CHAPTER 4

THE METHODOLOGY OF GRAPHOLOGY

4.1 Uniqueness of Handwriting

Fundamentally, the science of graphology works on the premise that every single
handwriting specimen is unique. It has a character of its own. This uniqueness is
essentially due to the distinctive personality traits of every individual (Jacoby, 1939).
This is visible in the phenomenon of the different types of handwriting that are at hand.
These include firstly, the print handwriting style, which can be divided into lower and
upper case printing. Then there is the cursive style of writing that can also be divided
into a number of different options, such as rounded, squarish, etc. However, the question
arises: How many different ways are there of forming a single stroke in handwriting?
It is this belief that underpins the science of graphology. There are as many different
strokes as there are personalities in the world (refer Appendix C).

The different types of handwritings as seen in Appendix C, portray only a few ways in
which a stroke can be shaped but as mentioned previously, there are as many ways to
form them as there are personalities. Accordingly, one person may use a thicker pen as
compared to another, the stroke might be drawn rapier-like downwards, and the next
could have a stroke that thickens towards the base. There are too many different ways of
forming a stroke to mention them all here. But it is this diversity of the strokes that
enables us to value all the different possibilities of stroke characteristics. Every person
has his or her own way of writing and this gives credibility to the science of graphology.

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4.2 Psychology – The Basis of Graphology

On the one hand, we have the measurable collection of words, of a handwriting

specimen, and on the other, we ha ve the immeasurable, intangible mind of the person in
question. A graphologist has to determine a link between the two – between the
handwriting specimen and the mind.

As touched upon in the introduction, handwriting is the expression of the mind. In other
words, the creation of the collection of words that make up the handwriting specimen is
produced in the mind or the core part of the person’s personality. Every single stroke or
shape made by the person’s flexor and extensor muscles in the hand (or foot, or even by
mouth) originates in the core of the personality. If the person is relatively more
aggressive in nature, then his or her writing will be more angular and sharp, rather than
rounded and flowing. The handwriting specimen when analysed, is dissected into parts
to make the analysis easier. However, being a holistic science, the graphologist may not
report on the analysis of the specimen in parts. The assessment may be done in parts, but
essentially the report given is written in a holistic manner, as a result of the interpretation
of the parts.
The graphologist assesses the specimen on various criteria, but will only come to a
conclusive remark about a specific personality trait if there are supporting characteristics
to be found in the handwriting specimen. In other words, graphology considers itself a
holistic science and any given specimen should not be analysed in parts – as one should
not take a personality apart to look at the different components thereof. In much the
same way, a psychologist cannot take the patient or his or her personality apart and only
consider certain components.
To find supporting characteristics in graphology, one has to look for a constellation of
signs. In a handwriting specimen, one will often find numerous, different strokes or
shapes that mean something in particular. One characteristic analysed by itself can have
several explanations of character traits. For instance, a facet found in the handwriting
sample that describes a certain measure of self-control (as a personality trait), can in other
instances be analysed as the inhibition of emotions. These are two completely dissimilar

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traits, but are illustrated in the same method. The graphologist has to look for supporting
features in the handwriting specimen, to determine which one of the traits the person
actually portrays. These supporting features are known as a constellation or a cluster, and
one needs a minimum of three supporting features within a handwriting sample to
correctly interpret the personality trait of the person. An example of a cluster or
constellation of a person that is sceptical by nature, would be any three of the following
handwriting characteristics:
• An upright slant
• A narrow handwriting
• A connected handwriting
• Arcade -like connections

4.3 The Analysis

When ‘testing’ the individuals for a handwriting specimen there are certain criteria that
should be heeded to allow the specimen to be as natural as possible. The following
aspects have to be considered; otherwise the analysis will be slightly restricted:

4.3.1 The Paper

The paper used should be of good quality, not too heavy or too thick and should
be unlined. The paper has to be of good quality to allow those people that have a
heavier pressure to exert that pressure without breaking or tearing the paper. This
is also the reason why the paper should not be too thin or too thick, otherwise the
pressure would tear the paper or would not be as discernible as it should be, if the
paper were too thick. Preferably, the paper should be unlined. This allows the
individual to create his or her own lines and space within which to write. On the
contrary, the lines constrict the individual, as he or she feels that they have to
‘stay between the lines’ – which in turn forces them to do something that they
would not do, if the paper were unlined. If however, this is the only paper

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available then the effect that this can have on the analysis has to be considered.
Furthermore, unlined paper allows the individual to use the paper length-wise
(portrait) or width-wise (landscape). Again both these choices have an impact on
the final analysis of the specimen.

4.3.2 The Pen

The individual should be given the opportunity to use a preferred pen, as this also
has an impact on the writing and subsequently on the analysis. The choice of a
thicker pen (such as a Koki pen) leads to an analysis of pastiness, which
characterises the person as being more passionate in nature. However, with a
Koki pen there is little if any pressure exerted (as the tip gets frayed) and again
this effects the analysis. The choice of a thinner pen (such as a ballpoint pen)
characterises the person to be less passionate in nature. The stroke is leaner than
the pasty, thicker stroke, but pressure can be assessed in this type of specimen.

4.3.3 The Copybook

The only criteria that the graphologist has to ascertain is in which country the
person learnt to write in, as this has a direct impact on the person’s handwriting.
Every country has a specific copybook that it uses to teach children how to write.
It is a set standard for the children to learn writing, as it ‘describes’ the physical
way in which the letters are to be formed. In certain countries, such as in
America, the copybook letters are taught to the children with a right slant. In
general, a right slant portrays a person to be progressive and sociable, working
toward an independent stance. As some children in certain countries are taught to
do it this way, it cannot be considered as a progressive handwriting, or as a move
toward independence. In America, they even have different styles in the different
states. In Ohio, they use ‘The Zaner and Bloser System’ (see Appendix D) and in
other states they use ‘The Palmer System’ (see Appendix D). Both these
copybooks are slightly different, i.e. the actual strokes that create the letter are
produced differently.

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 A person, when choosing his/her preferred pen, and how to write on paper, does
so deliberately, yet subconsciously. Thus not only the way the person writes, but
also which pen is chosen and how they write on paper, is indicative of certain
personality traits that will be explained below.

4.4 The Tools of Analysis

The analysis of a handwriting specimen is a lengthy process that includes the use of
certain tools. These tools are a ruler (in millimetres), a soft pencil and eraser, a pen and
notebook, a line and middle zone grid (see Appendix G), a protractor and a magnifying
glass (minimum 7x magnification). All these tools have a specific use in the analysis, as
will be discussed below.

4.4.1 The Protractor

The protractor is used to measure the slant of the handwriting. Every handwriting
specimen will have a slant. This is the degree to which the handwriting leans to
the right or the left, is mixed or even upright. The protractor measures the exact
slant, because in certain cases it has a significant impact on the analysis
(measurement of the slant will be set out in section 4.5.7.5).

4.4.2 The Pencil and Ruler

The ruler and pencil are used to ‘elongate’ the slant (see section 4.5.7.5) of the
lettering, making it easier to read it with the protractor. In certain instances the
pencil can also be used to circle handwriting characteristics that are immediately
visible and definitely noteworthy, such as, when the lower zone of the top line
invades (touching and moving into) the upper zone of the line below. These
circles are a means to highlight any specific feature or discrepancies. Once this
has been measured, the marks should be erased so as not to interfere with the next
step of the analysis.

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4.4.3 Pen and Notebook
The pen and notebook are used to record the different findings about the
specimen, so that when the final report is assimilated that there are no ‘double
ups’. It also serves to keep record of certain findings that are unique or that have
been noted before, for easier reference.

4.4.4 The Grids

The line and middle zone grids are two grids that are necessary in the analysis of
the specimen (Appendix G). The line grid determines if the baseline (usually on
unlined paper, it is an imaginary line) is straight or wavering, ascending or
descending, as well as determining how well or how badly aligned the simple
letters of each word are on the baseline. Again any of these occurrences on any of
the specimen will have an impact on the assessment of the personality. As
example, on a specimen where the line descends sharply down toward the right
side of the page, it can be defined as a person who is depressed, pessimistic,
fatigued or even oversensitive (keeping in mind that one does need supporting
features {a cluster} in the specimen for it to be characterised as a specific
character trait).
The middle zone grid is a grid that is used to determine the size of the handwriting
(refer Appendix G). Handwriting on average is about 14mm in size. This 14mm
is an average that graphologists work with. One can find handwriting samples,
that are much smaller and again one can find handwriting samples that are much
larger. The larger the writing, the bolder the person, and vice versa with the
smaller handwriting specimens. The middle zone grid is also used to determine
the size of the different zones in relation to one another. There are three zones
and there are certain sizes that these zones should be. These sizes are measured in
relation to one another and if there is a discrepancy in one zone, i.e. there is a
marked size difference in one of the zones then there is a pre-occupation in this
zone. The description of measurement of the zones will be explained in greater
depth further on in this chapter.

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 4.4.5 The Magnifying Glass
The magnifying glass is used to magnify the ductus (the texture) of the strokes.
This is needed to determine if the ductus is straight or if there are jerks in the
strokes, which could mean anything from alcohol misuse at the time of writing or
even old age. It is also used to determine the pressure pattern (if there is one or if
it is displaced) in the handwriting.

Another ‘tool’ of analysis, is the Code of Ethics (Appendix J) that the graphologist
subscribes to. This code includes the ‘rules’ that the graphologist adheres to when
considering an analysis. Not only is it the primary goal of the graphologist to do an
analysis but there are certain values that are binding. The graphologist may not do an
assessment unbeknownst to the individual being assessed; permission has to be obtained
first. Nor may he or she do any harm to the person in question. Thus, all information
regarding the individual needs to be treated with the ut most confidence, protecting the
dignity, privacy and well being of the person. The graphologist may also only work
within the field of graphology – doing any further ‘counselling’ would be unethical and
could be damaging to the individual. (Unless that individual is trained in the area of
counselling, as psychologist, for instance.)
A further ethical concept graphology ascribes to, is the concept of objectivity.
Information required by the graphologist to do the assessment includes where the person
learnt to write, and if he or she is left- or right-handed. Any other information supplied is
voluntary and may not be used in any way to influence the assessment and final report.
The full Code of Ethics can be found in Appendix J.

4.5 The Areas of Analysis

The preceding section describes the tools a graphologist uses in the assessment of the
handwriting specimen. However, there are numerous specified areas that have to be
examined closely to further illustrate the personality of the given specimen. As
mentioned previously, graphology supports the holistic approach of “the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.” This simply means that every characteristic found within the

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writing specimen takes its value only in a cluster or constellation of signs. The idea of a
‘fixed sign’ (only one feature in the writing, as opposed to the cluster) having merit in
describing a personality trait is disputed by many graphologists. One fixed sign together
with two features or more can describe one trait – this is your cluster. However, together
with two different features it can describe another totally different trait.

For instance, the ability to concentrate is defined by the following features:

• good lay-out
• absolute small writing
• well-connected writing
But a law-abiding citizen would have the same good layout but would have different
supporting features such as:
• medium sized writing
• upright or right slant

The first step in the process of analysing the specimen is done by gaining a general
impression of the specimen, by looking at it at arm’s length. This is done to obtain the
Gestalt of the specimen.

4.5.1 Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology is a type of psychology that believes in the global picture or
holistic point of view, when taking all the aspects of the graphological assessment
into account. This holistic point of view mentioned above (not the fixed sign
concept) can be simply described as, not breaking the handwriting specimen into
smaller parts, as this would not be a true reflection of the whole, when synthesised
in the resulting report (Grandin, 1994). Gestalt psychologists especially, claim
that when the part has to be examined, one should look at it in its relationship to
the whole.

To apply this theory in a practical manner when analysing a handwriting

specimen, the ten questions to follow are a good guideline to determine the

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Gestalt of the specimen. The questions are generally given a score of either a
‘yes’ or a ‘no’. If the answer to the question is a ‘yes’ or more specifically, the
answer is positive, then the graphologist would assign a score of one to that
question. However, if the answer to the question is ‘no’ or again a negative, then
the score assigned would be a zero (0). The higher the scoring on these questions
becomes (maximum ten), the higher or more positive the Gestalt becomes. A
score of eight (8) and above is considered good. A score between six (6) and
eight (8) is average, and any scoring below five (5) is considered a negative, and
the Gestalt is considered negative. The lower the score is, the lower the Gestalt
becomes. Thus, the answers to the questions are very important in assessing the
overall impression or Gestalt of the specimen. The questions that should be asked
are as follows:

* Is the writing consistent?

The writing has to be consistent, which means that throughout the whole
specimen the writing has to be the same or at least extremely similar. If the
writing is not consistent and there are vital differences that can be seen with the
naked eye, then the score is negative, rather then positive for this question. This
means that the question is answered with a ‘no’ (there is no consistency) and thus
it can only earn a minus score of 0.
If all the answers are added up, the lower the score (each question either receives
a 1 or a 0) the lower the Gestalt and vice versa.

* Is the script coherent?

Does the handwriting specimen make sense when it is read? If the sentence
structure does not make sense or if what is written is gibberish, then the Gestalt
should again score negatively. And vice versa, if it makes sense and reads well.

* Is the script stable?

This question asks the graphologist to identify if the writing is steady and secure.
The writing should not be unstable and erratic – meaning the writer is ‘jumping’

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all over the page, with a virtually non-existent baseline. If this is the case then the
Gestalt will again receive a negative score.

* Is the writing orderly?

This question queries the orderliness, which looks at the fact that the capitals are
capitals and that the smaller letters are written small throughout. Not that there
are certain small letters that are capitals and are then written smaller (alternating
between big and small). This is not orderly writing and will again result in a
negative score again.

* Does the writing have a clear-cut, rational quality of configuration and/or

form?
Certain people have writings that are excessively ornamental, with exaggerations
in the loops and the capitals, for example. If the writing is of an ornamental,
creative nature, then the excessive loops and curlicues are fitting and not out of
place. If they however, look to be out of place, then the configuration is no longer
clear-cut and rational and the specimen will again receive a negative score in the
Gestalt assessment.

* Is the script free from disturbances and inconsistencies?

This links up to the first couple of questions but specifically looks at disturbances
that ‘interrupt’ the handwriting. This means that the handwriting is not flowing.
There are disturbances to the flow of writing, such as a ‘hiatus’ (interruption or
pause) and the ‘look’ of the handwriting becomes disharmonious. The
graphologist can see there is no pattern in the handwriting. The look is disturbed
and definitely does not belong in the handwriting. These types of inconsistencies
or disturbances rate negatively on the Gestalt impression.

* Is it complete? Does it resist additions? Is it free from omissions?

This type of writing ‘hindrance’ often evokes a feeling or need in the graphologist
to take certain features away or add to the writing. The features that would want

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to be removed would include disproportionate loops, twists (where there should
be none) and those that would want to be added, could include t-crosses,
punctuation that might be missing in the script.

* Is the writing a complete structured entity?

Is the writing ‘broken’? There are different types of connected writing when
analysing a specimen. Thus the graphologist may find a specimen where the
writing is so extremely ‘broken’ that the letters are too far apart for even ‘airlines’
to exist (airlines are imaginary lines that can be traced with a pencil and that
naturally link the different letters in one word). In certain specimens, a
graphologist will find a writing that is disconnected. In this type of writing the
letters can still be connected through ‘airlines’. In other words, the connection
can be traced with a pencil and will show that the path is not disrupted, and that
there is a reasona ble connection between the letters. The ‘broken’ writing is so
divided that there are no reasonable ‘airlines’ that connect the single letters. A
connected or disconnected writing with viable airlines would obviously score
positive on the Gestalt psychology.

* Is there a progression or a ‘pull’ to the right, and also, is there a natural

progression from the top to the bottom of the page?
A writer will usually fill up the page from left to right; there will be a natural flow
from the left to the right side of the page. There will also be a natural flow from
the top of the page to the bottom. An unnatural flow could include an attempt at
squeezing too much information into the line, or any writing that is erratic in
nature. If the flow is natural and harmonious, the specimen is marked positively.

* Is there an intrinsic unity and/or entity – an implied totality?

A writing specimen has to look as if it is whole (when the graphologist considers
it at arms' length). The reader, or in this case, the graphologist may look at the
specimen and perceive something to be missing from the specimen, as if it was

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left out deliberately. It simply has to look as if the handwriting is of a good
quality and this will then receive a positive score (a score of one).

In all of the above questions, if the responses are negative, then the Gestalt of the
handwriting is considered as bad. A good Gestalt can be translated as the writer
possessing an “innate organising tendency and the attribute of self-fulfilment in
the tasks undertaken” (Grandin; 1994, pg2). Furthermore, the personality
structure of a person whose handwriting sample has a good or positive Gestalt,
has an implied quality of wholeness, it is well-integrated (and so is the personality
well-integrated). This Gestalt method is capable of essentially pinpointing the
central aspects of the psychological processes. Thus if the overall Gestalt is
already positive, then not many negative character traits will come to the fore –
the person will be well balanced.

The assessment of the Gestalt of the specimen is the first and foremost step in the
analysis of a handwriting specimen. Whilst doing a Gestalt analysis, the
Graphologist is faced with the style of writing, as mentioned in the introductory
paragraph. The different types of writing that are found, is that of printing (lower
and upper case) and cursive (there are many different types, including squarish,
rounded, progressive, etc). The style of writing indicates a number of different
aspects, such as print writing being indicative of a person that is more
conservative and less rebellious in nature. The cursive style of writing is still
more preferred by the Graphologist as it allows for a more in depth reading and
analysis – it is a more natural style, because there is a definite flow to the writing.
This flow characterises the flow from the personality. The more natural and
spontaneous the flow, the more natural and the more ‘open’ the writing will be.
This means that the person is fairly open and spontaneous. There are less hidden
features. This does not mean that the printing style of writing is inconclusive to
assessing a handwriting specimen and its corresponding personality. It simply is
a mask that the person prefers to portray to the outside world and thus this aspect
has to be taken into account when analysing the writing. This is one of the

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aspects that when considered can furnish the graphologist with an overall picture
of the person, in conjunction with the Gestalt analysis. Any discrepancies here
are already indicative of a serious issue within the personality.

Once the graphologist has assessed the above two aspects, there are many
different, further regions in the handwriting that have to be considered for the
analysis to be done thoroughly, allowing for the report to include all the important
aspects that the handwriting specimen illustrates. The above -mentioned aspects
will be discussed in detailed point-form below.

4.5.2 General Layout of the Sample

The handwriting sample, as mentioned above, is usually written on an unlined
piece of A4 paper. This paper and where the person chooses to write his or her
paragraphs have an impact on the assessment. Firstly, the margins are important,
especially the right and the left one. The left margin is representative of the past,
the person’s mother, regressiveness and the family history. The right margin on
the other hand is representative of the person’s father, the ambitions,
progressiveness and the future. Thus, a specimen that moves away from the left
margin towards the right margin (the spacing between the start of the page and the
beginning of the handwriting) can generally be interpreted as a person that is
ambitious, that looks towards the future, moving progressively in that direction.
The specimen that shows the handwriting moving towards the left margin (the
slant) is indicative of a person that has strong ties to his or her mother, that is
reserved and distant and that dwells in the past. The interpretation of these signs
again is de pendent on other supporting signs (cluster) in the handwriting
specimen. The further away the handwriting is from the margin, the further away
this person is trying to get from either the future/father or the mother/past. A
specimen that is a number of centimetres away from the left margin is indicative
of a problem within the past, or with the mother. A specimen where the
handwriting stops before it reaches the right margin, but one is still able to fit in

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the word that follows on the next line, means the person is not progressively
moving to the future. He or she might have had problems with the father figure
and in this way, stays away – the person does not write too near to the margin,
because he or she fears to go too near to that place (the future) or the person
(father figure). Thus, these two margins have to be considered initially when
making a decision on the global interpretation of the handwriting specimen.
When doing the Gestalt assessment, these two features (if they are overstated)
will obviously be noted at the outset of the assessment.

This general lay out of the margins, paragraphs and the spacing are also included
in the analysis. The spacing between the words and lines are important as well, as
they can be indicative of certain features. In the case of even spacing (the
margins and the space between the words and the lines are even) and well set out
paragraphs, the graphologist will determine that this writer tends to have clearness
of thought. A more uneven writing can illustrate the individual to be confused. A
larger spacing in the writing can be a sign of detachment and objectivity, whereas
a crowded writing is indicative of a subjective mind, with many involvements, i.e.
a cluttered mind and a socially, needy person. When doing an analysis, one
always has to keep in mind the degree of the feature or aspect being analysed.
Every feature or cluster in the handwriting describes a specific character trait of
the person in question. However, the degrees of the cluster or supporting features
always have to be considered. In other words, if the slant of the handwriting is
visible but not excessively so, then it has to be analysed to that degree. In certain
cases the slant of the handwriting can be in excess of more than 45 degrees – in
either direction (left or right). This is known as the Pathological Line. People
that have a handwriting slant greater than 45 degrees will generally show some
type of pathology. The type of pathology can be ascertained when looking at
different aspects and clusters in the handwriting.

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The above segment defines the overall initial part of the analysis. The next
sections that are listed below are all the different areas that have to be considered
individually but in their relation to the whole for the final assessment.
The handwriting specimen is evaluated by looking at all these different sections –
it is here that the supporting features or clusters are determined. In other words, a
stroke in the upper zone might mean a higher intellect. This is supported in the
upper zone with the ‘i’-dot and again that is supported by the space left between
the right margin and the beginning of the handwriting. It is in this way that the
specimen is considered holistically. The final report includes the character traits,
as they are ‘read’ from the supporting clusters or constellations.

This general layout gives the graphologist a non-specific idea if the person has
good personality integration or if there may be problems in specific areas of the
personality. It is here, at the beginning, that the graphologist already gains an
idea about the personality structure, as well as observing any prominent good or
bad character traits. The following section will cover the different zones of
handwriting.

4.5.3 Zones
In the interpretation of a handwriting specimen, the consideration of the
three zones is the next most important step, after determining the Gestalt
of the specimen and looking at the general lay out.
The Swiss, Max Pulver, first defined the zones in 1930 (Roman, 1952).
No one has since challenged this definition successfully and it has since
become an integral part of graphology.

The zones are divided into three, namely the upper zone, the middle zone
and the lower zone. These zones have to be bala nced, as they describe
the different areas in a person’s life (see below). If one of the zones is
imbalanced (is larger or smaller), then this zone pinpoints a disproportion

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in relation to the other zones – the writer exerts more energy onto this one
zone, instead of spreading it evenly across all three.

The zones are divided into the three different areas as they represent the
following concepts, according to Pulver:

4.5.3.1 The upper zone (uz) – this is the zone represented by the
following letters of the alphabet: b, d, f, h, k, l, and t. The upper
zone represents the intellectual and conscious sphere of the
writer’s intellect. Here the graphologist can ‘see’ how the writer
thinks, what he or she strives towards, the imagination, pride and
ethical considerations, ambition, and spirituality.
It is also described by many graphologists as either the superego,
the mind, the head (as comparative to the person), and as heaven.
The above term – superego - was initially determined by Freud
himself (Reber, 1995), but along with the other concepts termed
by Freud (id, ego), they have become such an integral part of
psychology (as well as being used in related fields, such as in
graphology) that they are not ascribed to Freud alone anymore.
The ‘i’-dots and t-crosses are part and parcel of the upper zone
dynamics. The upper zone is sometimes stretched further (above
the “normal” size) than is acceptable and this area is subsequently
called the stratosphere. When the handwriting moves into this
area, the person moves into the sphere of fantasy, creativity in
dreams and illusions, as well as finding that psychological
processes are beyond the writer’s logical control.

4.5.3.2 The middle zone (mz) – this zone is formed mainly by the
small letters: a, c, e, i, m, n, o, r, s, u, w, v, x, but all letters of the
alphabet either start or finish in the middle zone, i.e. they
definitely all reside there – if only in part for some.

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 This zone is representative of reality, the day-to-day workings of
life. It is the here and now, immediately, the emotional, the
practical, as well as the social expression of the ego. It is often
called the sphere of actuality or reality and is also identified as the
ego, the soul, the thorax (as compared to the human body – the
trunk), as well as earth.

