777

Adsorbents for Industrial Pollution Control

Mohammad S. EI-Geundi* Department of Chemical Engineering. Faculty of Engineering. Minia University.
Egypt.

(Received 2 April/997; accepted 3 June /997)

ABSTRACT: Adsorbent materials used for treating industrial pollutants are

reviewed. The article consists of two parts. The first part considers new trends in
traditional adsorbents such as activated carbons and zeolites. New low-cost
adsorbents such as waste materials and clay minerals are discussed in the second
part.
It has been reported that activated carbons can be obtained from agricultural
by-products such as shells and stones of various fruit by a simple single-stage
method. This method differs from the traditional processes for the production of
activatedcarbons. On the other hand, natural zeolites have been used as low-cost
adsorbents in industrial pollution control. The extent of their application is not
only related to their low cost, butalso to the improvedproperties and performance
characteristics which they possess.
Recently, a variety of agricultural and industrial waste materials and clay min-
erals have been evaluated as new adsorbents with an excellent potential for the
removal of different pollutants from wastewater. The new low-cost adsorbents
obtained were found to have large adsorption capacities and good mechanical
properties.

INTRODUCTION

Adsorption, which involves the preferential concentration of solute(s) at a liquid/solid or gas/solid

interface, is of great interest in various fields of science and engineering. For example, by virtue of
its high selectivity, adsorption chromatography is widely used for the analysis of complex mixtures
and for the separation and purification of chemicals and biochemicals (Regnier 1983; Wankat
1990). Adsorption is also one of the crucial steps in heterogeneous catalysis, which is used in the
manufacture of ca. 50% of the products in the chemical industry (Ben-Avraham 1990).
The technique of adsorption has been found to be a useful means for controlling the extent of
water pollution due to dyes, metallic species, surfactants and organic pollutants (McKay 1983a-e,
1984a-<l; Panday et at. 1986; EI-Geundi 1990a,b, 1991a,b, 1992a,b, 1996). The major advantages
of an adsorption system for water pollution control are less investment in terms of both initial cost
and land, simple design and easy operation. It also has the advantage of superior removal of organic
waste constituents compared to the conventional biological treatment processes.
The main object of this article is to review the performance of the various adsorbents used for
industrial pollution control. In particular, the enhanced properties of traditional adsorbents
obtained from unconventional sources are assessed. The review also surveys the potential utiliza-
tion of several agricultural and industrial wastes and clay minerals as novel adsorbents.

*Present address: Chemical Technology Department, Riyadh Technical College, P.O. Box 42826, Riyadh 11551, Saudi
Arabia.
778 M.S. El-Geundi/Adsorption Science & Technology Vol. 15 No. 10 1997

CONVENTIONAL ADSORBENTS

The requirement for adequate adsorptive capacity restricts the choice of adsorbents for practical
separation processes to microporous adsorbents with pore diameters ranging from a few angstroms
to a few tens of angstroms. This includes both the traditional microporous adsorbents such as silica
gel, activated alumina and activated carbon, as well as the more recently developed crystalline
aluminosilicates or zeolites.

