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Improving the environmental impact of civil aircraft by fuel cell technology:

concepts and technological progress†
Gwena€elle Renouard-Vallet,*a Martin Saballus,a Gerrit Schmithals,a Johannes Schirmer,b Josef Kallo*b
and K. Andreas Friedrichb
Received 8th December 2009, Accepted 12th May 2010
DOI: 10.1039/b925930a

Nowadays, new technologies and breakthroughs in the fields of energy efficiency, alternative fuels and
added-value electronics are leading to improved, more environmentally sustainable and green thinking
applications. Due to the forecasted rapid increase of volume of air traffic, future aircraft generations have
to face enhanced requirements concerning productivity, environmental compatibility and higher
operational availability, thus effecting technical, operational and economical aspects of in-flight and
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on-ground power generation systems, even if air transport is responsible for only about 2% of all
anthropogenic CO2 emissions. The trend in new aircraft development is toward ‘‘more electric’’
architectures which is characterized by a higher proportion of electrical systems substituting hydraulically
or pneumatically driven components, and, as a result, increasing the amount of electrical power. Fuel cell
systems in this context represent a promising solution regarding the enhancement of the energy efficiency
for both cruise and ground operations. For several years the Institute of Technical Thermodynamics of
the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum f€ ur Luft- und Raumfahrt, DLR) in Stuttgart and
Hamburg has developed fuel cell systems for aircraft applications. The activities of DLR focus on:
identification of fuel cell applications in aircraft in which the properties of fuel cell systems, namely high
electric efficiency, low emissions and silent operation, are capitalized for the aircraft application; design
and modeling of possible and advantageous system designs; theoretical and experimental investigations
regarding specific aircraft relevant operating conditions; qualification of airworthy fuel cell systems; set
up and full scale testing of fuel cell systems for application in research aircraft.
In cooperation with Airbus, several fuel cell applications within the aircraft for both ground and cruise
operation have been identified. As a consequence, fuel cell systems capable of supporting or even
replacing existing systems have been derived. In this context, the provision of inert gas for the jet fuel
(kerosene) tank and electrical cabin power supply, including water regeneration, represent the most
promising application fields.
This paper will present the state of development and the evolution discussing the following points:
modeling of different system architectures and evaluation of promising fuel cell systems; experimental
evaluation of fuel cell systems under relevant conditions (low pressure, vibrations, reformate operation,
etc.); fuel cell test in DLR’s research aircraft ATRA (A320) including the test of an emergency system
based on hydrogen and oxygen with 20 kW of electrical power. The fuel cell system was integrated into
an A320 aircraft and tested up to a flight altitude of 25 000 feet under several acceleration and
inclination conditions; fuel cell tests in Antares-H2—DLR’s new flying test bed.

a
Deutsches Zentrum f€ur Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut f€ ur Germany. E-mail: andreas.friedrich@dlr.de; josef.kallo@dlr.de; Tel:
Technische Thermodynamik, Hein-Saß-Weg 38, 21129 Hamburg, +0049 711 6862-672
Germany. E-mail: gwenaelle.renouard-vallet@dlr.de; Fax: +0049 40 743- † This article results from the Hyceltec 2009 meeting.
74727; Tel: +0049 40 743-89390
b
Deutsches Zentrum f€ur Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut f€ ur
Technische Thermodynamik, Pfaffenwaldring 38-40, 70569 Stuttgart,

Broader context
‘‘Green flying’’—fuel cell systems as part of the electrical supply in civil aircraft are making this expression a reality. Indeed, fuel cell
systems have high electrical efficiency and only produce water and oxygen depleted air as gas emissions. What is also very innovative
is that these ‘‘waste products’’ can be used to generated water on board and be used as inert gas in the jet fuel tank as a fire retardation
and suppression measure or even complete explosion prevention. For several years the Institute of Technical Thermodynamics of the
German Aerospace Center, in cooperation with Airbus, has developed fuel cell systems which fulfil these functionalities for both
aircraft ground and cruise operation. This paper presents all the modelling and experimental activities which have been performed in
the last few years to make a dream come true—flying as green and silent as a sparrow (Antares-H2) or a condor/swan (ATRA A320).