4.5.3.3 The lower zone (lz) – this zone is the last zone and is
created by the letters: f, g, j, p, q, y, and z. (The letter ‘f’ is the
only letter that expands across all three zones.) The loops of the
letters projected into the lower and upper zones are regarded as
part of the middle zone, as the oval part resides there. The lower
zone is the zone of biological demands. Here the instincts dwell,
as well as physical activity, sexual urges and a person’s financial
and/or materialistic interests.
This zone, as the above two, can also be named the following: the
id, the body, the abdomen and legs (of the human body, which
includes the lower genitalia) and the underworld.
As in the case of the uz, there is an area below the lz that is also
not acceptable, if the writing reaches into these sphere. This
sphere or zone is called the depth and is found below the lower
Freudian slip zone. It is the sphere of the unconscious, the realm
of appetites and survival. Here powerful forces lie below the
consciousness and they seek an outlet in erotic fantasies, antisocial
acts and regressive gestures.

As mentioned above, the zones have to be balanced to portray a balance

within the personality. There is a ratio that these zones have to adhere to
(not too strictly, as there is room left for the natural variation that may
occur due to different pens, different weather conditions {cold or hot
influences the writer’s movements}, etc.). The ratio that is used in this

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measurement is: 1 : 3 : 2.5 : 4. This is respectively for the middle zone :
upper zone : lower zone : the letter ‘f’. Thus a middle zone of 3mm,
should have an upper zone of 9mm (which includes the middle zone), a
lower zone of 7.5mm (which includes the middle zone) and a 12mm letter
‘f’ (measured from top to bottom). This ratio is a guideline used by the
graphologist in the analysis. Slight differentiations can be ignored. If the
discrepancies are visible to the naked eye, then the measurements in
relation to the other zones should be taken, as the impact thereof will have
to be mentioned in the analysis or in the report.

These zones are important just as long as the graphologist keeps the
copybook or rather the ratio in mind. In all the different countries the
children that are learning to write, learn through the use of a copybook (as
described above). The copybooks have variations, such as different slants
(very slight variations) that have to be taken into account in an analysis,
but since the ratio of the zones is not challenged, the analyst considers
them universally as consistent.

The zones are the different areas within which the writer has to function.
If there is a discrepancy in any of the zones (larger or smaller in the ratio)
then this is noteworthy. An example of an exaggeration would be the
enlarged middle zone. If a teenage girl writes this way then it is
acceptable, because of the self-involvement naturally found in teenagers
(especially girls). If however, this discrepancy is present in an older
woman or man, then the discrepancy is to be analysed. To what degree is
this zone dominant? How large is this writing? etc. These are examples
of how to assess these dominant zones. The answer will be detected in
conjunction with other clusters or signs in the sample.

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The following writing feature that is covered is fluency. There needs to be a
certain amount of fluency within the writing. Fluency can be described as a
smooth and flowing handwriting.

4.5.4 Fluency
Handwriting has to come across as fluent to the graphologist. A fluent
handwriting is flowing, smooth, and harmonious. This fluency is
representative of the individual’s spontaneity. If there is fluency in the
person’s writing, then he/she is of a quick mind, alert and the thought
process is connected in a logical manner – one thought flows out from the
other. Writing that is not fluent, is jerky and discordant – it does not flow
from one word to the next and may look unfitting. This discord could
portray a person that is overly slow and cautious and very hesitant in his
or her dealings. This fluency is assessed in a global, holistic manner and
has to be visible to the naked eye. It does not have to be measured or
evaluated under a magnifying glass.

4.5.5 Baselines
The baseline is the imaginary line (on an unlined piece of paper) that is
produced mechanically whilst the person is writing. The baseline is
highlighted in this section but is actually assessed when the margins are
scrutinised, as this specific spacing on the page is assessed hand-in-hand.
The baseline is analysed by actually drawing the imaginary line, always
starting to draw the line with the second letter of the first word and ending
on the last letter of the last word found on the same line. A few lines will
have to be measured to establish a pattern, because one line could be
misleading. For example, it sometimes happens that one line may be
descending (as described below). If this is then taken as the pattern, then
the graphologist can assess the entire specimen incorrectly. It is the
graphologist’s task to establish that there is an existing pattern of
descending baselines. This pattern is known, as consistency. As in most

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cases in a graphological assessment, consistency (feature to appear more
than three times in one specimen) has to be established for it to be
considered remarkable. If the consistency is not established, the feature
may be accidental and this could result in a faulty assessment.
The baseline is very rarely ‘kept’ straight even though we are taught to
write on lined paper. A very rigidly created straight baseline is very hard
to achieve, as it takes an immense amount of control and self-discipline to
get this ‘right’ or straight. Therefore, the graphologist finds baselines are
usually deviant from the perfectly straight line. There are a number of
different types of baselines and again they describe an evident character
trait of the person whose handwriting sample is being analysed.

4.5.5.1 Horizontal Baseline – This baseline is relatively straight

and is a sign of an orderly, disciplined person who is honest and
perseveres. However, this orderliness does not allow for a
dynamic thrust, liveliness or an extensive expression of emotions.
An exceptionally straight baseline defines a personality devoid of
spontaneity with extreme rigidity in controlling any emotions
whatsoever. But, as in the entire assessment, supporting features
have to be present, for this to be regarded as the truth.

4.5.5.2 Ascending or mounting baseline – This type of baseline

(as the name portrays) moves from the beginning of the page on
the left hand side upwards to the end of the page on the right hand
side. This type of person is optimistic, ambitious, enthusiastic,
spirited and restless in nature. The degree of ascension has to be
considered, so as to determine the degree of intensity of the above
traits.

4.5.5.3 Descending baseline – This baseline is the opposite of the

ascending baseline. It moves from the beginning of the left-hand

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side of the page more towards the bottom of the right hand side of
the page. As in every case, the degree of descent has to be studied.
In the case of the baseline analysis, temporary conditions have to
be observed, so as not to make a major mistake. A temporary
condition in this case would be illness, mental and physical
tiredness, etc. The writer may usually have a straight baseline but
due to immense stress may tend toward a descending baseline, but
this is only temporary.

4.5.5.4 Step-type baseline – As the name shows the baseline is

formed in steps. The person starts writing, writes with an
ascending stroke or a descending one, but shortly thereafter moves
back up to the original level of the imaginary baseline. This
person is fighting against the tendencies of the mounting or
descending lines, as he or she does not want to be overwhelmed by
them.

4.5.5.5 Convex baselines – This line forms an arch. The line

firstly moves up and then moves downwards. This person has the
initial determination to succeed but then that enthusiasm fails due
to the lack of persistence. The person begins well, but finishes
badly.

4.5.5.6 Concave lines – These lines form a dish-like baseline. The

line immediately starts descending but halfway starts ascending
again. This person is constantly ‘pulling themselves together’.
They are bad starters, but once they have started, they finish off
well. They are initially pessimistic, but then they regain some
mental energy and the strength to finish-off.

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 4.5.5.7 Wavering baseline – These lines go up and down several
times in one line. These people are termed as diplomatic, conflict
avoiders, but they can also be especially emotional at times. If
there are other substantiating factors then these types of people can
be emotionally unstable, unsteady and very unreliable.

4.5.5.8 Straight line, overcrowding end – The baseline in this

instance starts off straight, but gets crowded at the end with the
direction either going up or down. This type of person does not
know where to draw the line and can overestimate his or her own
abilities.

4.5.5.9 Dropping last word – As the name claims, the last word
on the line drops down. This very simply indicates a person who
has feelings of discouragement and is generally in low spirits.

The baseline gives an indication of the writer’s disposition but not enough
information is gleaned from the baseline alone for assessment purposes.
The baseline is often enough assessed together with the margins, as they
both give a more composite picture of the writer’s general impression of
life and functioning within life.

4.5.6 Margins
Margins are very important in the analysis and are looked at in
conjunction with baselines. When looking at both the margins and the
baselines, one has to do a cursory overall assessment of the layout of the
whole page or document. The layout includes the paragraphing,
punctuation and underlining. The paragraphing of the written document is
important because a too crowded writing lacks space, which indicates the
inability or difficulty to manage time effectively. The punctuation has to
be mentioned as well, as it indicates accuracy (if present) or neglect (when

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absent) in the general outlook on life. A person that forgets to punctuate
can be described as forgetful - only looking at the bigger picture. It also
shows the person to be pedantic or eccentric. Again, to determine which
of these character traits the person portrays, one has to look at the rest of
the document to be able to make a decision about which trait it is that the
person exhibits (the concept of the cluster or constellation of features).
The margins can be easily overlooked when doing an analysis. They are
part of the comprehensive picture and offer great value to the analysis.
There are four margins – left, right, top and bottom margin.

4.5.6.1 Left margin – The left margin (literally on the left side of
the page) in general indicates the writer’s ability to be constant in
behaviour, especially in manners and economy. The left margin
can be defined in several different ways.

a) Wide margin – The writer can be compared to someone

that prefers art, literature and music to people, especially if there
are wide spaces between the words (refer to section on width.)
But as always there have to be supporting features within the
handwriting to corroborate this analysis.
b) Too Wide – This person is desperately trying to flee from
the self, as well as from the past (unhappy childhood, traumatic
experience, etc) and is very shy and reserved – described as
pathological shyness.
c) Narrow – These people can be very practical and
economical. They is also an inherent tendency to cling to the past.
d) Regular and constant – The person is a reliable and
honest worker, self -disciplined, with good manners and a healthy
self-respect.
e) Widening – Here the person is enthusiastic and has a
wavering thriftiness. This person is moving away from the left

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margin, which indicates progression. Anything that moves away
from the left towards the right is considered progressive in nature.
f) Narrowing – The person has a decreased spontaneity, is
withdrawn and depressed, may experience an anxiety related to the
future. However, there could also be an underlying illness that
could be causing the narrowing.

4.5.6.2 Right Margin – In general this margin describes the

degree to which the person allows people into his or her space. In
other words, the distance kept between self and others and the
willingness to move into the future. This margin (on the opposite
side of the left margin) can have similar types as above but the
assessments are diverse.

a) Wide – This person prefers to move away from people,

keeps himself or herself aloof, hesitant to move into unknown
terrain.
b) Narrow – The need for a close relationship is powerful;
there is a deep urge for acceptance. The person is gregarious and
likes to be with people and can be impulsive, or is motivated to
explore new avenues.
c) Widening – The handwriting indicates a need to withdraw
from people, as a fear of other people can exist, or an increasing
cautiousness may be exhibited.
d) Narrowing – As time goes by the person becomes less
timid and starts to warm up, becoming more and more confident
and less and less suspicious.
e) Irregular (uneven) – The person has an ambivalent
attitude towards socialising, there is a great love for travelling the
world, but this can lead to unwise carefulness.

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 f) Steady – The individual that has a steady right margin is
prone to conform to set standards, is self-conscious to the point of
anxiety in certain cases. They are also un-spontaneous, rigid and
intolerant.

4.5.6.3 The top or upper margin indicates very simply the degree
of conventional behaviour. The closer the person chooses to write
to the margin at the top, the greater the writer’s conventionality or
conformity is.

4.5.6.4 Lower margins can be either wide or narrow. It is

difficult to determine this margin in many specimens, as a person
can stop writing at any stage for several reasons. The person
basically does not want to write anymore, there are time
constraints to how much the person can write, etc. If there are
supporting clusters in the specimen, then a wide bottom margin
can support the following characteristics:

- sexual trauma
- emotional trauma
- aloofness - the narrower lower (bottom) margin (with
supporting characteristics in the specimen) is
representative of:
- idealism or
- materialism
- depression
- fatigue

However, the bottom margin is a very difficult one to assess, as it is not

always as prominent as the other margins are. Thus, the lower margin can
only be properly assessed with a “many pages” specimen, where the habit

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of the writer becomes clear, i.e. how the bottom margin is formed – wide
or narrow.
Furthermore, the interpretation of the bottom margin is very controversial,
since contradictory tendencies can be found, depending on other
characteristics in the writing specimen. Thus the graphologist errs on the
side of caution when considering this margin in his or her assessment.

Briefly, there are further types of margins. There are absent margins,
where the writer uses every single space available. This writing comes
across as crowded and is representative of a person that is needy and
intrusive in others peoples’ lives, occasionally coming across as tactless.

The exact opposite to this type of margin are the margins that are all wide .
The specimen is described as a picture frame as the spaces between the
sides of the page and the handwriting is very wide and fairly consistent,
making it look like a picture within a frame. The person as can be
ascertained from the movement away from the sides of the paper, is
generally aloof, withdrawn, independent, as well as self-defensive.

The next margins that the graphologist can observe are the margins that
are erratic. They are irregular on all four sides. This person - as the
margins suggest - is disorganised, versatile, and tolerant, but in the same
breath can be careless.

The last type of margin is the margin that widens on the left-hand side
and the right hand side . This person is dealing with strong conflicts in
his or her personality. He or she is trying to escape the past, but is also
very reluctant to deal with the future.

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In summation, the margins may look unimportant but they hold great
significance for the global assessment. The slant, as described in the
section below, is often assessed in conjunction with the margins.

4.5.7 Slant
The slant in a person’s handwriting can never be analysed in isolation (as
with all features in the writing). The slant, as touched upon above, shows
the prevalence of progressive traits or regressive traits. Often it is
considered to be the barometer of emotions. But there have to be
supporting features to define the different ideas that a slant can suggest.
In addition, every slant has to be measured to determine the degree of the
slant, as the more it is slanted in a specific direction, the more it indicates
the extent of emotions or lack thereof. There are numerous types of
slants, as will be extrapolated below.

4.5.7.1 Right Slant – This represents the outside world, the

future, the people, progression, independence from mother and
past and dependence on people. This type of slant represents a
person who is ruled by the heart. With a moderate right slant the
person has the ability to express emotions, has freedom of thought,
is oriented toward the future and has confidence in his or her
convictions. An extreme right slant is used by a person that is
highly emotional, lacks self-control, is impulsive and unrestrained,
can be intrusive to other people, is supersensitive, dependent on
others and wants to be too highly involved in what is happening
around him/her – in the surroundings, which include family,
friends, employment, etc.

4.5.7.2 Left slant – this represents the inner world, the past, the
self (away from people), regression and retreat into the mother’s
womb. It is also representative of a barrier between the self and

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the outside world. A moderate left slant depicts a withdrawn,
reclusive person but can also indicate greater insight into oneself,
which a right slanted writer does not always have. There can be
possible repression of emotions and experiences. These people
reject the environment, are very self -contained, have difficulty in
adapting to certain situations and very rarely express their
emotions. The extreme left slanted writing is indicative of a
repressed childhood, evading reality, fearing the future and the
possible rejection of the parents.
This is not to say that left slanted writers only have negative traits.
They are generally more ‘in tune’ with who they are, with their
inner self. They have greater control over their emotions, when
compared to the right slanted writer, who can be irrational and
overly sensitive.
Thus the connotation that left is negative – in the olden days
children who wrote with the left hand, were forced to change to
the right hand, etc. should not be applied in graphological analysis.
One always has to find corroborating features in the handwriting
to ascertain personality characteristics.

4.5.7.3 Upright slant – this slant leans neither to the right nor the
left and shows an independent person, a person who can stand
upright on his or her ow n two feet. The person dwells neither too
much in the outer, nor in the inner world. These types of people
are in control and have slightly better judging capabilities than
those people with a slant either to the right or the left. The person
can rely on himself or herself and is definitely able to work on his
or her own, sometimes preferring to work alone. They are not
very emotional people either, as they keep their emotions in check.
They are fairly controlled and lack spontaneity in certain instances,
but they are known for their charm.

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 4.5.7.4 Mixed slant – the slant as the name indicates, is mixed.
The person moves from a right slant toward a left slant. Within
ten degrees either side of 90 degrees (either +80 degrees or –80
degrees on the protractor) is considered normal and can also be
called a flexible slant. If the slant is slight (within 10 degrees
either side of 90 degrees), then the person has the ability and
versatility to understand others, can sometimes be indecisive, and
conflicts of an emotional nature may occur. However, if the slant
variation becomes too pronounced, then the person may be prone
to unpredictable behaviour, as the emotional conflicts are much
stronger. The person is torn between the past and the future,
between mother and father. The sense of direction is affected in
the sense that it is uncertain of which way to go. The person has
very little self-control and behaviour and thinking is often erratic
in nature. (It is one of the potential signs of schizophrenia.)

4.5.7.5 Extreme slant (on the Pathological Line) – the slant in

some cases exceeds 45 degrees either to the left or right. This
slant is called extreme. Any person that finds themselves 45
degrees or more away from 90 degrees upright is found to be on
the pathological line and their emotions are mostly uncontrollable
or they show signs of a pathology (depending on further features
in the sample, as well as which side the slant leans towards).

The slant is measured as follows:

• The graphologist has to draw a line unde r the word to be measured
– capitals should be avoided, as this letter may be exaggerated.
For best results, one should mainly measure upper zone letters,
such as l, f, d, b, etc.
• A further line is drawn along the spine of the letter between the
two meeting points of letter and line. This line is then drawn

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 longer (diagonally or straight up – depending on the slant). This
line should not to disturb or touch the letter itself, as it may
interfere with later assessments of this letter. This drawn line
makes it possible to measure it with the protractor. Now from the
line that is drawn the graphologist uses the protractor to pinpoint
the degree of the slant.
• Once both lines are drawn, the cross of the protractor is placed on
the point where the letter in question touches the drawn bottom
line.

The graphologist has to take a minimum of ten measurements of ten

different letters, from which an average is then calculated. This average
obviously only applies to left, right and upright slant. One cannot
determine the degree of the mixed slant.
The protractor works as follows: There are 180 degrees on a protractor.
However, on 90 degrees the vertical line is the line from which the
graphologist works. Starting from the horizontal, on the right hand side of
the ninety, the graphologist works on + 89 degrees, + 75 degrees, etc. (a
plus symbol (+) is added). On the left-hand side the graphologist works
on - 89 degrees, -75 degrees, etc. (a minus (-) symbol is added). The left-
hand side or slant can present itself between 0 degrees to ninety degrees
and the same principle applies to the right hand side (0 degrees to 90
degrees).

4.5.8 Pressure
The pressure that is created by the extensor muscles in the hand, as well as
by the flexor muscles exerts pressure onto the paper and can indent it to
differing degrees. Pressure in handwriting is considered to be the third
dimension of handwriting, as it gives depth to handwriting. The
handwriting produces friction between pen and paper, as per the pressure

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from the hand of the individual. When considering pressure, one should
always consider the thickness of the paper. The thicker the paper, the less
chance of the graphologist being able to detect the pressure or to feel the
pressure pattern created. In simple terms: a good pressure pattern usually
consists of a heavier down stroke and a lighter up stroke. Curved lines
should be partly heavy, partly light. This is a good pressure pattern and is
produced by the harmonious synchronisation of the two muscles used to
create the writing movement – the extensor and the flexor muscles. The
individual’s fingers have increased pressure on the down stroke, because
the muscles are contracted and there is more energy exerted to produce the
down pull. The muscles used here are the flexor muscles. The extensor
muscles used to make the up strokes are muscles that are releasing and
thus there is a release of tension and subsequently, a lesser pressure. This
interplay between release and tightening of the muscles leads to a flowing,
healthy writing movement. This also results in different thicknesses in the
handwriting produced. The down stroke, due to more pressure being
applied is usually thicker as compared to the up stroke, which is lighter, as
less pressure is applied. Curves within handwriting show graduations of
thinness and thickness. If the pressure is magnified, these graduations are
known as shading – lighter and darker shading. This is one of the most
comprehensive manifestations of handwriting pressure. In certain
instances, people have been known to exert pressure sideways instead of
downwards, as described above. Pressure is thus not totally ascribable to
sheer muscular force or will power. It is more an expulsion of the
person’s libido, the person’s total psychic energy of all the life’s activities
or the alertness and intensity of the needs, drives, desires that are seeking
physical or psychic expression. In general, pressure indicates the
intensity of feelings, physical energy of the individual, as well as the
persons’ will power.
The main types of pressure are defined in the following manner:

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4.5.8.1 Very heavy pressure – the writer tries too hard, exerts
too much pressure and can strain him or herself. These types of
people need plenty of sleep to maintain their energy levels. These
types of people can also be deemed aggressive and may be
frustrated with life.

4.5.8.2 Heavy pressure – this person is naturally active and

functions best when physically active. They have a great capacity
for emotional experience. They need less sleep.

4.5.8.3 Moderate pressure – this person can be expected to do

well both physically and mentally without becoming too fatigued.
They also have the capacity for emotional experience, but not as
intense as the “heavier pressure” person. They need even less
sleep.

4.5.8.4 Light pressure – These people have more mental energy

than physical energy. They shy away from physical activity and
are often classified as thinkers. They need plenty of recuperative
sleep.

4.5.8.5 Very light pressure – These people have very little

energy and endurance. They also lack vitality, drive, will power
and ambition. They fear the dangers and uncertainties that exist in
the world. They can use sleep as an escapist tool, but need large
amounts of sleep. There is also a tendenc y to be depressed.
However, in some instances a physical disability may result in the
individual exerting too much pressure on the pen, which leads to
light pressure being exerted on the paper.

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4.5.8.6 Even or good pressure pattern – The person is well
balanced and can yield energy within the mental, reality and
productivity spheres. They are active but can also relax when
needed.

4.5.8.7 Uneven or Arrhythmical – the writer’s energies have to

be called into action and can sometimes be misdirected. The
person is moody; there are certain conflicts that interfere with the
healthy personality integration. It can be a sign of neurosis, but
the graphologist must remember to find the supporting cluster.

4.5.8.8 Displaced pressure or Abnormal Distribution of

Pressure (A.D.P.) - The pattern that is formed is done in the
following way:

a) From lower zone to middle zone – the person uses his or

her sexual energy and moves it into non-sexual channels, such as
being productive. This is often a more deliberate move, to keep
instinctua l drives ‘in check’. These drives can be healthy
‘sublimations’ – this depends on the corroborating signs found in
the rest of the writing sample.
b) From lower zone to upper zone – the writer directs his
energy into intellectual pursuits. The concerns are more spiritual
than instinctual. As above, these drives can also be considered
healthy ‘sublimations’ – this depends on the corresponding
characteristics found in the rest of the sample.

4.5.8.9 Lateral or horizontal pressure – the writer applies extra

vigour into future plans and goals. Feels he or she has to be in
control and with this driving ambition, strives hard to achieve.

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 4.5.8.10 Inverted pressure – the pressure is still in the middle
zone but only on the upstroke. This person is forceful and
demanding, but resists any pressure exerted on him or herself.
There might be a bad physical neuro-muscular co-ordination that
should be considered in these types of cases.

Any pressure that does not follow the upward-downward movement is

referred to as displaced writing pressure and thus the person suffers
some kind of disturbance. There are further instances where people add
pressure (not to be confused with genuine pressure), which is also
indicative of frustration.

Also, false pressure can be exerted in the handwriting. This is called

extra pressure . There are numerous interpretations of this extra pressure
from the person being a swindler, concentrating more on the actual
completing of the strokes, than on the content of the message, to a person
that is an exhibitionist, or extremely vain, etc. The interpretation of this
pressure type depends on further constellations or clusters, as well as the
form standard (be it positive or negative).

The next type of pressure disturbance that can occur is the spo radic
intensification of pressure . This pressure disturbance occurs in a single
stroke or a letter and depicts the sudden arrival of strong feelings that have
to be freed. This pressure ‘pattern’ more often than not is seen in the
handwriting specimens of adolescents. The adolescent usually
demonstrates emotional conflict, fears and inhibitions – therefore the
sudden bursts of energy.
These are very simply irregular electric impulses exerted from the core of
the personality unto the muscles in the hand and show the person to be
nervous, quick tempered and emotionally unstable. The presence of
disease can precipitate these types of muscular spasms but feelings of

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anxiety, inner conflicts, repressed aggression toward the self, can
stimulate the same responses.

Pressure as mentioned above, should be more ‘visible’ on the whole stable

axis, the stroke that leads downward, toward the person. But one can find
the existence of the phenomenon split pressure . Split pressure shows an
almost identical distribution of pressure on both the vertical and the
horizontal axis. This indicates the person with a split between his/her
abilities and his/her ambitions. He or she can be both aggressive and shy.
The aggressive person will often display outbursts of anger but believes
this to be the reaction to the anger and hostility from others.

