1|Page

Chapter-1
Introduction

Effluent is an out flowing of water or gas from a natural body of water, or from
a made structure [1]. It also can be defines as liquid waste flowing out of a factory, farm,
commercial establishment, or a household into a water body such as a river, lake, or
lagoon, or a sewer system or reservoir [2].
Textile effluent is outflow of water or gas from a textile industry. We know that
in textile industries produce cloths or fibers by using different chemicals and by
different processes. During the processes different chemicals and waste waters come
out from different processes and may fall on different water bodies like river or ponds.
This waste water and effluent chemicals from textile industries is called textile effluent.
Like all wastes, textile waste originates from the community via a number of
streams including the fiber, textile and clothing manufacturing industry, consumers, the
commercial and service industries.
Wastes from textile industries can be classified into three types. They are:
1) Primary wastes
2) Secondary wastes
3) Tertiary wastes
Primary wastes are those wastes which are obtained from the raw materials that
are brought to textile industries for manufacturing purposes. Secondary wastes are
produced during different manufacturing processes in industries. The wastes obtained
from finished products are called tertiary wastes. All these wastes might be solid wastes
or chemical wastes.
Wastes coming out from textile industries affect our environment to a great
extent. To reduce the bad effects of these wastes steps should be taken for proper
treatment of these wastes. These wastes emitted from industries should be treated
properly so that they can’t pollute our environment. For treating the wastes of textile
industries several methods can be used. The methods of treatment of wastes can be
selected on the basis of several factors.
There are several factors to choose the appropriate textile wastewater treatment
method such as, economic efficiency, treatment efficiency, type of dye, concentration
of dye and environmental fate. There is no general method for the treatment of textile
 2|Page

industrial wastewater. Wastewaters from textile industry contain various pollutants

resulting from various stages of production, such as, fibers preparation, yarn, thread,
webbing, dyeing and finishing. Mainly three methods are used for the treatment of
textile industrial wastewater. These are:
1. Physico-chemical methods.
2. Advanced oxidation methods.
3. Biological sludge methods.
The Main operational methods used for the treatment of textile industrial water
involve physical and chemical processes. However, these techniques have many
disadvantages. These disadvantages include Sludge generation, high cost, formation of
bi-products, releasing of toxic molecules, requiring a lot of dissolved oxygen, limitation
of activity for specific dyes and requiring of long time.
In recent years, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have gained more attraction
as a powerful technique in photo-catalytic degradation of textile industrial wastewater
since they are able to deal with the problem of dye destruction in aqueous systems.
 3|Page

Chapter-2
Literature Review

C.K.Y. Lo et al had been investigated that the production of fashion and textiles
related products often requires high levels of energy and water consumption, and emits
large quantities of pollutants to the environment. Therefore, the adoption of
environmental management systems (EMSs) is important and could have a significant
impact on these firms' operational performance. This study presents empirical evidence
on the performance impact of EMS adoption in the fashion and textiles related
industries (FTIs). They reveal that the adoption of ISO 14000, the most popular EMS,
improves manufacturers' profitability in the FTIs over a three-year period as measured
by return-on-assets (ROA). Based on our sample, they find that profitability
improvement started during the implementation stage and continued at least one year
after the firm obtained ISO 14000 certification. They also find that profitability
improvement is mainly due to improvement in cost efficiency, measured by return-on-
sales (ROS). Specifically, certified firms improved up to 2.9% in ROA and 3.3% in
ROS over the three-year period since they implemented ISO 14000. They conclude that
there is a positive impact of EMS adoption on firms' financial performance in the FTIs
[3]
.
P. Patterson et al had been observed that, the impact of environmental
regulations on the global textile industry. The textile industry, specifically the dyeing,
printing and finishing industry, is responsible for a disproportionately large amount of
environmental damage. There is a pressing need for governments and brands to enforce
basic minimum standards to reduce inexcusable pollution. This chapter discusses the
drive to improve efficiency to minimize the unnecessary use of water, chemicals and
energy and focuses of how the industry can aim for excellence via the adoption of
specific low impact technologies [4].

S.S. Muthu had been proposed that, the entire supply chain for textiles and the
clothing sector in terms of various processes from fiber to finished products and their
environmental impacts. It also investigates the environmental impacts of different
stages in the life cycle of textile products from the cradle to the grave [5].
Y. Li et al had been reviewed that, a wide range of textile fibers and the major
contributing factors in terms of environmental impact during manufacturing phase have
 4|Page

been selected. Amount of oxygen produced/carbon-di-oxide absorbed consequently

contributing to off-set global warming during the production phase of a fiber,
utilization of renewable resources, land use, usage of fertilizers and pesticides, fiber
recyclability and biodegradability of chosen fibers have been considered. Amount of
energy consumed, quantity of water utilized and amount of greenhouse gases emitted
have been considered for life cycle inventory (LCI) and a life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA) study has been accomplished to derive certain impact categories pertaining to
the damage created to human health, ecosystem quality and resources, which will
elucidate the characteristics of ecological sustainability. A scoring system based on the
above mentioned factors which predominantly determine ecological sustainability has
been framed, from which an Environmental Impact index (EI) has been developed.
Further, an Ecological Sustainability Index (ESI) has been derived from EI values for
the chosen fibers. According to this system, organic cotton is the most and acrylic is the
least preferred fiber. A sensitivity study has been done to check the robustness of the
developed model and the results of the same have been reported [6].
J. Dasgupta et al had been investigated that, the effluents generated from each
textile industry processing step comprise substantial quantities of unutilized resources.
The effluents if discharged without prior treatment become potential sources of
pollution due to their several deleterious effects on the environment. The treatment of
heterogeneous textile effluents therefore demands the application of environmentally
benign technology with appreciable quality water reclamation potential. These features
can be observed in various innovative membrane based techniques. The present review
paper thus elucidates the contributions of membrane technology towards textile effluent
treatment and unexhausted raw materials recovery. The reuse possibilities of water
recovered through membrane based techniques, such as ultra-filtration and nano-
filtration in primary dye houses or auxiliary rinse vats have also been explored.
Advantages and bottlenecks, such as membrane fouling associated with each of these
techniques have also been highlighted. Additionally, several pragmatic models
simulating transport mechanism across membranes have been documented. Finally,
various accounts dealing with techno-economic evaluation of these membrane based
textile wastewater treatment processes have been provided [7].
A. Hasanbeigi et al had been observed that, the textile industry uses large
amounts of electricity, fuel, and water, with corresponding greenhouse gas emissions
(GHGs) and contaminated effluent. This paper gives an overview of textile industry
 5|Page

processes and compiles available information on the energy savings, environmental and
other benefits, costs, commercialization status, and references for 18 emerging
technologies to reduce the industry's energy use and environmental emissions.
Although studies from around the world identify a variety of sector-specific and cross-
cutting energy-efficiency technologies that have already been commercialized for the
textile industry, information is scarce and/or scattered regarding emerging or advanced
energy-efficiency and low-carbon technologies that are not yet commercialized or at
the very early stage of adoption. This paper is intended to be a resource on these
emerging technologies for engineers, researchers, investors, textile manufacturers,
policy makers, and other interested parties [8].
J.M. Gozalvez-Zafrilla et al had been proposed that, the textile industries
represent an important environmental problem due to their high water consumption. In
many Spanish regions with water scarcity, this fact can be an argument to make
wastewater reuse necessary. In this work, a biologically treated wastewater from a
cotton thread factory was subjected to nanofiltration (NF) in two ways, direct NF
treatment and NF after a pre-treatment stage by ultra-filtration (UF). Nowadays, the
factory effluent is treated by an activated sludge process. This effluent has high values
of COD (200mgO2 L−1) and TDS (5000mg L−1) which makes its use in the textile
processes impossible. In such situations, reverse osmosis (RO) has been typically used with
the purpose of reuse. However, NF can achieve enough permeate quality for certain processes
at a lower operating pressure than RO. They investigated that the use of NF with a suitable pre-
treatment foresees an important percentage of reuse resulting in less environmental impact with
lower energy costs compared to a RO based system [9].
N. Gomez et al had been reviewed that, the effects of a textile industry effluent on
water quality, habitat quality and structural and functional responses of benthic communities in
a lowland stream. The effluent from the textile industry modified the structure of the micro
benthic assemblages downstream, increased the density of organisms and the biomass of
primary producers, but diminished the species richness. The richness and abundance of
invertebrate taxa were lower at the impacted site. The invertebrate modes of existence and the
functional feeding groups were also significantly affected. This study is an important baseline
for assessment of lowland streams with high water residence time and a notable development of
hydrophytes. It will also provide a baseline for the monitoring and restoration, or remediation,
programs using the metrics of biotic integrity, particularly in South American countries where
such metrics are rarely employed [10].
 6|Page

