This configuration promotes a gouging/scraping action that results in high penetration rates with minimal weight on
bit. Unfortunately, these long teeth are especially susceptible to breakage in harder rock. Hard formation bits
therefore have shorter, smaller, more closely spaced teeth designed to drill at higher bit weights (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2
Figure 3 illustrates the following design parameters relating to shape and positioning of the teeth:
FIGURE 3
Teeth are positioned on the cone in rows, with the inner rows on each cone meshing with one another.
This tooth arrangement provides the optimum design space for a given hole size, promotes self-cleaning
of the teeth as the bit turns, and provides maximum hole coverage;
Indentations or interruptions, also called skip spacing, may be placed on the heel (outer) row of teeth.
These indentations, which are smaller than the teeth themselves, help prevent cuttings from wedging
between teeth. They also help in reducing the tracking at the formation face.
Hard-facing
Hard-facing—the selective application of ground particles of tungsten carbide in a welded matrix— has become an
important component in tooth design. Application of hard-facing material can reduce tooth wear, thereby increasing
both the average penetration rate and overall footage for the bit run. Manufactures can selectively apply hard-facing
to inner and gauge teeth in a variety of patterns that not only protect the teeth, but promote self sharpening
wear. Figure 4 shows some typical hard-facing patterns.
FIGURE 4
Insert Shape
Shape is an important criterion in insert design. The same general rule of thumb applies for inserts as for milled teeth:
long-extension, chisel-shaped inserts for soft formations, and short-extension, rounded "button" inserts for hard
formations. Beyond this basic guideline, inserts can have a variety of shapes, several of which are described below.
Gauge Chisel: This type of insert (Figure 5) has a flat surface on gauge, giving it considerable contact area with the
borehole compared to other gauge shapes.
It normally has a short extension, and is susceptible to heat generation and cracking. The standard chisel on gauge
design can be of various lengths, and has a radial surface in contact with the hole wall.
FIGURE 5
Inclined Gauge Chisel: This is a special-angle insert designed to actually drill in gauge rather than using a
conventional wiping/reaming action (Figure 6).
FIGURE 6
Conical: This insert type is symmetrical (parabolic) and shaped much like a bullet. It varies in length and extension
(Figure 7).
FIGURE 7
Semi-round top: Hemispherical in shape, this insert type is also used for diamond-enhanced insert designs (Figure
8).
FIGURE 8
Wedge crest chisel: This is similar to the gauge chisel except that the crest, rather than being straight like a tooth, is
flared out. The insert has a flat surface contacting the hole wall
Chisel crest inserts: These are shaped much like the teeth on milled tooth bits. The more aggressive, speed-
responsive, soft formation insert bits utilize extended chisel crest designs with long protrusion or extension from the
cone shell. These inserts normally have sharp crests and low included angles.
Medium and short chisel shapes have relatively large crest radii and included angles, resulting in greater cross-
sectional areas than are found on long shapes. This makes them stronger and more capable of drilling higher-
strength formations without chipping and breaking.
Materials
The various grades of tungsten carbide may be categorized in terms of their abrasion and impact resistance:
Abrasion Resistance: The “G-Ratio” measures cutter wear in turning down a standard granite cylinder.
The ratio is calculated by dividing the volume of granite removed by the volume of diamond removed
during the test.
Impact Resistance: The cutter impact test provides a comparative standard of impact toughness. The
energy required to reach pre- defined damage conditions serves as the measurement of relative impact
toughness.
Bearings
Bearings are what separate roller cone bits from fixed cutter bits. They enable the cones to turn on their axes so that
the teeth or inserts can perform their cutting action. Bearing selection can have a significant influence on bit life.
Bearing Types
Roller cone bits are equipped with either roller bearings (open or sealed) or journal bearings. Within these
categories are three basic, commonly-used bearing structures: roller-ball-friction, roller-ball-roller and friction-
ball-friction.
