348 5 Trigonometric Functions

SECTION 5-2 Circular Functions

• Definition of the Circular Functions
• Exact Values for Particular Real Numbers
• Sign Properties
• Basic Identities
• Calculator Evaluation

• Definition of the
Circular Functions
In Section 5-1 we saw that the wrapping function W pairs each real number x with
an ordered pair of real numbers (a, b), the coordinates of the circular point W(x). We
use this association to construct the six circular functions, also called trigonomet-
ric functions*: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant. The values
of these functions for a real number x are denoted by sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x,
sec x, and csc x, respectively. These values are expressed in terms of the coordinates
of the circular point W(x)  (a, b) as indicated in Definition 1.

DEFINITION 1 Circular Functions

If x is a real number and (a, b) are the coordinates of the circular point W(x),
then
v

1
sin x  b csc x  b
0 (a, b)
b
W(x)
1
cos x  a sec x  a
0 (1, 0)
u
a
b a
tan x  a
0 cot x  b
0
a b

The domain of both the sine and cosine functions is the set of real numbers R.
The range of both the sine and cosine functions is [1, 1]. This is the set of num-
bers assumed by b, for sine, and a, for cosine, as the circular point (a, b) moves
around the unit circle. The domain of cosecant is the set of real numbers x such that
b in W(x)  (a, b) is not 0. Similar restrictions are made on the domains of the other
three circular functions. We will have more to say about the domains and ranges of
all six circular functions in subsequent sections.

• Exact Values Using the results in Section 5-1, we can evaluate any one of the six circular functions
for Particular exactly, when it exists, for integer multiples of the real numbers /6, /4, /3, and
Real Numbers /2. Figure 8 in Section 5-1, which you should have memorized, and symmetry prop-
erties of the unit circle are central to the process. Later in this section we will show

*Strictly speaking, the term trigonometric is used when we are dealing with angle domains and circular
is used when we are dealing with real number domains. We will not insist on this distinction and often,
as is the convention, use trigonometric for both.
 5-2 Circular Functions 349

how a calculator can be used to evaluate the circular functions to 8 or more signifi-
cant digits for arbitrary real numbers. You might ask why we don’t go directly to the
calculator. The answer is that there are many situations in which it is more desirable
to work with exact forms, if available, than the corresponding decimal approxima-
tions that are produced by a calculator.

EXAMPLE 1 Exact Evaluation of Circular Functions

Evaluate each circular function exactly for x  /3.

Solution From Section 5-1 we know that

v
a b
1 , 3
W 3   12, 32  [See Fig. 1]

( 2 2
)

3
Thus,
u
(1, 0)  3  1 1 2
sin b csc   
3 2 3 b 3/2 3
 1  1 1
cos a sec   1 2
FIGURE 1 3 2 3 a 2

 b 3/2  a 1
1
tan   1  3 cot   2 
3 a 2 3 b 3/2 3

Matched Problem 1 Evaluate each circular function exactly for x  /6.

EXAMPLE 2 Exact Evaluation of Circular Functions

Evaluate exactly:

(A) sin (5/6) (B) cot () (C) sec (2/3) (D) tan (7/4)

Solutions Sketch a figure for each part, then use Figure 8 in Section 5-1 and symmetry prop-
erties of the unit circle.

(A) v

a b

(3 1
 ,
2 2
) 
( 32 , 12 )
5
5 1
6 6
u sin b
(1, 0) 6 2
350 5 Trigonometric Functions

(B) v

 a 1
u cot ()  
(1, 0) (1, 0) b 0
a b
Not defined

(C) v

( 12 , 32 )


 23   1a  1
3
u sec  1  2
2 (1, 0)
3 2

( 12 , 32 )
a b

(D) v

( 21 , 21 )

4
7 b 1/2
u tan    1
7
(1, 0) 4 a 1/2
4 a b
( 2
1 ,

1
2
)

Matched Problem 2 Evaluate exactly:

(A) cos (5/6) (B) sin (3/4) (C) csc 3 (D) tan (/3)

• Sign Properties As a circular point W(x) moves from quadrant to quadrant, its coordinates (a, b)
undergo sign changes. Hence, the circular functions also undergo sign changes. It is
important to know the sign of each circular function in each quadrant. Table 1 shows
the sign behavior for each function. It is not necessary to memorize Table 1, since
the sign of each function for each quadrant is easily determined from its definition
(which should be memorized).
 5-2 Circular Functions 351

TABLE 1 Sign Properties

Sign in quadrant
Circular
function I II III IV v

sin x  b     II I
a b a b
csc x  1/b     (, ) (, )
cos x  a     u
sec x  1/a     a b a b
tan x  b/a     (, ) (, )

cot x  a/b     III IV

EXPLORE-DISCUSS 1 (A) Determine the quadrant in which both tan x  0 and sin x  0. Draw
diagrams, and explain your reasoning.
(B) Determine the quadrant in which both cos x  0 and cot x  0. Draw
diagrams, and explain your reasoning.