Another extremely problematic type of pressure that exists is the clean

split. The clean split occurs in handwritings where the person’s sanity is
highly questioned. The stable axis should support most of the pressure, as
this is the spine of the letter and representative of the spine of the person.
Without this spine a person cannot survive and can show desire for self-
sacrifice. No pressure is exerted on the self, all the pressure moves
outwards to others, the future, etc.

There are less significant pressure types that can arise, and they are briefly
illustrated below:

4.5.8.11 Increasing pressure at the end of words – the

writer has the need to stress his/her point of view but it can also
depict aggressive behaviour, a temper and unbearable emotions.

4.5.8.12 Variable pressure – as the pressure is variable, so

the person is ‘variable’. This means the person’s will power is
changeable, their emotions are unstable, they are moody and often

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 the sufferers of inner conflicts. This person will in most cases,
appear irritable.

4.5.8.13 Heavy stress on the whole stable axis – The

handwriting depicts irrational stubbornness and blind virility on
the instinctual level only when the lower zone strokes are long and
heavy.

Thus the pressure or third dimension that is found in handwriting

specimens is very important, as it gives the graphologist an insight into
certain areas that are not covered in the other sections mentioned here.

Next to the pressure found in handwriting, it is vital to assess the different

widths and narrowness that can be found in handwritings and that can be
assessed by a graphologist.

4.5.9 Width and Narrowness

In a handwriting specimen, there are two widths that have to be
considered as part of the analysis process. Firstly, there is the primary
width, which is found within the letters of the word. Here the width is
compared to the height of the middle zone letter, meaning the height and
width have to be equal. Secondly, there is a secondary width that is
found between the letters of the word. For it to be balanced, the space
between the letters has to measure half the size of the same person’s letter
“a”. The widths can be further defined as follows:

4.5.9.1 Wide primary width – a person that needs space away

from others but is comfortable with himself/herself. (Excessive
width seen in elliptical ovals does not indicate this.)

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 4.5.9.2 Narrow primary width – the writer controls the writing
movement and in the same instance controls the self, is inhibited
by nature.

4.5.9.3 Wide secondary width – this person is gregarious and

likes socialising, is open-handed but can lack discipline.

4.5.9.4 Narrow secondary width – the person is inhibited,

socially reserved, withdrawn and has difficulty relating to others.
The writer is susceptible and thus feels he or she has to keep his or
her emotions under control.

4.5.9.5 Difference in letter width – the writer alternates between

narrow and wide. This depicts the alternation between confidence
and distrust, reserve and lack of control, generosity and meanness.
Often emotional people exhibit this trait.

The difference in the width or narrowness of the letter or words is

indicative of the writer’s inhibition or socialisation abilities. It is here that
the graphologist determines how the individual interacts with others and
his or her environment.

The following section, called Form Standard, is another aspect that the
graphologist has to observe to assess the individual’s personality in
general..

4.5.10 Form Standard

The Form Standard measurement feature (which often goes hand-in-
hand with the Gestalt Psychology assessment of the handwriting sample)
within the graphological sphere, defines the harmonious, natural and
simplified integration of the person. It reveals the intellectual, physical

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and emotional maturity of the person. In short, this measurement standard
measures the overall level of the personality. There are four areas within
the form standard that are considered measurable.

4.5.10.1 The rhythm of speed and form – if there is a

rhythmical harmony, which is assessed by the human eye, there is
richness, variety and organisation in the writer’s thinking and
inner life. The rhythmical harmony is denoted by a general
flowing handwriting.

4.5.10.2 Symmetry – as the word describes - if there is

rhythmical symmetry, then there is inner balance in the
personality, a balanced set of values. It describes how the person
writing should behave according to societal norms, what he or she
makes of their education and how well he or she can take care of
him or herself.

4.5.10.3 Creativity – this section refers to any

simplification or improvement on the handwriting in question,
when compared to the copybook. This simplicity and
improvement refer to the writer’s ability to be creative and to exert
individuality in everything he or she says or does.

4.5.10.4 Speed and legibility – the speed at which the

writer creates the letters, words, sentences, etc is indicative of the
person’s clear-headedness and sincerity. The more fluent it is, the
faster it is written and the more sincere the person is. The speedier
writing does not allow the person to deliberate, about how to make
the letter look, it is written naturally, with little pretense or control
(speedy writing leaves little time for control or pretense). The
legibility of the writing is an important feature, because it gauges

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 the writer’s purposefulness and social co-operation. If there is less
legibility, the social interaction is questionable. Legibility can
achieve three of the four points in this section. The scores are
allocated as follows:
a) Legible out of context – scores three points. Legible out of
context means that every single word can be deciphered without
much help from the accompanying or following words.
b) Legible in context – scores two points. Legible in context
means you have to read the sentence to be able to decipher certain
words successfully. Most people belong to this category.
c) Not easily readable – one point. The graphologist struggles to
read what is written and therefore allocates a very low point.
d) Practically illegible – zero points. The writing is not
decipherable, nor very readable.

Each of these sections scores a rating of four. This scoring, which can
reach sixteen points, is then again divided by four (as per the section
above) to give a score between one and four; four being a perfect rating
and 1 being a very poor rating (called minus minus average). The person
can either have a low form standard, an average or a high form standard.
A high form standard is pleasing to the naked eye, with not too much
rigidity and control – this person is an asset society. A low form standard
has negative connotations to the overall analysis, describing a person who
is a liability to society.

This Form Standard is another feature that has to be assessed in

association with Gestalt, as the overall picture is taken into account with
this form standard.
Therefore, as described in the four sections above, every writer has a
specific speed, which affects the legibility of the writing. Speed is

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another feature within the sample that can highlight certain character traits
of the individual.

4.5.11 Speed
Not every person writes with the same amount of speed as the next
person. Certain criteria prevent people from writing fast. A fast or
speedy handwriting is indicative of a person that hurries to get on with his
or her life in general, who wants to “get to the future”, who is spontaneous
and who allows his or her impulsivity to take over. The writer does not
control his or her emotions and is free-spirited. The person that applies
too much control to his or her handwriting (a slower writing), is less
spontaneous and will most likely prefer a greatly controlled environment,
where surprise and spontaneity are not warranted.

The Czechoslovakian Robert Saudek, brought a scientific contribution to

graphology, especially in the area of speed by using motion cameras to
calculate the quality and tone of the writing movement, in order to
establish rhythm and the internal activity (of the brain) of the writer. He
performed many interesting experiments whilst considering handwriting
both in its symbolism of space and movement. “…, Saudek found that tall
letters, such as f, are always more quickly written than minimum (small)
letters, such as i; therefore a small script is always more reluctantly
performed than a sizable one.” (Mendel, 1982, pg 196). Thus, in his
experiments he found that there are certain features in handwriting that
increase the speed of writing. He determined this through finding
common denominators in writing, as far as pace was concerned. These
denominators included the ‘i’ dots and ‘t’ crosses, fluency of the writing,
rightward slant, ascending lines, connected writing, wide script, no
adjustments, added strokes or patching up, lively endings to finishing
strokes and no changes in direction (Marley, 1991). This table of features
is unchallenged in the world of graphology and lends further scientific

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credence to graphology, “Il cecoslovacco Saudek, she ha operato molto in
Inghilterra, ha portato all grafologia un contributo scientifico; ha
impegnato la cinematografia per calcolare la qualità a il tono del
movimento scrittorio onde risalire al ritmo e all’attivita interiore dello
scrivente (Experiments with Handwriting 1928); insieme a Serman ha
eseguito esperimenti molto interessanti sulle scritture dei monozigoti.”
Torbidoni & Zanin, 1982, pg 31).

The following are features of handwritings that can be highlighted when

analysing the speed feature in handwriting.

4.5.11.1 Curves – Any curve in handwriting is much

quicker to perform than an angle. This curve is generally referred
to as the garland connective form, or the arcade; or the writing in
general is rounded.

4.5.11.2 Tall Letters – These letters flow faster than letters

that are written smaller. Letters that are written smaller take
slightly more concentration and precision, than a letter that is large
and takes up more space. A larger letter needs less attention.

4.5.11.3 ‘i’ dots – The i dot is commonly known as a resting

place and is thus slower. An ‘i’ dot that is more dashed and not
really accurately situated above the stem is much faster.

4.5.11.4 Right Slant – This slant is definitely faster as there

is a natural pull in that direction - away from the person, toward
the future.
4.5.11.5 Alternating heavy and light strokes – Here a
pattern is created that definitely is related to the contraction and
release of the muscles in the person’s hand and it is subsequently a

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natural movement and will be quicker. A slower stroke occurs
when there is an irregular pattern involved. This irregularity goes
against the natural flow and is inhibiting.

4.5.11.6 Good connections and continuous writing – The

more connected and part of the writing the letters are, the speedier
the writer is, as he or she is not required to lift the pen, which is
time consuming and can obstruct the speediness of the writing.

4.5.11.7 Rightward directed endings – As with the right

slant, these types of endings are more flowing and natural and
obviously speedier.

4.5.11.8 Wide writing – This type of writing is more

released as there are fewer constraints in staying within a certain
‘line’. A less wider writing is more controlled and thus slower.
The more controlled it is, the slower the writing will become.

4.5.11.9 Patching-ups, adjustments, added strokes –

These aspects definitely impair the speed of writing, as the writer
has to go back to the word and ‘fix it up’ or repair it.

4.5.11.10 Garland – This connective form is much faster,

because it is a ‘free-er’ form of writing, as compared to angles and
arcades, as these take a certain measure of control.

4.5.11.11 Thread – this is the speediest connective form, as

there is little structure within letters. The words in this instance
can often only be read in context.

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 4.5.11.12 Increasing left margin – This portrays an
enthusiastic writer, wanting to move toward the future, which is
not a character trait of an inhibited person.

4.5.12 Rhythm
As mentioned in certain instances throughout this section, there is a
definite release and contraction within the muscles found in the person’s
hand that creates letters, words, sentences, etc. These contracting and
releasing qualities, when balanced out ‘evenly’, assign a certain rhythm to
the writing. There is a pattern that is created that can be even or uneven
(there are distinct instances when the pattern is totally missing). This
rhythm portrays the writer’s life force and individual versatility, how the
energy, thinking and feeling aspects co-ordinate. A good rhythm can be
seen in the original formation of letters and le tters’ combination that have
moved away from the copybook, some speed, natural flow, fair
distribution of pressure, good spacing and if there is a regularity in the
repetition (and “unchangingness”) of appearance. The appearance, in
other words, of the whole writing has to be constant. If this type of
rhythm is obvious, then the person is healthy mentally and has a balanced
personality. There is definite inner harmony within the personality. The
writer in question can control impulses and emotions sufficiently, so as
not to seem too erratic. This person is ready to gain experience, there is a
tolerance of a reasonable pressure. Furthermore, this person will have
well-adjusted relationships and the relationship between thinking and
feeling will be harmonious.

Rhythm is an extremely important feature in the handwriting expressions.

This is due to the entire rhythmical organisation within the universe – the
rhythm of day and night, the rhythm of high tides and low tides, the
rhythm of the seasons. Rhythm in this instance is indicative of being
alive. If there is a problem or disturbance in the rhythm, then the person

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has a problem with the strength of his or her inner life force. There is this
need for the interplay between tension and release, as this portrays the
dynamic movement pattern of the centripetal and centrifugal movements.
The centripetal movement leads toward the left and back to the writer, or
it moves straight to the writer and halting there – moving toward the
centre. This centripetal movement is inner projected and portrays control
within the writer. There is greater self-insight but can also be indicative
of ego-centricity. The centrifugal movement is the outward projected
movement away from the writer, up- or rightward. It generally, indicates
progression. In excess, this movement shows a person without control,
nor any sense of responsibility.

There is also the phenomenon of poor rhythm or arrhythmia. This

handwriting does not flow harmoniously. It is stagnant and has irregular
looking ‘spots’; there is neglect, rigidity and artificiality – often seen are
sudden changes in pressure, size and angles, there are jerky strokes and
tremors, there are mistakes and tangling of lines, as well as a mixed
cursive and printed scripts. This shows that the consistent, smooth
continuity is broken and it shows the person’s involuntary nervous system
to be unstable. This indicates problems in the overall personality of the
person in question. The person could feel insecure, be stressed and tense,
feel nervous and impatient, be inconsistent and containing the inability to
adjust to relationships, to name but a few aspects.

An extremely released handwriting is sloppy and lacks control and

cannot be defined as having a flowing rhythm. The people - as the
handwriting depicts - are generally sloppy in nature, they are less
conforming, they are prone to be moody, they love novelty and change,
but they can also lose interest in a subject very fast, be impulsive,
unfaithful, careless and even lazy.

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An extremely contracted writing is the opposite of released writing. The
person is the opposite to the description above, he or she is monotonous,
lacks spontaneity, is stagnant and stereotyped and prefers regularity in
life. The writing is usually very angular, regular and narrow – the creative
forces of the writer have been suppressed.

The last type of writing that falls into this category is excessive angles or
arcades. This describes a tense person that can blow up emotionally at
any time. The person is highly frustrated and anxious.

These rhythmic disturbances can be caused by a number of different

personality factors. One has to determine the reason for the disturbance
before making any quick decisions about the character of the person.
Some of the disturbances are caused by:

• nervous anxiety: High tensions and nervous

disorders – the nervous anxiety produces erratic
strokes and pressure, badly formed letters, jerks and
tics, etc.
• old age – Shakiness and uneven or light pressure is
caused by ba d eye sight, there can be depression,
pre-occupation with bodily functions
(incontinence), intense religious feelings.
• faulty motor faculties – any physical deformity or
deficiency can cripple the writers emotions and will
be reflected in the handwriting
• emotional instability – can be either temporary or
permanent; the nervous system is affected and the
smooth running thereof are affected

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 • psychic frustration – this is usually found depicted
in the handwriting by Abnormal Displacement of
Pressure (A.D.P.)
• glandular changes – handwriting can be affected by
the changes in the hormonal balance; usually in the
rhythm of the handwriting, giving rise to irregular
slant, letters and rhythm.

Some of these disturbances (as noted above) are of a temporary nature and must
definitely be taken into consideration, as they do return to ‘normal’. As example,
the glandular changes that can occur during puberty or after childbirth could
affect the writing. The hormones become disturbed for a period of time and then
they return to their previous (‘normal’) state.

4.5.13 Strokes - Initial Strokes and Terminal Strokes

4.5.13.1 Initial or Starting Strokes

The initial stroke or starting stroke in handwriting originated with
the copybook way of writing (Appendix D). A starting stroke is
the first stroke that is made when starting a word. It is that which
leads to the rest of the letter being formed. Not every person has a
starting stroke; some immediately start writing the letter itself.
The person that uses a starting stroke is generally deemed as
conventional, not freeing himself from his or her past
experiences, family memories, etc. The person prefers that
things stay the same and do not change. The people that have
dropped the starting stroke are more mature, able to stand on
their own two feet, and are not dependent on the past. This
person can solve his or her own problems; and may be original
and creative. However, all these individual strokes must be
considered by looking a cluster of signs in the handwriting. As

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in most cases in the handwriting specimen, there are numerous
starting strokes that can be defined as follows:

a) Long starting strokes from below the baseline – this

stroke is a so-called waste of time and energy. The writer is
preparing a long time to start the letter and this is a direct
portrayal of how they operate in life. In other words, the writer
takes too much time to prepare, is very attached to the past and
will not promote change, is obstinate, quarrelsome and will not
listen. These strokes originate in another sphere – the
subconscious, and thus the person is directed by these
instinctual forces.
b) Diagonal strokes starting in the middle zone (on the
baseline or above it)– this suggests a writer that is attached to
the past, but on a more positive note, this writer has a good
business mind, a probing mind. In a progressive writing it is an
indication of drive and ambition.
c) Hooked starting strokes – this portrays a person that
may have tendencies to being dogmatic, tenacious and
persistent. This person struggles to detach himself/herself from
the past emotionally, as he or she clings to the past (to
relationships and possessions).
d) Starting stroke in fashioned as a claw – this is a writer
greedy for money or emotional support (remember to consider
the cluster for verification purposes).
e) Starting stroke looking like a blotch – the writer very
simply rests the pen for a longer period of time than necessary.
This could depict a proverbial skeleton in the closet or the
person enjoying a material ga in.
f) Starting stroke starting in the upper zone – this could
define a person that shows off his or her intellectual prowess, or

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the person may be religiously inclined. This may also define
streaks of an enterprising nature.
g) Starting stroke that looks like a tick – this defines
temporary irritability or arrogance of the writer.
h) Capital letter starting strokes – this shows a person
that is proud, but also concerned about appearances and
fussiness regarding smaller issues.
i) Starting strokes touching the head of capitals – this is
a sign of a person under stress.
j) Starting strokes as tight circles on capitals – this is
indicative of some professional jealousy.
k) Garland-like starting strokes in the upper zone – this
indicates social graces.
l) Drooping garland starting strokes – the writer can be
described as passive, shallow, even someone that feels guilty
and wastes a lot of energy and time and is easily influenced. He
or she may have a tendency to depression.
m) ‘Waving Hand’ starting stroke – this is a friendly
gesture, that defines friendliness, cheerfulness, politeness and a
sense of humour.
n) ‘Rolled-in’ word beginnings – this shows a streak of
cunningness, a politeness and friendliness but for reason of
slyness.
o) Starting strokes originating to the right – again this
describes a person with a sense of humour, as well as the desire
to talk.
p) ‘Lasso’ type starting stroke – this describes a writer
that is shrewd and has fixed ideas.
q) Arcade starting strokes - the writer resists change; he
or she is hiding something about the past, and is trying to

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 protect the self. This writer is also sometimes described as a
traditionalist.
r) Thready starting strokes – this person seeks attention,
is unable to make decision quickly and has ambiguous impulses
about his past and his family.
s) Arc-shaped starting strokes originating below the
baseline – this is indicative of a person that most probably is an
orator, an actor, a poser, a writer, etc. with a lot of imagination
that shows his or her audience respect.
t) Starting strokes with a curve fro m the right – the
writer shows pride in familial achievement.

The options of starting strokes found above are numerous but are not
descriptive of all starting strokes that can be found. Anyone can have a
combination of any of the above or another different starting stroke
depending entirely on their personality, their past experiences, etc.
These starting strokes have to be analysed in conjunction with the rest
of the handwriting specimen; i.e. the graphologist has to ascertain the
cluster to define the exact meaning of the starting stroke.

4.5.13.2 The Ending or Terminal Stroke

The terminal or ending stroke is that stroke which ends the last
letter of the word formed. These strokes are extended sideways
in various formations as will be described below (with the
respective interpretations):

a) Rightward-directed ending stroke - the writer is

outgoing, extroverted with a need to be active and interested in
the environment.

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b) Outward directed, sweeping upward gracefully
ending stroke - the person is open, genuinely generous and
considerate to others.
c) Prolonged ending stroke – a tenacious person, desiring
conquests, extravagant, even a manic moodiness may occur.
d) Horizontally stretched ending stroke – a suspicious
person, with insecurities, possessive toward compulsion, such
as an agoraphobic (fear of open spaces) person.
e) Vertically stretched ending stroke – this person is
secretive in nature but hides this behind a social front.
f) Garland ending stroke reaching up to heaven – a
religious person interested in the occult, in philosophy, usually
has high moral standards.
g) ‘Coxcombed’ ending stroke – this person is described
as hot tempered.
h) Abrupt ending stroke (chopped) – the writer ends
relationships abruptly, is opinionated, inconsiderate; this does
not describe a giver, the person may even be socially shy.
i) Trait Sospendu: Incomplete last letter (not reaching
the baseline) – fear of exposing the self, wants to hide facts, is
frugal and too brief in nature.
j) Abrupt ending below the baseline – this is found
especially with the letters ‘t’ and ‘d’. The person has strong
likes and dislikes, can be obstinate and argumentative.
k) Enrolled ending strokes in the middle zone, looking
like a grasping claw – this is a greedy, egotistical person.
l) Left ending stroke in lower zone (Felon’s Claw) – the
writer suffers from unconscious guilt, there may be a sexual
aberration even. The person may have suffered a past
deprivation and consequently is emotionally greedy.

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m) Ending stroke thickened with pressure – this is a
person prone to aggression, brutality, violence and even cruelty.
n) Backward ending stroke pointing at the last letter in
the middle zone – the person is mainly focused on him or
herself, and is egotistical. The generosity that this person
portrays is pretended, as they want something in return, with
added interest.
o) Backward and crossing through the word or some
letters – this writer is introverted, feels guilty and has a
tendency toward self -destructive behaviour.
p) Slightly curving backward ending stroke – this shows
that the person is slightly introverted.
q) Upwards and left, covering the word or letter – the
person is protecting the self and is often secretive.
r) Upward and outward ending stroke – the writer is a
giving person, very social and responsive and a risk-taker.
s) Ending stroke moving vigorously down – the person is
very defensive, prefers to fight and is very unwilling to
compromise. There is a even a tendency to cruelty if there is
heavy pressure.
t) Ending stroke moving leftward underneath the word
– the writer is anti-social and self -centred.
u) Ending stroke moving downwards with weak
pressure – the person is either fatigued or has the tendency to
become depressed.
v) Upward moving stroke, forming a loop – the person is
prone to using his or her imagination, or the person has a poetic
nature.
w) “Flags” ending strokes – the writer is pretentious, vain,
and even dishonest and can show cunning.

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x) Ending strokes with downward hooks – this
characteristic portrays insecurity, materialistic tendencies,
persistence and “opinionatedness”.
y) Ending strokes with upward hooks – this shows
acquisitiveness, tenacity and egotistical tendencies.
z) Thick, clubbed ending strokes – the person is sadistic
and brutal in nature, but can also be tenacious (depending on the
cluster).
aa) Angular ending strokes – the angularity shows
aggression, abruptness, as well as a critical-natured person.
bb) Arcade -like ending strokes – the writer is concealing
something and is being secretive. In a negative form standard,
this type of ending stroke can have a very bad connotation, as
the person is showing the tendency to grab things to posses
them (this can include people).
cc) Embellished ending strokes – these types of strokes are
excessive strokes that do not fit with the copybook. They are
extra long strokes that are usually indicative of an immature
person, or someone that is trying to show off.
dd) Thready ending strokes – the writer is very hasty in
trying to achieve his or her goals, to the extent that he or she
will actually disregard things in haste. This is also indicative of
a person that lacks caution.
ee) Ducking arcade -ending strokes – these strokes are
formed by making half ovals. These people are defensive, they
will hide and retreat because of a specific fear.
ff) Hooked ending strokes with a downward stroke with
pressure – the writer is selfish in nature, but actually carries out
the selfishness in his or her actions. With high ‘t’-crosses (for
example), the person is even more selfish, striving toward
prestige and titles.

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 gg) Ending stroke spirals – again the writer is interested or
focused mainly on the self and there is also an element of greed
in the personality.
hh) Diagonal ending stroke toward the left – the writer
resists, and will automatically contradict people’s replies due to
a defiant attitude.

These are again only some of the ending strokes that you might find in
any handwriting specimen. However, you may find different
combinations or even totally different ending strokes again, as a result
of the different personality that exists. These ending strokes, as
mentioned with the starting strokes, have to be considered in a cluster,
to determine which character trait the person is actually portraying. By
working only on the ending stroke or only on the starting stroke, the
graphologist can interpret the writer as being selfish, when actually the
person is more likely to be fearful, and thus introverted – the cluster or
holistic approach is thus very important to adhere to.