Roller-Ball-Friction Assembly
A standard roller-ball-friction assembly consists of roller bearings in the main bearing, ball bearings (cone retention
system) and a friction bearing in the nose (front). This design is used in all open (non-seal) bearing bits and also in
some sealed roller bearing bits (Figure 1. Courtesy of Ural BMT (http://uralbmt.com)).
FIGURE 1
Roller-Ball-Roller Assembly
A roller-ball-roller assembly consists of roller bearings in the main bearing, ball bearings in the middle and roller
bearings in the nose area (replacing the friction bearing). This bearing design is used in 12" and larger bits, and
would be found in both open bearing (non-seal) bits and sealed roller bearing bits (Figure 2: Roller bearing, TCI bit.
Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved)
FIGURE 2
Friction-Ball-Friction Assembly
A friction-ball-friction assembly, consists of a friction bearing in the main bearing area, ball bearings in the middle and
a friction bearing in the nose. This design is used in all journal bearing bits (Figure 3: Journal bearing, steel-tooth bit.
Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved).
FIGURE 3
Shear bits are traditionally made either of steel, or from a tungsten carbide matrix powder.
Steel body bits can be made from bar stock or cast alloy castings. They are capable of withstanding severe impact
and torsional loads without suffering blade breakage. Steel is therefore the preferred material for high stand-off,
fishtail-bladed bits, and for use in larger-diameter holes. To enhance the steel's erosion resistance, a variety of
tungsten carbide coatings are available.
Tungsten carbide matrix powder is the most erosion-resistant body material now in use — unfortunately, it can also
be very brittle. Matrix body bits are therefore most often used in smaller diameter holes and in those applications
where high-solids mud or very high flow rates are required.
Matrix body bits are fabricated using powder metallurgy techniques. The graphite molding process allows for very fast
response time in bringing new matrix bit designs to the field.
Cutter Layout
All diamonds, whether natural or synthetic, are distributed across the bit face so that for each revolution of the bit,
there is an equal volume of rock removed per cutter. With the help of computer-aided design programs,
manufacturers can refine basic cutter layouts to eliminate potential weak areas along the cutting structure and obtain
optimum bottomhole profiles.
PDC cutters are set into the bit with specified attack angles into the rock. These attack angles are referred to as the
cutter orientation, or rake angles. A cutter that is perpendicular to the rock face has a zero rake angle, while a cutter
that leans forward into the formation like a plow tilling soil has a positive rake angle and a cutter that leans slightly
back from the formation exhibits back rake (Figure 1). Back rake defines the cutter's aggressiveness, or degree of
gouging/scraping action.
FIGURE 1
Extensive laboratory and field tests have proven that the cutter orientation must correspond to the formation
hardness. Harder formations require greater back rake angles to give durability to the cutting structure and reduce
"chatter" or vibration. Softer formations can be drilled more aggressively with less back rake.
Designers often vary back rake angles across the face of the bit to more evenly distribute the workload of the drilling
action through the cutter. For example, rake angles might be close to zero in the bit center and greatest in the gauge
section to maximize bit life and produce even wear.
Side rake angle refers to the side-to-side orientation of the cutter (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2
Having some degree of side rake aids in mechanical cleaning of the bit face by orienting the cutter face slightly
towards the outside of the bit. This directs cuttings to the annulus instead of to the front of the cutter, so that re-
grinding of cuttings does not occur. Side rake also helps to stabilize the bit.
Dome-shaped cutters have variable back rake and side rake angles. The back rake angle is smallest where the
cross-sectional area of the cutter is smallest. Conversely, the back rake is smallest and most aggressive where the
cross-sectional area is greatest. In a homogeneous formation, this characteristic allows the dome cutter to drill
throughout its life at a consistent penetration rate. Variable rake angle is also an advantage in drilling interbedded
formations. In softer drilling, where the depth of cut is greater, the dome cutter is at the more aggressive portion of its
curvature, giving a greater attack angle and thus a higher penetration rate. In harder formations, where the depth of
cut is less, the dome cutter attacks the formation with a higher degree of back rake, resulting in lower penetration
rates but greater durability.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
Hydraulic Systems
Many natural diamond bits are designed without nozzles; the hydraulic calculations that apply to these bits are quite
different from those used for bits with nozzles. When a diamond bit is used in the right type of formation and with
optimized driling parameters, only the diamonds contact the formation, leaving a narrow space between the body of
the bit and the formation. Drilling fluid flows from the central opening of the bit, along grooves or watercourses
molded into the body of the bit, and then across these narrow spaces, cooling the diamonds and carrying the small
rock fragments (Sampaio, 2007).
