LESSON THREE – ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW
EATING BEHAVIOUR
Specification link: You will be able to outline and evaluate:
Factors influencing attitudes to food and eating behaviour, for example cultural influences,
mood, health concerns
Outline and description of theory
The role of learning
Babies are born with taste receptors for sweet,
sour, salt, bitter, and umami taste qualities.
They can identify and distinguish between
different foods from an early age. They like
sweet tastes.
Neophobia is widespread in the animal
kingdom as a basic survival mechanism and is
found in babies and children.
Birch (1999) proposes that we are born with
an innate ability to associate food tastes and
smells with the consequences of eating that
food (rather than an innate food preference).
In this way we learn from experience the foods
that are good for us and the foods that are not.
Parental attitudes and food preferences
Parents provide food for the child (usually the
mother). Therefore, it is the mother’s attitude
to food that affects the child’s preferences. If
the mother is concerned over health aspects
of food she will ensure that her child has a
balanced diet. If the mother is less aware or
less concerned about health issues such as
obesity, she will take less care over the child’s
diet. If early experiences are critical, parental
eating habits will profoundly affect their child’s
attitudes.
Childhood preferences are thought to have a
significant effect on adult preferences.
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Research evidence and commentary
Benton (2002), found that sweet foods
actually reduce distress in babies. This
suggests that there may be an innate
preference for certain food types which is
genetically predisposed.
However, food preference can be modified
by experience and familiarity. Birch and
Marlin (1982) found that exposure of two-
year-olds to a new food over six weeks
increased preference for that food for that
food. A minimum of 8 -10 exposures was
necessary to bring about a changed from a
dislike to a preference. The children learn
that the food is safe.
Birch’s proposal that we inherit an ability to
make such associations suggests an
interaction between nature and nurture. We
learn through experience what is good for
us (nurture), but that learning depends
upon brain circuits that are innate (nature).
As expected, there is a significant
correlation between the diets of mothers
and children (Ogden, 2007) Parents,
especially the mother, provide key role
models for the child.
Nicklaus et al (2004) investigated the
correlations between food preferences at
age 2 and food preferences at age 22 in a
longitudinal study of French children.
Although there were only low correlations
between overall diet at age 2 and adult
diet, for about 50 % of dietary items there
was a clear association between childhood
and adult preferences especially for
cheese and vegetables. Preference for
meat decreased in females as they got
older, possibly due to ethical and health

Peers’ attitudes
Once the child reaches school age, peers
become important.
Media
Throughout childhood children are exposed to
widespread food advertising on television
using peer models, animations etc. to make
the food seem more attractive. This can be
effective in developing preferences, but
unfortunately advertised food tends to be high
in fat and carbohydrates probably contributing
to problems such as childhood obesity.
Mood
Food has many other functions besides dietary
ones. A key area concerns the emotional
aspects of food and feeding behaviour.
Studies which investigate the effect of mood
and distress on eating often look for evidence
of either hypophagia (i.e. excessive under-
eating) or hyperphagia (excessive over-
eating), as well as changes in patterns of
consumption and food preferences.
A sustained decrease or increase in appetite
can be an important symptom of depression
and other mood disorders (Ogden, 2007)
suggests that dieters who overeat in response
to low mood may be seeking to mask their
negative mood (sometimes referred to as
dysphoria) with a temporary heightened mood
induced by eating (she calls this the ‘masking
hypothesis’).
Hunger is associated with increased arousal,
vigilance and irritability, while after a meal we
feel calm and sleepy and have generally
concerns. There were clear links between
childhood food preferences and adult diet,
but there were also changes, showing that
childhood experiences are important, but
not the only factors involved.
Methodological issues Adult preferences
were assessed through questionnaires and Page | 2
interviews which raises the problems of
social desirability bias as participants may
give ‘healthier answers’ in order to look
better in the eyes of the researchers.
Lowe, Dowey and Horne, 1998 found that
modelling using admired peers can
increase consumption of fruit and
vegetables.
This (along with parents, peers etc) is an
example of how social learning theory can
be used to explain food preferences.
Children observe role models (either in
their social environment, peers, teachers,
parents etc. or in the media, TV and
magazines etc). Due to vicarious
reinforcement, they are motivated to imitate
this behaviour (could Homer Simpson be a
role model?). Advertisements are very
powerful in shaping food preferences.
Studies have shown that people who are
stressed or depressed increase the
carbohydrate (especially sugar) and fat
content of their meals.
Studies indicate that dieters eat more than
non-dieters when anxious regardless of the
quality of the food (Polivy et al, 1994).
pleasurable feelings.
Two mechanisms have been proposed to
account for this:
The serotonin hypothesis: carbohydrates
such as chocolate contain the amino acid
tryptophan. This is used by the brain in the
manufacture of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Low levels of serotonin are associated with
depression. It has been proposed that people
with stress or depression take in more
carbohydrates because it leads to increased
levels of serotonin in the brain which reduces
their depression (Gibson, 2006).
The opiate hypothesis: opiate (or opioid)
neurotransmitters such as enkaphlin and beta-
endorphin are released from neurons and act
at synapses with opiate receptors. Opiates
(also referred to as endorphins) produce
pleasurable feelings and euphoria. It seems
likely that the brain’s opiate pathways are part
of our reward system, a network of pathways
that control our feelings of pleasure and
reward. This reward system is activated by
natural rewards such as food and drink.
Research has found an interaction between
opiates and feeding behaviour.
Because food is so vital we are very efficient
at learning associations between taste and
consequences, e.g. taste aversion. This
applies to positive effects as well - we learn to
associate the mood-improving effects of
carbohydrates especially sugars with the
sweet taste so when we taste the food, we
have expectations about the consequences.
Unfortunately, this increase in serotonin Page | 3
levels only occurs when we take in pure
carbohydrates, which is extremely rare.
The presence of even a small amount of
protein, as in chocolate, prevents the
tryptophan entering the brain, and so
serotonin levels will not changes (Benton,
2002). The serotonin hypothesis is unlikely
to explain the antidepressant effects of
high carbohydrate diets.
Grigson, 2002; Gibson, 2006 found that
opiate drugs (e.g. heroin) increase food
intake and increase the perceived tastiness
of food.
Blocking the endorphin system with the
drug naloxone reduces food intake,
especially sweet foods, and suppresses
thoughts about food. This shows that the
system is involved in feeding regulation.
Sweet foods increase the release of
endorphins in the brain. So we feel better
after eating sweet carbohydrates as these
foods in particular activate our natural
reward pathways. This effect would be
more obvious in people with depression or
with high stress levels, but even in normal
circumstances sweet food can improve
mood.
This applies to physiological systems as
well – glucose reliably improves
performance on cognitive tasks. However,
if people are given a glucose drink but told
it is a placebo then the effect disappears.
Expectations override the actual intake of
glucose.
The sweet taste of a glucose solution
immediately produces a release of insulin
from the pancreas gland, anticipating a rise
in blood glucose levels. This happens even
with drinks sweetened with saccharine, a
compound that is not processed by the
body. However, we have learnt that sweet
tastes usually mean glucose, so our body
prepares itself. Anticipation and
expectation on the basis of learning and