4.5.14 Vertical Expansion (Size) of the Handwriting

The size of the handwriting can be established with a formula: “For
example one may use 1/8th inch (or 3mm) as ‘normal’ for the small
letters. This would be within the middle zone category.” (Marley,
1972). This method can be used in the analysis but for the purpose of
the graphological assessment of handwriting, gauging it “… at a
glance is the best method” (Marley, 1972). The size of handwriting is
very simply grouped as either small, medium or large handwriting. The
graphologist will immediately, with the naked eye, be able to see that
the handwriting is large or small or medium in size. The size of the
handwriting reveals a lot about the personality in question. The size of
the handwriting works hand-in-hand with the zones, as already

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described above. It is important to assess the size of the handwriting,
whilst also assessing the different zone ratio. “Most of the writer’s
energy and goal motivation will be centred on the zone of greatest
emphasis.” (Grandin, 1994). In other words, the bigger the handwriting
in one specific zone, the more important it is to analyse this specific
zone. If the handwriting is balanced amongst the three zones, then the
person is considered stable, well balanced, and will be consistent and
content. The person will furthermore be more adaptable to reality, will
have a good planning ability and in the overall picture the personality
will be very well adjusted.

However, the graphologist can still determine many factors about the
personality whilst assessing the size of the writing:

4.5.14.1 Large Handwriting

The larger the handwriting, the more noticeable it is. The writer
has a need for space around himself/herself. He or she likes to
be observed. They are bold and likely to accept a challenge.
The writer attempts to impress other people, and in the same
breath wants to win recognition. A large handwriting is not
necessarily a positive handwriting. It is not necessarily true that
because the handwriting is large, that the person is not trying to
hide something. As there are positive aspects to a large
handwriting, so are there negative aspects. The graphologist
has to assess the size in conjunction with other characteristics,
so as to obtain a more truthful assessment, not by only looking
at fixed signs.

The positive qualities that can be assessed, include:

• self-reliance
• seriousness

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 • superiority
• generosity
• optimism
• independence
• organising ability
• pride
• expansive outlook in life
• boldness

However, the negative qualities that the writer may portray are:
• haughtiness
• boastfulness
• desire to impress
• lack of discipline
• lack of care

4.5.14.2 Medium sized Handwriting

The writer that has this type of handwriting will neither over-
estimate nor underestimate himself/herself in comparison to
others. The medium-sized writer conforms to societal norms and
accepts ‘normal’ standards. This sized handwriting does not
have a significant impact on the analysis or assessment.

4.5.14.3 Small Handwriting

In the case of a small writing, the person may be looking to be
overlooked, but it can also indicate a high degree of
concentration, realism, a distaste for boasting and showing-off,
and an academic mentality. A person that writes small is more
inclined to channel his or her energies into thinking rather than
acting on ideas.

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The small handwriting is also found to have negative and
positive character trait indicators. They again have to be
assessed in conjunction with other traits, to determine if the
writing is more negative or more positive in nature.

Positive character traits of a person with a small handwriting:

• concentration
• conscientiousness
• accuracy
• modesty
• tolerance
• adaptability
• scrutiny
• executive ability
• individuality
• specialisation
• critical-mindedness
• reserve
• power of assimilation
• theoretical mind
• business acumen
• studiousness
• thoughtfulness
• strong inclination for detail

The negative components of a small handwriting are as follows:

• pettiness
• fear
• submissiveness

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 • sometimes unable to see the proverbial ‘bigger
picture’
• lack of self-confidence
• economically-minded
• unenthusiastic for general day-to-day life
• fussiness
• pedantry
• tendency to become despondent

The size of handwriting is important when assessing the specimen.

However, as mentioned above, any one zone that is larger than another
or that is disproportionate in the zone ratio has to be assessed as well.
A visual inspection (with the naked eye) will show the graphologist any
discrepancy or disproportionality.

The size of handwriting is furthermore broken down into the following

aspects, namely absolute and relative size .
The absolute size of the handwriting is the total vertical extension or
the height of the handwriting. This means from the top loops of the
upper zone letters to the bottom of the loops of the lower zone letters.
The relative size of the handwriting is the dimension of the middle
zone’s vertical extension or the he ight of only the middle zone letters,
such as a, c, e, etc.

There should be a balance between these two sizes. However, if there

is an imbalance, then the writer’s aspirations lie in one of the following
zones respectively (in whichever zone there is a pre-occupation):

• Upper zone dominance or pre-occupation – intellectual

and/or theoretical interests

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 • Lower zone dominance or pre-occupation –
productivity, activity and material gratification
• Middle zone dominance or pre-occupation – social
interaction and everyday activities
The relative and absolute size have to be interpreted as well, so as to
give a more thorough indication of the overall assessment.

a) Relative small / absolute large handwriting – In this

instance, the middle zone letters are disproportionately smaller
in comparison to the upper and the lower zone. The person
does not deem his/her social relationships as important, as
he/she will actually let them suffer, so that he/she can work
intellectually and move towards productivity. The writer may
be hypertense, due to too much unused mental and physical
energy. There are certain positive and negative features of a
relative small handwriting:

Positive factors:
• ambition
• enterprising nature
• far-sightedness
• liveliness of interest and impulses
• imagination
Negative factors:
• discrepancy exists between ‘would’ and ‘could’
• restlessness
• compulsiveness (“workaholic”)
• braggart (if the writer uses large capitals)
• feelings of inadequacy

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b) Relative small / absolute small – The writer’s
handwriting is small overall. The middle zone is less than 3mm
in size and the handwriting overall is less than 12mm. As
always there are positive and negative features in this type of
handwriting.

Positive factors:
• high power of concentration
• strong self-control
• studious
• analytical
• modest and reserved
• able to do research work

Negative factors:
• inadequate sense of self worth, to the extent of
developing feelings of inferiority
• lack of spontaneity
• highly focused on details, may oversee the
concept of the bigger picture
c) Relative large / absolute small – The middle zone is
emphasised in this instance, even though it is a small writing in
general. This person resists stretching into the upper zone, into
new areas. He or she fears seeing the actual potential that they
might hold. These people often talk about others, so that the
focus is moved away from themselves.
d) Relative large / absolute large – This is similar to the
one mentioned above in that the emphasis lies in the middle
zone, but in general the writing is very large. The interpretation
is the same as in the case of the large handwriting. However,

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the emphasis is in the middle zone, so the social arena and
everyday activities are very important for this individual.
e) Massive middle zone – This handwriting is so
disproportionate that two zones, namely upper and lower zone
both suffer to the detriment of the middle zone. This type of
handwriting is often found amongst teenage girls, where it is
accepted as a norm. The teenage girl that has such a
handwriting is focussing on herself. Everything in the social
sphere is important. You have to fit in, your figure (the
physical body, also represented by the middle zone) is very
important, especially because of puberty and the changes that
teenage girls go through. If a person that is not in the teenage
years has this type of handwriting, then they feel that their
friends and “being liked” is very important. This handwriting is
not ‘normal’ for an adult, since it indicates immaturity. This is
due to the fact that there is no development in the other two
spheres, which is essential to be able to communicate and live
in the adult world.
f) Very irregular size of letter – this is negative in any
zone, as it shows a restlessness and inconsistency. This type of
writing is often found in teenage boys, because they feel
inadequate, they have difficulty fitting in and subsequently they
might turn to drugs, alcohol, etc. However, very regular size is
indicative of rigidity and is negative in the interpretation. A
flexibility is required for it to be considered within the ‘normal’
sphere.
g) Increasing in size in upper zone letters – The person
that is constantly increasing the size of his or her upper zone
letter is constantly moving to surpass given capabilities. The
person is not at all happy with the current achievements and is
very dependent on praise and recognition by fellow colleagues.

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h) Middle zone letters invading the upper zone – The
person overrates the sentimental aspects in life, making them
bigger than they actually are. This is actually found to be a
more feminine trait, because women make a bigger fuss of
things that do not actually warrant so much attention (petty
things). This writing also depicts a person that has a desire for
greatness.
i) Middle zone letter invading the lower zone – The
writing shows a person that is trying to get hold of, to
understand the instinctual and unconscious forces that drive him
or her to do things in a specific manner. This invasion into the
lower zone is mostly found in capital letters. The y are also
called ‘ladles’. In many cases these ladles are found in the
writings of poets, painters, musicians and authors. They capture
the ‘instinctual forces’ through the ladles, and they then use
them to gain inspiration from them.
j) Sudden size increases – Letters that are found isolated
within words can be interpreted as stimulus letters (to be
discussed in detail later in this section). For instance, the letter
‘s’ could be a stimulus letter for sex, ‘m’ could be a stimulus
letter for mother. This stimulus letter means that the person has
certain feelings or emotions attached to this word and thus it is
written larger or ‘different’ to the rest of the handwriting. It can
also mean the desire to make a greater fuss than necessary,
usually out of not hing. The person could also carry the desire to
be considered greater then they feel. Again there are numerous
interpretations of this sudden size increase and consequently,
the graphologist must never forget to assess other traits, so as to
create a cluster from which to make a definite analysis of one
trait within the person.

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 k) Diminishing size of letter towards the end of the
word , also known as diminuendo – The character trait is that
of diplomacy and tactfulness (psychological insight). It could
also describe a writer who does not follow through on his/her
intentions, does not carry out his/her objectives. (This
specifically has to go hand-in-hand with light or diminishing
pressure, as well as other cluster characteristics to be found in
the specific specimen.)

4.5.15 Spacing (between Words and Lines)

This area within the written text describes the following characteristics
within the person: the ability to organise and to co-ordinate. It is this
area of analysis where the graphologist requires the writer to use an
unlined sheet of paper, i.e. there should not be any lines present on the
piece of paper, which in some way could limit the individual in the
process of writing.

4.5.15.1 Spacing between the Lines (on a blank sheet of

paper)
The paper that the writer works on is a blank sheet. It has no
lines that show the writer where to begin the next line. The
writer has to subconsciously choose where he/she is going to
start writing the next line. The space that occurs between the
lines is carefully planned (subconsciously) because the writer
has time to think where to go, as he or she lifts the pen and
moves the hand from the end of the right side of the page, to the
beginning of the next line, the left side of the page. The spacing
presents the graphologist with the writer’s state of mind. Is the
writer orderly? Is the structure erratic? Does it look pleasing
and flowing to the naked eye? The lines are usually spaced

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equi-distant from another. In other words, the spacing between
the lines is usually the same size, be it narrow or large. The
narrow spacing of lines can generally indicate spontaneity and
lack of reserve. A person that prefers a wider spacing can
indicate detachment from other people and reserve. A person
whose spacing is neither too wide or too narrow (considered the
middle course) is described as the born organiser. The
graphologist has to judge through the naked eye again, to assess
this. In general, the interpretation of the line spacing should be
similar to the size of the writing. Thus, if the writing is small,
the space should also be small, so as to allow another line of
writing to fit into the same space and obviously this would also
apply to large writing. There are numerous ways that a writer
can space his lines:

a) Narrow – a narrow space between the lines can depict a

careful and conscientious person, but he or she does not allow
letters to overlap unto the previous line. The writing is clear
and not confused (entanglement between the words from the
different lines).
However, if the spacing is too narrow, then:
b) Lower loops entangled with upper loops of the next
line – such writers suffer from confusion or lack inhibitions
(sexual, money, eating), they struggle to control their instincts,
such as sexual impulses. The characteristic could also portray a
person that gets over-involved in physical activities.
c) Upper loops entangled with the lower loops of the
previous line – the person has erotic fantasies (upper zone – the
intellect interfering with the lower zone – the physical sphere)
but does not act them out. If an entanglement between two lines
could occur the writer needs only to make a ‘plan’ that this is

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 avoided. This means moving the words, so that the
entanglement does not occur in the writing.
d) Too narrow an interval between lines – the person
suffers from the inability to see clearly and abstractly, as there
is no clear distribution of the lines. This is often caused by a
highly developed imagination, or unchecked impulsivity.
e) Wide spaces – the person is analytically- and clear-
minded, with good manners, and executive abilities, a good
organiser but one that lacks spontaneity.
f) Irregular spacing – the characteristic denoted by this
feature is a lack of will power, a changeable attitude about the
self and a disturbed reaction to the environment (social sphere).

Spacing between lines can vary according to the mood of the

person, but the main thing that is to be considered in the analysis
is the clarity of the spacing.

4.5.15.2 Spacing between words

Once the writer starts writing, he or she does not consider
aspects such as distance as a measure of how they are writing.
This is again a characteristic that flows from the hands naturally
recording the thought impulses (Marley, 1972). The letters that
form words can either be written slowly or quickly. The writer
can take some time to produce a wider space, or he/she can write
faster and produce either a wide space or a narrow one. The
spaces between words are again important in the analysis of the
handwriting specimen. The space between the words is
determined by looking at the specimen at arms length with the
naked eye. As with the spacing between the lines, a wider space
can indicate a greater degree of caution and reserve on the part of

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the writer, as well as thoughtfulness or even shyness. A narrow
space on the other hand, is a writer that takes action, lacks a
reserved stance and might have an impatient nature. This type of
writer can be very self-confident, not needing others to do what
he or she needs to do.
The spacing between the words has to again give a natural flow
that is regular and harmonious. If the writer has an irregular
flow, then he or she can show a changeable social attitude, could
be insecure and have difficulty in communicating with others.
This spacing between the words relates to how the person deals
with relationships and how they estimate others. This originates
on the subconscious level.

a) Wide space between words – A wide space would be

described as anything larger than two ‘a’s of that specific
person’s script. Such a person is extremely shy and backs away
from contact with people. They prefer to listen to music,
poetry, to read books and/or appreciate art. They have very
deep feelings and firmly rooted convictions. The personality is
introverted, and sometimes these people come across as
snobbish as they shy away from human contact. If the
handwriting has a left slant, then the person will prefer a policy
of isolation. Certain people that have this wide spacing, go so
far as to put their writing in columns, which is commonly
known as river writing. This is named after a river, because
there is a wide enough space for a river to flow harmoniously
from the top of the page to the bottom of the page. The type of
person that writes in this manner is usually intellectually- and
business-minded, objective and prefers to be isolated.
b) Narrow – The size is anything less than two ‘a’. This
means that the graphologist measures the width of the oval ‘a’

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 in the person’s writing and then compares the size to that
between the words. This is usually assessed by the using the
grids (Appendix G). The person with narrow spacing is a
warm, self -confident person that mixes well with others in the
social sphere, they sometimes do lack tact, but are basically
extroverts that need to be with people.
c) “Seemingly” evenly spaced – The person comes across
as being certain but he or she is actually deceiving people,
because of feelings of instability.
d) Uneven spacing between words – This writer is
changeable in social attitude, is insecure and usually has
difficulties communicating with people.
e) Too narrow space between words – The writer in this
case does not pause to think about his/her words or the
placement thereof, he/she is guided by direct impulse rather
than by consideration and reasoning – they do not think before
they speak or act.
f) Good spacing between words, but the upper zone
and lower zone loops become entangled – The person is quite
capable of dealing with his/her everyday life in a clear and
satisfactory manner, but starts suffering when he/she has to
attain abstract thought to deal with aspects concerning areas
outside of his/her personal life in the outside world.

In general, the spacing between the words is indicative of how the

person deals with other people and the outside world. The space
between the words is found in the middle zone and thus it is obviously
concerned with the social aspect of the person’s life. This spacing
gives the graphologist a great deal of insight into the person’s
preference concerning people and his or her socialising abilities. It can
also indicate (in conjunction with the cluster of other features in the

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writing) if the person uses other people for his or her own gain, or if
they are genuinely interested in the other person.

The spacing between the lines describes the person’s thought patterns,
if they are orderly and clear or muddled and confused. However, a
very wide spacing between lines is also indicative of the person
preferring to keep his or her intellectual detachment, as opposed to
detachment from people, in the case of space between the words.

4.5.16 Loops – Fullness, leanness and covering strokes

When a writer puts his/her own stamp on his/her writing, i.e. it
develops an original ‘slant’ different to that of the copybook. One may
find that mainly the loops of the upper zone letters l, f, and k, and the
loops in the lower zone letters g, q, and j are affected. The rest of the
letters are also affected but the fullness and leanness apparent in letters
is much clearer in the loops. The loops may stay the same size as in the
copybook or they may become bigger or fuller, which is known as
fullness, or the person may choose to have a very thin loop, which is
known as leanness or meagreness.
Fullness represents an expanded imagination, the ability to
conceptualise from experiences.
Leanness on the other hand, describes a person that is an
unimaginative, matter-of-fact person, who limits his/her point of view
on life.
The different zones have different meanings when the person has a full
or lean writing. The character traits that are mentioned below have to
be determined in conjunction with other traits or features within the
writing. In other words, the graphologist has to find a clus ter of writing
features to be able to determine the character trait with certainty.

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In the upper zone the fullness can indicate the following:

Positive: Negative:
* imagination and mental vision * boastfulness
* figurative description in speech * daydreaming
* dramatic ability * lack of self-criticism

In the middle zone the fullness depicts the following:

Positive: Negative:
* open-mindedness *self-centred,
* generous egocentricity
* warm, hearty, amiable * self-indulgent
* emotional * conventional

In the lower zone this fullness can indicate:

Positive: Negative:
* imagination and activity in * uncontrolled impulsivity
the physical and material arena * erotic fantasies

In contrast, the leanness in the upper zone indicates:

Positive: Negative:
* mental approach to philosophy * lack of imagination
* rational thinking * poverty of ideas
* clear-sightedness * lack of form sense
* critical sense * irritability
* ethical tendencies * rigidity

In the middle zone the lean writer can generally be analysed (in a
cluster of course) as follows:
Positive: Negative:
* coolness * inhibition

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 * matter-of-factness * lack of form sense
* efficiency * narrow-minded
* poverty of inner
resources

In the lower zone the leanness indicates:

Positive: Negative:
* realism * money complex (inhibited
* business acumen and fearful of money)
* sexual inhibition or
frustration
* lack of interest in sports
and the outdoors
(sedentary lifestyle)

The description of character traits is fairly straightforward in this

instance but the graphologist always has to keep in mind that there has
to be a cluster of different features in order to determine if the fullness
or leanness that is present is a positive feature or a negative feature
within the handwriting. Thus it depends on other characteristics on
how the analysis will follow on.

The next section is on covering strokes. Covering strokes occur in

handwriting when the stem of the letter is retraced or covered again
with another stroke. There is no space between the two strokes, i.e. in
the case of the letter ‘l’, there is no space to be found between the
upstroke of the loop, nor the down stroke of the loop. These strokes are
also known as concealing strokes. This does not however, only occur
in the up and the down strokes of looped letters, such as g, l, etc. It can
also occur in letters such as a, o, m, n, and d. Here the person retraces
the top part of the curve. This concealing stroke or covering stroke is

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the attempt of the writer to hush up facts or to conceal aspects. The
area that is affected, i.e. the middle, zone, the upper zone or the lower
zone, will indicate in which area the person is trying to conceal certain
issues. These covering strokes are often so precisely created that the
layman may not notice these retracings. The graphologist has to be
very focussed whilst conducting the analysis, to pick up these little
indiscretions (by using a microscope).

In the upper zone the person is inclined to not share ideas and plans of a
futuristic nature. This person may also be intellectually inhibited, not
allowing his or her thoughts much free rein. In the middle zone, the
person could be secretive about his or her emotions, but could also be
inhibited and shy in dealing with people on a daily basis. They could
also portray a compulsive social reticence. Lastly, the covering stroke
in the lower zone is indicative of instinctive concealment. The person
does not share aspects of his/her sexual life, there are feelings of
anxiety and inhibition, and there may even be feelings of
embarrassment when the area of intimacy and sexuality is broached.
The specimen that goes hand-in-hand with heavy pressure is usually
coupled to erotic and sexual desires, whereas the specimen with weak
pressure is generally interpreted with a more financial or even material
slant.

4.5.17 Connective Forms

The connective form within the handwriting is described as the way the
person shapes the actual letter, especially the n and the m, as well as
describing the ligatures or links between the letters within the words.

The original way of writing used to be in print form. But the

introduction of cursive held many more aspects of interpretation for the
graphologist. Not only did it make the general speed of the writing

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faster, due to the connections formed, without having to lift the pen, it
also produced a fluency and spontaneity not that prevalent in printing.
It is the subconscious thoughts that ‘choose’ which way the letters are
going to be linked. These links weave a more complex pattern of
letters that gives the graphologist greater information regarding the
individual. These links are one of the most naturally developed aspects
of any handwriting. There are four basic connective forms that are
found within handwriting, which include garland, arcade, thread and
angular. The person may also choose to use a combination of any of
the above.

4.5.17.1 Garland
This is seen to be one of the most natural ways of linking
middle zone letters. The garland formation can be likened to a
cup-like formation. The link can only be described as one of
smoothness. The shallower these garland cups are, the speedier
the handwriting becomes.
There are certain character traits that go hand-in-hand with the
garland connective form, and as always, there are positive and
negative traits:
Positive Traits:
• easy-going nature
• sincere
• adaptable
• flexible
• connects easily with others
• confident
• reconcile (compromise)
• natural
• sociable
• kind

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 • sympathetic
• rhythmical
• empathetic
• liberal outlook (if a more wider garland)
• tolerant
• frank
• humanitarian
• able to recognise other people’s optimism
• sometimes considered overly feminine (in women)
• mildness in approach
Negative Traits:
• easily influenced
• lack of discipline
• indetermination
• unstable
• lazy
• emotional
• fickle
• superficial
• inconsistent
• lack of firm attitude (if couple with no pressure)
• tactless (if upright slant intact)
These are the main traits that can be defined (obviously in
conjunction with a cluster of traits, to define which specific one
is the character trait in question) for the garland connective
form. But as always, not every person has the same degree of
garland handwriting, in other words, there are variations to the
simple garland connective form.

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a) Generous Garland – Here the cup-like formation is
deep and the person gives abundantly of the self, but does not
give up any firmness. He or she is not easily taken advantage of.
b) Flattened Garland – This is a weak and flaccid-looking
cup. The person is very open to influence and manipulation is
passively receptive, is extremely susceptible, even lacking
resistance. These people are considered to be proverbial
chatterboxes. If it spreads out to such a degree that it actually
droops below the baseline, the person is considered receptive to
depression.
c) Pronated or Pseudo Garland – The cup-like formation
of the garland sticks so much to the baseline, that the cup takes
on a square look. This is an artificial writing, where the
practical adaptability and amiability are only there for show.
The person is strictly conventional and rejects any instinctual
drives he or she may have.
d) Deep, narrow Garland (supported) – Here the writer
retraces strokes (as in the case of a concealing or covering
stroke) portraying extreme control. The person is actually in
contradiction with the self, as the garland form is a naturally
flowing movement, whereas the control used to retrace the
strokes is not natural, requiring too much control on the part of
the writer. The writer in this case is shy, reticent and inhibited.
He or she needs a sympathetic ear to deal with emotional
upsets, as well as needing someone to keep his or her spirits up.
The person furthermore needs someone who endeavours to
encourage him or her to speak their mind.
e) Looped Garland – This is a leftward movement that is
also negative within this connective form. The person moves
backward to maintain a certain equilibrium. In other words, this
person gives, but in the same breath expects something back.

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This person is described as an opportunist, rather than a
dishonest personality.

4.5.17.1 Arcade
The arcade type of connective form, as described by the name,
is the opposite of the garland and signifies an arch. The
construction of this connective form is more time-consuming
than the one above, needing greater care. The person that
chooses this form can be diplomatic and open, but in the same
breath is not necessarily the friendliest person, even testing the
friendship before accepting it. The person is more watchful, has
a good sense of balance but can show coolness in character,
even hiding his or her true thoughts.

As always, the positive and negative character traits of this

connective form are as follows:
Positive Traits:
• inner independence
• trustworthy
• artistic sense of proportion
• sense of distance
• sense of form and style
• stable sense of values
• sceptical
• desire to protect
• pensive
• meditative
• shy
• cautious
• secretive
• depth of feeling

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 • formal
• impenetrable
• proud
• sense of tradition
• feeling of distinction
• profound
Negative Traits:
• haughty
• inscrutable
• desire to hide
• hypocritical
• scheming personality
• intriguing
• insincere
• affect and falseness
• pretentious
• suspicious
• tendency to lie
• mistrustful
The traits mentioned above can be considered to va rying
degrees, when the graphologist analyses the different types of
arcade that can be found in handwriting:

a) Shallow Arcade - This is a generally negative indication

about the writer, as he or she is a schemer or a liar.
b) Narrow Arcade – This is again indicative of a covering
stroke, where the writer retraces certain strokes. In this
case, the specimen shows a person that is reticent, fearful or
secretive in nature, even insincere. The person may be
emotional repressed due to an unhappy childhood. The

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 arcade is upside down from that of the cup in the garland
form, and is subsequently susceptible to all kinds of
influences from the lower zone that are usually of an
instinctual nature. This could include the subliminal
stirrings of the libido, both in pure sexuality and in creative
force, the mystical, instinctual fantasies, dream life and the
constant flow of vital energy.