The fluid flow in natural diamond bits exits the bit through a crow foot, originally named for the three-toe shape of the
exit ports on a natural diamond bit. A more recent six-fingered design, or split crow foot, is also available to provide
improved fluid distribution and cooling of the bit (Figure 5)
FIGURE 5
The crow foot opens to waterways arranged in either feeder-collector or radial feeder-collector flow patterns
(Figure 6 and Figure 7).
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
Feeder-collector patterns, also known as cross-flow patterns, are composed of alternating feeder waterways, which
are radial flow lines, and collectors, which are zero pressure zones. The V-shaped collectors do not connect to the
crowfoot, and therefore receive no incoming fluid through the bit inside diameter. Rather, they take fluid from the
feeder waterways. This cross-flow process drags the drilling fluid across the diamond pads to cool the diamonds.
Feeder-collector patterns are especially applicable in situations where heat dissipation is expected to be a problem.
Turbine drilling and drilling in hard, abrasive formations requires the use of such patterns.
In a radial flow pattern, the waterways begin at the crowfoot exit and proceed directly toward the outside diameter of
the bit. These waterways can be straight or curved. A reverse spiral, curving forward in the direction of the bit's
rotation, forces fluid over the diamond pads to cool the diamonds. Natural diamond bits with radial flow patterns
provide faster cleaning at high penetration rates.
Jet nozzles are used in nearly all PDC bits. They can be placed and oriented to efficiently direct drilling fluid for the
removal of large volumes of cuttings. In soft-to-medium formations drilled with PDC bits, most of this hydraulic energy
is used to clean cuttings from the bottom of the hole.
The hydraulics calculations used for determining nozzle sizes in PDC bits are identical to the calculations used for
roller cone bits.
As a general rule, PDC bits are designed to use the largest possible nozzle diameter that is consistent with other bit
size constraints to keep fluid velocities in high flow rate environments below the nozzle erosion threshold.
Nozzle orientation, or impingement angle, is designed to prevent excessive splashback, which could erode the bit
blades. To prevent turbulent eddies, the inside bore of the bit is made as smooth as possible.
PDC bits exhibit no significant pump-off force; fluid courses along the bit continually expand to allow for fast cuttings
removal.
Tungsten Carbide nozzles are produced for downhole drilling and pressure control. Tungsten carbide lasts longer
than conventional material, and improves the ability of the nozzle to handle the stress of high speed in PDC bits.
These nozzles are used to improve ROP and reduce bit balling by increasing the hydraulic horsepower per square-
inch (HSI) at the bit. Tungsten carbide nozzles also minimize the system pressure losses that result from the nozzle
port eroding out on the PDC bits (Limbert et. al., 2009).
Summary of Design Features
We may group the design features of fixed cutter drill bits to apply to different types of formations, as shown in Table
1below. Note that natural diamond bits that use large stones tend to use radial flow hydraulics, while smaller-stone
natural diamond bits used in harder formations require the feeder-collector arrangement.
B-Crown
Concave
Feeder-collector
General Concepts
The amount of energy that is transferred from the surface to the bit is usually expressed in terms of hydraulic
horsepower, impact force or fluid velocity. Bit hydraulics programs are designed to maximize one of these
quantities under a given set of operating conditions.