Activated carbon

Activated carbons are carbons which generally have a high surface area and complex pore struc-
ture resulting from physical or chemical activation processes. The structure of an activated carbon
is composed of pores classified into three groups, viz. micropores, mesopores and macropores.
Micropores usually account for over 95% of the total surface area of activated carbons. The vol-
umes of micropores range from 0.15 cmvg up to 0.6 cmvg. Conventional activated carbons are
tridisperse, having all three types of pores present within their structure. Adsorbate molecules
penetrate through the wider pores and into the micropore structure.
The role of activated carbon as an adsorbent material to remove contaminants from liquids and
from gases is well established. Despite the development of new waste treatment technologies,
there is still a demand for the utilization of activated carbons for effluent treatment and drinking
water purification (Allen et al. 1992). However, the demand for cleaner water and changes in
discharge standards have meant that the performance of activated carbons has come under consid-
erable scrutiny.
Adsorption processes involving activated carbon have long been regarded as conventional treat-
ment processes which can remove a multitude of pollutants. Users of activated carbons have often
viewed the carbon as a general solution to their effluent problems. Nowadays, the interest has
shifted from this approach towards effluent treatment to the more precisely targeted applications of
carbon technology to remove specific impurities from waters and from gases. Ongoing research
has demonstrated that activated carbons and other adsorbent materials can be developed with prop-
erties that make them more specific and improve their adsorption characteristics.
In India, the technology has been developed for producing activated carbons using a local raw
material such as coconut shells, pine timber and pine scraps (Choudhury et ai. 1985; Khan et at.
1985). The granulated carbons prepared are characterized by their considerable mechanical strength
and density, and by their high adsorption activity. These properties enable them to be used for
adsorbing both gases and liquids.
In Japan, olive stones and almond shells (Lopez-Gonzales et ai. 1980) have been used for pro-
ducing activated carbons of high adsorption activity and strength, and of low ash content. The pore
structure of these activated carbons is characterized by a narrow range of pore size distribution
which allows their application for selective gas adsorption. They are also characterized by a high
metal ion adsorption activity (Ferro-Garcia et al. 1985).
.Plum and peach stones have also been used for producing activated carbons (Rodriguez-Reinoso
et al. 1985). Activated carbons from peach stones have a narrow pore size distribution. On the
other hand, carbon adsorbents prepared from plum stones were found to have a better developed
porosity relative to those prepared from peach stones.
Apricot and cherry stones as well as grape seeds have been used as raw materials for producing
activated carbons (Gergova et ai. 1993). Activated carbon obtained from apricot stones exhibits the
best properties. Such carbons are characterized by a large specific surface area, a microporous
Adsorbents for Industrial Pollution Control 779

structure and a high adsorption activity. They are suitable for the adsorption ofsmall molecules. The
activated carbons produced from cherry stones and grape seeds are characterized by a predominant
meso- and macro-porous structure. Their use is preferred for the adsorption of larger molecules.
In Egypt, sugar cane bagasse has been used as a starting source for activated carbon production
(Girgis et al. 1994). Activated carbon obtained from bagasse by chemical 'activation (30% H 3PO4 at
500°C) has a surface area> 1000 m2/g associated with mean pore dimensions of ca. 2.0 nm (Girgis
et al. 1994).
The production of activated carbon with phosphoric acid as an activating agent offers many
advantages over the traditional 'physical' methods, viz. (i) production of the activated carbon
involves a single-step process in comparison to the two-stage process of carbonization and activa-
tion; (ii) such activation is achieved at much lower temperatures; (iii) most of the acid used is easily
recovered in the washings of the product; and (iv) the yield of activated carbon is generally higher
since the burn-off process encountered at higher temperatures is avoided.
Northern Ireland lignite, a member of the solid fuel family, is a carbonaceous product which is
currently used as an adsorbent for the removal of dyestuffs and heavy metal ions from wastewater
(Allen et al. 1988, 1989; Allen and Brown 1995). Lignite has also been used as the starting source
for activated carbon production (Devine 1993; Allen et al. 1995). A two-stage process consisting
of chemical activation during charing of the lignite, followed by steam activation was used to
produce the activated carbons. The results obtained have shown that the use of chemical activation
processes alone for the production of activated carbons proved to be less effective in removing the
organics from water, whereas the combination of steam and chemical activation has led to some
improvement (Allen et al. 1995).

Zeolites

Zeolites have been recognized for more than two hundred years, although it was not until the
1950s that scientists discovered their attractive physical and chemical properties. Since then, hun-
dreds of articles have been published in both the theoretical and technical literature. Most of the
work has centred on 'synthetic' zeolites that later became a multimillion dollar business around the
world. During the 1970s, 'natural' zeolites gained a significant interest among the scientific com-
munity, due mainly to their discovery in large mineable deposits, their valuable chemical/physical
properties, and also their potential application in diverse areas of industry and agricultural technol-
ogy. During the past two decades, the interest in natural zeolites has grown from that of a scientific
inquisitiveness to a fully developed mineral industry.

Natural zeolites

An excellent introductory book covering the importance of zeolite minerals from the viewpoint of
both science and technology has been produced by Dyer (1988). There are more than 30 known
natural zeolites, but only seven, viz. chabazite, clinoptilolite, eronite, ferrierite, philipsite, mordenite
and analcime, occur in sufficient quantity and purity to beconsidered as exploitable natural resources
(Dyer 1988). During the past 20 years a significant change has occurred in the potential outlook for
natural zeolite utilization since a developing demand has emerged for low-cost adsorbent materials in
areas such as energy development, pollution control and metal recovery (Dyer 1988).
Natural zeolites have the potential to grow as an important industrial mineral resource. The
treatment of zeolites to improve their purity and their chemical modification to give specific prop-
erties will become important as the level of technical demand expands. The extent of their application
780 M.S. El-Geundi/Adsorption Science &: Technology Vol. 15 No. 10 1997