V. Tigini et al had been investigated that, textile and tannery wastewaters are
complex mixtures of toxic pollutants and only a battery of ecotoxicity tests can assess
their potential environmental impact and the actual effectiveness of alternative
treatments. In this work the toxicity of four simulated textile and tannery wastewaters
was evaluated by means of a battery of seven bioassays, using organisms that belong to
different tropic levels. Moreover, since the outputs of the bioassay battery were quite
difficult to compare, a novel synthetic index for environmental risk assessment was
applied to the outputs of the test battery. All four simulated wastewaters were very
toxic but they showed no mutagenic effect. The alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata
was the most sensitive organism. In addition, the use of two mathematical models
pointed out the interaction effect between dyes and salts, which resulted in a synergistic
effect of wastewater toxicity [11].
E. Alkaya and G.N. Demirer had been observed that, five sustainable
production applications were proposed and implemented to decrease water
consumption, wastewater generation, energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions
and salt (NaCl) consumption in the company. This study can be regarded as a
successful example of adoption of “Communiqué of Integrated Pollution Prevention
and Control in Textile Sector” with tangible economical and environmental
achievements in the Turkish textile industry. The results of the study show that the
wide-spread uptake of proposed sustainable production measures would generate a
tremendous change in the Turkish textile industry without a need for heavy investments
in technology. Moreover the economic returns would help Turkish textile industry to
sustain its competitive position in the global textile market which faces a pressing
challenge of low cost, high quality and environmentally benign production [12].
G. Sandin et al had been proposed that, environmental impacts of water and
land use are often omitted or treated in an over-simplified manner in life cycle
assessments (LCAs). This may provide insufficient foundation for LCA-based
decision-making when product life cycles include agriculture or forestry. The aim of
this paper is to assess water and land use impacts of biobased textile fibers and
contribute to the development of methods for characterizing such impacts in LCA. This
was done by applying and developing methods suggested in literature to an LCA case
study of a wood-based textile fiber under development. In the case study, five wood-
based fiber production scenarios were set up in order to account for uncertainties in the
future location of operations. For comparison, two cotton production scenarios were set
 7|Page

up. The results show that the location of operations influences water use impacts, as
water extracted from relatively water stressed environments leads to higher impacts.
Furthermore, for some scenarios, the result differed considerably between the
consequential and attribution inventory approaches. Moreover, it is shown that the
consequential approach adds the possibility of recognizing increased runoff as a
potential benefit of certain types of land use. The study has contributed to the
development of characterization methods by developing a water use inventory approach
and by illuminating several methodological aspects of both water and land use impact
assessment which need further research [13].
H.Y. El-Kassas and L.A. Mohamed had been reviewed that, the microalgae
biomass production from textile waste effluent is a possible solution for the
environmental impact generated by the effluent discharge into water sources. This work
addresses the adaptation of the microalgae C. vulgaris in textile waste effluent (WE)
and the study of the best dilution of the WE for maximum biomass production and for
the removal of color and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) by this microalga. The
results of C. vulgaris culture in the textile waste effluent demonstrated the possibility of
using this microalga for the color and COD removal and for biomass production. There
was a significant negative relationship between textile waste effluent concentration and
Cmax at 0.05 level of significance. However, sodium bicarbonate concentration did not
significantly influence the responses of Cmax and the removal of color and COD [14].
Petrinic et al had been investigated that, textile wastewater is a challenging
feed stream for treatment by membrane separation because of its complex composition
and the presence of reactive components. Here we briefly present examples of reverse
osmosis, nanofiltration and ultra-filtration-based systems as well as membrane
bioreactor technology for textile wastewater remediation. They present the FO principle
with some current FO membrane developments including biomimetic aquaporin FO
membranes, and exemplify how they can be used to concentrate textile dyes [15].
C. Vigneswaran et al had been observed that, effective effluent treatment is an
important step towards conserving water resources. The use of enzymes is an
alternative method for treatment of such recalcitrant pollutants. It evaluates different
methods in which enzymes can be delivered to the target effluent, including
nanoparticles as delivery systems. It also emphasizes the need for current and future
research to focus on developing economically feasible and environmentally sustainable
wastewater treatment practices. It discusses the application of enzymes in discoloration
 8|Page

of dye house effluent water treatment using white rot fungi and laccase enzymes
studied by many researchers and scientists in the effluent treatments [16].
M.S. Jorgensen and C.L. Jensen had been proposed that, the environmental
strategies and impacts are shaped by the businesses on-going interpretation of external
pressures and opportunities, transnational outsourcing of production to newly
industrialized countries, changes towards ‘fast fashion’ and lower retail prices. Many
companies make environmental demands to suppliers in newly industrialized countries
to different degrees. Some companies cancelled eco-labeling, because it was too
demanding to manage, while some fashion companies recently launched eco-labeling,
because they see a need to show environmental commitment publicly. The dominating
business strategy of only few eco-labeled products seems to have had limited impact on
these women's practices, and thereby on the environmental impacts from Danish
consumer choices in general [17].
X. Lu et al had been reviewed that, reuse of wastewaters represents an
economical and ecological challenge for the textile sector. In this work, a 600 m3/day
pilot plant with biological treatment systems and membrane technology of wastewater
reclamation has been investigated. The results showed that the average removal
efficiencies of COD, color, turbidity were about 93%, 94.5% and 92.9%, respectively.
Below 50 mg/L of COD, 10 Pt–Co of color, 2 NTU of turbidity and no suspended
solids (SS) were contained in the effluent. The total cost for wastewater reclamation
was approximately 0.25 US$/m3 with initial manufacturing cost excluded. The treated
effluent quality satisfied the requirement of water quality for dyeing and finishing
process excluding light coloration. Therefore, textile wastewater reclamation and reuse
is a promising alternative, which can both conserve or supplement the available water
resource and reduce or eliminate the environmental pollution in China [18].
A. Muezzinoglu had been investigated that, cotton textile manufacturing
operations cause air pollution. In this paper air polluting potentials of cotton textile
manufacturing operations are discussed and some quantitative examples are given for
evaluating the risks to the environment. Studied impacts to environment cover direct
discharges into the ambient air as well as the workplace atmosphere. Further studies are
recommended for minimizing the impacts to the local and global air quality due to
cotton textile production facilities [19].
 9|Page