1458 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2010, 3, 1458–1468 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2010

Introduction
According to the IPCC (2000) reports1 and the newest environ-
mental studies,2 air transport is responsible for about 2% of the
worldwide CO2 emissions and will probably rise up to 3.5% due
to the drastic increase of air traffic over the last decades and the
expected further growth (see Fig. 1). Because of the rising public
awareness about the environmental impact of air traffic, inter-
national institutions like the European Community have
increased the pressure on aircraft manufacturers to improve the
efficiency of their aircrafts and lower their environmental impact.
Dr Gwenaelle Renouard-Vallet
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is, since June 2004, a researcher
at the German Aerospace
Center, Institute of Technical
Thermodynamics, Department
of Electrochemical Energy
Conversion/Group Electro-
chemical Systems in Hamburg,
Germany. After a diploma in
material engineering in Limoges
(France), she fulfilled an inter-
national PhD in Canada and
France at three research insti-
Gwena€elle Renouard-Vallet tutes (Sherbrooke University,
Limoges University and
‘‘Atomic Energy and Alternative Energies Commission’’-CEA) on
solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte development via plasma technology.
In the last few years, her activities have been oriented towards the
development of fuel cell systems for aircraft application. Her
research interests are fuel cell system behaviour under aircraft
environment, research on possible functionalities and integration
aspects.
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Martin Sabal-
lus worked since June 2004 as
a graduated engineer at the
German Aerospace Center,
Institute of Technical Thermo-
dynamics, Department of Elec-
trochemical Energy Conversion/
Group Electrochemical Systems
in Hamburg, Germany. His
major sphere of action has been
focused on the development of
fuel cell system design for
aircraft application. His applied
Martin Saballus research interests are optimiza-
tion of system applications from
fuel storage to energy supply under different environmental
conditions.
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Indeed, the ACARE (Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Research) has issued their Vision 2020 goals for aeronautic
research in which a reduction of CO2 emissions by 50%, and of
NOx emissions by 80% is envisioned.3
The restriction of the noise and of the emissions (CO, NOx and
HC) in airports has already led to some stringent limitations on
travel schedules and flight intensity in industrialized countries.
Moreover, airlines have to expect aircraft movement quotas,
higher taxes and airport tariffs dependent on the ground emis-
sions of their fleet. Therefore future aircraft generations have to
meet not only higher environmental standards but also higher
Dr Gerrit Schmithals is, since
2008, a researcher and project
leader at the Institute of Tech-
nical Thermodynamics of the
German Aerospace Center. He
finished his diploma in chemical
engineering at the Technische
Universit€at Berlin studying
analysis techniques for fuel cell
membrane manufacturing
control. At the Helmholtz-Zen-
trum Berlin f€ur Materialien und
Energie he obtained a PhD
Gerrit Schmithals working on the characterisation
of catalysts for low temperature
fuel cells using electrochemical and X-ray absorption techniques.
Research activities in recent and current projects concentrate on
integration aspects of fuel cell systems in aircraft applications
including thermal management, dynamic behaviour and environ-
mental conditions.
Dr.-Ing. Johannes Schirmer
started his PhD in 1998 at the
Institute for Technical Chem-
istry I in Erlangen with a thesis
in the field of Catalytic Plastic
Recycling. In 2002 he started
a Postdoctoral research fellow
with Basic Research in the field
of Direct Methanol Fuel Cells,
at the DLR Institute for Tech-
nical Thermodynamics in Stutt-
gart. Since 2005 he is a project
manager and research associate
Johannes Schirmer at DLR in the field of Fuel cell
system development in low
power range and fuel cells for aircraft applications. He is/was
Project Manager for several projects like PORTAPOWER,
Power Pack, ErgoPack; MobilE-Pack; ELBASYS as also Project
Coordinator of BZ-BattExt. He contributed as an author to
multiple publications and patents on the field of fuel cell
applications.
Energy Environ. Sci., 2010, 3, 1458–1468 | 1459