is not only related to their lower cost, but also to the improved properties and performance charac-
teristics which they possess.
Dewatered zeolites produce channels that are available for the adsorption of other molecules
small enough to be able to access the cavities, the internal adsorption of such small molecules
excluding the penetration of larger ones. Where competition occurs over available sites
for adsorption, the polarity of the adsorbate molecules and their electrostatic interaction with the
framework charge will determine which is favoured.
Natural zeolites are used extensively for drying natural gas and also for the removal of carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur-bearing compounds (Blanchard et al. 1984).

Application of natural zeolites for pollution control

One of the most investigated utilizations of natural zeolites concerns the removal of ammonia from
municipal and industrial wastewater. Among natural zeolites, clinoptilolite has received extensive
attention and has been effectively used for the treatment of ammonia-containing wastes in munici-
pal sewage plants (Gaspard et al. 1983).
Natural zeolites exhibit high selectivities for various heavy metal ions and are considered to be
suitable for the removal of heavy metal ions from industrial and processing wastewater. Because of
their abundant availability, particularly in Japan and the US, natural zeolites have been investigated
for the removal of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc from wastewater. Semmens and Martin (1988)
reported that clinoptilolite is highly selective towards barium and lead but showed considerable
less selectivity towards copper, cadmium and zinc. These authors also suggested that the exchange
capacity of clinoptilolite depends significantly on the method of treatment of the zeolite. They
recommend that the zeolite should be conditioned with NaCl solution for at least two exhaustion/
regeneration cycles before equilibrium capacities are measured.
The adsorption kinetics of certain heavy metal ions (Pb, Cd, Zn and Cu) on clinoptilolite have
been investigated by Assenov et al. (1988). They suggested a simple mathematical relationship
based on a modification of the Langmuir equation that can successfully describe both the indi-
vidual and simultaneous adsorption equilibria.
Further research undertaken by Guangsheng et al. (1988) showed that clinoptilolite could
remove copper from electroplating effluents efficiently. Their findings showed that 90-97% of the
exchanged copper was recovered during regeneration using NaCl, with no reduction in capacity
observed after 29 successive exhaustion/regeneration cycles. In 1990, Zamzo and Eichbaum stud-
ied the removal of heavy metal ions (Pb, Cd, Cu, Crill, Zn and Ni) from wastewater using two types
of clinoptilolites. Their results indicated that pretreatment with NaCI enhances the capacity of the
zeolite and that regeneration using NaCI also worked well except for the chromium(III) ion.
Most of the research on metal adsorption with natural zeolites has focused primarily on identi-
fying the selectivity series for various zeolites, but these studies have not addressed the fundamental
questions needed to implement this technology on a commercial basis (Kesraoui-Ouki et al. 1994).

NEW ADSORBENTS

Activated carbon is the most widely used adsorbent for adsorption processes because it has a good
capacity for the adsorption of pollutants from wastewater. However, its use is limited because of its
high cost. In addition, it suffers losses of approximately 15-20% during regeneration processes
(McKay and Poots 1980). This has led many workers to search for low-cost materials useful for the
adsorption of pollutants from wastewater.
Adsorbents for Industrial Pollution Control 781

Recent research has demonstrated the feasibility of using waste products (agricultural waste and
industrial waste) and clay minerals to decontaminate wastewater containing heavy metal ions,
dyestuffs and other toxic pollutants (Asfour et al. 1985a,b; Magdy 1992; Singh et al. 1993; Singh
and Rawat 1994a,b; and Marshall and Johns 1996).