C.S.D. Rodrigues et al had been observed that, color and organic matter
removals from acrylic, cotton and polyester dyeing wastewaters were evaluated by
biological oxidation in a sequential batch reactor (SBR) and by integration of Fenton’s
reaction with SBR. Raw and chemically oxidized pre-treated wastewaters were fed into
the biological reactor during 10 cycles (i.e. up to pseudo-steady state conditions).
Because the biological degradation did not allow obtaining effluents complying with
the discharge limits. In the integrated chemical-biological process a new strategy was
applied in the optimization of Fenton’s oxidation, consisting in the application of the
optimum doses of Fe(II) and H2O2 (for biodegradability enhancement and
maximization of color and DOC removals), but with the simultaneous objective of
minimizing the operating costs. The integration of Fenton’s oxidation with a
downstream SBR provides much better removal of organic matter (88–98% for COD,
83–95% for BOD5 and 91–98% for DOC, values depending on the particular textile
effluent being used) and color (>99%) than the biological or chemical treatment alone
could do. Besides, such an integrated treatment allows treated wastewaters to meet the
discharge limits with a reduction of the operating costs, in the range 24–39%
comparatively to Fenton’s oxidation alone [20].
V. Pasquet et al had been proposed that, the ecotechnologies (plasma
treatments) or biotechnologies (enzymatic treatments) are being developed to substitute
the alkaline soda process used to improve hydrophilicity of polyester fibers.
Environmental impact assessment is necessary to validate these new strategies. Partial
“gate to gate” LCA was used to compare three hydrophilisation processes:
1. Chemical using sodium hydroxide,
2. Air atmospheric plasma and
3. Lipase enzyme based process.
Generic and specific data bases were also used to determine flows, and the Recipe
method used to convert all flows into environmental impacts. The energy related
impact categories (“Ionizing radiation”, “Climate change”, and “Fossil depletion
values”) are the highest for all three processes, but air plasma treatment seems to be the
most favorable for all impacts. For the enzymatic process, though very high degree of
hydrophilisation can be reached compared to the soda treatment, higher environmental
impacts are due to energy demanding enzyme deactivation process used. Partial LCA
seems an interesting tool to assess process impacts at research stage and to reorientate
future research works [21].
 10 | P a g e

S. Karcher et al had been reviewed that, sorption onto an easily regenerable

sorbent in fixed bed filters would be an interesting option for removal of reactive dyes
from textile wastewaters. The aim of this study was to evaluate these materials more
closely. Thus filter breakthrough, the behavior with original wastewater samples, and
the effect of inorganic wastewater parameters as well as regeneration were studied.
Breakthrough curves for both materials are relatively unfavorable with a flat gradient,
but throughput until breakthrough (100–800 bed volumes) should be sufficient for
technical use. With both resins dye uptake is influenced little by competition of
inorganic anions (sulfate, carbonate, phosphate) and they perform well in original
wastewaters. However, the weak basic type is only efficient up to pH 8. Alkaline
regeneration works well for MP62, for S6328a acid regeneration works for most dyes.
[22]
.
S. Rangabhashiyam et al had been investigated that, agricultural wastes
products are quite commonly distributed as the result of agricultural practices. They are
inexpensive and subject to biodegradable. Agricultural waste is a good source for the
adsorption of the dyes generated during the textile processing. For the process of
adsorption, agricultural waste products are used as natural or in the modified form
through activation process. This review article focuses on the various sources of the
agricultural waste products and its adsorption capacity of the different dyes. Signifying
the potential of the use of agricultural wastes products for removing off the toxic dye
substances from the effluent discharging into the water bodies [23].
J.M. Rosa et al had been observed that, ten different dyeing were made using
reuse water obtained from effluent after treatment by homogeneous photo catalysis.
Before and after the UV/H2O2 treatments, the concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl),
the absorbance (Abs) and the amount of total organic carbon (TOC) were monitored.
All rates of decolonization were above 92% and the removal of TOC was above 88% in
all treatments. Compared with the same dyeing made with deionizer water, the total
deviation (ΔE*) between the colors did not exceed 1.05. Currently, for a monthly
production of 20 dyeing of 100 kg each, 160 m3 of water is consumed and an equal
volume of effluent is generated. The same dyeing made by the process proposed in this
study, with an addition of 10 m3 of water after 20 dyeing, would consume just 60 m3 of
water, without effluent discharge containing high amounts of organic matter and high
values of absorbance [24].
 11 | P a g e

S.G. De Moraes et al had been proposed that, to minimize the environmental

impact of textile effluents, mainly related to their high coloration and the presence of
toxic or carcinogenic reactive dyes, the efficiency of photochemical and ozonation
processes, applied in the form of isolated and combined procedures, were evaluated.
The investigation was focused on the reduction of total organic carbon content (TOC),
color and acute toxicity (monitoring by inhibition of Escherichia coli respiration). For a
reaction time of 60 min, the anatase TiO2-assisted photo catalytic process produces
color and TOC reduction of about 90% and 50%, respectively. Meanwhile, the
ozonation process gives a decolonization of about 60% but negligible TOC reduction.
When the processes were applied in a simultaneous form, the decolonization was
almost complete and the TOC reduction was higher than 60%. The three treatments
studied yield an acute toxicity reduction of around 50% [25].
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Chapter-3
Effluents of Textile Industry

3.1. Introduction
The process from fiber to finished textile is long and includes many steps in the
textile production. Fibers and textiles are treated in a variety of chemical processes. In
each step of the process, different chemicals are used for different purposes.
There is a great variety of chemicals used in textile manufacturing. The
chemicals used in textile production include chemicals in dyes, processing chemicals,
water or stain repellents, performance- enhancing coatings or treatments, flame
retardants etc. Some of these chemicals are designed to remain within the finished
product, whereas others are present as a carry-over from the manufacturing.
In textile manufacturing, lot of chemicals is added to the process for cleaning
and dyeing purposes. Obviously, the wastewater effluents from textile mills contain
considerable amounts of hazardous pollutants, and where heavy metals are very
common. In Bangladesh, most of the effluents from the textile industries are discharged
untreated into rivers. Now-a-day in Bangladesh, 70% of available water is polluted by
the textile effluents and two thirds of illness is related to water-borne diseases. Water
treatment is a very important step to change these conditions and to achieve a
sustainable situation.

3.2. The Textile Manufacturing Process & Effluent

Characteristics
The production of a textile starts either from natural fibers (for example wool
and cotton) or from the production of man-made fibers (for example polyester and
viscose). Mixed materials are also common. The next step is the production of yarns
from the natural or synthetic fibers. Fabrics are produced of the yarns/fibers by
different technologies (weaving, knitting, nonwoven technologies, braiding, tufting).
The finishing processes, which includes several steps (pretreatment, dyeing,
printing, and finishing) then follows. Some textiles are coated or laminated. These
process steps are not always in the same order. Dyeing, for example can be carried out
on loose fibers, on yarns, on fabrics, and on readymade textiles. The make-up (cutting,
 13 | P a g e

sewing and assembling) is the last step before selling in retail trade or whole trade and
consumer use. Figure-3.1 describes generalized picture of the textile process.

Agriculture Chemical industry

Crop shearing Spinning

Fiber Fiber dyeing

Spinning
Twisting Dyed fiber
Non ovens

Texturizin
g
Yarn Yarn dyeing

Weaving
Knitting Dyed yarn
Tufting
Nonwove
ns Pretreatment
Dyeing
Grey fabric Printing
Coating
Fabric finishing Finishing

Finished good

Makin-up Garment dyeing

Ready-made Dyed garment

textile

Figure-3.1: A simplified schematic picture of the textile manufacturing process [26].

Strong influence on the potential impacts associated with textile manufacturing
operations due to the different characteristics associated with the effluents is shown in
Table-3.1.
 14 | P a g e

Table-3.1: Textile Industry Processes and Effluent Characteristics [27].

Process Effluent Composition Pollutant Nature

Sizing Starch, Waxes, Carboxymethyl Cellulose
(CMC), Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA), Wetting
Agents
Desizing Starch, CMC, PVA, fats, Waxes, pectins
Bleaching Sodium Hypochlorite, Cl2, NaOH, H2O2,
acids, Surfactants, NaSiO3, Sodium
Phosphate, short cotton fiber
Mercerizing Sodium Hydroxide, cotton wax
Dyeing Dyestuffs Urea, Reducing agents, oxidizing
agents, Acetic acid, detergents, Wetting
agents
Printing Pastes, urea, starches, gums, oils, binders,
acids, thickeners, cross-linkers, reducing
agents, alkali
High in BOD, COD
High in BOD, COD, SS,
dissolved solids (DS)
High alkalinity, high SS
High pH, low BOD, high DS
Strongly colored, high BOD,
DS, low SS, heavy metals
Highly colored, high BOD
Oily, appearance, SS, slightly
alkaline

3.3. The Chemicals Used in Textile Industry [28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
During the process of manufacturing, textile has to go through a long process of
chemical and non-chemical treatments. The Textile finishing procedure includes
preparation and pretreatment, dyeing, printing and refinement of fabrics. Certain textile
chemical products are highly specialized chemicals such as biocides, flame retardants,
water repellents and warp sizes. Others are relatively simple chemicals or mixtures
such as emulsified oils and greases, starch, sulfonated oils, waxes and some surfactants.
There are many chemicals used in different stages in textile industry such as sizing,
desizing, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, and printing. Some chemical names are given
bellow-

(1) Acetic Acid

Acetic acid is a colorless and corrosive liquid with pungent smell of its own. It
is miscible with water, alcohol and ether in all proportions. Acetic acid is used in
garment industry for dyeing purposes.