Fig. 1 Scenario of the evolution of CO2 emissions in aviation, adapted
from ref. 2.
economical and productivity requirements. These trends also
have implications for technology and economics of the on-board
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power generation. For several years a clear tendency to replace
hydraulic and pneumatic aircraft systems by electrical systems
can be observed (often denominated ‘‘more electric aircraft’’).
Traditionally the electrical power on board is provided with
high efficiency by the aircraft’s main propulsion engines, with
low efficiency by a gas turbine auxiliary power unit (APU) or
with better efficiency by a ground power unit (GPU). In flight,
the efficiency of electric power generated by the main engines and
their generators can reach 40%, however, on the ground with the
engines shut off, the average fuel efficiency of the turbine-
powered APU is typically less than 20% and when idling even in
the area of 10%. In addition, the undesirable noise and gaseous
emissions of the APU have a negative effect and its use is
forbidden in an increasing number of airports.
Due to their high electrical efficiency and environmentally
friendly behavior, fuel cell systems are attractive solutions to
improve the environmental impact of aircraft systems. Therefore
publications and research activities in this area have grown
considerably the last few years, driven by the two large aircraft
manufacturers Boeing and Airbus. Challenges nevertheless
Dr Josef Kallo started his PhD
in 1999 at the ‘‘Global Alterna-
tive Propulsion Center’’ of
General Motors in Mainz Kastel
with a fuel cell related thesis.
From 2002 to 2005 he contrib-
uted to the development of the
General Motors fuel cell driven
Zafira H3. In January 2006 Dr
Kallo re-established the fuel cell
system group at the German
Aerospace Center with the main
topics fuel cell systems for
Josef Kallo aircraft applications including
the development of an APU
replacement unit for large aircrafts and the development of the
Antares DLR H2 fuel cell powered 20m wingspan aircraft. The
hybrid power plant based on pressurized high temperature fuel cells
and gas turbines is a second major topic. Dr Kallo holds the silver f-
cell Award and contributed as an author to multiple publications
and patents in the field of fuel cell applications.
1460 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2010, 3, 1458–1468
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remain to successfully apply the technology to commercial flying
systems.
Two fuel cell technologies are the center of the research
activities on different levels: the SOFCs (solid oxide fuel cells)
and the PEFCs (proton exchange membrane fuel cells).
The high temperature SOFCs and the associated fuel
processing are theoretically and conceptually well-suited because
of their similarity in operating temperature and the possible
hybrid configurations with gas turbine to increase efficiency.
Several studies which were initiated by Boeing to investigate
hybrid configurations of SOFC and micro gas turbines in aircraft
have been published indicating—from a conceptual viewpoint—
a large benefit for high-temperature systems.4–6 However, both
technologies are not yet mature enough for transportation
applications, as extremely large improvements in power density
of SOFCs and compact and reliable fuel processors are needed
for achieving the aircraft requirements.
The PEFCs are not far from the industrialization stage in the
automotive industry and they are therefore a good candidate for
the near future integration in aeronautic applications. Never-
theless, due to typical aircraft requirements, a lot of challenges
still have to be met: improving the specific power of the stack,
reducing the weight of the remaining components, and investi-
gating flight-operation conditions. Regarding this concern, on
the one hand, Boeing has recently demonstrated a small manned
two-seater prototype composite motor glider airplane powered
by proton exchange membrane (PEFC) fuel cell stacks and
Li-ion batteries in a hybrid configuration.7 The fuel for the PEFC
is compressed hydrogen gas as fuel and pressurized air as
oxidant. The fuel cell system was used for in-flight cruising. For
take-off, both the batteries and fuel cell are needed. On the other
hand, Airbus is developing PEFC systems for specific aircraft
APU applications.8
The goal of Airbus is to incorporate several functions and
products of the fuel cell system into the aircraft architecture in
Dr. K. Andreas Friedrich is
a Professor of Mechanical
Engineering at the University of
Stuttgart and the Head of the
Fuel Cell Research group at the
German Aerospace Center in
Stuttgart. His research areas
include PEFCs as well as
SOFCs. Starting with early
fundamental work on electro-
catalysts the research becomes
increasingly application oriented
with recent specialization on
K: Andreas Friedrich aircraft fuel cell systems. The
primary goals comprise
enhanced power density, long lifetime, reduction of materials and
manufacturing costs, identification and prevention of degradation
mechanisms in stacks, advanced and optimised integration of fuel
cells into energy supply systems. Dr. Friedrich has authored and co-
authored more than 80 papers in the described research fields.
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order to demonstrate not only ecological but also economical
benefits which would justify the additional costs of fuel cell
technology. Starting from the application with the easiest tech-
nical requirements the strategy consists of integrating evermore
intricate functions into the system. It is important that the next
generation development should always include the functions of
the preceding development generation. The first step in this
development roadmap has been demonstrated by several
successful flight tests of a 20 kW emergency power fuel cell
system as a result of a collaboration between DLR, Airbus and
Michelin. A fuel cell system operated with H2/O2 from Michelin
operated the control surfaces of the aircraft during flight. The
fuel cell system showed a very robust behavior even at significant
accelerations.9
This contribution describes the state and progress of the
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aircraft related development of DLR in cooperation with Airbus
and the next planned steps for fuel cell aircraft demonstration.
The following tasks have been fundamental for the definition of
a multifunctional fuel cell application in aircrafts:
 Based on system modeling, the various applications of fuel
cell systems have been evaluated and fuel cell designs have been
derived.
 The fields of application for the fuel cells in civil aircrafts
have been identified and the potential advantages in this appli-
cation have been elaborated.
 Various fuel cell systems and functional sub-systems have
been investigated in the laboratory environment taking into
account aviation relevant operating conditions (like ambient and
operating pressure). Important operation conditions included
low pressure operation, climatic changes and inclination and
orientation measurements. The quality of the product water and
the cathode exhaust were analyzed.
 Modified and adapted fuel cell systems were qualified for
aircraft application.
 The first systems were tested in the research aircraft A320
ATRA.
 New testing bed and platforms like the motor glider Antares
DLR-H2 were conceived and successfully tested.
The multifunctional concept for fuel cell systems in
aviation: a step by step approach
Power generation
One of the main deficits of the current power supply systems in
aircraft is that they are often operating in an inefficient way
(sometimes high energy consuming). As an example, the auxil-
iary power unit (APU) has a low efficiency of only 20% and even
lower10 at part load conditions; moreover, according to a study
by Zuerich airport the APU is responsible for 18% of nitric oxide
emissions and also for significant carbon monoxide emissions. In
addition, the noise emissions of the APU are of special concern
as they are responsible for health problems, mainly of ground
personnel. The APU which is located in the tailcone of passenger
aircrafts is a gas turbine which delivers electrical energy,
compressed air and hydraulic pressure for a self-sufficient oper-
ation of aircraft systems on the ground without main engines.
The most important function of the APU is the main engine start.
Other systems that can be operated by the APU include the
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avionic systems, the environmental control system (air condi-
tioning) and the de-icing devices. The APU itself is started from
batteries or—if the main engines are operating—by pneumatic
energy. Normally the APU is shut down after the start of the
main engines. The electrical ground supply can be supplied
advantageously by a hydrogen based fuel cell system since it has
a better electrical efficiency and does not produce greenhouse gas
emissions and is relatively quiet.
Another system with large potential for improvement is the
required emergency power system—the Ram Air Turbine
(RAT)—which generates electricity from the air stream (essen-
tially the RAT is a propeller). In the case of failure of all engines
(which is a very rare event) the hydraulic system and the electric
systems of the aircraft are lost. In this case the aircraft is not
controllable anymore as the control surfaces, which are normally
hydraulically or electrically controlled, can not be steered. In
such a case the RAT is automatically or manually swung out at
the underside of the aircraft body or the wings and provides the
necessary electrical power for the controls through a hydraulic
pump or an electric generator depending on the aircraft type. In
the meantime, electrical power is also provided for the fly-by-
wire systems and the cabin emergency light. The efficiency of the
RAT generator depends on the altitude and the aircraft speed.
The pilot has about 30 min to find the next airport in a gliding
flight if the main engines can not be restarted. After use the RAT
can not be retracted anymore even if the main engines are again
operational. This emergency function can also be realized
advantageously by a fuel cell system since the RAT presently
causes high maintenance costs and leads to worse aerodynamic
properties of the aircraft when active.
During cruise the electrical energy is provided by the genera-
tors of the main engines. The efficiency of this energy supply is
quite high, around 30–40%, however, this efficiency can be
exceeded by fuel cell systems which can reach 50% of electrical
efficiency.
The primary goal of fuel cell systems in aircrafts is to avoid
inefficient operation phases of aircrafts. In this respect, the
elimination of the APU and the RAT is envisioned. The first
application of fuel cell systems in a commercial aircraft has so far
been the demonstration of emergency power. The first fuel cell
Fig. 2 Multifunctional fuel cell system; the possible functions are power
supply, emission free ground operation, electrical main engine start,
electrical environmental control system (EECS), water generation
(portable water and water for toilets), heat generation (ice prevention,
hot water generation), explosion and fire prevention and suppression
(inerting of tanks, cargo and e-bay compartment), cockpit and/or cabin
air humidification.
Energy Environ. Sci., 2010, 3, 1458–1468 | 1461