Bit hydraulic horsepower (HHP), impact force (IF) and fluid velocity (V) are related to the pressure drop across the
bit and the flow rate of the drilling fluid. We may express these quantities as follows:
HHP=ΔPbit⋅q1714(1)
HHP per square inch=HSI=HHPAflow(2)
IF=0.0173⋅q⋅(ΔPbit⋅MW)12(3)
Fluid Velocity=0.32086⋅qAflow [ftsec](4)
where:
HHP, IF and V are expressed in units of horsepower, pounds and feet per second, respectively
ΔPbit= pressure drop across bit, psi
q= flow rate, gallonsminute
MW= mud weight, pounds per gallon
1714 and 0.32086= conversion constants
Aflow= total flow area across the bit, square inches
The pressure drop across the bit face, ΔPbit, is given by the formula:
ΔPbit=MW⋅q210,858⋅A2flow(5)
Where the flow rate and mud properties are constant, Aflow is the one factor that will cause the HHP, fluid velocity
and pressure drop across the bit to vary. It follows, therefore, that we can control these quantities by changing the
flow area (i.e., nozzle sizes) at the face of the bit.
We may also express the pressure drop across the bit in terms of the surface pressure at the mud pumps and the
pressure losses in the circulating system:
ΔPbit=Psurf−Psys(6)
Where:
Psurf= surface pressure at mud pump discharge
Psys= pressure losses through circulating system, including surface equipment, drill string and drill string/hole
It can be shown mathematically that:
Bit hydraulic horsepower reaches a maximum when the pressure drop across the bit is equal to
approximately 65% of the mud pump discharge pressure, or
ΔPbit=0.65⋅Psurf(7)
Bit impact force reaches a maximum when the pressure drop across the bit is equal to approximately 48%
of the mud pump discharge pressure, or
ΔPbit=0.48⋅Psurf(8)
For derivations of these relationships, refer to the section titled, "Determination of Optimal Bit Energy", which is found
under the heading, "References & Additional Information".
For a given flow rate through a particular drill string, and with constant mud properties, Psys will be a constant. The
limiting factor on ΔPbit is the pressure that can be supplied by the mud pumps. That is, if pressure losses in the
circulating system should increase with increasing well depth, and the mud pump is already working at its maximum
operating pressure, there will be less pressure available at the bit.
Hydraulics Optimization
To determine the optimal nozzle flow area where circulating rates are limited by mud pump capacity, annular velocity
restrictions or other considerations, we can use the following procedure:
1. Determine the maximum available or allowable pump pressure.
2. Calculate the pressure system losses for established circulation rates — there are a number of service
company hydraulics programs and graphic methods available for doing this.
3. Determine the maximum available bit pressure drop using the formula
ΔPbit=Psurf−Pcirc
4. Size the bit nozzles using equation 5
ΔPbit=W⋅q210,858⋅A2flow
Note: When a bit uses two or three jet nozzles, we must divide Aflow by the number of nozzles to
obtain Anozzle, which is the area for each nozzle. The nozzle diameter D is then calculated by the
relationship
dnozzle=(4π⋅Anozzle)12(9)
In English units, dnozzle is commonly expressed in 32nds of an inch. The nozzle diameters are selected to
match as closely as possible the calculated value of Anozzle. For example, where three nozzles are used
and Aflow is determined to be 0.35 in2, then:
Anozzle=0.353=0.117 in2
dnozzle=(4π⋅0.117)12=0.386 in
0.386⋅32=12.35
⇒ use two 1232nd-inch nozzles and one 1232nd-inch nozzle
Keep in mind that hole conditions change throughout the drilling of a well, and that the engineer must
continually re-evaluate the hydraulics program to ensure that it applies to the current situation.
Pump-Off Force
The pressure drop across a bit acts over the area between the cutting face of the bit and the formation, and tends to
lift the bit up from the bottom of the hole. This force may sometimes be large enough to require bit weight
compensation. For example, the pump-off force for a 634′′ natural diamond bit having a pressure drop of 600 psi
would be about 3250 lbs.
An approximate expression for hydraulic pump-off force Fpumpoff) in pounds, with ΔPbit given in psi and bit diameter
(dbit) in inches is:
Fpumpoff=0.942⋅ΔPbit⋅(dbit−1)(1)
Mud Type
In water-base mud, when drilling non-hydrateable shale and permeable sandstone, drilling rate increases with
increasing bit hydraulic horsepower (HHP).