(2) Citric Acid

Citric acid is in the form of colorless, translucent crystals or a white granular to
fine crystalline powder. It is used as sequestering agent, as mordanting agent in dyeing
and cleansing agent for boiler water.
 15 | P a g e

(3) Formic Acid

Formic acid is a colorless and pungent smelling mobile liquid. It is miscible
with water, alcohol and ether in all proportions. It acts both as an acid and as reducing
agent due to presence of both carboxylic and aldehyde group. Formic acid is used in
dyeing wool and cotton fabrics.
(4) Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric acid gas is a colorless, pungent smelling gas with acidic taste. It
fumes in moist air and is extremely soluble in water.
(5) Nitric Acid
Nitric acid is a colorless fuming liquid when pure but may be colored yellow
due to its dissociation products mainly nitrogen dioxide. It is a strong acid and acts as a
powerful oxidizing agent. Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of dyes.
(6) Oxalic Acid
Oxalic is a colorless, crystalline solid with two molecules of water of
crystallization. Oxalic acid is used in garment and textile industry for the removal of
ink stains from cloths and bleaching of straw for hats. Its antimony salts are used as
mordant for dyeing and printing.
(7) Liquid Ammonia
Ammonia is a colorless gas with characteristic pungent odor and an alkaline
taste. It is used as a cleansing agent for removing grease in dry cleaning.
(8) Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide)
Caustic soda is a deliquescent white crystalline solid, which readily absorbs
moisture and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. It is used for mercerizing cotton.
(9) Soda Ash (Washing Soda)
Sodium carbonate is a white crystalline solid containing water of crystallization.
It is used in laundry as washing soda. It is also used for softening water.
(10) Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda)
Sodium bicarbonate is available in the form of white crystals, sparingly soluble
in water. It is alkaline in nature.
(11) Sodium Silicate
Liquid alkaline Sodium silicate is mostly used in garment industry as a fixing
agent and for rendering the garments fire proof.
 16 | P a g e

(12) Trisodium Phosphate

It is a white crystalline solid soluble in water. It is used as detergent in garment
processing.
(13) Common Salt
It is used as to exhaust dyeing with direct and reactive dyes.
(14) Diammonium Hydrogen Phosphate
It is used in printing paste as an acid liberating agent.
(15) Glauber Salt
It is used in dyestuff, textile and garment industry. In textile and garment
industry, it is added to the dye bath for cotton fabrics to promote dye exhaustion.
(16) Magnesium Chloride
It is a colorless, crystalline deliquescent substance soluble in water. It is used in
textile and garment industry for sizing, dressing and filling of cotton and woolen
fabrics, for thread lubrication or carbonization of wool.
(17)Tartar- Emetic
Potassium Antimonyl Tartarateis known as Tartar-emetic. It is used as mordant
in large quantities in garment and textile industry.
(18) Zinc Chloride
It is a white deliquescent solid exceedingly soluble in water. The concentrated
aqueous solution of zinc chloride dissolves cellulose.
(19) Zinc Sulphate
It is a crystalline solid very soluble in water. It is used as mordant in printing.
 17 | P a g e

Chapter-4
Environmental Impacts of Textile Chemicals

4.1. Introduction
The characteristics of textile effluents vary and depend on the type of textile
manufactured and the chemicals used. The textile wastewater effluent contains high
amounts of agents causing damage to the environment and human health. The textile
effluents contain trace metals like Cr, As, Cu and Zn, which are capable of harming the
environment. Dyes in water give out a bad color and can cause diseases like
hemorrhage, ulceration of skin, nausea, severe irritation of skin and dermatitis. They
can block the penetration of sunlight from water surface preventing photosynthesis.
Dyes also increase the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the receiving water and
in turn reduce the reoxygenation process and hence hamper the growth of
photoautotrophic organisms. The suspended solid concentrations in the effluents play
an important role in affecting the environment as they combine with oily scum and
interfere with oxygen transfer mechanism in the air-water interface.
Inorganic substances in the textile effluents make the water unsuitable for use
due to the presence of excess concentration of soluble salts. These substances even in a
lower quantity are found to be toxic to aquatic life. Some of the inorganic chemicals
like hydrochloric acid, sodium hypochlorite, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide and
reactive dyes are poisonous to marine life. The organic components are found to
undergo chemical and biological changes that result in the removal of oxygen from
water. The seriousness of water pollution depends on the quantity of water and
chemicals used in the wet process. Textile dyestuffs are found to contain a large
amount of organic substances which are difficult to degrade and are resistant to aerobic
degradation. They are also found to be reduced into carcinogenic agents under
anaerobic conditions. [33].
4.2. Environmental and Health Impacts of Pollutants [34].
Textile industry not only comprises large quantity of water for the process but
also need various chemicals and dyeing agents for the process. When a manufacturing
process starts there arise large quantity of waste in terms of water, energy and other
chemical substances which will readily or indirectly affects the environment to a
 18 | P a g e

greater extent. The pollution created by this textile processing may be in the form of
air, water or noise which is considered to be hazardous to health for the surroundings.
Each time the manufacturing process varies according to the requirement of the
customer so the waste generated varies each time depending up on the type of
chemicals and raw materials used.
The major sources of pollution in the textile industry, causing health impacts are
the cotton dust and fiber particulates from the dry processes, the vapors and fumes of
acids and chemicals used in the wet processes, and the nitrogen and sulphur oxides
from boilers. These polluting sources have health impacts on the workers, and
environmental impacts due to the discharge causing lowering of dissolved oxygen,
damage to aquatic life, and exposure to toxic effects for downstream water users.
Tables (4.1-4.6) Summarize the environmental and health impacts in the
different textile processes.
Table-4.1: Health and Environmental Impacts in Spinning Industry

Process Chemicals used Impact of gaseous Impact of effluents Impact of

emissions solid
wastes

Cotton Spinning
Opening Cotton dust(soil, Byssinosis (brown lung) _____ _____
particulates, diseuse, risk of chronic
bacteria, fungi, bronchitis
pesticides
Spinning _____ _____ _____ _____
Wool spinning
Scouring Detergents, VOCs (solvents) may High BOD, high pH Sludge
NaSO4, soaps, cause bloating, disturbance of containing
alkalis, H2SO4 (for Diarrhoea. Irritant to aquatic life. Not toxic
grease recovery) eyes and skin. Cationic readily degradable, substances
detergent is more toxic COD
Carbonizing H2SO4, Na2CO3 Acid fumes cause Occasional acid Charred
(for irritation of the eyes, bath dumps, stains carbon
neutralization) nose and throat the skin brown to residue,
yellow. which
affects
respiratory
system
Spinning Noise (causes Particulates _______ ________
hearing problems)
 19 | P a g e

Table-4.2: Health and Environmental Impacts in Fabric Formation Industry

Process Chemicals used Impact of gaseous emissions Impact of Impact

effluents of solid
wastes

Sizing Natural starch, polyvinyl VOCs, methanol from PVA, Washing residues ______
alcohol, carboxymethyl is toxic at high levels, cause high BOD
cellulose, oils, causing central nervous and COD, metals
waxes, adhesives Urea, system damage and blindness (from size
diethylene glycol, etc. Higly flamable, forms air additives) causing
pollutants disturbance of
aquatic life
Weaving Noise causes hearing Particulates cause respiration _______ ______
disabling, particulates and hearing problems
Knitting Particulates, noise, but Particulats affect health _______ ______
less than weaving, not
causing much problems
in hearing
Nonwoven Chemical adhesive and VOCs, cause respiratory _______ ______
particulates troubles
Tufted Resin coating causing Formaldehyde kills tissues, _______ ______
formaldehyde intense irritation of eyes and
nose and headaches
carcinogenic.