emergency system with hydrogen/oxygen operation has been
demonstrated in-flight with the DLR research aircraft A320.9
However, the APU replacement or RAT replacement alone
would not justify the relatively high development effort for fuel
cell systems since the gravimetric power density of the gas turbine
is significantly superior to even the most advanced fuel cell
system. Therefore, a multifunctional approach of fuel cell sys-
tems is foreseen for civil aircraft applications. Indeed, fuel cell
systems can supply power but can also deliver further functions
and products like water and low-oxygen containing exhaust air
for inerting of the jet fuel tank. Another function may be the use
of the heat of the fuel cells for de-icing.
Having a multifunctional architecture of the fuel cell system
(see Fig. 2) within the aircraft can compensate for the mass
penalty of fuel cells compared to the gas turbine on the aircraft
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level.
Water generation and inert gas generation
Fuel cell system can deliver ca. 0.5–0.6 L of water per kW h
electrical power (see Fig. 3); which means that for 100 kW fuel
cell power (appropriate for a large aircraft) about 50 L of water
are generated per hour. This can be used for toilets and air
conditioning, thereby reducing the amount of water to be loaded
on-board the aircraft. Therefore water generation by the fuel cell
will help reduce the water mass in the tank of the aircraft. The
conditioning and the water quality were and are still the subject
of research and development for improvement and optimization
(National German Projects APAWAGS, ELBASYS and
BRINKS). Another advantageous aspect in this regard is the
reduced maintenance for fuel cell product water compared to tap
water.
Fig. 3 Water production rate for a commercial PEFC from ª Hydro-
genics type HyPM XR12 for different operating conditions and different
temperatures of condensation.
Fig. 4 Variation of oxygen content in a commercial PEFC from ª
Hydrogenics type HyPM XR12 fuel cell exhaust depending on operating
parameters.
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The use of the fuel cell exhaust, which is oxygen depleted air, is
very innovative. Tests of various fuel cell systems have shown
only 10% of oxygen content in the exhaust (see Fig. 4) by
reducing air stoichiometry.
These low oxygen contents in the tank are effective as fire
retardation and suppression measures or even complete explo-
sion prevention. New rules of American and European aero-
nautical authorities dictate inerting systems for the jet fuel tank
in new aircraft models and as retrofit for in-service ones (an
inflammability of jet fuel is not possible for oxygen contents
below 12% by volume). If the fuel cell can satisfy this function,
the presently used inerting systems based on nitrogen tanks can
be eliminated. Fig. 2 displays schematically the functions that
a multifunctional fuel cell system may be able to fulfil.
System evaluation taking into account the inerting function
and the water generation show that the weight penalty of fuel cell
systems compared to gas turbines can be compensated leading to
weight benefits of over a ton which increase with mission dura-
tion. For each airplane type a maximum benefit is found for
specific powers (e.g. ca. 300 kW for A380). In addition, due to
saving of jet fuel, snowball effects with further weight benefits
can be considered. However, the airlines can choose to consider
longer missions instead of less fuel load.
Development strategy
The development strategy aims to demonstrate first the emer-
gency system which is also the easiest function for a fuel cell
system. In the next step a multifunctional system also including
the emergency function should be demonstrated. The time
dependent development steps are schematically shown in Fig. 5.
It is important in this respect that each new generation should
include the function of the preceding generation. In this regard
the fuel cell system becomes more complex with each generation
since more functions are integrated. However, the benefits for the
aircraft also improve. The abbreviations used in Fig. 5 are
FCEPS (Fuel Cell Emergency Power System), FCWIP (Fuel Cell
System for Water, Inert-Gas and Power), and MFFCS (Multi-
Functional Fuel Cell System).
Evaluation of system architectures
Low temperature fuel cell systems, in particular PEFC-based
architectures, are currently the only fuel cell type that satisfies the
maturity and power density requirements for aircrafts. They can
vary significantly in design and functionality. The differences in
Fig. 5 Development strategy of Airbus with different fuel cell system
development generations.
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proposed. In this context, an off-stream turbine for cruise