When drilling highly hydrateable shale with a water-base mud, the highest practical bit HHP should be used.
However, increased bit HHP alone does not appear capable of keeping a PDC bit clean when drilling gumbo-type
shale.
When drilling with oil-base mud in non-hydrateable shale, drilling rate shows very little response to increasing
bit HHP. However, when drilling hydrateable shales and permeable sandstones with oil-base mud, drilling rate
increases with increasing HHP.
General Guidelines
Tables 1 through 4, below, show general hydraulics guidelines for PDC and natural diamond bits. When drilling with
water-base or oil-base muds in the formations described above, the HSI values in the upper half of the range should
be used.
Flow
Bit Diameter, HHPin2
Rate,
inches GPMin2
Table 3: Hydraulics guidelines, full face matrix PDC bits.
(Courtesy Smith International)
Flow
Bit Diameter, HHPin2
Rate,
inches GPMin2
150 -
512 - 578 1.0 - 5.0
250
175 -
6 - 634 1.0 - 5.0
275
250 -
778 1.0 - 6.0
100
300 -
838 - 834 1.0 - 7.0
559
Flow
Bit Diameter, HHPin2
Rate,
inches GPMin2
80 -
412 - 434 1.0 - 1.5
150
100
512 - 578 - 1.0 - 2.0
175
Table 3: Hydraulics guidelines, full face matrix PDC bits.
(Courtesy Smith International)
Flow
Bit Diameter, HHPin2
Rate,
inches GPMin2
130
6 - 634 - 1.0 - 2.5
250
180
778 - 1.5 - 2.5
300
250
838 - 834 - 1.5 - 3.0
500
350
912 - 978 - 2.0 - 4.0
500
450
1058 - 2.0 - 4.0
650
500
1214 - 2.0 - 5.0
700
Moderately strong, somewhat abrasive ductile Pyrite, chert, granite, and basalt
sediments
(claystone, shales, porous carbonates )
The IADC classification system provides a good starting point for comparing bit types and determining which bits
might be appropriate for a given situation.
Bit records from offset wells, when available, can be quite useful in designing a bit program. For specific bit sizes and
types, they can provide information regarding depth intervals, footage, rotating time, penetration rates, bit weight,
rotational speed, jet nozzle sizes and condition of the bit at the end of the run. Assuming that depth and lithology can
be correlated between the offset well and the proposed well, this information can be valuable in estimating bit
performance and making an informed selection.
Offset bit records do have limitations, the most obvious being that they may not contain information for all of the bits
that the well planner may be considering. In spite of what bit records might not reveal, however, they can provide a
basis for developing and modifying the bit program as drilling progresses, and may contain data that is unavailable
elsewhere.
Rig Capabilities
The drilling engineer must answer the following rig-related questions when deciding whether to run a particular bit
type:
Can the rig provide the bit weight and rotating speed (determined from vendor specifications) required to
obtain the optimum penetration rate from this bit?
Can the mud pumps provide the rates and pressures necessary to provide adequate hydraulics with this
bit?
Since the rig's capabilities are for all intents and purposes constant, a "no" answer to either of these questions
requires selecting a different bit and/or changing the hydraulics program.
The IADC and the SPE have developed a system that allows both fixed cutter and roller cone bits to be evaluated
using compatible grading parameters (McGehee et al., 1992; IADC/SPE 23938). Because of its versatility and
flexibility, this is the preferred method for dull bit grading.
The IADC system employs eight descriptive categories for grading dull bits. The first four categories describe the
condition of the cutting structure, the fifth describes the condition of bearings/seals, the sixth indicates gauge wear,
and the seventh and eighth are reserved for remarks. These categories are laid out as follows, in the form of "fill-in
boxes" on a bit grading sheet:
Bearing Wear
The designation for bearing wear is B, also followed by a number from one to eight. Unfortunately, bearing wear is
much more difficult to evaluate in the field than tooth wear, since the internal bearing structure is not visible. The only
certainty is that completely failed bearings may be reported as B-8, while slightly loose cones may be designated
byB-7. For intermediate classifications, some guesswork is required.