Culture
There are significant differences in diet across
cultures. This is often because of the
availability of certain foods, e.g. Eskimos live
largely on seal meat because that is what is
available.
Globalisation of the food market means that
even in remote communities food choice is
increasing – fast food is now available
worldwide. However, differences are still
found.
experience affect our response to it
(Gibson, 2006).
Leshem (2009) compared Bedouin Arab
women living in desert encampments with
those now living in urban environments,
and also with a group of urban Jewish Page | 4
women.
In urban settings, there is access to a far
greater range of foodstuffs.
The diet of urban Beduoins was very
similar to that of desert-living Bedouins, a
much higher intake of carbohydrates and
proteins and salt than the Jewish group.
In a later study, Leshem found that the diet
of a Muslim community living in the same
urban setting as a Christian group was
much higher in carbohydrates, protein and
salt than the Christian community, although
body mass was the same.
Wardle et al, 1997 surveyed the diets of
16,000 young adults across 21 European
countries and found that in general the
number eating a basic and healthy diet was
low, with females doing better than males.
There were differences between the
countries:
 People in Meditarranean countries
eat more fruit and vegetables than
people in England and Scotland
 People in Scandanavian countries
eat the most fibre and people in
Portugal, Spain and Italy eat the
least.
These differences are usually due
to availability of particular foodstuffs
but also reflect cultural influences.
Conclusion
Even with equal access to a range of
foods, different ethnic groups have different
diets, demonstrating the influence of
culture and dietary history on food
preferences.
 Previous exam questions
January 2011
Discuss the role of one or more factors that influence attitudes to food.
(4 marks + 8 marks)

Mark scheme Page | 5

AO1 = 4 marks
Outline of the role of one or more factors that influence attitudes to food
There are many factors shown to influence our attitudes to food. These include
innate/evolutionary influences, early learning experience and familiarity, neophobia,
parental attitudes, weight concern, cultural factors, the food industry etc.
The key to effective answers will be appropriate selection and accurate description of
the role of such factors in influencing attitudes to food.
Candidates are often tempted to describe brain mechanisms involved in eating
behaviour.
This can only receive credit in this question part if explicitly linked to the issue of
attitudes.
Examiners should be sensitive to depth-breadth trade-offs in this question part.

AO2/AO3 = 8 marks Commentary on the role of one or more factors that

influence attitudes to food
For each of the factors mentioned above research studies can provide an effective
source of commentary and evaluation on their role in attitudes to food. More general
commentary could include the relative role of different factors in, for instance,
childhood food preferences, or the change in relevant factors with age.
Examiners should be sensitive to the wide range of potential material that would be
creditworthy on this question. This includes methodological evaluation of relevant
research evidence, analysis and interpretation of data, application and implications
and use of scientific findings in society’s decision making (e.g. factors contributing to
obesity, the increasing awareness of healthy diets etc).
Indicative issues/debates/approaches in the context of the role of one or more
factors that influence attitudes to food: approaches – biological/evolutionary, social
learning, behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic: gender and cultural issues,
nature/nurture, reductionism, free will/determinism. Such material must be used
effectively to move into the top band.

Examiners’ report
There was a range of answers to this question, varying greatly in quality. Weaker
answers were virtually anecdotal, with mention of parents, peers, mood and media
influence but with little or no psychological content eg in terms of social learning
theory. Better answers explained how these factors, or others, might influence
attitudes to food. Research studies were the key to effective commentary, but again
some candidates were inclined to provide too much methodological evaluation
without bringing out the impact on findings and their implications. Effective IDA
included cultural and gender issues, and free will/determinism. Some candidates
discussed eating disorders, and these earned credit insofar as they were shaped to
the question.