Fig. 6 Supply combinations for system architecture study.10,11
the individual set-ups arise from the specific application purposes
as well as from optimization efforts intended to improve the
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conditions appears favorable with respect to system efficiency.
Reformer-based system architectures including an expander were
therefore additionally investigated.
For an objective assessment of the 12 established fuel cell
systems, criteria for a quantitative design were derived with
regard to the application in an aircraft environment. In Table 1
the chosen criteria are displayed. In addition a consistent system
operation point was selected for the evaluation of the single
architectures, also listed in Table 1. The distinction between
cruise and ground scenarios results in this context from strongly
different surrounding and operation conditions. For ground
operation it is additionally assumed that ambient and cabin air
comprise identical properties. Finally, the assessment neglects
the energy necessary to provide compressed hydrogen and

oxygen from respective tanks.

system performance specifically for various aircraft functions.
The evaluation of the systems is first based on stationary
Consequently not all systems would be suited for aircraft appli-
modeling of the relevant properties. In Fig. 7 typical results for
cation to the same extent. Based on this background a design
system mass and system efficiencies are given. The system mass
study was carried out to find auspicious architectures and reduce
advantage resulting from the greater gravimetric energy density
the number of eligible system setups.10,11
of kerosene in comparison to pure hydrogen leads to an
The main components of the fuel cell system are the gas and air
improved suitability of reformer based systems for long range
supply, the fuel cell stack, the cooling system and the electrical
applications. Since the aircraft efficiency (distance traveled vs.
power management (DC/DC, DC/AC converter). The humidi-
kerosene usage) has not been considered with respect to the
fication system for the fuel cell membrane is integrated into the
overall weight the values displayed for reformer-based system are
gas and air supply system as the media are humidified. To eval-
expected to be even higher. However, since the mass is just one
uate the possible architecture, it was chosen to take into account
evaluation criteria for the complex requirements, a superior
the potential supply scenarios of the working gases. Fig. 6
assessment of reformer-based systems is not found. To illustrate
displays the described approach by showing the considered fuel
the opposing characters of different evaluation criteria, system
supply routes, resulting in 12 basic system setups. The adjacent
mass and efficiency as a result of the steady state evaluation
detailed arrangement of the individual architectures was finalized
campaign are shown in Fig. 7(b) for cruise conditions.
assuming the least number of additional balance-of-plant
components necessary to enable stable operation. Due to safety
considerations, the deployment of an afterburner in combination
with the application of a jet fuel reformer was additionally