4.5.17.2 Angle
The angle is a connective form that requires the writer to make
three movements, as opposed to the two of garland and arcade.
This angularity is an indication that the writer prefers to be in
control and likes to exercise discipline over subordinates. They
are usually good leaders. The person that uses the angular
connective form would never shy away from a challenge, nor
would they hesitate to take responsibility. However, they do
lack the ability to allow change to happen fluidly. They are
known to be relentless and have a very strong will power. They
are often described as fixed in ideas and outlook, as well as
being precise, even sometimes aggressive. This writing in
comparison to garland and arcade lacks a certain smoothness
and rhythm. The writers of angles are often considered highly
intelligent. An example would be Albert Einstein, whose
handwriting was angular, regular and small, but not narrow
(narrowness is indicative of too much control and narrow-
mindedness).
An angular writing portrays the following traits:

Positive Traits:
• firm
• decisive

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• preponderance of reason
• strict
• disciplined outlook on life
• stern
• serious thoughts
• conscientious
• obedience to duty
• persistence
• thorough
• orderly
• contempt for an easy life
• inner conflicts
• constant
• high degree of resolution
• determined
• orderly mind and planning ability
• goal-oriented
• steadfast
• sense of obligation
• reliable
Negative Traits:
• pretentious
• punctilious
• callous
• intolerant
• aggressive
• lack of humour
• slow
• heavy
• dissatisfied

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 • irritable
• excitable
• suspicious
• domineering
• greedy
• unyielding
• uncompromising
• rigid
• pitilessly logical
• unsociable
• aim is to reason
• lack of humanness
• unsympathetic

The more angular the handwriting specimen, the more rigid and
frustrated the individual, however sharp-minded and intelligent
he or she might be.

4.5.17.3 Thread
If the links between the letters fall outside of the above three
groupings, and the linkage is indefinite in nature, with little
clarity, then the connective form is called a thready or thread
connective form. Usually writers that use thread as their
connective form belong to a creative group, but also very
mature and versatile people may use this connective form. The
stronger the quality of the thread (good pressure, good form
standard, etc.) the more the writer is concerned with the end
result, disregarding that he or she might step on “some toes” to
achieve this goal. These people are often very ruthless in trying
to achieve their goals – “The end justify the means” as coined
by N. Machiavelli.

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This form is very interesting, as one will find people such as
politicians, psychiatrists, diplomats, psychologist, business men
etc. who prefer using this connective form. The writers are
often highly adaptable and flexible in nature, as well as
imaginative. This form portrays people that like to live their
life according to their own rules, with little or no influence from
the outside world. This connective form shows the person to be
intelligent but the graphologist has to analyse further areas to
determine what kind of intelligence the person exhibits. The
thready writer can often reflect the moods of others; they can
lack stamina and are inclined to move with these moods. They
have to be given the freedom to exercise their fluid-type
mentality and attitude. They are not rigid, and often struggle in
such an environment.

Positive Traits:
• ready for any situation
• creative
• foresight
• versatile
• adaptable
• dexterity
• elasticity
• multiplicity of talents
• diplomatic
• writer sees everything and receives impressions
• instinct
• spontaneous understanding

Negative Traits:
• destructive

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 • lack of character
• resentment
• envy
• deceitful
• lack of conscience
• insincere
• feminine trends in men
• elusive

a) Threads with pressure – The person portrays a creative

instinct, and does not want to be tied up in any way whatsoever.
They bend the rules and have the ability to wriggle out of many
situations. Positive interpretation: the person is brilliant,
creative, has psychological insight, is diplomatic, versatile, and
adaptable and can show extreme dexterity. Negative
interpretation: the person lacks principles, he or she struggles to
make up his or her mind. He/she may be a swindler, who is
elusive and cunning. There may be traits of hysteria and
ambiguity present.
b) Threads without pressure – The person is hasty in
writing and exerts little pressure, which portrays a person that is
muddleheaded, careless and hasty. He or she is spineless and
tries to avoid issues but rushes ahead in other instances. This
person has many sides and cannot be pinned down. Most issues
are swung around to benefit them and he or she will bend the
rules to his or her advantage. The person can also be of a ge ntle
nature. If the thread is without pressure but speedy, then the
person can be understanding and has the ability to sympathise
with many people.

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c) Threads with points towards the lower zone (extreme
stretched arcade) – the person is ruled by instinct and will not
heed the law.
d) Threads with points towards the upper zone
(extreme stretched garland) – The writer is acutely intelligent,
very observant and receptive in nature. The person is very
aware of the happenings within his or her environment.
e) Thread toward the end of the words – The writer
decreases the size of the lettering, but not to the detriment of the
legibility of the script. This is an intuitive cast of mind. The
person has psychological insights into other people and their
problems. This thread can occur in certain instances because of
a speedy writing, especially on the suffix ‘ing’ in certain words.
f) Thread in the middle of the word – This is a very
negative sign, indicating that the person is struggling to
maintain in control of his or her situation. This thread is
indicative of indecision and characterises hysteria within the
writer.
g) Thread with heavy pressure toward the end of the
word – This pressure, if it occurs specifically on the horizontal
axis, shows a person that is violent, aggressive and very capable
of venting his or her temper. This person does not suppress
his/her feelings of anger or rage.

4.5.17.4 Others
There are several further connective forms found in handwriting
specimens. They however, do not fall into any of the four
specific categories above, as they are more rare in nature, i.e.
they do not occur as often as the ones above.

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a) The double curve or ‘s’ link connective form - The
person is very diplomatic in nature, and can be inconstant and
shifting but also very versatile. The person is also
impressionable and changeable.
b) The Sacre’ Coeur – This type of connective form was
used in French Convents some time ago, but has been replaced
by a more, flowing and modern one. The Sacre Coeur is an
angular connective and is seen very rarely because it has
become outdated. If found, it is usually interpreted as a form of
the angular connective form (see 4.5.17.3 for angle
interpretation).
c) Shark’s Tooth – This is another form of the arcade
connective form, but it falls into a category of its own, as it is
extremely rare. It can be described as the forward movement of
the arcade, followed by a backward stroke. The top stroke
partly covers the lower stroke, and the resultant strokes look
like a ‘tooth’. This is an extreme opportunist that will take
advantage of others. But it can also describe a person that is
socially inhibited and fears rejection by others. This has to be
analysed in conjunction with other graphological features to
determine what type of person this portrays.

4.5.17.5 Combinations of connective forms

There are also certain combinations of the main four connective
forms. This type of variation does not detract from the unity or
clarity of the individual’s expression. It indicates flexibility and
versatility in personality structure. If there is only one type of
connective form present, then the writer is deemed as having a
one-sided personality, which is a predictable aspect of the
personality. However, the graphologist sometimes does come
across a mixture of three connective forms. This mixture

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describes an individual with character traits from opposing sides
of the continuum. This individual is usually confused and may
be very difficult to decipher, in terms of the analysis.

Below follows a brief explanation of the combinations of

connective forms that exist:

a) Arcade on first letter - This option is only applicable if

there is a different connective form used elsewhere. This arcade
is a salutation that can be considered to be a formal gesture, like
a speaker greeting his/her audience.
b) Arcade on last letter – The person tends to retreat and
be inhibited, due either to a defence mechanism or
embarrassment, or even a suppressed impulse arising from
insincerity.
c) Garland with some angles – The angles are a positive
feature here, as they lend strength to the garland formation.
This indicates that the person is warm and easy-going but
strong, and subsequently not easily manipulated either.
d) Garland with arcade – The person exhibits an
openness that is controlled with a reserved attitude. He or she
may even be artistic, possessing a multiplicity of talent. If the
form standard however, is not positive, then the person is seen
to be unreliable.
e) Arcade with garlands – The garland is a softening
measure for the arcade connective form. It softens the severity
of the arcade. The person is reserved and introverted but there
is definite inner warmth radiating from this person.
f) Angle with some garland – The interpretation of this
character is difficult, as the person in question has an
irreconcilable character, meaning that many different

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descriptions of this person abound from many different
acquaintances.
g) Rounded with garland – This person is the proverbial
“open book”. There is nothing that he or she hides away. This
is true if there is not retracing to be found in the writing.
h) Regular, angular, narrow and pressure - The writer is
very controlled and non-spontaneous in nature, to the extent of
rigidity.
i) Garland with thread – This writer has very little will-
power. If couple d with light pressure, then the writer’s mind
will tend to wanders, not staying focused.
j) Arcade with angles – This is the exhibition of a person
that is pompous and rigid. Professionally, these people excel
but often enough they are emotionally stunted
(underdeveloped). They are sometimes so critical that they
drive their loved ones away.
k) Arcade with thread – These people may portray a
creative nature, but in a negative manner. The type of person
that uses this arcade with thread is often found to be a criminal
or a plotter. They are also anti-social, secretive and difficult to
understand. The motivation lies in the instinctual sphere, as the
instincts regulate the person’s will. The arcade is a connective
form that allows the instincts to influence the person as this
form is open to the bottom or lower zone, which houses the
instincts. The thready connective form is a form that is not
indicative of a very strong-willed. Thus, the arcade with thread
will more often then not allow the instincts to come to the fore
and to rule the behaviour of this writer.
l) Threads with angles – These people could be described
as geniuses. The angle is an intelligent connective form and the
thread the most open one. The demanding nature of the angular

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 connective form is complemented by the open-mindedness of
the thread.

4.5.18 Capitals, First and Last Letters

4.5.18.1 Capitals – The Sizes

The word ‘capitals’ already influences our thoughts with
feelings of greatness and strength, even the idea of a starting
point. Thus the capital letter is indicative of the esteem that we
bestow on ourselves. One of the capital letters that has become
a great indication of the self is the personal pronoun ‘I’,
especially in the English language. In many other languages,
the personal pronoun ‘I’ is not just one capital, but rather a
word, such as in German “ich”, in France “je”, in Latin “ego”,
etc. When given a specimen that is written in English, one can
bestow much interest in this single letter to identify the person’s
feelings for him self. The capital letter can be bold, in the
signature only, or at the beginning of a paragraph or sentence.
For the graphologist the matter of where the capital letter is
situated is not so important as considering the size and shape as
a reflection of the person’s character structure.

There are three sizes of capitals – large, medium and small.

a) Large Capitals
In this instance, the capital letter extends well into the upper
zone, possibly even in disproportion to the rest of the letters.
This is not only an indication of the fact that the person thinks
very highly of himself/herself, but that this person feels superior
to others. The person is proud and authoritative and demands to
be recognised by others. These capitals also indicate a person
that is idealistic and striving for perfection. The larger capital is

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also a sign of self -confidence, forcefulness, egotism, vanity,
social prestige and ambition.
The graphologist must also consider the possibility of “over-
compensation” which would show up in a combined relative
small handwriting.
Positive traits:
• pride in achievement
• high regard for self
• self-respecting
• dignified
• far-sightedness (ability to see the bigger picture)
• diligent
• self-esteem
• expansive personality
• formal
• enterprising character
• bold
• accept challenges
• sometimes religious (striving toward God in the
upper zone)
• taste for art, music and/or poetry
• desires greatness
• likes to be observed / dislikes being overlooked
• sense of honour
Negative Traits:
• vain and chooses to exaggerate
• self-display
• impressed by others that have wealth and position
(prestige)
• desire to be greater

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 • pretentious
• marked conceit
• boastful
• affected
• desire to dominate
• difficult person
• bad taste
• show off and wants to impress
• arrogance
• delusions of grandeur

b) Medium Capitals
The capitals in this type of handwriting are balanced, and are
neither too big nor too small. The person is able to evaluate the
self in an objective manner. The capitals show no exaggeration
or excessiveness and are thus considered to be within the
‘normal’ sphere.
c) Small Capitals
Capitals that are exceedingly low and small reveal a person that
is modest, simple and shows exceeding humility. In an ordinary
handwriting they are indicative of a lack of force, timidity and
even lack of self -confidence. To ascertain a better picture of the
positive and negative traits, please refer to the following list:

Positive Traits:
• concentration
• reserve
• love of detail
• scrutinising manner
• conscientious

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 • modest
• impartial
• executive ability
• energy channelled into thinking
• studious mind
• critical form of thinking
• objective
• concentrated brain group
• matter-of-fact personality
• can specialise (has drive and determination to
specialise in one specific area)
• economical
• tolerant
• power to assimilate facts
• spiritual
• mentally subtle

Negative Traits:
• lack of confidence in self
• feelings of inferiority
• submissiveness to gain a point
• could be despondent
• lack of enthusiasm
• avarice
• overly scrupulous
• pedantic
• fussy
• depression

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4.5.18.2 Initial and Terminal letters
The first or initial letter may be a capital or it may not, but first
letters are indicative (as mentioned above) of the person’s
bearing, his/her initiative, his/her intelligence or simply the
‘front’ that he or she shows to others.
The last or terminal letter shows how the writer carries out
his/her intentions, whether he/she can be relied upon, whether
he/she is arrogant, or whether he/she can be termed co-operative
or not. The letters in-between the first and last letters are the
portrayal of the thinking processes that occur between the start
of thinking, or the intention of doing something, and the
achievement or accomplishment of this action. There are
certain ways that the writer can write the first or initial letter to
express himself/herself.

a) Wide initial letter – The writer prefers the usage of

space and can be termed imaginative, artistic, but in the same
breath, he/she could also be seen as boastful or fantasy-filled.
b) Detached initial letter – The person hesitates in the
thinking processes, taking the time to think and observe, and is
cautious in taking the first step.
c) Lean initial letter – The person is sober in habits,
critical in nature, and not prone to be artistic, but more
reasonable and unimaginative in nature.
d) In a higher position – The writer is generally optimistic
and enthusiastic, both in his/her approach to others, and in
his/her goals.
e) In a lower position – The writer has a more negative or
pessimistic disposition, sometimes even feeling that he/she is at
a disadvantage to others.

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f) Embellished with a flourish – The author is dressing
up his/her writing and himself/herself for self-presentation. In
other words, he/she is trying to make himself look more
presentable to the outside world.
g) More pressure exerted on the initial letter, than on
the following letters – The writer exerts more pressure on this
letter, so as not to waste energy on unimportant, ordinary tasks.
The energy exerted is saved for tasks of a more special nature.
This pressure is found in names of people or objects (the name
of the object) that are important to the writer.
h) Larger in size – The letter is larger than the other
following letters. The writer needs to impress others by
creating feelings of self-importance. If they are
disproportionately taller (especially the letter ‘t’), with added
pressure, the writer is seeking attention and imposes his/her will
unto others.
i) Smaller in size – Here the letter is smaller in size then
the following letters. As opposed to the above, the writer has
feelings of diminished self -importance. However, it may also
be used with a word or an object that the person has a dislike
for.
j) Different in slant in relation to the following letters
or the rest of the writing – The writer will show different
emotions at the start of the relationship or encounter.

As is in the above case with initial letters that start a word, so

are there certain ways of ending a written word. These letters
are termed last letters or terminal letters.

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a) Standing out – The writer is seeking attention, is vain
and obviously wants to be noticed (this is especially the case if
the letter “t” is vertically expanded).
b) Detached from the main word – The person is very
hesitant in carrying out what he or she promised to do. This
type of feature can also show the person to have second
thoughts.
c) Clear and well-proportioned terminal letter – The
writer can be trusted to make clear and trustworthy decisions.
d) Left slanted in an otherwise right slanted or upright
writing – This is considered a counterstroke (any stroke going
against the norm, see section 4.5.25). This type of stroke
indicates feelings of fear, anxiety or inhibition or even dislike
towards a particular letter, which could be the initial of a word
or person of significance to the writer.
e) Letters ‘d’ or ‘t’ chopped off at the end with
pressure, extending below the baseline – The person in this
case is very dogmatic, who insists on forcing his/her views and
opinions onto others.
f) Dropping into a lower position – The author may
portray feelings of fatigue or even discouragement.
g) Rising into a higher position – This writer prefers to
end things on an optimistic note.
h) In the shape of an arcade lifted above the baseline –
The writer believes in formal behaviour in social situations,
even going so far as to isolate him or herself from any social
interaction.
i) Illegible and neglected terminal letters – This is a
warning that the writer is unreliable (depending on other
characteristics in the writing). It could also mean that the

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 person is fatigued or even depressed (this depends on pressure
and position).
j) Larger in size to the rest of the word – This person lacks
diplomacy, blurts out things without thinking about them and is quite
frank.
k) Ending abruptly – This writer is withdrawn and will not lend a
helping hand, nor is he or she known to promptly establish social
interaction.
Note: To cut a letter short implies greater control on the part of the writer,
than to let it flow into a released ending stroke.
l) Trait sospendu (suspended trait) – The ending stroke does not
reach the baseline and conseque ntly, the writer does not want to deal with
the responsibility of reality, he or she would rather not be witness to
anything.

When analysing the last letter of the word and it is diminishing or smaller in size,
the graphologist must never forget that there is also diminishing size of the last
few letters of a word. This, as mentioned above, is usually indicative of a person
that has tact, psychological insight and maturity. This is not only if the last letter
is smaller, but also rather two or three are smaller.

The initial and terminal letters all have a bearing on the analysis of the person and
parts of their personality make-up. They, as always, have to be considered not in
isolation but in conjunction with other traits so as to give a composite picture of
certain personality traits.

4.5.19 Regularity and Irregularity

The regularity or irregularity of the stroke is usually called the barometer of
control. In other words, how much control does the person have in terms of will
power, self-control, etc? The regularity or irregularity in certain cases is
determined by assessing the following three aspects of the handwriting specimen:

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a) The height of the downstroke in the middle zone
b) The width of the middle zone letters
c) The slant of the writing

There has to be regularity in all of the above three components. The height and
width of the middle zone letters and the slant have to be regular throughout the
handwriting sample, so as to be termed a regular writing. If there is too much
variation on the width of the middle zone letters, or the slant is too varied, then
the handwriting cannot be considered regular and is a so-called irregular
handwriting. A specimen that is termed regular is the expression of the authors’
self-control, which is forced upon him or her by the intellect and the will. The
will controlled by the intellect generally has to be stronger than the emotions of
the author, because in that case, there is regularity of the handwriting specimen.
This regularity is not necessarily a pos itive feature within the handwriting sample.
The tendency to create a very regular handwriting can also be indicative of the
tendency towards compulsive behaviour. Regularity may be a sign of stunted
spontaneity and inhibited emotions, so that only small amounts of inhibitions are
needed to effect mechanical orderliness. The person’s psychological impulses
and powers can override the existing inhibitions, which inadvertently will
influence and reduce regularity.

Regularity in the handwriting can indicate any of the following traits – control,
endurance, order, conscientiousness, stability, reliability and steadiness, an
aesthetic sense, tenacity, modesty, feminine traits, but also a coldness of
emotions, rigidity, dullness, constriction, indifference, artificiality, obstinacy, a
lack of energy and the lack of initiative.
Irregularity - on the one hand - can reveal emotionality, vivacity, warmth,
creativity, impressionability, spontaneity and flexibility, but on the other hand, it
can also show excitability, indecisiveness, inconstancy, moodiness, undisciplined

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behaviour and even irritability. An irregular writing may also be indicative of
creative power. This means that an irregular handwriting, with a number of
individual forms, as well as a convincing rhythm, can still be positive in nature.
Beethoven for example, had this type of irregularity in his handwriting.

As in most cases of interpretation or analysis of handwriting specimens, the

correct assessment is dependent on the form standard, the pressure and obviously
other signs that form a cluster. In general terms, regularity means control and in
this case there are again positive and negative aspects that can portray the
personality.

Positive traits of regularity:

• firm
• resistant
• resolute
• decisive
• endurance
• stable
• orderly
• inwardly secure
• moderate in nature
• sense of aesthetics
• methodical

Negative traits of regular handwriting:

• cold
• constricted
• indifferent
• boring

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 • unimpressionable
• rigid
• dull
• stiff

The following traits are the positive and negative sides to an irregular
handwriting specimen:

Positive traits:
• emotional
• vivacious
• creative
• warm
• impressionable
• sensitive
• open-minded
• flexible
Negative traits:
• inconstant
• indecisive
• irritable
• excitable
• distractible
• purposeless
• curious
• moody
• fault-finding
• undisciplined behaviour
• directionless (if there is no pressure exerted on the
handwriting)

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This regularity and irregularity can also be found to work in combination with one
another and there are different interpretations in terms of heavy or light pressure
that may be exerted by the writer.

a) Regular writing with heavy pressure

This type of writing can be either positive or negative in nature. The
positive side of this writing can be defined as follows:
The person may be either:
• energetic
• steady
• reliable
• fearless
• masculine
• able to take responsibility
• staying power with respect to work

But this may also be indicative of negative traits:

• stubborn
• vain
• obsession with details

b) Regular writing with light pressure

The positive and negative traits are as follows:
Positive traits:
• agile
• flexible
• modest
• adaptable
• feminine
Negative traits:

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 • lack of energy
• easily influenced
• unsteady
• lacking initiative
• lacking determination
• proverbial “cold fish”

c) Irregular writing with heavy pressure

Positive traits:
• vitality
• resolute
• receptive
• adaptable
Negative traits:
• nervous energy
• impulsive
• irritable
• obstinate
• aggressive
• excitable
• violent nature (brutal with confirmation)

d) Irregular writing with light pressure

Positive traits:
• delicate feelings
• sensitive nature
• impressionable
• idealistic
Negative traits:
• superficial

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 • timid
• distractible
• lofty
• undisciplined
• dreamy

4.5.20 Connections between letters

In schools throughout the world today, two methods of teaching the children how
to write are used. The first being the cursive script and the other being the uncial.
The cursive script is described by Marley (1972) as a running manuscript,
whereas the uncial is known as script or as printing (be it lower case or upper case
printing).

The cursive writing is a fluid and connected way of writing. The writer simply
preferring not to lift the pen off the page to move on to the next letter connects the
letters that then create a word. Here the connection theory explains that a cursive
writing is considered connected, when at least five letters or more are connected
in one single movement, without once lifting the pen from the paper.

A handwriting specimen, on the other hand, is considered to be disconnected

when the pen is lifted more frequently from the page, so that most of the letters
are not at all connected by the same movement. Writers not only lift the pen to
dot an ‘i’ or to cross a ‘t’; certain writers “automatically” lift their pen when the
syllable within a word is finished, for example, in the word grinding. The first
five letters symbolise the first syllable, ‘grind’. If the person wishes to lift the pen
to indicate this syllable, it is considered the norm to do so. The letters are usually
connected through the rightward moving upstroke of the writer’s pen. These pen
strokes are considered the bridge between the ‘self’ and the outside world. If the
writing is a connected writing, then the person has an individual approach to
matters of social and intellectual association. It is also indicative of logical,

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continuous progressive thoughts. The progression is towards an objective with
the necessary organisation and co-ordination.

The level of connectedness has to be assessed as well. Certain people connect

even the ‘i’ dots to the next letter, so there are minimal pen lifts and very little
disconnections whatsoever. This is usually a sign of a high degree of intelligence
and co-ordinating ability. There are certain specimens that are so highly linked
that many words are even linked together.
In general, the connected writing is a more masculine trait. It suggests a logical
cast of mind, as well as supporting the desire to bind, to cast together or to mix
and arrange.
The disconnected writing is the opposite and found to be a more feminine trait.
This trait suggests a person with an intuitive nature. There is also the desire to
isolate, enclose, and collect, to conserve and to fence off.