Agricultural waste materials

Agricultural waste materials such as bagasse pith, sawdust, maize cob, rice bran, rice hull, coconut
husk fibres, nut shells, soybean and cotton seed hulls have been evaluated for their adsorption
properties. These materials have been reported to adsorb different pollutants such as heavy metal
ions, dyestuffs and other toxic pollutants (EI-Geundi 1983, 1987, 1990a,b; Okieimen et al. 1991;
Marshall et al. 1993; Tan et al. 1993; Zarraa 1995; Marshall and Johns 1996). Sawdust waste
(Asfour et at. 1985a,b; Zarraa 1995), bagasse pith (EI-Geundi 1987; McKay et at. 1987a-c; Al-
Duri et al. 1990; Magdy 1992; Nassar and EI-Geundi 1994; Marshall and Champagne 1995; Marshall
and Johns 1996) and maize cob (EI-Geundi 1990a,b; EI-Geundi and AkI1991a,b; EI-Geundi and
Ali 1992) have been reported as capable of adsorbing heavy metal ions and dyestuffs from
wastewater.
Refined corn hulls (Ebihara and Takeuchi 1991), ground nut husks (Okieimen et at. 1991), rice
hulls (Roy et al. 1993), coconut husk fibres (Tan et al. 1993) and nut shells (Orhan and Buyukgungor
1993) have also been evaluated for the adsorption of heavy metal ions from wastewater.
Rice bran (Marshall et at. 1993), treated rice bran (Verma and RehaI1994), soybean (Marshall
and Champagne 1995) and cotton seed hulls (Marshall and Johns 1996) have been evaluated for
their adsorption properties and resistance to mechanical abrasion as part of a consideration of their
potential use as commercial metal adsorbents.

Sawdust waste

The suitability of using sawdust waste (softwood) as a natural adsorbent material for the removal
of dyestuffs from simulated wastewater has been studied by Poots and McKay (1980). Adsorption
isotherms of dyestuffs on to sawdust have been determined (Poots and McKay 1980) and the data
obtained were correlated using equations based on the Langmuir and Freundlich models.
The adsorption kinetics of dyestuffs on to sawdust have also been studied in an agitated batch
adsorber based on an intraparticle diffusion process (Poots and McKay 1980) and external mass
transfer (McKay and Poots 1980; McKay and McConvey 1981).
EI-Geundi (1983) studied the suitability of using hardwood (sawdust) as a natural adsorbent for
the removal of basic dyestuffs from simulated wastewater. It was found that the maximum adsorption
capacity of hardwood is higher than that of softwood. The kinetics of adsorption as well as the
adsorption isotherms for removal of dyestuffs by hardwood (sawdust) have been studied by Asfour
et al. (l985a,b).
Sawdust waste has also been used as an adsorbent material for the removal of heavy metal ions
from simulated and industrial wastewater (Vaishya and Prasad 1991; Zarraa 1995). Sawdust was
shown to possess an affinity for heavy metal ions which make its use as an adsorbent a possible
alternative to the use of more expensive activated carbon.

Bagasse pith waste

Bagasse is the waste of sugar mills. It is composed of true fibre, pith and fines, but the true fibre is
782 M.S. El-Geundi/Adsorption Science & Technology Vol. 15 No. 10 1997

the only part of real value for pulp and paper. The pith cells are normally removed as completely as
possible before pulping.
The feasibility of using Egyptian bagasse pith as a natural adsorbent material for the removal of
dyestuffs from aqueous solutions has been studied (EI-Geundi 1987). Adsorption isotherms of the
dyestuffs on to bagasse pith have been determined. The experimental data have been well fitted to
the Langmuir, Freundlich and Redlich-Peterson isotherms (McKay et al. 1987c).
The adsorption kinetics of the dyestuffs on to bagasse pith have also been studied in an
agitated batch adsorber and fixed-bed systems (McKay et al. 1988b; AI-Duri et al. 1990; Magdy
1992; Nassar and EI-Geundi 1994). Several mathematical models have been developed describ-
ing the experimental results for batch adsorbers (McKay et al. 1988a; AI-Duri et al. 1990).
Bagasse pith waste has also been used as an adsorbent for the removal of heavy metal ions from
both laboratory-prepared solutions and metal plating wastewater (Marshall and Champagne 1995;
Marshall and Johns 1996). It was found to be a good adsorbent for heavy metal ions, but classified
as a single-use adsorbent (Marshall and Johns 1996).