Table 1 Operation conditions and criteria for quantitative design for

system assessment

Operation Conditions

Cruise Ground
a
H2 stoichiometry 1.1 (1.3) 1.1 (1.3)a
O2 stoichiometry 2 (1.3)a 2 (1.3)b
Fuel cell current density [A cm2] 0.75 0.75
Fuel cell stack inlet temperature [K] 353 353
Fuel cell stack inlet pressure [bar] 1 1.2
Electric power [kW] 50 50
Flight route [miles] 810/1900/>1900 —
Operating time [min] 96/228/720 60

Criteria for Quantitative Design

Reliability/failure probability
System mass
System efficiency
Dynamic response
System/controller complexity
Availability/cost Fig. 7 (a) Evaluation of system mass for varying hydrogen supply
a
Value for reformer-based architecture. b
Value for oxygen pressure concepts and the usage of cabin air; (b) relative system efficiencies for
tanks. considered architectures at cruise conditions—for air supplied reformer-
based systems an off-stream turbine is included.11,12

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Table 2 Application oriented evaluation of PEFC aircraft fuel cell

systems (criteria with double weight in the assessment are given in
brackets)

System Setup

Application oriented evaluation

Engine start up (system mass, dynamics)
Front wheel drive (system mass, system efficiency)
Ram air turbine (simplicity, safety, system mass, dynamics)
Cabin electrical power (dynamics, system mass and efficiency)
Water generation and tank inerting (applicability, system mass)
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Fig. 8 Weights of the hydrogen storage system.

In addition to a cumulative evaluation, a weighted assessment

of the considered 12 architectures was carried out with regard to
different aircraft applications. In Table 2, a selection of specific
aircraft applications, which can be realized with fuel cell systems
is displayed (relevant criteria are in brackets).
The application oriented results11 support the positive evalu-
ation of hydrogen pressure tank based system architectures. A
good performance can also be expected for the usage of H2
cryogenic tanks.
This trend is confirmed by another study performed in DLR
Fig. 9 (a) DLR research aircraft A320 (D-ATRA) at the Berlin Inter-
internal project Cosicab+12 evaluating the different hydrogen
national Air Show (ILA) 2008. (b) Michelin fuel cell system in the cargo
storage types for aircraft application based on A320 basic area of the research aircraft. (c) Typical data of a flight test in July 2007.
mission and turn-over. In Fig. 8 the weights of the different Power of the fuel cell at the start of the emergency system during a curve
storages are evaluated for a typical day of operation of an A320. in flight.

The multifunctional fuel cell system: a path towards

aircraft integration
In a national project ELBASYS, the DLR was responsible for
the integration of a multifunctional fuel cell system into aircraft
architectures. Three main working tasks are defined in this
project.
The first task consists of the integration of an already qualified
H2/O2 fuel cell system for emergency power into the research
aircraft A320 (D-ATRA). The fuel cell system was delivered by
Airbus (manufacturer Michelin) to DLR. This system was inte-
grated into the cargo area of the A320 at the Airbus location in
Hamburg/Germany and tested in several flights with standard-
ized missions. The data acquisition of the fuel cell system
performance was measured under realistic vibration loads, heat
rejection and safety aspects. The flight specific data measured
includes temperature, pressure, vibrations, orientation angles,
etc. The fuel cell system demonstrated a robust behavior in all
tests (see Fig. 9).
The second fuel cell system being set-up at DLR will demon-
strate multiple functions on-board. Besides emergency power,
the system should deliver inert gas for the jet fuel tank and water.
This task therefore consists of developing a H2/air fuel cell
system. The fuel cell system is based on commercial systems‡
which are modified and adapted to fulfil the rules and regulation
of aircrafts. The task consists of developing new designs, modi-
fying components and developing an aviation-qualified control
system. For that purpose a flexible aircraft qualified platform is
being developed in which different components can be changed
rapidly without the need to start all qualification routines again.
With this airworthy test platform the development of aircraft fuel
‡ The fuel cell systems used for the demonstration of multiple functions
on-board are low temperature PEFC with self-humidifying membrane.
More details on these self-humidifying processes can be found in the
literature.15