Table-4.3: Health and Environmental Impacts in Finishing Industry

Process Chemicals used Impact of gaseous Impact of effluents Impact of

emissions solid wastes

Singeing Small amounts of _______ _______ _______

exhaust gases,
negligable impact
Desizing Enzymes or H2SO4 May cause bloating and High BOD or COD, Residues of
for starch, Diarrhoea. Irritant to high temperature, solvents
detergents and alkali eyes and skin size impurities,
for PVA and CMC lubricants, metals.
Scouring NaOH, Na2CO3, Non-ionic detergents High BOD and _______
surfactants, may cause bloating and temperature, very
chlorinated solvents Diarrhoea, Irritant to high PH, fats,
eyes and skin. waxes, size
residues, causing
disturbance of
aquatic life
Bleaching -Hypochlorite Chlorine gas released, Low to moderate _______
-Hydrogen causing severe irritation BOD, high pH and
 20 | P a g e

-Peroxide of respiratory tract and temperature

-Acetic acid eyes tract and eyes
Toxic gases
Mercerization NaOH, surfactants, _______ Very high pH and _______
acid, liquid dissolved solids,
ammonium some BOD
Dyeing -Dyestuffs - Amonia is irritating to - Heavy metals e.g. Chemical
-Auxiliaries the skin, eyes nose, (Cu,Cr) residues can
throat, and upper - Carcinogenic cause allergic
-Reductants respiratory system. reactions to
amines
-Oxidants Basic dye is generally skin or
toxic (e.g. crystal violet) - Toxic compounds, respiratory
-Dye dust is a main e.g. carriers
source of pollution - Potassium dichromate system.
for breathing or skin can cause dermatitis and - H2S
ulceration, it is - Corrosion,
carcinogenic - Irritant
- Exposure to dye dust - For wool dye,
through breathing or high BOD, possibly
skin can result asthma, toxic, and pH low
eczema, and severe
allergic reactions.
Printing -Dyes(acids or - Formaldehyde causes - Heavy metals Chemical
alkalis), pigments, intense irritation of eyes (toxic) residues can
kerosene, binders, and nose, and - Carcinogenic be irritant
other additives headaches. It is and toxic.
- Irritants
- Ammonia carcinogenic
- Xylenes - Fire hazard
- Kerosene causes
nausea, vomiting - High BOD& COD
coughing, leading to depending on type
respiratory paralysis of thickener
- Disturbance of
- Amonia vapour is
aquatic life, eg. urea
severe irritant to eyes,
and phosphate
causes vomiting,
diarrhoea, sweating and
coughing. High
concentration can cause
respiratory arrest.

Chemical - CH2O Intense irritation of eyes - BOD and COD Chemical

finishing: - Phosphorus and nose and headaches. - Carcinogenic residues can
- Anticrease Carcinogenic. Causing be hazardous
- Softeners vomiting, and coughing. - Skin allergies and toxic
- Flame - Fluorinated High concentration can - Heavy metal
proofing chemicals cause respiratory arrest. toxicity
- Softening - Catalyst
- Formaldehyde
- Amonia
Water- - Paraffin - Toluene may be used Fluorocarbon resins Chemical
proofing in solvent coating may cause disposal residues may
- Aluminium salts operations can cause,
 21 | P a g e

- Zircon salts headaches, confusion problems contain

- Silicone weakness, and memory BOD,COD hazardous
loss, and affects function chemicals.
- fluorocarbon resins of kidney and liver ,
formation of ozone
which causes asthma
Antistaic Surface- active Possibly skin allergies BOD,COD, Resin
finishing substances additive residues residues may
be skin
allergy
Anti-felt - Chlorine Chlorine vapour is Large quantities of _______
finish - Polyamide hazardous, and can effluent with COD
(for wool) cause respiration
- Epich chlorohydrin problems
resin
Moth and - Chlorinated Pyrethroids may cause COD Chemical
beetle sulphonamide neuro toxic effects residues may
protection derivatives be hazardous
(for wool) - Biphenyl ether
- Urea derivatives
- Pyrethroids
Weighting - Stannic chloride VOCs, combustion Large quantities of Chemical
- Sodium phosphate exhausts have effect on effluent with COD residues may
skin be hazardous
- Water glass
Hydrophilising - Polyamide VOCs, possibly skin Large quantities of Chemical
- Polyacrylic allergies effluent with COD residues may
be hazardous
- Silicon
Delustering - Phenol - Allergy inducing COD, heavy metals Chemical
- Turpentine - In some cases residues may
carcinogenic substances be hazardous
- Pine oil
- Glauber salt
- Barium chloride
-Resins containing
formaldehyde
- Alkali sulphide
Abrasion - Silica gel VOCs, causing irritation Large quantities of Chemical
resistant - Plastic resins of respiratory system. effluent with COD, residues may
finish Skin allergies toxicity be hazardous

Sanforizing - Urea formaldehyde - Skin allergies - Wastewater, BOD Resin

- Melamine - Carcinogenic - Toxicity, residues may
formaldehyde properties be
carcinogenic
 22 | P a g e

Table-4.4: Health and Environmental Impact in Garment Industry

Process Chemicals used Impact of gaseous emissions Impact Impact of

of solid wastes
effluents

Cutting No chemicals Particulates Little effect on respiratory _______ _______

fabrics system
Fusing the Fumes of interlining Slight effect of adhesive fumes _______ _______
interlining to adhesive resin, and fabric on respiratory system (VOCs)
fabric pieces finish
Sewing Particulates Negligable effect on _______ _______
respiratory system
Ironing Fumes from fabric Negligable effect on _______ _______
respiratory system

Table-4.5: Health and Environmental Impacts in Man-made Fiber Manufacturing

Process Chemicals used Impact of gaseous Impact of Impact of

emissions effluents solid
wastes

Viscose Rayon
Soaking in Caustic soda solution Vapour of caustic soda _______ _______
caustic soda causes some allergies

Xanthating Carbon disulphide Vapour of carbon _______ _______

disulphide and
Hydrogen sulphide may
affect respiratory system
Spinning Sulpheric acid, sodium Vapour of acid and _______ Yarn
sulphate, zinc sulphate chemicals irritate scrap with
respiratory system acid and
chemical
may be
hazardous
Scouring and Sodium sulphide Vapour of acid, and Wastewater _______
finishing chemicals may affect containing acids,
respiratory system low pH and
organic
substances
Nylon
Polymerization Caprolactum, acetic acid Exposure to acetic acid _______ _______
 23 | P a g e

gas or spray can cause

intense irritation of the
eyes, nose, throat and
skin damage
Spinning Finishing oils, mineral Negligable effect on Wastewater _______
oils, Nitrogen gas. health. Nitrogen may containing oils,
Noise have an effect. reducing the
Noise may affect dissolved
hearing oxygen

Texturing - Low molecular fractions Exhaust air may be Wastewater _______

of polymer hazardous to respiratory containing
- Spin finishes system finishing
chemicals and
- Additives sdditives
Polyester
Polymerization - Cobalt 60, for level - Level of radiation may _______
control of cotton type have serious effect. _______
polyester - - Volatilised monomers
Cesium 137 for level and additives
control of wool-type
polyester - Methanol is toxic to
humans. At high dose
- Methanol results from levels causes central
easter nervous system damage
- exchange reactor and blindness.
Spinning _______ _______ _______ _______