Continuity is not only the connectedness on paper, the actual trace of the mark of
the pen on paper, but it is also the pen being lifted in certain instances, so that
there is no mark. But the path from the end of the letter to the beginning of the
next letter is imaginary. In other words, the graphologist can trace this imaginary
“airline” that exists. The letters form the word in one smooth movement. The
curve of the movement may disappear when the pen is lifted, but there is no major
disturbance, so that the path may be traced in a smooth, continuous movement
(these are imaginary, invisible connections).
Discontinuity occurs when there is an actual shift in the direction of the pen
stroke. The airline that exists above can not be traced, as the letters’ movement
does not flow smoothly from one to the other.
Another discontinuity that occurs, is one that may not be visible to the naked eye.
The writer lifts the pen off the paper but resumes writing at the point where the
pen lifted off from the paper. This type of stroke is called a “soldering break ”.
The writer slightly retraces the existing stroke, so as to fit together the ‘broken’
parts of the stroke. The soldering is usually a sign of stress that the writer may be

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under. The writing may even be a forgery or the writer is being dishonest. The
soldering is not visible to the naked eye, but under closer scrutiny (magnifying
glass), it does show up.

The continuous writing implies that the author has good integration and good co-
ordination abilities. The writer has continuity in thoughts and action, which are
coupled with sparks of intuition. These sparks are ideas that follow on and do not
interrupt the logical sequence of thought. This writer mistrusts his/her intuitive
feelings, preferring to be rational in nature, desiring scientific proof of almost
everything in life.

The discontinuous writing has (as can be commonly referred to as) bad unseen
connections . These bad unseen connections (one cannot see were the letters are
connected), include holes in-between letters, shifts in direction of the pen
movement, resting points or mistakes in the connections, soldering, or even added
strokes. These invisible connections are negative, as they represent the
discontinuity of the writers thoughts and actions – the proverbial “scatterbrain”.
These are signs of unsound behaviour, even compulsion. The writer suffers from
a mix of ideas and has difficulty in trying to reason logically. Furthermore, the
person has difficulty in integrating the self and adjusting to the environment. The
person feels they do not belong and they struggle to extend a hand in friendship.
They have problems in working in a ‘normal’ line of work, as they often suffer
from memory lapses. However, the graphologist has to consider that these bad
connections may be the result of a speech impediment. The impediment can also
cause broken letters.

This facet of handwriting is indicative of the person’s attempt at establishing a

link. There are numerous ideas that are connected to this idea of the link. In the
social sense, in the middle zone, the link means that we would like to hold hands
with others, and want to be part of the environment. In the intellectual sphere, the
upper zone, it means that the person is able to link different ideas together, then

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communicates these thoughts, often indicating goal-driven aims. And lastly, in
the material sense, in the lower zone, the person is able to make good socio-erotic
adjustments.
These spheres or areas mentioned above are the zones that are mentioned at the
beginning of this chapter.

The overly connected writing, where even the words are sometimes connected, is
called over-connected writing. In conjunction with other aspects in the
handwriting, this feature indicates the ability to communicate somewhere between
the skills of an orator or performer, and the skills of a producer. In certain
instances it may indicate a person that is trying to link aspects that neither belong
together, nor are remotely related - sometimes even to the extent of forcing these
aspects together. If this over-connected handwriting is found in conjunction with
a lazy and otherwise sloppy handwriting, it describes a person that prefers to
follow a path of least resistance.

This factor of handwriting is not always concerned with the connections between
letters, but can sometimes relate to letters themselves and the subsequent strokes
that are made to form these letters. If the writing has ‘fragmented’ lettering,
where the letters are actually broken into parts, the author suffers from a peculiar
disorganisation. The writer wants to burn the bridges between the self and other
people. These ‘writers’ are often termed asocial creatures.
These breaks in the various zones could have several explanations about the
person’s character or personality:

a) Breaks in vertical up and downstrokes – this type of

fragmentation could indicate a person that has heart trouble; and this is
always a sign of a person that is under heavy pressure or stress.
b) Disconnected in upper zone (intellectual sphere) between
upper and middle zone – the person suffers lapses in attention. He or she
can also talk at a tangent and sometimes make strong intuitive leaps.

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 c) Disconnected in lower zone (instinctual sphere), especially in
the loops – the person refuses or may not have the capability to adjust in
the socio-erotic arena.
d) Disconnected in the middle zone – the person cannot connect
experiences and is also not able to discern relationships on a common
sense basis, as they are unable to adapt to the environment.
e) Disconnected from the lower zone to the middle zone – the
person does not use past experiences as a measure of learning. They can
also suffer from the inability to finish what they have started; and they
sometimes cannot, or they shy away from, acting out their instinctual
needs.

This connectedness and the continuity of handwriting is important because the

writer sees the following symbolically:

a) Letter – this symbolises an idea that the writer has

b) Word – this is the sequence of ideas formed in the writers mind
c) Line – the writer’s ability to reason

Thus, the disconnected writing is characteristic of the writer’s tendency to

analyse, to separate and to divide. The person is an analyst. The connected
writing on the other hand implies the character that wants to synthesise, to put
together.
An overview of character traits of the cursive and uncial writing follows:
Cursive or connected writing:
Positive traits:
• systematic thinker
• logical
• continuity of thought
• planning

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 • sense of calculation and strategy
• reasoning
• deductive thinking
• abstract thinking
• steadiness in work
• theoretical worker
• philosophical
• ability to fight through facts
• need and desire for change
• goal-oriented
• co-operative
• individual approach to matters
• persistence in work situations
• purposeful
• social contact, as well as intellectual association
• practical realistic
• comprehensive thinking
Negative traits:
• inconsiderate
• lack of intuitive thinking
• poor observation
• negligence
• restless
• tactless
• lack of originality

The character traits of the uncial or disconnected writing:

Positive traits:
• intuitive thinking
• imagination and vision

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 • inventive
• observation and planning
• self-reliance
• intellectual initiative
• quick grasp and insight
• critical nature
• inspirational
• emotional sensitivity
Negative traits:
• inconsistent
• anti-social
• lack of forethought
• ego-centric
• stubborn
• moody
• greedy
• lonely
• uncertain
• inner fears
• lack of security
• possible inferiority complex
• lacking adaptability
• possible bad memory
• disliking criticism
• restless
• lacking logical reasoning
• selfish
• fearful

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4.5.21 Simplification and Amplification (General Writing Movement)
When the individual is taught to write, there are certain ways that the strokes
forming the specific letter are formed. Throughout the years, the maturing writer
will refine this writing skill, through either amplification or simplification.
Simplification is merely simplifying the letter. This could mean leaving out the
starting stroke that was taught initially, or disposing of the loops, so as to decrease
the number of strokes it would take to create the letter.
The amplification that could occur in the writing includes any strokes that are
added to the writing, or especially certain letters. This amplification is affixing
more strokes or circles or spirals, or anything that does not actually belong to the
letter, as it was initially taught the individual.
Both simplification and amplification are a positive trait within the writing of the
individual, as long as they do not lead to neglect or exaggeration, respectively.

As touched upon above, the reason people’s handwritings change from those of
our earliest teachings is that people mature. They grow older and they develop
their own personality. As we grow older, we either add something to the writing
or we take something away. These additions and ‘taking away’ are respectively
called amplification and simplification.

4.5.21.1 Simplification
The simplification of letters is a movement that is used to change a letter
to a much simpler form. In other words, the essence of the letters is still
formed, so that any reader can distinguish which letter was produced but
any excessive parts of the letters are omitted. In the instance of the letter
‘l’, instead of writing it with a loop, the person may choose to produce
only a stick to form the upper zone part of the letter ‘l’. The eradication of
the upper zone and lower zone loops is the most common way of
simplifying a letter.
The writer in this instance can see the pure essentials. These are generally
uncomplicated, objective and do not stand on formality. They prefer to

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use the direct approach and can very simply differentiate between what is
important and what is not.

The simplification of letters denotes the following characteristics:

• Concentration, if created in conjunction with a good, connected middle
zone
• Intelligence, especially if the person uses printed capitals
• Objectivity, when there are good spaces between the lines and the
words
• Practicality, if the letters are lean and the writer uses useful short-cuts
• Maturity, when the writing does not match the copybook way of
writing
• Cultural pursuits, if the upper zone is good and the writing is
individualistic

There are certain characteristics that can be classified as positive, as well

as negative, which are listed below:

Positive traits (in addition to the above-mentioned):

• philosophical frugality
• creative
• practical
• self-abnegation
• mature pondering
• sense of dealing with essentials
• thoughtful
• simplicity of outlook
• clarity
• sense of order
• direct approach

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 • insight
• wisdom
• mental power to weigh and to judge
• sense of reality and observation
• good communication skills
• ability to plan

However, the simplification should never endanger the writer’s hand to

the extent of the letters being neglected or decayed. Neglect or decay is
where the basic structure of the letter is damaged so much that the reader
cannot define the actual letter – what letter it was to start off with. These
letters are half-formed; they are careless letters with breaks in the
connections, slack form and simultaneously they become ambiguous and
difficult to read. If this poor style of writing is not due to illness or old
age, then the writer portrays the following poor or negative traits:

• insincere
• disorderly
• unpunctual
• indolent
• bad-mannered
• inconsiderate
• unco-operative
• reserved
• lacking social contact
• tactless
• lack of appreciation for anything that does not serve a
purpose in life
• lacking a sense of beauty
• lacking a sense of tradition

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 • neglect
• insincere
• cold
• ruthless

It is often businessmen and opportunists that apply these simplifications,

as their life is deemed useful. The opportunist especially, wants
everything in life to be useful, for it to serve a purpose. If they are not
useful, then they are not even considered.

There may be instances where the simplification is due to a poor

education. The writing will be slow and the simplicity a sign of an
uncomplicated mind. The mind may be limited of mental prowess, lack of
imagination and/or lack of energy.
A faster, neglected writing is compared to a rush of thoughts spewing out
of the authors’ mouth and the reader having difficulty in following the
conversation. The communication becomes difficult and the roots may lie
in narcissism (only if amplification occurs in the middle zone). The writer
may also need to cover up an inner security, hiding behind the
hyperactivity.

4.5.21.2 Amplification
The amplified writing is more complicated, as the strokes are added.
There is more added to the letter, than was taught the student by the
copybook. The amplification can be divided into two further sections,
namely embellished and enriched. The embellished handwriting is a
flourish that is added in a non-aesthetical manner, which impairs legibility
and impedes the speed of the handwriting. The enriched handwriting
includes added flourishes that enrich the beauty of the handwriting. They
are aesthetically pleasing and they do not detract from the legibility, nor
do they hinder the speed of the writing.

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The embellished flourishes are mostly expressions of boastfulness, vanity
and coquetry and a craving for originality and attention. There may even
be an overcompensation of feelings of inferiority, inner uncertainty
masked by an exhibition of self-assurance. The enriched flourishes are
original, and illustrate a taste for decorative forms of presentation. The
flourishes are an artistic leaning, creativity, and an ability to communicate
ideas in a colourful manner. These decorative strokes have an origin in
ancient handwriting, such as calligraphy. These types of strokes are also
emblematic for pedantic and fussy people.
When considering the different amplifications, it becomes clear that
embellishments are rather negative in nature and carry mainly negative
traits. On the other hand the enrichments are more positive and are thus
depicting mainly positive traits.
Positive traits (enrichments):
• taste for a decorative forms of presentation
• taste for effects and arrangements
• a sense of form
• pride and formality
• cultivation of details
• original
• sense of representation
• urge to create an original atmosphere
• ability to smooth and to reconcile
• living in the past, traditional
• desire for traditional living
• desire to live in a colourful atmosphere
Negative traits (embellishments):
• bad and vulgar taste
• vain
• boastful

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 • posing
• affectation
• pompous
• cumbersome
• complexities in outlook
• vain exaggeration
• desires to ‘show off’
• over-emphasis on formality
• eccentric

4.5.22 Diacritics
There is the saying that you must ‘cross your t’s and dot your i’s’. Many people
use these words but few know what their actual truth is in terms of graphology.
The crossing of the ‘t’ and the dotting of the ‘i’ can be related to memory (the
writer remembers to go back to dot the ‘i’ or to cross the ‘t’), or to problem
solving (working on the smaller issues, the nitty-gritty). These aspects of
handwriting are known as the diacritics.

4.5.22.1 The ‘i’ dot

The ‘i’ is the only letter that is made up of separated parts. Omitting the
dot is akin to omitting part of the letter. For some people it is not
important, but this omission has a significant impact on the analysis of the
specimen. The omission can indicate laziness, impatience, poor memory
and lack of respect for the reader or indifference toward him/her. The
omission of the dot is always considered as a “bad thing” when doing an
analysis. The examination of the ‘i’ dot requires a “strong” optical
measuring instrument.

Certain writers connect the dot to the rest of the ‘i’ in one fluid motion.
This identifies a writer that is mature and has rapid thoughts. In most
cases, they even possess a very high intelligence, where deductive

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thinking takes place. The person may be in the habit of placing the dot by
using a fine or fluid stroke to form a connecting link from the dot to the
following letter. The writer has considerable organising and co-ordinating
ability. This movement is quick and spontaneous, and offers no delay to
the writing movement. This movement especially is hard to teach people,
as it is part of the deep subconscious and is part of the natural movement
in an upright or rightward direction. The connection of the ‘i’-dot to the
next letter can either indicate a good intellect with a brilliant associative
ability (as described above). This is what is known as deductive thinking
– changing inspiration from an existing matter and converting it into
something new. On the negative side – when the connection is
unpractical, it may indicate a hyper-intellectual person that tries to
fabricate connections between things or ideas that do not belong together
or are far apart. This person also ensures that others are aware of his/her
intellectual prowess. The writer that is in the habit of connecting the ‘i’
dot to the ‘i’ itself, thinks productively. Productive thinking can be
described as inventing a totally new concept.
There are also writers that prefer to dot there ‘i’s after they have
completed the word. This can indicate a good memory.
The ‘i’ dot generally falls into the intellectual and ethical zone; and any
interpretation needs definite reinforcement in other characteristics within
the handwriting. The following classifications are dependent on
reinforcement (as mentioned above) but can give an indication of the
personality traits of the individual:

a) To the right of the stem – the writing is speedy and the person
shows enthusiasm.
b) To the left of the stem – the person is hesitant and can
procrastinate on certain issues, be extremely cautious and even fearing
involvement.
c) Left ‘faced’ dot – the person is neurotic and eccentric in nature.

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d) Right ‘faced’ dot – the writer is observant.
e) Flying but with an angle – the writer has a sarcastic streak.
f) Tent shaped downwards, or dashed downwards – the writer
exerts self -criticism, keeping his or her emotions under control.
g) Right faced angular – this writer seeks faults, is very critical and
appraises and evaluates people.
h) Tent-shaped upwards – the writer has a critical attitude towards
intangible values, or has a sharp investigative mind.
i) Absent – the individual is careless, even absent-minded. The
writer may lack grounded ethical ideas. The individual that leaves the dot
may be classified as forgetful (simply forgets to dot his or her ‘i’), or the
writer may be depressed (lack of interest in day-to-day, unimportant
things). The interpretation depends on the form standard – thus if the form
standard is negative, then the interpretation will obviously tend toward a
negative interpretation and vice versa, if the form standard is positive.
The cluster or constellation of signs will give further clarity to which
character trait is being displayed by this absenteeism.
j) Wavy dot – the writer is a fun-filled person, with a good sense of
humour.
k) Circled dot – the person may be artistic in an interpretative
manner. If it is found in a man’s writing then it is considered to be a
feminine trait and the person’s interest lies in fashion, hairstyling,
cosmetics, even dancing. If the writing has a low form standard, then the
person wishes to appear different.
l) Connected to following letter – the person has an active mind, is
highly intelligent and can be an ideal research candidate for scientific
projects. There is a further element of the person being an integral and
comprehensive thinker. There may even be a wealth of imaginative
associations within this person.
m) Above the letter, a plain dot – the person has the ability to work
well with details or to do detailed work.

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n) Very weak dot – the writer has little energy and can come across
as unmotivated.
o) Dashed dot – speedy, irritable writer, who is impatient, but can
also be enthusiastic.
p) Horizontally dashed – the individual may blame others for his or
her mistakes.
q) Club shaped – the person has a domineering streak. If there is
heavy pressure, then there is a streak of cruelty within him/her.
r) Vertical and right above – can also be described as a self -critical
being.
s) Arcade – the person in question prefers to control his or her
emotions, and literally wants to “keep a lid” on them.
t) Square dot – the writer is very materialistic in nature.
u) Right above the stem – the writer is accurate, and if the dot is
well rounded, then the person exhibits loyalty, modesty and a good
measure of self-esteem.
v) Dashed, flying high above – the person is an idealist, who likes to
dream.
w) Left leaning flyer – the writer is also a dreamer, but there are
definite cravings for security.
x) If needle pointed to the right and dashed – the writer can be
termed sarcastic.
y) Big, retraced dot – the person perseveres in all that he or she
does.
z) In various positions throughout the writing sample – there is a
definite aimlessness, where the writer does not show a good sense of
direction (especially if shown with a mixed slant).

4.5.22.2 The ‘t’ cross

The ‘t’-bar is either used on the small letter ‘t’ or on the capital letter ‘T’.
The position thereof is vital to the analysis of the person’s leadership and

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control of others. In other words, a shorter ‘t’-bar is indicative of timidity
and a slight lack of confidence. The writer is most probably balanced but
lacks the dynamic thrust to be a forceful leader. Furthermore, there are
those types of people that, when two t’ appear in one word, but not next to
each other, they may use one bridging ‘t’-cross to cross both the t’s at the
same time. These people are natural problem solvers and are often
considered highly valuable for the commerce industry. The person
omitting the ‘t’-cross, as with the omission of the ‘i’-dot, can be
considered perhaps slightly impatient, even lacking the sense of
responsibility, a person lacking real objective and may even consider
himself different from others. There are possibly more than fifty
variations in the type of crossing a person may choose to use. However,
for the purpos e of this dissertation I will mention a few common ones to
highlight the importance of the ‘t’-cross, and how it may be analysed.

When analysing the ‘t’-bar or –cross, there are a number of aspects that
have to be considered. As a graphologist, you have to look at the height,
the position of the bar, the pressure exerted on the bar, the shape thereof, if
it is connected to the following letter, etc. For instance the height of the
bar indicates a person’s goals, is he or she a perfectionist, does he/she
have good judgmental capabilities, is there the foresight and ability to plan
ahead? The stem height of the ‘t’ can indicate idealism or vanity. These
are just certain examples to highlight how diverse the letter ‘t’ actually is.
If the writer uses more than five different ways of writing his ‘t’, then
he/she can be considered neurotic.
The analysis of the ‘t’-bar will be divided into the following:

4.5.22.2.1 The Bar height

a) Above the stem – the writer daydreams.
b) Above the stem with heavy pressure – the writer desires to
advance himself/herself through physical activity.

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c) Above the stem with light pressure – the writer likes to explore
and generally learns from his/her experiences.
d) High and long – the person is proud, ambitious, plans for long
term goals and may be slightly idealistic.
e) Well balanced and precisely placed – an organised, self-
controlled individual, who plans ahead and has attainable goals.
f) Low on the stem – there is obedience, submissiveness, patience,
feelings of inferiority, a person who may doubt himself/herself, but can be
humble.
g) Long and needle point sharp – the person has the tendency to be
verbally cruel and sarcastic.
h) Long with the same thickness throughout – an enthusiastic, self-
assertive and active person, that may come across as protective, even
patronising.
i) Long (same thickness) but with heavy pressure – extremely
forceful will power.
j) Shortened bar – the writer is an underachiever, lacking the desire
for self-control.

4.5.22.2.2 The Stem height

a) Tall - the idealist, with high goals, vanity and wild pride, who
needs appreciation from others.
b) Short – the timid, independent worker that does not take chances.
c) Spread out stem – the slow worker, someone who is indolent.
d) Tent-shaped – the defensive and critical writer, who may show
tendencies towards stubbornness and obstinacy.
e) Straight and blunt, reaching below baseline – the individual is
dogmatic, dignified, but may be domineering and sarcastic in a quietly
cutting way.

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4.5.22.2.3 The Bar height and the Pressure exerted on the bar
(will power)
a) Light pressure – the individual that does not compete; an
individual without much will power and energy. This writer can show
extreme sensitivity.
b) Heavy but feathering out – the indecisive, short-tempered writer
that gives up, but whose ill-temper does not last long enough.
c) Heavy – tendency to always be right, with a good will power.
d) Descending with light pressure - the ‘t’ with the bar, resembles a
cross (X) and the individual is fearful, resigns himself/herself to his
situation.
e) Slanting down, with heavy pressure – this person is
argumentative with a very domineering nature. He/she must have the last
word and is very opinionated.
f) Rising to the right – the writer is ambitious, enthusiastic, as well
as optimistic. However, the person may be a social climber.
g) Star shaped but not crossing the stem – the writer likes to
procrastinate and there is repressed hostility.
h) Star shaped crossing the stem – this individual detests
interference, and can also show signs of angry obstinacy.
i) Loopy ‘t’ stem – the person is sensitive to criticism, and the
bigger the loops, the more sensitive the person is. The individual also
needs support.
j) Star-shaped with loop – the person is prone to persistent
obstinacy.
k) Arched – the writer likes to keep his/her instincts in check. There
may also be an interest in the mystical side of things.
l) Right in the centre – a highly self-disciplined person. Usually
found with surgeons and athletes.
m) Wavy bar – the person has a good sense of humour and fun.

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 n) Dished – the person is generally shallow and can be very easily
influenced.
o) To the left of the stem – the person has barriers and shows
cautiousness, to the extent of procrastination.
p) No bar – lack of will power and drive in the person, he or she may
suffer from a bad memory or lack of resistance towards others, as well as
lack of initiative and carelessness.
q) Looped – the person has the tenacity and persistence to excel.
r) Knotted – the writer is thorough in all he or she does.
s) Looped and rounded – the writer is self-indulgent, may be lazy
and highly sensitive to criticism.
t) Printed and connected – a constructive thinker.
u) Shorter than the ‘h’ – the writer looks up to others.
v) Higher than the ‘h’ – the writer is conceited, looks down on
others and believes he/she is more important than other people are.
w) Embellished or enriched – this is done in bad taste and shows the
individual to have bad taste, as well as being a show-off.
x) Angular – the writer is aggressive, even resentful.
y) Two bars on the stem – compulsive personality, may even have a
dual personality.
z) ‘T’ looks like the cross – the person is religious (in Christian
faith), or may have a fatalistic attitude in life.
aa) Leftward return stroke – desire to protect the self, to the point of
selfishness. The individual also portrays egocentricity and introversion
and perhaps even feelings of guilt (remember the constellation of signs).
If this is in life.
bb) Starting stroke below the baseline – the individual will show
traits of defensiveness, as well as being argumentative.

From the above examples, it becomes clear that there are many interpretations of
the ‘t’ – bar. The interpretation - as in most cases in a graphological assessment -

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is dependent on a holistic analysis, and not just on the single points that can be
picked out from the above examples. Not all the different options are listed above
either, as there are too many to mention, due to people’s differing character traits,
and so forth.

In conclusion, a writer that uses a variety of ‘t’-bars is classified as neurotic. This

means that the writer uses more than five of the above different options – the
graphologist has to remember the different positions of the ‘t’-crosses as they may
lead to different formations. The ‘t’-cross at the beginning of the word will not be
formed in the same manner as the ‘t’-cross that ends the word. The use of
different ‘t’-bars in the same position usually goes hand in hand with other
unbalanced graphological traits, such as narrowness, thready connections and
irregular slant.

4.5.23 Letter Specifics and Stimulus Letters

4.5.23.1 Letter Specifics

This section will deal with those types of occurrences that do not fit with
the general picture of the handwriting. A letter specific is a letter, or
stroke, or slant that is created or produced differently from the one
prescribed in the country’s copybook, or different to the person’s general
style of writing.
A stroke movement that could differ from the ‘norm’ could include
creating a letter with a clockwise stroke, where the letters are usually
created anti-clockwise. The example here would be the ovals. They are
generally written in an anti-clockwise manner (as per the copy-book), but
for some people it is more natural to create them clockwise. The
clockwise creation of the oval could simply be ascribed to an individual
who is left-handed, as they find this movement easier to perform. The fact
that the individual prefers to construct them clockwise (if the person is

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right-handed), is based in the personality trait. In other words, the person
may be lazy or prefer to work at a quicker pace, or a rebel who goes
against the rule. Thus, creating the ovals clockwise is a lazy or fast-paced
stroke – the interpretation again depends on the Gestalt and the “cluster of
traits theory” of graphology.