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Fig. 10 (a) Design of the airworthy (aircraft qualified) testing platform
for fuel cell systems. (b) Components for the electrical nose wheel drive
for emission-free ground operation.
cells can be drastically accelerated. The schematic of this plat-
form is presented in Fig. 10.
The third largest task consists in demonstrating an emission-
free ground operation. In particular, an electrical drive for the
nose wheel is being developed to show a fuel cell powered ground
taxiing of the A320. The ground taxiing is presently performed
by using the thrust of the main engines at low load thereby
producing a lot of noise and emissions at airports. The work
consists again in qualifying all components for aircraft applica-
tion. A very interesting aspect is the coupling of four 12.5 kW
systems in a completely modular way to realize a redundant
system design.
Aircraft relevant investigations
Tests in laboratory environment
In the framework of internal projects DLR has tested cells and
systems under aircraft relevant conditions in the laboratory
environment. A specific test is the low pressure operation test
down to 200 mbar which corresponds to a flight height of ca.
12 000 m (ca. 39 000 ft) (Fig. 11). Even if the final fuel cell system
will probably be operated with cabin air, such characterizations
are of paramount importance for system evaluations. The testing
results which also include different orientations, vibrational load
behavior, electromagnetic compatibility and water analysis,
allow designing a layout of the system regarding its performance
during cruise conditions. Furthermore, the detailed system
design leads to estimations of mass and volume of components
and subsystems as well as a detailed specification for all
components. Operation strategies as well as the evaluation of
detailed system architectures are only possible if the aircraft
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Fig. 11 (a) Photo of a test set-up for analyzing low-pressure behavior of
PEFC systems. (b) Example of the pressure dependence of a 300 W PEFC
system in the pressure range from 950 to 200 mbar.
relevant performance data of fuel cell systems are known. The
testing work has provided criteria and results on the following
aspects:
 Special requirements of fuel cell systems in aircrafts
 Identification of suitable system designs
 Fuel supply possibilities
 Efficient utilization of PEFC in aircrafts
 Increase and optimization of efficiency, reduction of noise
and emissions
 Possibilities for efficient water management and fuel cell
cooling.
A further priority topic was the technical screening of
different commercial systems‡ in different configurations. DLR
has focused on the adaptation and modification of different
systems for aircraft qualification. In the test of different orien-
tations (inclinations) of the systems, adverse angles were iden-
tified. An example is given in Fig. 12 where the system shows
a decrease of cell voltage at an angle of 30 under load (adverse
operating condition) mainly at reduced air stoichiometries
which are of interest for the inerting function. This performance
instability is due to the water management of the system asso-
ciated with water accumulation at the cathode. With a slight
change in the system configuration, however, this problem can
be effectively avoided.
Another test bed has been developed to experiment with the
different possibilities of conditioning the fuel cell cathode
exhaust gas in order to optimize the produced water and
condition the inert gas before its distribution in the kerosene
tank. In this test bed (Fig. 13(a)), it is possible to measure the
cathode exhaust gas characteristics as mass flow, relative
humidity, oxygen concentration (Fig. 13(b)), pressure and
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Fig. 12 (a) Inclination test station. (b) Testing results of a 12.5 kW
system under different orientations. At low air stoichiometries of 1.6 the
voltage decreases at 30 angles.
Fig. 13 (a) Test bed measurement station. (b) Typical test results of O2
concentration measurement.
temperature at different points of the system in order to assess
the different subsystem behaviors. A vacuum pump and a small
tank allow simulation of a pressure change in the system repre-
sentative of the one expected in flight.
1466 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2010, 3, 1458–1468
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Fig. 14 (a) Testing bed DLR-H2 for fuel cell propulsion with hydrogen.
(b) Specifications of the Antares motor glider from Lange Aviation. (c)
View of the hydrogen tank in the pod. (d) View of the altitude record.
Flight testing and development of new testing beds
An important milestone in the development efforts has been the
first test of a fuel cell in a civil aircraft environment through
a collaboration of Airbus, DLR and Michelin to power the air-
craft’s back-up hydraulic and electric power systems. The test
conducted in DLR’s D-ATRA (‘‘Advanced Testing and Research
Aircraft’’) in 2007 and 2008 is part of Airbus’ overall plans for an
eco-efficient aviation industry (see description above). During the
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2010