Tensioning Finishing olis, and water _______ Wastewater _______

containing
chemicals,
reducing the
dissolved
oxygen

Table-4.6: Health and Environmental Impacts in Service Units

Process Chemicals used Impact of gaseous Impact of Impact of

emissions effluents solid
wastes

Transportation - Vehicle exhausts, gasoline Gasoline fumes cause Oils reduce _____
fumes irritation of respiratory dissolved
system oxygen
Boilers and - Naphtha, coal, natural gas, Particulates, burning Wastewater _____
 24 | P a g e

steam system oil fuel exhausts, cause with

irritation of respiratory precipitated
system salts reduces
the dissolved
oxygen
Water - H2SO4 / HCl and NaOH _____ _____ Chemical
treatment (for ion exchange) residues
- NaCl (water softening), may be
trisodium phosphate (boiler allergic.
water), chlorine or
hypochlorite (for water
disinfiction)
Wastewater - Alum or ferric salts, VOCs from fabric _____ Wastewater
treatment. flocculant polymers, chemicals, vapours sludge may
H2SO4/ HCl and NaOH / and mists, may cause, cause skin
CaO, irritation of respiratory irritation
- Nutrients (urea, system
phosphoric acid,
ammonium phosphate)

4.2.1. Impacts of Textile Fibers on Environment [35].

Cotton pollution: Cotton is the most pesticide intensive crop in the world:
these pesticides injure and kill many people every year. It also takes up a large
proportion of agricultural land, much of which is needed by local people to grow their
own food. Herbicides, and also the chemical defoliants which are sometimes used to
aid mechanical cotton harvesting, add to the toll on both the environment and human
health. These chemicals typically remain in the fabric after finishing, and are released
during the lifetime of the garments. The development of genetically modified cotton
adds environmental problems at another level. Growing cotton uses 22.5 percent of all
the insecticides used globally. Growing enough cotton for one t-shirt requires 257
gallons of water. On top of that, bleaching and then dyeing the resulting fabric creates
toxins that flow into our ecosystem.

Wool pollution: Both agricultural and craft workers in the UK suffer from
exposure to organophosphate sheep dip problem. Getting from fiber to cloth-bleaching,
dyeing, and finishing uses yet more energy and water, and causes yet more pollution.

Nylon and polyester pollution: Made from petrochemicals, these synthetics are
also non-biodegradable, and so they are inherently unsustainable on two counts. Nylon
manufacture creates nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas 310 times more potent than carbon
dioxide. Making polyester uses large amounts of water for cooling, along with
 25 | P a g e

lubricants which can become a source of contamination. Both processes are also very
energy hungry.
Rayon pollution: Another artificial fiber is made from wood pulp, which on the
face of it seems more sustainable. However, old growth forest is often cleared and/or
subsistence farmers are displaced to make way for pulpwood plantations. Often the tree
planted is eucalyptus, which draws up phenomenal amounts of water, causing problems
in sensitive regions. To make rayon, the wood pulp is treated with hazardous chemicals
such as caustic soda and sulphuric acid. The use of rayon for clothing is contributing to
the rapid depletion of the world's forests. Petroleum-based products are detrimental to
the environment on many levels.

4.2.2. Impacts of the Main Solid Wastes

The residual wastes generated from the textile industry are non-hazardous.
These include scraps of fabric and yarn, and packaging waste. There are also wastes
with the storage and production of yarns. The amount of solid waste produced can be
reduced, if factories all around the world are more efficient when it comes to cutting a
variety of materials.

The majority of textile solid wastes are fibres, yarns, fabrics, packaging waste,
dye containers, chemical containers, dirt, vegetable matter, waxes, wasted sludge and
retained sludge, paper, cartons etc.
The hazardous solid wastes are the sludge, and the dye and chemical containers,
as they contain toxic material, and dealing with wastes for disposal may expose the
workers to toxic effects.

4.2.3. Impact of Noise

The noise level resulting from the machines used in the textile industry,
especially from the dry processes, may violate the limit allowed by the law and cause
hearing diseases or damage of hearing ability for workers around the machines. The
ring spinning machines, the open-end spinning machines, the winding machines, the
looms, the sewing machines etc. are used with a large number and at very high speeds,
thus expected to exceed the allowed level of noise (90 decibel) and cause hearing
troubles to the production workers.
 26 | P a g e

4.2.4. Impacts on Ambient Environment

The ambient environment in the surrounding area of the textile facility is affected by
the emissions from the boiler station, such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
sulphur oxides, and other particulates depending on the type of fuel. The people living
around the facility are exposed to respiratory diseases. The surrounding area is also
affected by the fiber fuzz in case of facilities not using scavenging systems, and
depending on ventilation through factory windows. This situation may have effect on
the respiratory diseases of people living in the area. The dry processes of the textile
industry generate a high level of noise that may have impact on the ambient
environment, causing hearing problems for people living in the area.
 27 | P a g e

Chapter-5
Methodology of Treatment Plant

5.1. Introduction
Different wastes come out from the textile industries and to protect the
environment from their harmful effects, all those wastes are treated through different
methods. The treatment of solid wastes, chemical wastes and water wastes are done by
following different methods. For the treatment of different wastes, different processes
or different methods or different plants are made. But in Bangladesh, the main
treatment plant is waste water treatment. So the water waste treatment processes are
described below.
Satisfactory disposal of wastewater, whether by surface, subsurface methods or
dilution, is dependent on its treatment prior to disposal. Adequate treatment is
necessary to prevent contamination of receiving waters to a degree which might
interfere with their best or intended use, whether it be for water supply, recreation, or
any other required purpose.
Wastewater treatment consists of applying known technology to improve or
upgrade the quality of a wastewater. Usually wastewater treatment will involve
collecting the wastewater in a central, segregated location (the Wastewater Treatment
Plant) and subjecting the wastewater to various treatment processes. Most often, since
large volumes of wastewater are involved, treatment processes are carried out on
continuously flowing wastewaters (continuous flow or "open" systems) rather than as
"batch" or a series of periodic treatment processes in which treatment is carried out on
parcels or "batches" of wastewaters. While most wastewater treatment processes are
continuous flow, certain operations, such as vacuum filtration, involving as it does
storage of sludge, the addition of chemicals, filtration and removal or disposal of the
treated sludge, are routinely handled as periodic batch operations.
There are several factors to choose the appropriate textile wastewater treatment
method such as, economic efficiency, treatment efficiency, type of dye, concentration
of dye and environmental fate. There is no general method for the treatment of textile
industrial wastewater. They may be classifying as primary, secondary and pre-treatment
methods. A diagram of primary, secondary and pre-treatment methods is given bellow-
 28 | P a g e

Raw Effluent

Screening

Pre-Treatment
Equalization
&
Skimming

Coagulation

Flocculation
Primary-Treatment

Neutralization

Sedimentation

Biological Treatment Sludge Dewatering

Secondary-Treatment
Outlet to River/Drain Sludge Drying

Fig 5.1:- Primary, Secondary & Pre-Treatment Methods [36].

Wastewater treatment, however, can also be organized or categorized by the
nature of the treatment process operation being used; for example, physical, chemical
or biological. A complete treatment system may consist of the application of a number
of physical, chemical and biological processes to the wastewater. Some physical,
chemical and biological wastewater treatment methods given in Table-4.1
 29 | P a g e

Table-5.1: Some Physical, Chemical and Biological Wastewater Treatment

Methods [37].