Maize cob waste

The feasibility of using maize cob waste as a natural adsorbent material for the removal of dye-
stuffs from simulated wastewater has been studied (EI-Geundi I990a,b). Adsorption isotherms
have been determined for the adsorption of basic dyestuffs (EI-Geundi 1990a) and acid dyestuffs
on to maize cob (EI-Geundi andAli 1992). The experimental results have been fitted to the Langmuir,
Freundlich and Redlich-Peterson isotherms.
The adsorption kinetics of dyestuffs on to maize cob waste have been studied in agitated batch
adsorbers (El-Geundi I990b ). Several mathematical models have been developed describing the
experimental results for such batch adsorbers (EI-Geundi 1990b; EI-Geundi and Akl 199Ia,b).
Maize cob waste was shown to possess an affinity for dyestuffs of such a magnitude as to make its
use as an adsorbent a possible alternative to the use of more expensive activated carbon.
Although the applications of agricultural wastes as adsorbents for the removal of dyestuffs and
heavy metal ions show promising results, their presence as additional solid waste materials repre-
sents a new burden on the local environment. Several studies have shown that agricultural wastes
such as rice hulls, bagasse and sawdust may be utilized as a renewable source of energy (Nassar
and McKay 1984a,b; Nassar 1985,1990). Hence, the combustion ofthese materials represents an
interesting alternative from the point of view of both energy production and pollution control.
In general, agricultural wastes are used as fuels either directly in a combustion process or indi-
rectly through the production of chars or gaseous and liquid products (Nassar 1985). The major
advantage of these materials as fuel sources is their lower sulphur content compared to other fossil
fuels, thereby resulting in cleaner environments (Nassar 1990).
The thermal behaviour of spent agricultural adsorbents such as sawdust, bagasse pith and maize
cob has been investigated using differential thermal analysis and thermogravimetric analysis (Khattab
et al. 1993). Their results indicate that the calorific values of spent adsorbents are higher than those
of the unused adsorbents. Thus, the used adsorbents can be considered a new potential source for
energy conversion.

Industrial waste materials

The application of industrial waste materials such as wool, fly ash and blast furnace sludge has
been investigated and recently received further attention owing to their economic advantages
Adsorbentsfor Industrial Pollution Control 783

(Perineau et al. 1982, 1983; Panday et al. 1984, 1986; Yadava et al. 1987, 1988; Viraraghavan and
Rao 1991; Balkose and Baltacioglue 1992; Singh et al. 1993; Singh and Rawat 1994a,b; Lopez et
al. 1995).

Wool waste

Wool waste discarded from wool manufacturing processes has been used as an adsorbent material
for the removal of surfactants and dyestuffs from simulated wastewater (Perineau et al. 1982,
1983). The adsorption isotherms as well as the adsorption kinetics of the surfactants and dyestuffs
have both been studied. The results show that the wool waste could be used successfully for
wastewater treatment (Perineau et al. 1982, 1983).
Wool waste has also been used as an adsorbent for the removal of metal cations from aqueous
NiCI 2 , CuCI 2, ZnCI2 , CdCI 2, HgCI2 and Pb(N0 3) 2 solutions (Balkose and Baltacioglue 1992). The
kinetics of adsorption as well as adsorption isotherms at different temperatures have both been
studied. The results show that wool waste has a superior adsorption capacity compared to conven-
tional adsorbent materials (Balkose and Baltacioglue 1992).

Fly ash

Fly ash is a finely divided residue that results from the combustion of coal. Studies conducted in
recent years have shown that fly ash could be a suitable adsorbent for the removal of heavy metal
ions (Panday et al. 1984, 1985, 1986; Yadava et al. 1987, 1988; Viraraghavan and Rao 1991;
Kapoor and Viraraghavan 1992).
The use of fly ash in the removal of organic pollutants from polluted surface waters and wastewater
has been investigated by some researchers (Singh et al. 1993; Singh and Rawat 1994a,b). The
results obtained show that fly ash has an affinity for heavy metal ions and organic pollutants which
makes its use as an adsorbent a possible alternative to the use of more expensive activated carbon.
Spent fly ash can be used as a filling material in pavement linings, for soil stabilization, and in the
cement and concrete industries. It can also be used as a part of the lining material at the bottom of
wastewater lagoons treating industrial wastewater, especially those containing mercury.

Blast furnace sludge

Blast furnace sludge has a high content of iron oxide and coke. The possibilities of using blast
furnace sludge as an adsorbent material to remove heavy metal ions from wastewater have been
studied and discussed for the particular case of aqueous solutions of Pb D (Lopez et al. 1995). This
type of sludge has demonstrated a superior adsorption capacity compared to conventional adsorb-
ent materials. Over the range of experimental conditions examined, the maximum adsorption
capacity was 80 mg Pb per g sludge (Lopez et al. 1995).
The recovery of metallic iron and lead from the sludge has also been studied (Lopez et al. 1995).
The results showed that the recovery of lead is about 92 %. The recovered iron has been recycled in
a steel-making process.