The slant of a handwriting sample is right or standard as per the

copybook, but one specific letter jumps out and is written with a total
opposite slant. Examples of this type of letter often are ‘s’ (for example,
denoting the word sex) and ‘f’ (for example, describing the father-figure)
– (see section on stimulus letter). Now if one of these letters is written
with a different slant to the rest of the handwriting sample then the
graphologist will have to note this for the final assessment. The
handwriting may give further indication of the dislike toward the father
(right margin very wide, for example). This type of “counterstroke”
defines anxiety, hostility or even anger towards that specific person or
something that that letter may start off with.

The size of a specific letter may also vary from the rest of the handwriting.
The variation may be in height or in width. The letter has to be noted as it
may represent the initial of a person again causing anxiety, for example.
The size – be it small or large – may indicate that the writer is trying to
downplay or emphasise this specific person. In other words, this
individual may be very important in their lives, or they want them to rather
disappear out of their lives. The feelings towards this person may also be
affect or dislike. In the case of it being affection - then the writer may
even strive to write that person’s initial with enrichments. If however, this
person is disliked then the initial may be written lighter or smaller. In
extreme cases, the initial may not even be in capital letters but in lower
case.

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As an example of letter specifics, I will mention the musical letters that
stand out as symbols. The musical clef symbol was found in both the
signatures of Johan Sebastian Bach and Peter Tschaikowsky.

Heavier pressure is another specific aspect that may creep into the
handwriting. Heavy pressure is usually indicative of aggressive feelings
towards someone or something starting with that letter.

The writer may have clashes in style . These clashes would represent
specific letters or words that differ to the general or overall picture of the
handwriting. A rounded letter in a very angular writing would be a clash
of style. The interpretation in this instance would indicate warmer
feelings towards what that letter could represent, e.g. m for mother.

Erotic symbols may also come to the fore in handwriting samples. These,
like the phallic symbol, could prove an obvious obsession within the
writer, in that specific arena.
A very distinct feature within a handwriting sample is the small letter ‘f’ ,
written in lower case printing with the initial hook produced to the right,
and not to the left. This feature may indicate the possible reversal of
sexual preferences. The letter ‘p’ may have the same indication,
especially if the letter is written in any way contrary to the copybook way
of producing the letter.

Minuscule letters substituted in a space were there should be a capital

letter, show that the writer has little if any respect for that particular place,
person or object. In a letter that Lee Harvey Oswald wrote, he spelt
‘america’ with a small letter a, when it should have been a capital. (He
actually despised the nation, as he applied for Russian citizenship.)

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Pictorial symbolism (‘leitmotif’) often comes to the fore in people’s
signatures, especially with people that are highly or strongly committed to
their vocation. As example is Walt Disney’s signature, which is very
fancy and humouristic, giving people the idea of Mickey Mouse.

Capitals amplified in a generally simplified handwriting, indicates an

individual that bluffs others and seeks attention.

The above letter specifics have to be constant throughout the handwriting,

for them to be considered in any of the above options. If however, it only
occurs once or twice, it is more often than not considered an ‘accident’,
and no weight is given to this feature. And as always the feature that does
appear (if befitting one of the categories above), has to be considered in
conjunction with others in the sample, for its ‘true’ interpretation.

4.5.23.2 Stimulus letters

The stimulus letter that is described above is a specific letter that carries a
certain amount of weight – in the sense of dislike, hatred, fear, anxiety, or
even love - for the writer who 'creates’ this stimulus letter. In other words,
if the individual does not like another person, or even fears this person,
then he/she may use this persons’ initial as a means to convey this fear.
The letter will be written either smaller, much larger or with a different
slant. The difference will depend on the different feelings being felt by
the writer for that specific individual. The letter will definitely ‘stick out’
from the rest of the handwriting. The letter does not specifically have to
be related to a person. It may be related to the position that the person
holds, in other words it may represent a father figure (‘f’) – here the letter
‘f’ is dominant; or it may represent an aspect of a relationship for instance,
there could be sexual problems in the persons life, which means that the
letter ‘s’ would have an omnipresence within the writing.

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 It is these stimulus letters and letter specifics that highlight specific
problems within that person’s life. They have to occur regularly within
the handwriting, i.e. more than three times consistently throughout the
handwriting specimen, for it to be considered a stimulus letter.

4.5.24 Ovals
The ovals within the handwriting are considered as a section on their own due to
the immense variety of options in creating them. The oval within the handwriting
is indicative of the ability or the inability to communicate inner feelings, as well
as being able to define honesty or dishonesty, as the case may be. The examples
below will highlight the “effect” that the ovals can have on the analysis of a
persons’ handwriting sample:

a) Clean, closed ovals – the individual is discreet, communicates

very clearly and is honest in nature.
b) The ovals are open (all of them) – the person in question is
considered a ‘chatterbox’ – the writer is incapable of not revealing
information. They are very open people and sometimes very gullible.
c) The ovals alternate between being open and closed – the
individual has the ability to differentiate between when he/she should say
something and when he/she should stay quiet, he/she knows when to talk
and when to keep secrets.
d) Ovals are tightly closed – the person guards his mouth well, using
a lot of tact and diplomacy in expressing himself or herself.
e) If there is a loop found on both sides of the oval – the person is
generally very cautious, but if the form standard is very low, then the
person may be considered a liar.
f) If only looped to the left side of the oval – the writer is a
secretive person sometimes with a degree of self-deception (lying to the
self).

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g) If looped on the right side of the oval – the person is also
considered secretive, but in this case the deception is towards other people
and not himself/herself.
h) If on closing or beginning the oval, the stroke is inside the
circle and looks like a sharp stab – the person is prone to saying hurtful
things, deemed to have a biting tongue.
i) If the ovals are so narrow that the ink of the pen fills them in
(called ink pools) – the writer has suppressed feelings (may even be
repressed feelings of sexuality) to such an extent, that he/she may be prone
to sudden outbursts of hostility, anger or angry, verbal diatribe.
j) Ovals are open or broken open (fragmented) at the bottom –
this is a sure sign of dishonesty, usually concerning money (embezzling).
The writer cannot be trusted, as they are cunning and deceitful.
k) If the oval is open to the left – the person may either be found to
be two-faced, or found talking behind another persons back. Alternatively
they are usually very successful in careers as double agents, as they are
able to talk to the wrong people (counter-intelligence).
l) If the oval is written squarish – the writer has a tendency to be
technical-minded, the person may have an ‘artificial’ personality to the
point of pre-meditation in approach to life.
m) The oval is created with a starting stroke that covers the top
part of the oval (more than what is taught from the copybook) – the
writer is covering himself/herself up for self-protective reasons.
n) Extremely narrow ovals – the writer is inhibited within the self,
could however portray an outgoing person, but this would only be on the
surface.
o) Very wide ovals – the person requires a lot of space, being self-
centred in nature; however, this may also be due to oppression from an
authority figure (pressing down from the top, squashing the oval length-
wise).

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 p) Involved ovals (lots of lines and circles going through the
circle) – the writer confuses the issue or may be confused, if it is an over-
involved oval the person is definitely deceptive, even cunning in order not
to give himself/herself away.
q) Oval created clockwise (counterstroke) – the writer is a non-
conformist and rebellious. However, this is not the case with left-handed
people.
r) A tiny circle within the oval – the writer loves little children –
and this should be considered very carefully (with a cluster of features) as
it may be found in the handwriting of paedophiles.
s) Ovals created upside down - the person has an indirect approach
to life and may be seen as manipulative.

Thus from the above considerations or examples it becomes clear that the ovals
have a great impact on the analysis of a handwriting sample with regard to a
person’s ability to communicate, as well as with regard to that person’s honesty or
dishonesty. Again these examples are only proven to be true, if there are clusters
or constellations of features that support these examples.

4.5.25 Counterstrokes and Counter-dominants

This section on counterstrokes and counter-dominants will concern itself with
mainly those features wit hin the writing samples that contradict one another. It
may be a simple stroke, a whole letter, or the formation of the letter that goes
against the grain of the rest of the handwriting.

4.5.25.1 Counterstrokes
These are strokes that are written in a way that go against the current, i.e.
it is made with strokes that moves in the opposite direction as learnt from
the copybook. The counterstrokes in handwriting may have positive, as
well as negative interpretations.

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From a positive point of view, if the stroke does not hinder the rhythm
created by the writing, or if it increases the speed or if it is a shortcut that
creates an even more flowing movement of the pen, then this
counterstroke is considered extremely positive for the whole writing
sample. For example, inverting the letter ‘g’. The letter may be written
with a totally different movement (clockwise, rather than anti-clockwise)
but nevertheless retains its legibility, and is thus considered an ‘intelligent’
move. The writer has used shorter or less pen movement to create the
letter. In this instance, the writer has fluid thinking and is considered
progressive, and willing to take risks to succeed.

On the negative side, a counterstroke may cause the letter to take on

characteristics of other letters. The writing then becomes less legible. If
the counterstroke also results in an eccentric structure of the letter then
again, this stroke is interpreted negatively. If the reversal of the letter
structure is less obvious within the middle of the word and the reader or
graphologist in this case, has to struggle to decipher the word, then the
interpretation becomes even more negative. This is a tendency of the
writer to attempt to mislead or even deceive others. There is multiple use
of excuses, facts are turned around to his/her advantage and apparent
truths are denied. Again the holistic point of view has to be considered in
this instance. Does the counterstroke have an overall negative or positive
impact on the handwriting sample being analysed? If it is positive, it
obtains a good rating, and obviously if it is negative, it obtains a negative
or bad grading.
The most common example that can be described for this section is the
oval written in a clockwise fashion, rather than in an anti-clockwise
fashion (as prescribed by the copybook – and explicated above).

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4.5.25.2 Counter-dominants
A counter-dominant is slightly different to a counterstroke. A
counterstroke (as defined above) is a specific stroke (mostly found on only
one specific letter) that flows in the opposite direction of the general flow
of the handwriting. If the handwriting is generally produced according to
the copybook, then a counterstroke is one letter created in the opposite
way. A counter-dominant is any dominant, but clearly opposing or
overpowering feature within the same sample of handwriting (it is
commonly more than just a letter – it may be the slant that is opposing, it
may be the size). This counter-dominant is a feature that is contrary to the
rest of the handwriting. It contradicts itself within the handwriting sample
but does not cancel itself out, but rather co-exists harmoniously or
disharmoniously within that person’s personality. Examples will follow,
but as a point of reference, a graphologist should never consider this
counter-dominant in isolation from the rest of the sample, even though it is
in contradiction to the rest of the writing. The graphologist has to compare
and assess these two features and ascertain how they would co-exist within
the person’s personality. These counter-dominants are prone to present
immense insight into the person’s functioning.

a) A large absolute writing with a small middle zone – the

writer would like to exhibit a high profile but actually has little or
minimal need to relate on an interpersonal level; there is also a
discrepancy between what the writer “wants” to achieve and what
he “can” achieve.
b) Large absolute writing with a marked left slant - a
person that desires to have a high profile and seeks attention, but
innately the person seeks privacy.
c) Large absolute size and light pressure – the writer has
definite attention-seeking behaviour combined with ambition, but
in actual fact lacks the true drive to achieve these ambitions.

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d) Narrow primary width combined with a right slanted
writing – the writer has an intense desire to be an extrovert, but
this need is blocked by the anxiety of having to get involved with
other people.
e) Large capital letters, found together with a small
middle zone – the person may come across as arrogant, but it is a
sense of inadequacy and little need for socialising that underpins
this bluffing and attention-seeking behaviour.
f) Light pressure with angular connections – here the
author has an aggressive way of behaving and of reasoning, but in
actual fact lacks the stomach to fight.
g) Dominant middle zone with heavy pressure exertion –
the person behaves very hard and tough, but is actually very
sentimental and soft, beneath the exterior.
h) Left slant coupled with a dominant middle zone – the
writer desires to interact with others but holds off, rarely putting
this need into practice.
i) Right slanted writing with large spaces between the
words (an extremely powerful counter-dominant) - here the
writer has the compulsion to relate to other people with a matched
compulsion to stay alone.
j) Right slanted writing with left tendencies within all
three zones – the person is only interested in interrelating with
other people, as he/she will gain something (self -gain) from this.
k) Left slanted writing with right tendencies in all three
zones – an introvert that over-compensates to attain a shy level of
sociability which is not to his/her liking.
l) Right slant with a wide right margin – the person has the
aspiration to progress but is held back by feelings of fear as well as
by inner restraints.

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 m) Left slant with close spaces between words – this
introvert values his/her privacy, but has had to adapt to being able
to ease into social relationships.
n) A marked difference between the writer’s text and his
signature – the writer has a different mask (or representation of the
self) for his/her public and his/her private life.
o) Angular middle zone with rounded capitals – the
proverbial “iron fist in a velvet glove”.
p) Tall capitals with a narrow writing – the writer would
like to be noticed, but has strong inner restraints and inhibitions.
q) Tell capitals with weak pressure – the author also has the
desire to be noticed but is prevented in doing so by feelings of
insecurity.
r) Wide writing with a left slant – the person pretends
generosity and an outgoing nature, but has a natural reserve and the
tendency to withdrawal.

These are just some examples to explain the importance of counter-

dominants, as there are many more and many different ones that may
represent the same responses. They are a definite fruitful source of
information regarding the writer and should never be disregarded. These,
along with other clusters or constellations, allow the graphologist to
ascertain if this contradiction works in favour of the writer or if it creates a
disadvantage.

4.5.26 Directional Tendencies (right, left, diagonal, etc.)

These tendencies are any strokes that tend either to the right, the left, diagonally
or what are called circular directional tendencies. These tendencies are all strokes
that are written differently to what is prescribed by the copybook. The right
tending stroke is a stroke that should be written with a left tending movement.
This stroke is then either omitted or it is written with a right tending stroke. For

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instance the ‘t’ - bar should cros s from the left side of the ‘t’ - stem to the right
side, with equal amounts of the bar being found on either side. In the case of a
right directional tendency, the ‘t’ - bar will be drawn only on the right side of the
stem, it may not even be touching the stem, it could be so far away from the ‘t’ –
stem. The opposite applies to the left tending stroke. A ‘t’ – cross would only be
found on the left side of the ‘t’ – stem. The diagonal directional tendency occurs
when the writer chooses to produce strokes that have a definite diagonal slant to
them. For instance, the ‘t’-cross, which should be horizontal and on the ‘t’ –
stem. With the diagonal directional tendency the ‘t’ – cross is written with a
diagonal slant to it – either from the bottom left to the top right, or the top left to
the bottom right. The circular directional tendency often occurs in writing that is
generally quite rounded. The letters are formed as circles and accessories are
made as circles or even spirals.

4.5.26.1 Leftward Directional Tendency

The leftward directional tendency, as clarified above, can occur in the
upper, the lower and the middle zone, as well as with accessories. In the
upper zone the leftward tendency can include anything from too far left
starting strokes, leftward tendencies on ascending letters, to leftward
hooks or curves on the letter ‘d’. In the middle zone these tendencies
could include on the capital ‘I’, the base tending too far to the left, or
having leftward loops on ovals. In the lower zone any of the loops could
have a leftward hook rather than the loop, or the loops would be extended
to the left. The accessories could include ending claw-like strokes and ‘i’
dots or ‘t’ bars to the left of the stem. The interpretation of this feature
within handwriting samples is general regression. Specifically the
interpretation can be divided into the different zones:

a) Upper Zone – the positive interpretation would include character

traits such as meditation, lyrical inclination, (especially if the ‘d’ is written
lyrically), and intellectual self-dependence. The tendency can also be

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interpreted negatively, meaning the person may be resentful, ego-centric,
intellectually self -centred, even vain. There may be a degree of self-
protection.
b) Middle Zone – positively seen the person is prone to
independence and self-reliance with definite attitude towards self-
preservation. From a negative viewpoint, the person may have tendencies
towards egotism, insincerity and even social deceit.
c) Lower Zone – the writer has a motherly disposition, is able to
probe into the subconscious mind and has a positive identification with the
past. But there can also be qualities of narcissism, physical vanity, a need
for protection, sometimes even infantile behaviour. The person has an
unconscious need to incorporate the past and his or her mother into his or
her present life. There may be a tendency to being greedy due to a
previously suffered deprivation.

The leftward tendencies have to be considered in a cluster, along with the

other features and form standard in the handwriting to determine if the
point of departure for the analysis of the specimen would be more positive
or more negative.

4.5.26.2 Rightward Directional Tendency

In general, this tendency attests to an interest in others, involvement in the
environment, in social activities, inner feelings of security, there is a
response to external stimuli and activity. The writer is highly oriented
toward the future, has general progression forward, as well as specific
goals in mind and a striving towards them. The expression of feelings and
emotions comes unhindered and unaffected. The relationships with other
people are good. Thus, from this interpretation, it becomes clear that this
tendency is mainly a positive one, as it denotes growth and progression
toward the future – moving on, and not getting stuck in the past. In the
upper zone any of these right tendencies are indicative of mental alertness,

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striving toward intellectual independence and versatility, as well as goal-
directed thinking. The individual has the ability to intellectually associate
with the environment. However, if the right tendency does lean too much
to the extreme, then the negative side is interpreted. Examples will be
given to highlight the negativity aspect:

a) Long final Strokes – the writer is portrayed as wasteful and

extravagant.
b) If the writing is narrow but there are extra long finals – the
writer is actually falsely generous, trying to hide stinginess.
c) Extended upper zone strokes (extreme) – the writer is asserting
his or her drive for dominance.

These examples are given to elaborate upon the idea of negativity within
the extreme right tendency.
Letters that are broader and expanded indicates the right tendency within
the middle zone. The person is assured and positively, innerly secures.
There are extrovert tendencies, responsiveness by the individual,
sympathy and the willingness to adapt and wanting to get involved.
Again, the exaggeration of this rightward tendency in the middle zone (in
a negative form standard) would indicate the following personality traits -
wastefulness, social indiscrimination (due to dependency needs) and there
would be a need to escape from the self, and an exaggerated need to
communicate that would result in meaningless prattle.

The rightward tendency in the lower zone is achieved by looping the lower
zone loops to the left moving rightward, rather than to the right. This sign
would be interpreted as inquisitiveness and progressiveness and instinctive
understanding. The lack of loops in the lower zone is also interpreted
positively, as this is the tendency of the writer to minimise the time used
to create the lower zone. Thus this symbolically defines goal-directed

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activity. However, on the negative side, if the lower zone is too short,
then this is considered a left-tending stroke, as the writer is using too much
control and time to create this zone. There is no flow and the rhythm
becomes stunted.
As always, the resulting interpretation is not just dependent on the
tendency or its exaggeration, but rather on the holistic approach and the
clusters that may be present.

4.5.26.3 Diagonal Directional Tendency

As mentioned previously, the diagonal directional tendency is a tendency

of the writer to create strokes within his or her ha ndwriting that are
diagonal (from top left, to bottom right or from bottom left to top right).
They may also be present in all three of the zones. As a starting stroke
this tendency can be analysed positively or negatively. In other words, the
person us ing a diagonal directional stroke to start a letter, can be described
as driven or self-motivated, and in the same breath argumentative and
resentful. (Any contradicting traits that do co-exist within any individual,
co-exist sometimes harmoniously, sometimes disharmoniously. It is the
chore of the graphologist to assess if they compliment each other within
the personality, or if they cause great conflict for the individual. The
contradicting traits are assessed, as always, in conjunction with a
constellation of features within the specimen). A ‘t’ – cross that is
directed downward with heavy pressure indicates a person that is
domineering and looks down on others. If the diagonal tendency reaches
from the lower zone into the middle zone, then this person is altruistic by
nature. If there are triangular formations created in lower zone loops, this
diagonal tendency is considered illustrative of bossiness and bitterness of
the individual.
Thus, in conclusion, the interpretation of the diagonal directional tendency
is dependent on where it is formed, where it is initiated, where it is
angular, etc. It is furthermore also dependent on the graphologist

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assessing the cluster and form standard to determine the slant
interpretation.

4.5.26.4 Circular Directional Tendency

The circular directional tendency lends itself to circles, semicircles and
spirals. From a positive point of view, a rounded or circular writing (not
too excessively circular) depicts an individual that is adaptable, flexible,
pliable and tolerant. There is a tendency to be sociable, friendly and
hospitable, even gracious. The writer is also easy-going and relaxed. If
the circular directional tendencies are too excessive then the graphologist
would be interpreting the writer as narcissistic, with obsessive behaviour,
seeking lots of attention from others, as well as pretending generosity so
as to obtain praise and admiration. Thus, very briefly, this tendency
indicates a convoluted way of thinking, and a roundabout attitude. In the
middle zone, the person takes practical action with difficulty. And lastly,
within the lower zone, the writer dwells on aspects such as problems of
survival and participates in repetitive types of physical activity.
In general therefore, the directional tendencies that may occur have to be
analysed in clusters, i.e. three of more directional tendencies have to be
identified to assess aspects of the individuality. In conjunction with this
concept, the graphologist should consider the form standard of the
individual’s handwriting, as it may render information regarding the
directional tendencies identified.
These directional tendencies are never a sure indicator if the person
portrays a specific trait or not; if there are no supporting features within
the sample to support one other main (or seemingly main) feature.

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4.5.27 Constriction, Contraction and Release
The contraction-release theory has two theories upon which it is based. Firstly,
there is the concept of rhythm theory (and thus this section goes hand-in-hand
with the section on rhythm 4.5.12) and the second one is the concept of graphic
symbols, which produce indicators of contracting and releasing tendencies.

According to Klages (Grandin; 1994, pg 103), there are two antagonistic

tendencies within the individual:
“the contest between mind and soul is
reflected in the tendency toward either
contraction or release. The mind is a
measure, the wish to regulate, control and
inhibit. This is expressed as constriction
(narrowness). Soul is the rhythm, the wish
to expand, to experience, to grow into (a)
productive individuality. It is reflected in
the tendencies towards release (expansion,
broadness).”

It is thus that the releasing movement is the spontaneous flow of impulses of

movement. Contraction is the reduction of spontaneity and of the control of the
person.

4.5.27.1 Release
A released writing, as the name describes, is a handwriting that is loose
and has little control in the movement of the hand. It is a free, liberating
movement. Released handwriting is always interpreted with regard to the
specific area in which it is found. A generally released handwriting is
indicative of extraversion, warmth, vivaciousness, creativeness,
naturalness, self-assurance, a positive outlook on life, independence,
initiative and evidently spontaneity. These writers are well-integrated

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individuals with well-balanced personalities, possessing a healthy self-
esteem and courage.
In the upstroke, away from the body, the writer should have the releasing
movement of the hand and pen. This shows the persons’ drive to move
into the unknown/unfamiliar. Ergo, the more pronounced this forward or
upward movement, the more release is indicated and the more the person
is progressively moving toward the future, the unknown, independence,
etc.
However, if there is extreme release within the writing, the writing is
termed ‘slack’. This on the other hand indicates carelessness, disorderly
behaviour, and lack of discipline, impulsiveness and a non-consideration
of the rules. The release of a handwriting is often coupled to the
dominance of emotions within the writer. This dominance can lead to lack
of balance, direction and purpose, as well as fickleness, and having a weak
will, distractibility and unregulated drives. As a result, this release should
not be extreme and there should be a healthy interplay between the release
and contraction within the writing.

4.5.27.2 Contraction
Contraction - the opposite of release - has to be present in the handwriting
sample, along with released movement. There should be a balance
between the contraction and release of the handwriting and thus the hand
movement. Contraction is the controlled return of the pen towards the
writer. This is the control that has to be exerted upon the person, so as to
create a healthy, well-integrated personality. If there is too much control
then the individual is attempting to control instincts and impulses too
intensely. The contraction of the hand movement can be interpreted as
self-denial, self-conquest, firmness, resolution, endurance, concentration
and the ability to control and regulate the drives within the personality.
The contraction, if not well balanced with the release of the hand
movement, exhibits a coldness within the individual, as well as poverty of

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 emotions, stereotypical behaviour, boringness, self-neglect, self-coercion
and lack of self-adjustment.