Biological
Physical Chemical

Aerobic Anaerobic
Sedimentation(Clarification) Chlorination Activated Anaerobic
Screening Ozonation Sludge Digestion
Aeration Neutralization Treatment Septic Tanks
Filtration Coagulation Methods Lagoons
Flotation and Skimming Adsorption Trickling
Degasification Ion Exchange Filtration
Equalization Oxidation
Ponds
Lagoons
Aerobic
Digestion

5.2. Physical Methods

Physical methods include processes where no gross chemical or biological

changes are carried out and strictly physical phenomena are used to improve or treat the
wastewater. Examples would be coarse screening to remove larger entrained objects
and sedimentation (or clarification). In the process of sedimentation, physical
phenomena relating to the settling of solids by gravity are allowed to operate. Usually
this consists of simply holding a wastewater for a short period of time in a tank under
quiescent conditions, allowing the heavier solids to settle, and removing the "clarified"
effluent. Sedimentation for solids separation is a very common process operation and is
routinely employed at the beginning and end of wastewater treatment operations. While
sedimentation is one of the most common physical treatment processes that are used to
achieve treatment, another physical treatment process consists of aeration that is,
physically adding air, usually to provide oxygen to the wastewater. Still other physical
phenomenon used in treatment consists of filtration. Here wastewater is passed through
a filter medium to separate solids. An example would be the use of sand filters to
further remove entrained solids from a treated wastewater. Certain phenomena will
occur during the sedimentation process and can be advantageously used to further
improve water quality. Permitting greases or oils, for example, to float to the surface
and skimming or physically removing them from the wastewaters is often carried out as
 30 | P a g e

part of the overall treatment process. In certain industrial wastewater treatment

processes strong or undesirable wastes are sometimes produced over short periods of
time. Since such "slugs" or periodic inputs of such wastes would damage a biological
treatment process, these wastes are sometimes held, mixed with other wastewaters, and
gradually released, thus eliminating "shocks" to the treatment plant. This is call
equalization. Another type of "equalization" can be used to even out wide variations in
flow rates. For example, the wet well of a pump station can receive widely varying
amounts of wastewater and, in turn, pump the wastes onward at more uniform rates.
5.3. Chemical Treatment Methods
Chemical treatment consists of using some chemical reaction or reactions to
improve the water quality. Probably the most commonly used chemical process is
chlorination. Chlorine, a strong oxidizing chemical, is used to kill bacteria and to slow
down the rate of decomposition of the wastewater. Bacterial kill is achieved when vital
biological processes are affected by the chlorine. Another strong oxidizing agent that
has also been used as an oxidizing disinfectant is ozone.
A chemical process commonly used in many industrial wastewater treatment
operations is neutralization. Neutralization consists of the addition of acid or base to
adjust pH levels back to neutrality. Since lime is a base it is sometimes used in the
neutralization of acid wastes.
Coagulation consists of the addition of a chemical that, through a chemical reaction,
forms an insoluble end product that serves to remove substances from the
wastewater. Polyvalent metals are commonly used as coagulating chemicals in
wastewater treatment and typical coagulants would include lime (that can also be used
in neutralization), certain iron containing compounds (such as ferric chloride or ferric
sulfate) and alum (aluminum sulfate).
Certain processes may actually be physical and chemical in nature. The use of
activated carbon to "adsorb" or remove organics, for example, involves both chemical
and physical processes. Processes such as ion exchange, which involves exchanging
certain ions for others, are not used to any great extent in wastewater treatment.
5.4. Biological Treatment Methods
Biological treatment methods use microorganisms, mostly bacteria, in the
biochemical decomposition of wastewaters to stable end products. More
microorganisms, or sledges, are formed and a portion of the waste is converted to
 31 | P a g e

carbon dioxide, water and other end products. Generally, biological treatment methods
can be divided into aerobic and anaerobic methods, based on availability of dissolved
oxygen.
The purpose of wastewater treatment is generally to remove from the
wastewater enough solids to permit the remainder to be discharged to receiving water
without interfering with its best or proper use. The solids which are removed are
primarily organic but may also include inorganic solids. Treatment must also be
provided for the solids and liquids which are removed as sludge. Finally, treatment to
control odors, to retard biological activity, or destroy pathogenic organisms may also be
needed.
While the devices used in wastewater treatment are numerous and will probably
combine physical, chemical and biological methods, they may all be generally grouped
under six methods:
 Preliminary Treatment
 Primary Treatment
 Secondary Treatment
 Disinfection
 Sludge Treatment
 Tertiary Treatment
Degrees of treatment are sometimes indicated by use of the terms primary,
secondary and tertiary treatment. Tertiary treatment, properly, would be any treatment
added onto or following secondary treatment.
5.5. Preliminary Treatment
At most plants preliminary treatment is used to protect pumping equipment and
facilitate subsequent treatment processes. Preliminary devices are designed to remove
or cut up the larger suspended and floating solids, to remove the heavy inorganic solids,
and to remove excessive amounts of oils or greases.
To effect the objectives of preliminary treatment, the following devices are commonly
used:
1. Screens (rack, bar or fine)
2. Comminuting devices (grinders, cutters, shredders)
3. Grit chambers
4. Pre-aeration tanks
 32 | P a g e

In addition to the above, chlorination may be used in preliminary treatment. Since

chlorination may be used at all stages in treatment, it is considered to be a method by
itself. Preliminary treatment devices require careful design and operation.
5.6. Primary Treatment
In this treatment, most of the settle able solids are separated or removed from
the wastewater by the physical process of sedimentation. When certain chemicals are
used with primary sedimentation tanks, some of the colloidal solids are also
removed. Biological activity of the wastewater in primary treatment is of negligible
importance.
The purpose of primary treatment is to reduce the velocity of the wastewater
sufficiently to permit solids to settle and floatable material to surface. Therefore,
primary devices may consist of settling tanks, clarifiers or sedimentation tanks.
Because of variations in design, operation, and application, settling tanks can be
divided into four general groups:
1. Septic tanks
2. Two store tanks imhoff and several proprietary or patented units
3. Plain sedimentation tank with mechanical sludge removal
4. Upward flow clarifiers with mechanical sludge removal
When chemicals are used, other auxiliary units are employed. These are:
1. Chemical feed units
2. Mixing devices
3. Flocculators
The results obtained by primary treatment, together with anaerobic sludge
digestion as described later, are such that they can be compared with the zone of
degradation in stream self-purification. The use of chlorine with primary treatment is
discussed under the section on Preliminary Treatment.

5.7. Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment depends primarily upon aerobic organisms which
biochemically decompose the organic solids to inorganic or stable organic solids. It is
comparable to the zone of recovery in the self-purification of a stream.
The devices used in secondary treatment may be divided into four groups:
1. Trickling filters with secondary settling tanks
2. Activated sludge and modifications with final settling tanks
 33 | P a g e

3. Intermittent sand filters

4. Stabilization ponds
The use of chlorine with secondary treatment is discussed under the section on
Secondary Treatment
5.8. Sludge Treatment
The solids removed from wastewater in both primary and secondary treatment
units, together with the water removed with them, constitute wastewater sludge. It is
generally necessary to subject sludge to some treatment to prepare or condition it for
ultimate disposal. Such treatment has two objectives. These are the removal of part or
all of the water in the sludge to reduce its volume, and the decomposition of the
putrescible organic solids to mineral solids or to relatively stable organic solids. This is
accomplished by a combination of two or more of the following methods:
1. Thickening
2. Digestion with or without heat
3. Drying on sand bed open or covered
4. Conditioning with chemicals
5. Elutriation
6. Vacuum filtration
7. Heat drying
8. Incineration
9. Wet oxidation
10. Centrifuging
5.9. Tertiary Treatment
The terms "primary" and "secondary" treatment have been used to generally
describe a degree of treatment; for example, settling and biological wastewater
treatment. Since the early 1970's "tertiary" treatment has come into use to describe
additional treatment following secondary treatment. Quite often this merely indicates
the use of intermittent sand filters for increased removal of suspended solids from the
wastewater. In other cases, tertiary treatment has been used to describe processes which
remove plant nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorous, from wastewater.
Improvement and upgrading of wastewater treatment units as well as the need to
minimize environmental effects has led to the increased use of tertiary treatment.
 34 | P a g e

A term that is also sometimes used to indicate treatment of a wastewater by

methods other than primary or biological (secondary) treatment is advanced
treatment. This degree of treatment is usually achieved by chemical (for example
coagulation) methods as well as physical methods (flocculation, settling and activated
carbon adsorption) to produce high quality effluent water [37].
 35 | P a g e

Chapter-6
Problems of Treatment Plant in Bangladesh
6.1. Introduction
Bangladesh is a developing country. So it becomes very difficult for our country
to build and develop various effective treatment plants. We face so many problems if
we want to make developed and improved treatment plants. There are numerous
political, economic, social, technological, environmental, legal and institutional barriers
to the improvement of resource recovery in Bangladesh. Following are some evident
problems.