• Basic Identities Returning to the definitions of the circular functions and noting that

sin x  b and cos x  a

we can obtain the following useful relationships among the six circular functions:

1 1
csc x   (1)
b sin x
1 1
sec x   (2)
a cos x
a 1 1
cot x    (3)
b b/a tan x
b sin x
tan x   (4)
a cos x
a cos x
cot x   (5)
b sin x
v
Because the circular points W(x) and W(x) are symmetric with respect to the
(a, b) horizontal axis (Fig. 2), we have the following sign properties:
W(x)
u sin (x)  b  sin x (6)
W(x)
(a, b) cos (x)  a  cos x (7)
b b
tan (x)     tan x (8)
FIGURE 2 Symmetry property. a a
352 5 Trigonometric Functions

Finally, because (a, b)  (cos x, sin x) is on the unit circle u2  v2  1, it

follows that

(cos x)2  (sin x)2  1

which is usually written as

sin2 x  cos2 x  1 (9)

where sin2 x and cos2 x are concise ways of writing (sin x)2 and (cos x)2, respectively.

CAUTION (sin x)2

sin x2
(cos x)2
cos x2

Equations (1)–(9) are called basic identities. They hold true for all replacements
of x by real numbers for which both sides of an equation are defined. These basic
identities must be memorized along with the definitions of the six circular functions,
since the material is used extensively in developments that follow. Note that most of
Chapter 6 is devoted to trigonometric identities.
We summarize the basic identities for convenient reference in Theorem 1.

Theorem 1 Basic Trigonometric Identities

For x any real number (in all cases restricted so that both sides of an equation
are defined):

Reciprocal Identities
(1) (2) (3)
1 1 1
csc x  sec x  cot x 
sin x cos x tan x
Quotient Identities
(4) (5)
sin x cos x
tan x  cot x 
cos x sin x
Identities for Negatives
(6) (7) (8)
sin (x)  sin x cos (x)  cos x tan (x)  tan x
Pythagorean Identity
(9)
sin2 x  cos2 x  1

EXAMPLE 3 Using Basic Identities

Use the basic identities to find the values of the other five circular functions given
sin x  12 and tan x  0.
 5-2 Circular Functions 353

Solution We first note that the circular point W(x) is in quadrant III, since that is the only quad-
rant in which sin x  0 and tan x  0. We next find cos x using identity (9):

sin2 x  cos2 x  1 Pythagorean identity (9)

( 12)2  cos2 x  1
cos2 x  34
3
cos x   Since W(x) is in quadrant III
2

Now, since we have values for sin x and cos x, we can find values for the other four
circular functions using identities (1), (2), (4), and (5):

1 1
csc x   1  2 Reciprocal identity (1)
sin x  2
1 1 2
sec x    Reciprocal identity (2)
cos x 3/2 3
sin x  12 1
tan x    Quotient identity (4)
cos x 3/2 3
cos x 3/2 Quotient identity (5)
cot x    3
sin x  12 [Note: We could also use identity (3).]

In Example 3 it is important to note that we were able to find the values of the
other five circular functions without finding x.

Matched Problem 3 Use the basic identities to find the values of the other five circular functions given
cos x  1/2 and cot x  0.

EXPLORE-DISCUSS 2 Given the conditions on x in Example 3: sin x  12 and tan x  0. Find, using
basic identities and the results in Example 3, each of the following:

(A) sin (x) (B) sec (x) (C) tan (x)

Verbally justify each step in your solution process.