test, the hydrogen and oxygen based fuel cell system generated up
to 20 kW of electrical power. The fuel cell system powered the
aircraft’s electrical motor pump and the back-up hydraulic circuit
and also operated the aircraft’s ailerons. The system’s robustness
was confirmed at high gravity loads (‘‘g’’ loads) during turns and
zero gravity aircraft maneuvers. During the flight test, the fuel
cells produced around 10 L of pure water.
Fig. 9 shows the DLR-ATRA at the Berlin International Air
Show (ILA) 2008 (a), the tested Michelin fuel cell system in the
cargo area of the aircraft (b) and the curves of the behaviour of
the fuel cell system during the flight test (c).
A new testing bed has been developed by DLR in cooperation
with Lange Aviation (Fig. 14). The Antares DLR-H2 is a high-
tech motor glider aircraft based on the Antares 20E which has
been built commercially. The Antares was modified by attaching
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two pods below the wings to carry the fuel cell system and the
hydrogen tanks. The fuel cell is slung under the left wing and the
hydrogen tank under the right wing—with a capacity of either 2
or 4.9 kilograms. For that reason the wings had to be strength-
ened and extensive aeroelastic and aerodynamic modeling had to
be performed to ascertain the flight stability.
The advantage of the new test bed consists of the combination
of different qualifying test routines. Acceleration loads, vibration
loads and climatic environments can be tested in a single run.
Furthermore, the motor glider has reduced qualification
demands and reduced regulations in comparison with a civil
aircraft as the high gliding ratio allows a safe landing even in the
event of a fuel cell failure. The DLR-H2 in this regard is an
inexpensive testing environment in which the systems for civil
aircraft can be tested in a flexible way. The fuel cell provides the
energy for the electric drive train developed by Lange Aviation
which consists of high-performance electronics, electric motors
and propellers.
The Antares DLR-H2 first officially took off on 7th July, 2009
at Hamburg airport. It is the world’s first piloted aircraft capable
of taking off using only power from fuel cells.
The fuel cell systemx used to power the Antares delivers up to
25 kilowatts of electrical power. When flying in a straight line, the
aircraft only requires about ten kilowatts of power. In this situ-
ation, the fuel cell is operating at an efficiency level of approxi-
mately 52 percent. The total efficiency of the drive system from
tank to power train, including the propeller, is in the region of
44 percent, making it about twice as efficient as conventional
propulsion technologies based on combustion processes. Systems
powered by kerosene or diesel only contribute about 18 to 25
percent of their energy to propulsion.13
On top of that, on 21st November, 2009, Antares successfully
completed an altitude record reaching (see Fig. 14 (d)) about
8368 ft (ca. 2550 m) in height, corresponding to an operating
pressure for the fuel cell of about 725 millibars.14 This corre-
sponds roughly to a minimum air pressure in the cabin of an
Airbus A320 flight during a normal flight and is about
290 millibars below the normal atmospheric pressure (Fig. 14
(d)). The behaviors of the fuel cell at lower pressure (Fig. 11)
x The fuel cell systems used in the new testing bed Antares are high
temperature PEFC with PBI membrane. More information about this
technology can be found in ref. 16.
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obtained, until now, in the laboratory environment were thus
confirmed in real flight.
Outlook and summary
A strategic cooperation between Airbus and DLR in the context
of ecologically friendly aircraft systems has resulted in the first
results for the development of fuel cell systems for future aircraft.
This goal is supplemented by further development of complex
electrical architectures, which will lead to an overall improve-
ment of energy efficiency, as well as by the development of
a control system for reliable multifunctional operation. In future
developments, the conventional air and hydraulic systems will be
mostly replaced by electrical components. New avionic systems
may accelerate this tendency. The multifunctional approach to
fuel cell systems may lead to further modifications in various
aircraft systems for efficient energy use on board. The goal of
Airbus and DLR is to conceive innovative electrical architectures
in which the multifunctional fuel cell system is a key component
to ascertain a technology leadership for efficient future aircrafts.
This goal will be supported by national projects like EFFESYS
and Greenliner.
DLR has worked on system modeling and simulation to
identify beneficial system designs and multiple functions. The
first fuel cell system for emergency power has been demonstrated
together with Airbus and Michelin on an A320. An airworthy
test platform for flexible investigations of the multiple functions
and applications is being developed. This platform will be used
for flight test and rapid change of components. The platform is
planned to be tested in-flight in the A320. Furthermore, emis-
sion-free ground operation is being developed and demonstrated.
Arising from the need to perform inexpensive and flexible fuel
cell system tests in the realistic environment, the testing bed
DLR-H2 will be used intensively within the next few years also
within the framework of national projects.
Acknowledgements
The development presented is a team effort. The authors are
grateful to the Fuel Cell team of Airbus for the good collabo-
ration and teamwork the last few years and the team of Michelin
for their contributions. In addition, the authors acknowledge the
contributions of Peter Schumann (system modeling), Michael
Schier (electric drives), Christoph Fischer, Gerhard Schuller,
Oliver Thalau (flight qualification and platform), Till Kaz,
Forian Gores (Antares DLR-H2), Winfried G€ obel (low pressure
studies), and Jonathan Wicker (inclination tests). Special thanks
are due to Lufthansa Technik AG that donated the nose wheel of
an A320.
Notes and references
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This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2010