6.2. Knowledge
In order to manage an environmental issue, it must first be measured and
quantified. The limited and inadequate data available in Bangladesh regarding the
amounts and types of textile waste is an impediment to intelligent and effective
recovery and/or regeneration of textile waste. This knowledge advocates for a study to
be commissioned on textile waste in Bangladesh. But we don’t have enough data and
information regarding the textile industries of our country. Without having enough
information and data, it’s not possible to make any treatment plant to treat the textile
wastes. So we need to get proper knowledge and data regarding the textile industries of
our country for building effective treatment plant.

6.3. Policy
There is limited effort to stimulate resource recovery through policy instruments
that influence recycled demand and, thereby, create greater pull in the resource
recovery system. On the one hand, and in contrast to overseas jurisdictions, there are
very few targets, financial incentives, or mandatory requirements in terms of recycled
content purchasing for public sector agencies.
Some state governments have zero waste strategy targets to increase resource
recovery rates within a designated time frame. To reach these targets, these strategies
should be supported by programs that utilize this waste.
Regeneration verifiably reduces the environmental impact of carbon emissions,
energy use and toxic chemical by up to 70%. Certainly, investment in systematic,
investigative and experimental activities that involve research, development and
innovation for the purpose of acquiring new knowledge or creating new or improved
 36 | P a g e

materials, products, devices, processes or services to regenerate textiles will positively

serve the Bangladesh economy and reduce our environmental footprint. However, there
has been limited effort to stimulate the recovery of textile waste through policy
instruments [38].

6.4. Financial
Bangladesh is a developing country. Some of the treatment processes are too
much expensive that our country can’t afford those processes. So the treatment plant
can’t be developed in such a way we want due to financial problem. For the
development of treatment plant in our country financial support is very important factor
that is very difficult to get for our country.

6.5. Research and Development

For developing of treatment plant there should be enough research facilities in
our country. But in our country we don’t have enough research facilities. As a result we
can’t get new method or new processes for treating the wastes of textile industries. If
our country can afford enough research facilities for developing new methods for
treatment plants, then so many problems related to treatment plants might be solved.
The examples outlined in the previous section are the results of both investment
and technologies that have been specifically developed to solve textile regeneration
issues. Research, development and innovation have long been pillars of the
Bangladeshi fiber, textile and clothing industry and can be accredited with much of the
industry’s advancement.

6.6. Community Awareness

There is no community awareness among us regarding the wastes which come
from textile industries and regarding their treatment for preventing environment
pollution. If we can increase community awareness through different ways, then people
of different communities will aware of the fact that textile wastes might pollute our
environment and they will also try to use different methods for treating those wastes to
minimize their harmful effects. The increased use of recycled materials in products and
the increased recovery of material for recycling can be achieved with an educated
public.
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Chapter-7
Suggestions

It’s found that in Bangladesh there is no proper and developed treatment plant for
treating the textile wastes. So we need to take necessary steps to reduce textile wastes
and make proper treatment plant. We should try our best to recover the problems
related to textile wastes and treatment plant. The following suggestions might help us to
recover the problems [37].

a) Proper management of wastewater will reduce the overall volume of effluent.

Not all effluent in a textile wet processing plant are equally harmful for the
environment, dyeing effluents are more harmful than rinsing waters, the rinsing
water should be separated from dyed water and can be discharged without or
with minimum treatment.
b) If all the factories do not install appropriate ETP and do not run them properly
then there will be an unequal price competition among fabric producers where
the honest ETP owners will always lose the battle.
c) Use of synthetic sizes rather than starch based sizes will reduce the high toxicity
of the effluent generated from denim plants. The starch-based sizes contribute to
highest amount of BOD.
d) Government should reduce or exempt the tariffs and taxes on the synthetic sizes,
so that synthetic sizes can replace cheap starch based sizes that contribute to very
high BOD.
e) Attempt should be made to explore the idea of developing woven sector. The
material to liquor ratio of woven dyeing is very low in comparison to knit
dyeing. Less effluent means less raw water will be required, this in turn will
reduce the amount of gas/electrical energy required to pump and heat water. The
profit margin of woven garments is also very high.
f) Attempt should be made to explore the idea of developing synthetic production.
The characteristic of effluent from synthetic dyeing is different from that of
cotton products. The pollution load is less for synthetic. Less effluent means less
raw water will be required, this in turn will reduce the amount of gas/electrical
 38 | P a g e

energy required to pump and heat water. The profit margin of woven garments is
also very high.
g) Reconstitution of processed effluent should be examined for every stage of
processing like scouring, bleaching, mercerization, dyeing and finishing baths.
This will reduce the quantity of ultimate effluent.
h) Decisive and efficient use of dyes, chemical and auxiliaries will reduce the
quantity and toxicity of the effluent to a great extent. Selection dyes, chemicals
and auxiliaries that generate lower pollutants will reduce ultimate pollution load.
i) Like many developed countries, Government can offer free water and
wastewater test facilities. Though some people may take advantage of this
facility but for greater interest of the country this type of initiative will help in
understanding, administering and researching the overall-environmental
pollution scenario.
j) Environment is violated not only by the textile processing plants but also by
many other factories and establishments like slaughtering houses, sweet
manufacturers, bakeries, poultry farms etc. Their pollution load should be
examined and should also be brought under strict scrutiny.
k) Universities may research on managing and handling effluent. Research is
essential to study the effect and toxicity of various dyes, chemicals and
auxiliaries used in our country. Research is also necessary to study and upgrade
the existing treatment procedures in order to reduce operating cost and also to
combat future violation of the environment.
l) Entrepreneurs can be encouraged to set up industries far away from the crowded
greater Dhaka. This will at least reduce the pollution burden on the Dhaka
dwellers to some extent. Setting up of industries near big rivers or coastal areas
could be a much better option.
 39 | P a g e

Chapter-8
Conclusion

Textile industries have great contribution to the economy. But wastes and other
chemicals that which come to the environment from the textile industries pollute our
environment and affect the balance of our environment to a great extent. So we should
take necessary steps so that the textile industries don’t become the reason of
environmental pollution in our country. Different effective methods should be
developed so that textile industries produce less harmful wastes. We should also use
effective methods for removing wastes from environment as early as possible so that
they can’t pollute our environment. We should try our best to build proper treatment
plant for treating the textile wastes and protect the environment from pollution.
This study revealed that textile effluent treatment with biological methods is
highly efficient and cost-effective as well as eco-friendly. Though there are some
constraints specially, extremely high initial investment and space requirements which
are major obstacles for small and medium scale factories. Government can take efforts
to initialize bank loan to establish effluent treatment plants with minimum interest.
Further development is essential to treat inorganic compounds by biological process.
We should save our environment from the pollution contributed by textiles. If
these numerous number of dyeing industries emit effluent without treatment into the
rivers or narrow way beside the cultivatable lands then river water will be polluted as
well as the fertility of land will be decreased respectively. The rivers Shitalakkha,
Burigonga and Turag are highly polluted by textile liquid waste.
The recent awareness on the ETP requirement should be directed in a
constructive way. We realize that industrial effluent should be treated before drainage.
Upon discussed novel methods can be applied to remove different dye also hazardous
materials from industrial effluents. The Government must come forward to facilitate
ETPs installation with technical guidance and also with financing. Consideration for
Common ETPs can be made by the Government, which will encourage small-scale
industries to establish ETPs within their cost limitations. Government’s recent stringent
role against industry owner may pressurise them to come up with compliance measure
regarding ETPs installation, but in the long run, a good result from the concept of ETPs
installation can only be ensured by proper monitoring and environmental audit by
 40 | P a g e

Government afterward. Neither industry and private sector nor public sector alone can
be left responsible for realization on the intensity of the problem. Government and the
private sector should come into with its full glory to solve the problem mutually, which
aims at burning issue like environmental conservation.
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Chapter-9
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