• Calculator Evaluating circular functions for real numbers other than integer multiples of /6,
Evaluation /4, /3, and /2 is difficult without the use of a calculator. Using advanced mathe-
matics, calculators are internally programmed to evaluate these functions automati-
cally to an accuracy of 8 or more significant digits.
If you look at the function keys on your calculator, you will find three keys
labeled

SIN COS TAN

354 5 Trigonometric Functions

These keys are used to evaluate the sine, cosine, and tangent functions directly. A
careful look at the function keys on your calculator also will reveal that there are no
keys for cosecant, secant, and cotangent. Why is it not necessary to have these addi-
tional keys? Because of the reciprocal identities (1)–(3), we can use the function keys
for sine, cosine, and tangent, along with the reciprocal function key

x 1 or 1/x

to obtain csc x, sec x, and cot x. Don’t use the keys marked sin1, cos1, and tan1
to evaluate csc, sec, and cot, respectively. You will see why in Section 5-9. Some
examples should make the process of calculator evaluation of the circular functions
clear.

CAUTION Setting Calculator Mode: Before commencing with the examples and exer-
cises, read the instruction book accompanying your calculator to determine
how to put it in radian (rad) mode. It is in this mode that we can evaluate the
circular functions for real numbers. (This process is justified in Section 5-4
when we discuss trigonometric functions with angle domains.) Forgetting to
set the calculator in the correct mode before starting calculations involving
circular or trigonometric functions is a frequent cause of error when using a
calculator.

EXAMPLE 4 Calculator Evaluation

Evaluate to 4 significant digits using a calculator:

(A) sin 2 (B) tan (1.612) (C) csc 3.2

Solutions (A) sin 2  0.9093

(B) tan (1.612)  24.26
(C) csc 3.2  17.13

Matched Problem 4 Evaluate to 4 significant digits using a calculator:

(A) cos 4 (B) sec 1.605 (C) cot (3.133)

EXPLORE-DISCUSS 3 Use a calculator to evaluate each of the following, and explain the results shown
on the calculator:

(A) tan (/2) (B) cot 0 (C) sec (/2)

 5-2 Circular Functions 355

Answers to Matched Problems

1. sin (/6)  12 , cos (/6)  3/2, tan (/6)  1/3, csc (/6)  2, sec (/6)  2/3,
cot (/6)  3
2. (A) 3/2 (B) 1/2 (C) Not defined (D) 3
3. sin x  1/2, csc x  2, sec x  2, tan x  1, cot x  1
4. (A) 0.6536 (B) 29.24 (C) 116.4

EXERCISE 5-2
Figure 8 in Section 5-1, the definition of the circular func- 33. tan (/2) 34. sec (3/4) 35. csc (3/2)
tions, and the basic identities should now be memorized.
36. sin (/3) 37. cos (5/3) 38. cot (3)
Work the problems in this exercise without looking back in
the text. Draw lots of pictures, if necessary. 39. sec (/4) 40. tan (7/4) 41. sin (7/6)
42. cos (5/3) 43. cot (3/4) 44. csc (/3)
A 45. tan (2/3) 46. sec (5/2) 47. csc 5
1. Write the value of each circular function in terms of the co- 48. cot (13/6)
ordinates (a, b) of the circular point W(x).
(A) cos x (B) csc x (C) cot x
(D) sec x (E) tan x (F) sin x In Problems 49–52, find the value of each to one significant
digit. Use only the accompanying figure, Definition 1, and a
2. Given W(x)  (a, b), identify each quantity using one of the calculator as necessary for multiplication and division.
circular function values sin x, cos x, and so on. Check your results by evaluating each directly on a
(A) b (B) 1/a (C) b/a calculator.
(D) 1/b (E) a (F) a/b
49. (A) sin 0.4 (B) cos 0.4 (C) tan 0.4
In Problems 3–20, find the exact value of each expression (if
it exists) without the use of a calculator. 50. (A) sin 0.8 (B) cos 0.8 (C) cot 0.8

3. cos 0 4. sin 0 5. sin (/6) 51. (A) sec 2.2 (B) tan 5.9 (C) cot 3.8

6. cos (/6) 7. sin (/2) 8. cos (/2) 52. (A) csc 2.5 (B) cot 5.6 (C) tan 4.3

9. tan (/3) 10. cos (/3) 11. tan (/2)

b
12. cot 0 13. sec 0 14. cot (/4)
15. sec (/4) 16. csc (/3) 17. tan (/4) 2
1
18. tan 0 19. csc 0 20. cot (/6) Unit circle

In Problems 21–26, in which quadrants must W(x) lie so

that: 0.5
21. cos x  0 22. tan x  0 23. sin x  0
24. sec x  0 25. cot x  0 26. csc x  0 3