Intermediate bearing wear may be expressed in terms of how many additional hours the bearings might have lasted if
the bit had not been pulled. For example, if a bit was pulled after 20 hours on bottom, and the drilling engineer
estimates that it could have run another 20 hours, he or she would grade it a B-4 (i.e., bearings , or half-worn).
Gauge wear
Using a ring gauge and a ruler, the engineer can determine how much gauge wear a bit has experienced. The loss of
diameter is reported to the nearest 18′′. For example, a bit that is 38′′ under gauge would be designated by the
classification G-O-3, with the G designating "gauge," the O designating "out" and the 3 designating 38′′. (G-I indicates
that the bit is in gauge.)
Tooth, bearing and gauge wear are usually expressed together (e.g., T-8 B-4 G-O-1); most older bit record forms
also contain space for additional remarks pertinent to the bit run.
Excessive tooth Improper break-in Drill a few feet before applying initial
breakageExcessive tooth drilling weight
breakage
Unbalanced tooth wear Improper bit type Select a bit with deleted gauge row teeth
if inner teeth are duller and bit shows no
gauge wear
Brinnel marks, indentations Impact load from Exercise caution when running in hole
under rollers/balls hitting ledge or and making connections
bridge, or tagging
hole bottom
Cones skidded, even though Bit balling up, or Review hydraulics program and
bearings in good condition cones locking circulating rate
while drilling out
casing shoe Select bit with longer, wider-spaced teeth
Table 1: Problems affecting milled tooth bit performance
(Courtesy of Smith International)
Heavy gauge wear, inner Improper bit type Use bit with less offset and/or more
bearing loose gauge protection
Excessive insert breakage improper Drill a few feet before applying initial drilling
break-in weight
Other junk Use junk basket on all insert bit runs if feasible
in hole
Gauge and outer rows Too much Use bit with less offset, which may also have less
broken offset gauge insert extension
Formation wear on cone Inserts too Use bit with longer insert extension and more
shell around inserts short offset
Table 1: Problems affecting milled tooth bit performance
(Courtesy of Smith International)
Excessive gauge wear Too much Use bit with less offset
offset
FIGURE 3
If the diamond wafer has spalling down to the first or second layer and involves more than 25% of the wafer, the
cutter should be replaced.
Chipping (Figure 4) is a small depression, or missing fragment, in the PCD diamond layer. It does not
generally affect the cutter's performance.
FIGURE 4
Wear patterns that are commonly seen on fixed cutter bits include worn, lost, broken, eroded and heat-
checkedcutters (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5
A worn cutter is one in which both the diamond wafer and stud have been worn down by the formation.
Lost cutters can be interpreted several different ways, according to the IADC/SPE standardized grading
system. Usually, a lost cutter results when the entire stud and wafer are missing from the socket. This is
generally caused by a weak braze which holds the cutter in place. Another way to interpret a lost cutter is
LS bond failure, which is also promoted by a weak braze between the stud and the substrate.
Broken cutters occur when the diamond wafer and a portion of the stud are missing. This is generally a
result of impact or stud failure.
Erosion is caused by solids in the formation and drilling fluid. Unless erosion is severe, it generally does
not affect bit performance.
Heat checking results from excessive heat on the cutters of a PDC bit. This heat can cause cracks to
develop in the diamond wafer and carbide stud, leading to cutter failure.
Table 3 lists some of the problems that can affect diamond bit performance.
Out of drift Gauge bit with API gauge; replace bit if not in
tolerance
Low pressure Flow area too large Increase circulation rate, and change flow area
differential across on next bit run
Table 3: Problems affecting diamond bit performance
(Courtesy of Smith International)
High pressure Flow area too small Use bit with less offset, which may also have less
differential across gauge insert extension
nozzles or bit face
Bit partially plugged Check off-bottom standpipe pressure; let bit drill
(formation off; circulate at full volume for 10 minutes while
impaction) rotating; check off-bottom pressure again
Bit balled Back off and increase flow rate, then slug with
detergent, oil or synthetic fluid
Table 3: Problems affecting diamond bit performance
(Courtesy of Smith International)
Pressure drop too Increase flow rate; may need new bit
low
Depth ROP,
Bit Size Type Bit Cost Ftg. Hrs.