Consequently, from the above, it becomes abundantly clear that the individual has
to have the interplay of release and contraction so as to have a well-integrated and
balanced personality.

4.5.27.3 Constriction
This constriction is an extreme form of contraction. It is basically the
reduction of spontaneity. The constriction of the handwriting movement
is the conflict between the conscious intention and an unconscious force,
which disturbs the flow of ideas and hence, their expression. Constriction
is interpreted within the area that it is found. In other words, if the
constriction has taken place in the upper zone, then the graphologist
merely interprets the constriction and what it means within the upper zone.
The constriction of handwriting very generally describes fear, inhibition
and insecurity. Where there is extreme constriction, it signals negativism,
tension and/or anxiety, lack of reality-orientation and conceivably apathy.

Constriction is very visible within the graphic symbols of handwriting, as

can be seen below:

a) Tightly restrained writing with short final or ending strokes -

the writer is fearful, inhibited, suspicious and introverted by nature. If
there is angularity within the writing, the individual will display egotistical
rudeness, or may even portray severe neurotic or psychotic stages of
inhibition.
b) Extremely regular writing, i.e. very rigid writing - the person
has a mask, there is no naturalness to the pen skill and there is a monotony
within script and person.

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c) Copybook writing - the writer’s creative forces have been blocked
or even camouflaged.
d) Very regular right margin – this type of occurrence within the
sample is only created with great control. Compressing or extending
words creates this unnatural evenness. The writer as with his writing
exerts copious amounts of control on his or her behaviour and on his or
her personality.
e) Very short strokes on ‘y’ and ‘g’ – the sublimation of sex is
indicated by this feature. The writer may be suppressing his or her sexual
drives or is constraining his or her emotions.
f) Very narrow upper loops – the writer refrains from giving full
expression to emotions, as well as keeping thoughts and ideas to
himself/herself.

There are various internal, as well as external factors that can impede the
natural movement of the hand and pen. This could include cold or hot
weather, desire to hide or dissimulate certain character traits, inhibition in
the presence of others watching over the writer, using an unsuitable pen or
paper, or even the desk or chair may not be comfortable for the writer and
lastly, to name but a few, the restriction of the movement of the hand and
arm – be it held by another (guided) or in a plaster cast.

There are varying degrees of constriction on all three zones. The

constriction that is considered is done at the following levels: the letter
width, the letter spacing, the word spacing and the left and right margins.

In the middle zone, any constriction can indicate inhibition in day-to-day

social activities and relationships. There is a self -consciousness and
timidity in the individual, who will avoid involvement to the best of his or
her abilities. This self-defensive behaviour interferes wit h the capacity for
spontaneous, warm and generous relationships that the person may enter

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into. Extreme constriction in the middle zone such as a covering stroke or
even the hiding of a stroke by another represents evasiveness,
secretiveness and suppression. The writer will not voice his or her true
feelings because of the insecure feelings felt within the parameters of the
relationship.

The upper zone constriction generally depicts the writer that is narrow-
minded. He or she is intolerant of other’s be liefs, because the writer has
difficulty in adjusting his or her thoughts. The extreme constriction within
the upper zone shows the writer unable to accept unconventional ideas,
even fearing to accept new concepts and customs. This individual
specifically, is highly self-critical, and holds himself or herself to strict
limits, reproaching himself or herself for infractions, when he feels he or
she “has let himself or herself down”.

The constriction found in the lower zone describes a person that prefers to
live without excitement or change. He or she does not take any risks
because he or she may be easily overwhelmed and his or her secure
position may be shaken. These perceived limitations that the individual
exerts on himself or herself does not only impact on him or her but also
the person he or she is in relationship with. This area (as described in the
section on zones) has an impact on the persons’ intimate relations. When
there is constriction in this zone, there is no desire to seek adventurous
pastimes. The individual prefers the familiar, conventional methods. Any
extreme constriction found in this zone, very often denotes sexual
problems. The writer will restrict his or her behaviour to support the ultra-
conventional, as he or her would prefer to avoid criticism. In other words,
trying something new and failing might earn him or her some criticism.
He or she is extremely insecure about his or her sexuality and chooses to
keep it ‘error-free’, eliminating any new ideas or concepts and increasing

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the tension between himself or herself and his partner. The writer may
even tend towards an unreasonable perfection.

The constriction found in the letter spacing (between letters) refers to the
persons’ degree of spontaneity in self-expression and the extent of
openness to influences from the environment. The writer will keep most
feelings, ideas, concepts, fears, excitement inside, and will not share it
with others, which leads to a difficulty in inter-relating with others. This
writer often loosens up in the presence of people he or she feels
comfortable and familiar with. One can also find extreme constriction
between the letters of a word. This person relentlessly represses his
impulses to his or her environment. Again the people around him or her
do not know what he or she is thinking or feeling. He or she is often
described as unresponsive, due to his or her uptight, over-controlled and
unspontaneous behaviour. The lack of space between the letters leads to
very little being ‘received’. The person can let very little in to his or her
world and thus aspects such as praise and suggestions are not filtered and
made part of the self. They are more likely ignored and rejected.
Emotional feelings are all rejected. The need to repress within the self is
thus transferred to try and repress it within others.

The constriction of the handwriting is thus a generally negative aspect, as

the person shies away from people, sharing, accepting other points of
view, etc. The individual in question has de finite obstacles within his or
her personality that hinder his or her daily progress on a very tangible
level.
The contradicting personality traits can be very visible in this area of
analysis, and again the graphologist has to determine if they work well
with the existing personality or if major opposing traits are exhibited – to
the detriment of the individual (or to the detriment of his or her analysis).

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 The above reflects all the specific areas that the graphologist has to
consider when dealing specifically with the handwriting sample.
However, if the individual presents the graphologist with a signature – this
is not compulsory, as it may create a predisposition, because the
graphologist can read the name (only in some cases) – then the
graphologist can do a further analysis of this piece of very personal
writing.

4.5.28 Signature
Currently, it is becoming increasingly difficult to find handwriting specimens.
With computers (e-mail, word processors, etc.) and printers filling up our office
desk space, the individual is not reaching for the pen to write anymore, but rather
for the keyboard to type and finally print. Thus the signature of the individual is
sometimes the only real specimen of handwriting that a graphologist can work
with. In the same breath however, it is in fact perhaps the most intimate piece of
writing to be recorded on paper, by any individual. It is this little piece of script
that attests to our identity on documents, credit card slips, cheques, etc.
The signature is reproduced fairly often and has a naturalness and flow to it that
can teach us much about the individual. The signature is not initally created
naturally, but rather practised to be an aesthetically pleasing piece of writing, that
has been practised by usually copying others – parents, siblings, friends, etc.

The signature of the individual only serves to expand upon the interpretation of
the individual’s handwriting specimen, as it provides further information of the
individual’s self-concept. The signature is the unconscious wish on the part of the
writer to project an image to the public. It gives further information about the
writer’s personality integration and ability to communicate. Most signatures
prove to reinforce or modify findings on the public image of the writer and his or
her self-concept.

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The first step in this analysis of the signature is to establish whether the signature
is in congruence with the text of the writer or not. This simply means – is the
signature similar in construction and appearance, as the writing above. If this is
not the case then the signature is not considered to be congruent to the text. These
are discrepancies. Discrepancies - if any - have to be considered with regard to
slant, size, style, pressure, width, etc. Subsequently, if the writer has a signature
fairly compatible with the text then the public ‘image’ he or she wants to portray
is much the same as the person he or she is in private. This is a sufficiently
positive aspect in the analysis of the personality, portraying the person as a
positive, assured and well-integrated personality.
When dealing with signatures there are certain aspects that have to be considered.
In other words, does the individual only sign his or her initials? Is there
something missing from the signature – a letter, more letters, etc? Is the signature
legible, or illegible, is it underlined or not, etc.?

The following aspects or examples of types of signatures tend to highlight what

the graphologist may have to consider in his or her analysis.

a) Underlined only the surname - if the woman does this, then she
is proud of her heritage or in some cases, she may be proud of her
husband. In a man’s case he will be proud of his origin, background and
family name.
b) If followed by a full stop – the signatory distrusts others and
prefers conventionality, but can also display assertiveness – this is the
signatory’s point of view.
c) Extremely expansive – the writer is extravagant, or desires
copious amounts of space around himself or herself, revealing an
expansive nature.
d) Rising or ascending – the writer has professional ambitions but
this could also be due to the mood of the moment.
e) Descending – the writer may be pessimistic, fatigued, or unhappy.

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 f) Encircled – the signatory wants to protect the self from the hostile
external environment. It may depict anxiety and withdrawal from social
relationships, which are mistrusted.
g) Backstroke – this stroke is a stroke of self-destructive behaviour
(may in some cases be suicidal behaviour). This stroke deflects the
aggressive energies back to the person – anger directed at the self.
h) Illegible – the writer wants to remain secretive and enigmatic. He
or she may not want to disclose his or her identity for practical reasons.
i) A portion thereof reduced in size – there is hostility toward that
part of the name. If it is the surname of the husband, it may be that the
wife is unhappily married, carries resentment and aggression at losing her
identity.
j) Written with an over-score or an underscore – these are lines
that are produced either underneath the signature or above it, and are
sometimes called tramlines. These are needed by the signatory for reasons
of self-protection. The writer has feelings of being trapped. He or she
may even feel inner reserve or selfishness.

The position of the signature on the page is also important, as it has direct bearing
on the interpretation thereof (this is similar to the interpretation of the position of
the address found on the envelope).

a) Extreme left – the writer has an exaggerated desire for security

and retirement. The attitude of the writer may be disappointment, fearing
the move forward (toward the future), preferring to cling to the past. (The
new trend toward the extreme block (writing style) has to be considered in
this instance).
b) In the centre – the writer desires security, is cautious and
unwilling. This may be the result of the individual wanting to be the
centre of attention. This is true only if the signature is flamboyant.

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 c) To the right – this person is satisfied and comfortable with his or
her life.
d) Extreme right – the writer is extremely impulsive and may border
on the fanatical.
e) Very close to the text – the writer has a strong attachment of the
ego to the surrounding environment.
f) Very distant from the text – the author delineates unconscious or
even conscious inner detachment. There is the want to distance the self.

In conclusion, the methodology of the analysis of the handwriting specimen is as

extensive as is touched upon above here. But in the actual practical application of this
method, the graphologist with the practised and specialised tools, instantaneously
observes many of the aspects that are described in detail above.

The above areas of analysis give an insight into the extent of features that can be analysed
within a handwriting sample. Any feature that is ‘seen’ by the graphologist as having to
have a minimum of two supporting features, is considered a character trait and is noted to
be later incorporated in the report or analysis of the handwriting specimen (three features
within a specimen are called a constellations of signs, or a cluster of signs). However,
there may be instances when there are features that contradict themselves. This does not
immediately mean that these features do not have to be considered, as they cancel
themselves out. On the contrary, these features co-exist (agreeably or unhappily) within
the same personality structure.

The following section will highlight the Personal Profile Analysis, giving an overview of
this test and how it is administered, scored and interpreted. This resulting analysis from
this test will then be compared to the analysis of the graphological assessment technique.

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4.6 Personal Profile Analysis (PPA)

As mentioned in Chapter 1, this dissertation will encompass a comparison of two tests,

namely the graphological assessment technique – detailed above - and the Personal
Profile Analysis (PPA). This following section will be dedicated to a technical
explanation of the Personal Profile Analysis.

4.6.1 The PPA and the personnel interview

The PPA or Personal Profile Analysis is a test that determines the
individual’s specific behaviour within the work environment. The person
completing the questionnaire has to imagine himself/herself within a work
situation and mark the answer sheet accordingly. Consequently, this test
is mainly used within the personnel selection sphere. This test is
specifically aimed at complementing the traditional personnel selection
interview as, according to Vernon (1953, pp 20-21), the “interview is
obviously unsatisfactory, because it provides such an unrepentative and
limited sample of the interviewee’s behaviour.” This viewpoint describes
the interview process as fairly inadequate in that the individual may
stretch the truth to suit what he/she thinks the interviewer is wanting to
hear. This aspect regarding the personnel interview is actually quite
accurate in that the person cannot be correctly assessed in terms of the
tasks that he/she will have to perform in the work situation. Paul Kline
(1983, pp 26-27) further supports this opinion - “Of all assessment
procedures, interviews are probably the most common. … There is a
good consensus of agreement that they are highly ineffective, especially in
respect of personality measurement. Generally interviews fail because
they are not reliable.”

Both of the above opinions are based on comprehensive research done

throughout the world (Lyster, 1988). However, the interview situation
will not be replaced by simple tests to assess if the individual is suited to a

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given position. The human factor, including aspects such as first
impressions, behaviour during the interview, the promptness of answering
etc. will always be important determinants for any prospective employer
to consider.

Furthermore, Arvey & Campion (1982) researched the reliability and

validity of the interview situation and generally found it to be low in both
– reliability (r = .6) and validity (r = .3)
Even though there is the consensus that the interview is lacking, it is still an
integral part of the process and will not cease to be used. Thus, Kaplan &
Sacuzzo (1982) asserted that a more structured interview process would be
needed – “ The structured interview is emerging as the preferred method for
employment pur poses. Industrial psychologists thus find the loss of flexibility
more than balanced by the increase in reliability.”

The structured interview will as always include the personal interview, but added
assessment techniques are considered as a means of gaining greater knowledge of
the candidate to be employed. The structured interview, which includes the
curriculum vitae, the reference reports, the interview self, the assessment
techniques, as well as any additional aspects, all contribute to the composite
picture describing the prospective employee in greater detail, than would be
gotten from only an interview. The assessment techniques that can be used are
manifold and varied. These techniques include tests such as the Work Value
Inventory, the Personal Profile Analysis, the Survey of Personal Values (SPV),
the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI), and the Inventory of Personal Values (RIASEC). Some interviewer may
use combinations of any of the above tests for greater accuracy, reliability and
validity. These tests are all considered fairly mainstream. Thus, we will
compare one of the above tests with the graphological assessment technique, so as
to establish the validity and reliability of graphology itself.

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4.6.2 Background of the Personal Profile Analysis
The Personal Profile Analysis (PPA) is described as an informed, product
oriented, basic psychometric test (Lyster, 1988). This test is currently in
use in over 5,000 companies, and research has shown that there is a
remarkable client-acceptance of this test within the personnel interview.
Further research has produced results that confirm the original purpose of
the PPA (Lyster, 1988). Thus broadly seen, the PPA measures the
individuals’ attitude to instructions, to expansive sociable contact, to
acquiescence, and to collaborative work methods. These measurements
are more reliable than the traditional personnel interview and they have
predictive and construct validity (Lyster, 1988).

4.6.3 Technical classification of the PPA

The PPA is an inventory consisting of 96 dimensional adjectives or concepts.
These concepts are divided into 24 sections of four words each. The sections are
set up to include opposing descriptions of personal character traits. An example
of one of these sections would be the following four words – full of fun, do things
accurately, have courage, even tempered (line five PPA PLUS – Appendix E).
From this example one can see that the descriptions of traits are very varied and
are opposing – ‘full of fun’ requires spontaneity and ‘do things accurately’ is a
more pedantic trait, and both are contradictory in nature. In other words, you are
either ‘full of fun’ or you ‘do things accurately’. The candidate completing the
analysis has to mark two of the words, or rather concepts within one row of
words. The one ‘mark’ (marked by an ‘m’) has to depict what the person “most
likes” (obviously within the work arena) and the other ‘mark’ (marked by an ‘l’)
depicts what the person “least likes” at work. The individual obviously has to
consider himself/herself within the work situation, how he/she would act whilst
working. If the individual has not yet been employed and is just entering the
work arena then this is not applicable to him/her and a social situation (e.g. a
party, a social gathering, etc.) has to be ‘imagined’ as a means to answer the
analysis form. Consequently, each section of four words will be marked with an

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‘l’ and an ‘m’ – representing the most liked feature of the individual and the least
liked feature. The two remaining words found in the section are ignored in the
scoring and tallying process (Lyster, 1988). The PPA scoring sheet is colour
coded by means of carbon marks not visible to the candidate. These marks are
then groupe d, scored and placed into four profiles. The profiles (using the same
basic dimensions – high and low on a continuum of traits) are dominance,
influence, steadiness and compliance (DISC). The DISC profiles are plotted on
scaled graphs to allow for a quick visual review and comparison (Appendix E).

The above is the one part of the PPA process, where the individual marks a
scoring sheet. The second part of the PPA process is the Human Job Analysis
(HJA) – this is the contribution from the employer’s side. This HJA is not
particularly relevant to this dissertation but will be briefly highlighted as it has an
impact on the overall composite picture supplied by the PPA. The HJA consists
of 24 random statements, which fall into four categories of six – each group
personifies qualities that the prospective employee is likely to posses in differing
degrees for a specific position. Thus, one group of six concepts is relevant to the
abstractions (the same ones as used in the PPA) – dominance, the second group of
six will consider the compliance aspect, the third group looks at steadiness or
persistence and the last group considers the social influence concept as it relates to
the individuals’ power of persuading others.

Generally, the HJA addresses the human demands or task requirements of the
specific position (e.g. sales manager, personal assistant, etc.). These are then
rated on a scale of 1 to 5 from which a visual profile is constructed (the graphical
construction occurs in the same visual picture as the PPA is represented, so as to
be able to compare compatibility of the individual to the position).

In summation, the HJA is set up by the employer to gain insight into the
requirements of the position. These requirements are then plotted
graphically on a 5-point scale. The individual will then score the PPA as

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it refers to his/her character traits – least like, most like. The scores are
then plotted on the same 5-point scale and the results are compared.
Radical differences in the plotted graphs will indicate the individual is not
suited for the position in question. The greater the similarity between the
two graphs, the more compatible the individual is for the position in
question.

4.6.3.1 The Personal Profile Analysis Form

As described above the PPA’s content is defined by 96 concepts
that confer with four basic descriptions of behaviour, namely
dominance, influence, steadiness and compliance. The HJA job
characteristics are grouped according to the same descriptions of
behaviour, to be able to compare them accurately. The four
groups of descriptors are constructed on a principle of the
continuum; i.e. they determine dominance by considering
opposing character traits. This is done for all four groupings.
Below the opposing descriptors of behaviour used in the PPA will
be listed:

a) PPA Dominance Descriptions

High Dominance – driving, competitive, self-indulging,
egocentric, daring, forceful, aggressive, venturesome, decisive,
inquisitive, self-assured, dominating, direct, demanding, self-
starting, blunt, overbearing, assertive.
Low Dominance – conservative, modest, peaceful, hesitant,
unsure, mild, timid, unobtrusive, humble, indecisive, unassuming,
unpretentious, non-demanding, meek, over-cautious, intimidated,
fearful.
b) PPA Influence descriptions
High influence – charismatic, optimistic, self-promoting,
outgoing, effusive, gregarious, sympathetic, generous, influential,

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persuasive, affable, confident, trusting, poised, charming, verbal,
communicative, participative, positive.
Low Influence – factual, logical, reserved, reflective, suspicious,
retiring, pessimistic, irritable, self -conscious, non-communicative,
aloof, withdrawn, probing, quiet, serious.
c) PPA Steadiness descriptions
High Steadiness – dependable, self-controlled, easy-going,
serene, relaxed, non-demonstrative, predictable, patient, deliberate,
amiable, steady, even-tempered, persistent, passive, good-listener,
kind, lenient, accommodating.
Low Steadiness – fault-finding, restive, impetuous, mobile, alert,
active, eager, restless, impulsive, fidgety, discontented, self-
critical, demonstrative, energetic, impatient, tense, anxious.
d) PPA Compliance descriptions
High Compliance – disciplined, compliant, self-effacing, evasive,
overly-dependent, worrisome, careful, systematic, precise,
diplomatic, accurate, conventional, open-minded, cautious,
conservative, adaptable, perfection-seeking, logical.
Low Compliance – firm, obstinate, stubborn, tactless,
opinionated, defiant, sarcastic, self-righteous, rebellious,
unconventional, fearless, immovable, strong-willed, careless,
independent.

4.6.3.2 Administration and scoring of the Personal Profile

Analysis
As seen above the individual has to imagine himself/herself in a
work situation to be able to complete the test. If the individual has
not yet worked then he/she will have to imagine a social gathering
as a setting to score the answer sheet. Marking the answer sheet
occurs as described previously – using ‘least like’, ‘most like’.
This is not to say the person has to mark the word or concept that

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he or she likes the most or dislikes the most, but rather the word or
concept that describes the individual more (‘more like’) or
describes him/her less (‘least like). This measurement technique is
known as an ipsative method of measurement (Lyster, 1988).
The scores are gotten from the colour coded boxes underlying the
original (not visible to the naked eye). The scores that result in the
graphical representation of behaviour of the individual are totals
that are calculated by subtracting the ‘least’ from the ‘most’.
These totals are colour-coded according to the four different
concepts – dominance, influence, steadiness and compliance.
These totals are then graphically represented in visual profiles.
There are three visual profiles. The first profile or graph illustrates
the individual’s ‘most like’ traits. The second one depicts the
‘least like’ traits and the third graph is a composite, where the
‘leasts’ are subtracted from the ‘mosts’.

These three graphs are then correlated to the HJA information. In

other words, the resulting graphs are calculated by comparing the
PPA information with the HJA information. The three graphs that
are then tabulated are representative of the following:

a) Graph I – is called the work mask. This mask is

determined by how the individual thinks others perceive him or
her (how other see him or her, as thought by the individual).
b) Graph II – this graph is called the pressure profile. This
graph ascertains (by calculations) how the individual behaves
under pressure in the work situation.
c) Graph III – this graph is called the self -image graph. This
graph described the character of the individual within the work
situation – how he/she will perform at work. This graph

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 furthermore includes what motivates the individual and how
he/she manages and influences others in the work arena.

The PPA administrator then compares the above profiles with the HJA profile,
which would ‘describe’ (graphically depict) a certain position, for example, the
People Manager Profile (refer Appendix E). This profile is defined as the profile
where the majority of adjectives are chosen from the dominance and influence
lists. The job also ‘requires’ that the individual avoids the adjectives from the
steadiness and compliance lists. The resulting graph has scores above and below
the line profile (see graph – line through the middle). The resulting graph from
the PPA (the individual’s behaviour) can then be compared to the People
Manager Profile and if they are analogous, then this individual would be suited
for the position of People Manager. This ‘People Manager’ is just a broader term
for a person having to deal with and manage people in subordinate positions. It
may include a sales manager, or human resources officer. It is an umbrella term
for differing managerial positions.

The resulting report is a description of the overall behaviour of the individual in

the work place along with motivating factors and job emphasis – what aspects of
the position are important for the individual. Furthermore, graph I and graph II
are explained in word format, with ending paragraphs on general comments
regarding the individual’s profile. Lastly, the report includes the three graphs as
they relate to the individual, which can then be compared to the specific position
in question.
In certain instances the report may have already been compared to a specific
position and the resulting information will be slanted to describe how the
individual will perform within the situation, what motivation he or she requires,
etc.

The above two tests are for the purpose of this dissertation used for personnel assessment
reasons i.e. one person is assessed by means of both tests. Both these test assessed the

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individual’s ability to become a sales person. They both considered the traits needed to
be a sales person, so as to ‘prove’ if the person could perform the job correctly.
However, they are both based on different premises. The PPA is a test that requires
simple ticks of different personality aspects, as the person believes he or she acts, and the
graphological assessment on the other hand is a projective technique that, if considering
the previous pages, covers numerous areas of the specific but different handwriting
features. It is thus more comprehensive in nature, as compared to the PPA, which limits
its assessment to the work arena alone. The assessment and final report of the PPA, is
done by feeding the information into a computer, which prints out a report regarding the
specific individual. The graphological assessment is done manually, where the
graphologist considers the holistic point of view of the handwriting sample given. There
is not set answer that can be produced fairly immediately as is the case in the PPA. The
graphologist spends more time on this assessment, as many different features have to be
considered and analysed. Subsequently, the individual submitted a handwriting sample
(refer to Appendix H), as well as answering the required questionnaire, as set out by the
PPA. The results tabulated are in response only to the person’s ability to perform or
work as a salesperson. The comparison of results of the tests will be discussed in
Chapter 5.

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