Clay minerals

The ability of Fuller's Earth to adsorb dyestuffs from aqueous solutions has been studied by
McKay et al. (1985a). The adsorption isotherms as well as the adsorption kinetics for the
784 M.S. El-Geundi/Adsorption Science & Technology Vol. 15 No. 10 1997

removal of dyestuffs by Fuller's Earth have both been studied (McKay et al. 1985b, 1987a,b). The
results indicated that Fuller's Earth has a considerable potential as an adsorbent material for the
removal of dyestuffs in a commercial system (McKay et at. 1987b).
Haematite has been used as an adsorbent for the removal of As'" from aqueous solutions. Maxi-
mum removal (96%) was found to occur at 20°C and a pH value of 7.0 (Singh et at. 1988). The
adsorption isotherms as well as the adsorption kinetics in an agitated batch adsorber have both
been studied. The results obtained show that haematite is an effective adsorbent for the removal of
As'" from aqueous solutions under suitable experimental conditions.
The efficiency of feldspar in the removal of Cr V1 from wastewater has been investigated in a
batch adsorber at different concentrations, agitation rate and particle size (Singh et al. 1992). Col-
umn studies have also been carried out using known concentrations of wastewater. More than 92%
recovery has been achieved and the column can be used for 10 cycles before regeneration (Singh et
at. 1992).
Work in the area of metallic effluents include the adsorption of cadmium and zinc ions on
natural and activated bentonite from aqueous solution (Pradas et al. 1994b). Experimental data
were fitted to the Langmuir equation in order to calculate the adsorption capacities of the adsorbents.
The adsorption of chlorophyll-a molecules on natural and activated bentonite from acetone
solution has been studied (Pradas et al. 1994a). These experiments indicate that of all the various
treatments applied to bentonite, that involving 0.5 M H 2S04 was the most effective in removing
chlorophyll-a from acetone solution, as demonstrated by the higher adsorption and removal effi-
ciency.
Kaolinitic clay has been investigated as an adsorbent for the removal of lead from drinking
water (Orumwense 1996). The kinetics of adsorption as well as the adsorption isotherms at differ-
ent temperatures have both been studied. The results obtained show that lead removal is favoured
by a low concentration, a high temperature and an acidic pH (Orumwense 1996). It was concluded
that kaolinitic clay is a good adsorbent for lead ions.
In Egypt, natural and activated clays have been investigated as adsorbents for the removal of
dyestuffs and heavy metal ions from simulated wastewater (EI-Geundi and Mansour 1990; EI-
Geundi and Nassar 1990; Hawash et at. 1992a,b). Analysis of the natural clay under test showed
that it was composed approximately of 51% kaolinite, 46% montmorillonite and 3% illite, having
a specific surface area of 65 m 2/g (EI-Geundi and Mansour 1990). The adsorption isotherms as
well as the adsorption kinetics of dyestuffs and heavy metal ions on to natural and activated clays
have both been studied (EI-Geundi and Nassar 1990; Hawash et al. 1992b; EI-Geundi et al. 1995;
EI-Geundi 1996).
Several mathematical models have been developed describing the experimental results for the
adsorption of dyestuffs on to natural clay in batch adsorbers (EI-Geundi 1991b, 1992a,b, 1996). It
has been found that natural clay has a good adsorption capacity for the removal of dyestuffs and
heavy metal ions from simulated wastewater and may be considered as the cheapest available
adsorbent (EI-Geundi 1996).

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of the above considerations, the following conclusions may be drawn.
1. Activated carbons obtained from agricultural by-products via a simple one-step method are
characterized by their enhanced strength, density and high adsorption activity. These proper-
ties enable them to be used for adsorbing both liquids and gases.
Adsorbents for Industrial Pollution Control 785

2. Most research dealing with natural zeolites to date has mainly focused on identifying metal
selectivities for various zeolites. However, none ofthese studies has dealt with the fundamen-
tal questions of implementing natural zeolite technology on a commercial basis.
3. A number of low-cost adsorbents such as sawdust, bagasse pith, maize cob, wool, fly ash and
blast furnace sludge have been evaluated as new adsorbents in industrial pollution control. The
new low-cost adsorbents obtained were found to have large adsorption capacities and good
mechanical properties.
4. A number of clay minerals have been investigated as new adsorbents for the removal of dye-
stuffs and heavy metal ions from wastewater. It has been found that they have a good adsorption
capacity and are the cheapest available adsorbents.

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