Out fthr
F=(300⋅11)+14,80018.35−30030=2168 ft
The PDC bit needs to drill only 2168 feet to attain the break-even point if it can maintain an average penetration rate
of 30 fthr.
Although this illustration involves a comparison between a PDC bit and roller cone bits, break-even analysis can be
applied to any bit type.
It is evident from this discussion that economic analysis of bit performance involves a certain amount of
guesswork,and that bit selection based on break-even analysis is only as valid as our estimates of footage or
penetration rate. These estimates thus need to be as accurate as possible, which is why the drilling engineer must
become as familiar as possible with bit types, formation characteristics, mud properties, hydraulics, rig operating
conditions and other factors that influence bit performance.
General Considerations
As with other drilling equipment, proper care and handling increases bit life and lessens the chance of failure. Some
basic guidelines that apply to all bit types are summarized below.
Preliminary Inspection
Check the bit type to confirm proper size, type and option.
Look inside the bit for any foreign objects that could plug a nozzle.
Check the age of the bit — the amount of time for which it has been stored could affect its performance.
For example, some bits stored longer than four years could have problems with bearing lubrication and
could fail prematurely.
Inspect the cutting structure and API pin connection for any signs of damage due to mishandling during
shipping or delivery.
On rolling cuttter bits, check the tightness of the bearings and seals.
Using a ring gauge, measure the bit OD to verify API gauge standards.
Re-check well conditions to ensure that the nozzles (or total flow area) are appropriately sized.
Inspect the previous bit for tooth wear, broken teeth, gauge wear and Junk damage. Broken teeth and
Junk damage are indications of possible Junk in the hole.
Take all precautions to ensure that the hole is clean before running any bit.
Bit Make-Up
Make sure the bit is handled with care. Do not set it directly on the rig floor; instead, use a piece of wood or a rubber
mat.
Grease the API pin and fit the bit into a properly sized bit breaker. Lower the drill string onto the bit and engage the
threads. Locate the bit and breaker in the rotary table and make up to the recommended torque values.
Tripping
Trip slowly through the blowout preventers, casing shoe and liner hanger, and be especially careful of
dog legs, tight spots or ledges — spudding and sudden impacts are common reasons for early bit failure.
Consider using a vibration dampener to minimize shock when drilling hard, abrasive formations.
Stabilize the bit using the appropriate bottomhole assembly.
Approach the bottom of the hole cautiously. Kick in the pumps and wash the last three joints to bottom at
reduced rotary speed. Observe weight and rotary torque indicators. When bottom is reached, "break in"
the bit gradually using reduced bit weight and rpm. Once the bit establishes its bottomhole pattern, weight
and rpm can be gradually increased.
Drilling
Do not exceed the manufacturer recommendations for weight and rotary speed; use the appropriate
W.O.B and rpm for the formation.
Monitor penetration rates and periodically calculate the economics of the bit run to determine when it
should be pulled. At the same time, be aware of torque, reduced drilling rate and other indications of bit
wear.
Roller Cone Bits
There are several things to keep in mind when running roller cone bits, particularly those with inserts or journal
bearings (Jackson and Wood, 1973):
Be especially wary of running excessive weight on insert bits; this can result in lost inserts and damage to
the bearings;
In shales, increasing rotary speed generally has more effect on penetration rate than increasing weight on
bit;
In limestones, increasing weight while decreasing rotary speed prevents insert breakage;
In broken formations, it may be necessary to reduce rotary speed to prevent bit bouncing;
Pull the bit when it begins to "torque up." Torque can indicate locked bearings or an undergauge hole.
Journal-bearing bits require special care, because they may exhibit very little torque before failing.