Evaluate Problems 27–32 to 4 significant digits using a a

0.5 0.5
calculator.
27. tan 4.728 28. cos 3.167 29. sec (1.489) 6

30. csc (13.25) 31. sin (9.841) 32. cot 6.386 0.5

B 4
In Problems 33–48, find the exact value of each expression
5
(if it exists) without the use of a calculator.
356 5 Trigonometric Functions

In Problems 53–56, in which quadrants are the statements 78. sec x  2 and sin x  0
true and why?
79. tan x  3 and sin x  0
53. sin x  0 and cot x  0
80. cot x  1 and sin x  0
54. cos x  0 and tan x  0
55. cos x  0 and sec x  0 In Problems 81–86, find the smallest positive x (in terms of
) for which:
56. sin x  0 and csc x  0
81. cos x  1
For which values of x, 0 x 2, is each of Problems
57–62 not defined? 3
82. sin x  
2
57. cos x 58. sin x 59. tan x
83. cot x  3
60. cot x 61. sec x 62. csc x
84. tan x  1
How does the functional value indicated in Problems 63 and
64 vary as x varies over the indicated intervals? [Hint: Draw 2
85. sec x  
a unit circle and note that W(x)  (a, b)  (cos x, sin x).] 3
63. sin x: 86. csc x  2
(A) [0, /2] (B) [/2, ]
(C) [, 3/2] (D) [3/2, 2] In Problems 87 and 88, fill in the blanks citing the appropri-
ate identity (1)–(9).
64. cos x:
(A) [0, /2] (B) [/2, ] 87. Statement Reason
(C) [, 3/2] (D) [3/2, 2]
 sin x   1
2
cos x
cot2 x  1  (A) ________
Complete Problems 65–68 to 4 significant digits using a
calculator.
cos2 x
65. sin (cos 0.3157) 66. cos (tan 5.183)  1 Algebra
sin2 x
67. cos [csc (1.408)] 68. sec [cot (3.566)] cos2 x  sin2 x
 Algebra
Use appropriate identities to solve Problems 69–74. sin2 x

69. Find sin (x) if sin x  13. 1

 (B) ________
sin2 x
70. Find cos (x) if cos x  13.

sin1 x 
2
71. Find tan (x) if tan x  5.  Algebra
72. Find sec (x) if sec x  50.
 csc2 x (C) ________
73. Find cot (x) if cot x  25.
88. Statement Reason
74. Find csc (x) if csc x  10.
cos x   1
2
sin x
tan2 x  1  (A) ________
C
sin2 x
Use the basic identities to find the values of the other five  1 Algebra
cos2 x
circular functions given the indicated information in Prob-
lems 75–80. sin2 x  cos2 x
 Algebra
1 cos2 x
75. cos x  and tan x  0
2 1
 (B) ________
3 cos2 x
76. sin x  and cot x  0
 
2
2 1
 Algebra
1 cos x
77. sin x   and cos x  0
2  sec2 x (C) ________
 5-3 Angles and Their Measure 357

Approximating . Problems 93 and 94 refer to a sequence

APPLICATIONS of numbers generated as follows:
a1
If an n-sided regular polygon is inscribed in a circle of
radius r, then it can be shown that the area of the polygon is a2  a1  cos a1
1
given by a3  a2  cos a2
.
1 2 2 cos an .
A nr sin an .
2 n an1  an  cos an

Compute each area exactly and then to 4 significant digits

0 1
using a calculator if the area is not an integer.
89. n  12, r  5 meters
93. Let a1  0.5, and compute the first five terms of the se-
90. n  4, r  3 inches
quence to six decimal places and compare the fifth term
91. n  3, r  4 inches with /2 computed to six decimal places.
92. n  8, r  10 centimeters 94. Repeat Problem 93, starting with a1  1.

SECTION 5-3 Angles and Their Measure

• Angles
• Degree and Radian Measure
• From Degrees to Radians, and Vice Versa

In this section, we will introduce the idea of angle and two measures of angles, degree
and radian.

• Angles The study of trigonometry depends on the concept of angle. An angle is formed by
rotating (in a plane) a ray m, called the initial side of the angle, around its endpoint
until it coincides with a ray n, called the terminal side of the angle. The common
endpoint V of m and n is called the vertex (see Fig. 1). A counterclockwise rotation
produces a positive angle, and a clockwise rotation produces a negative angle, as
shown in Figure 2(a) and (b). The amount of rotation in either direction is not restricted.

FIGURE 1 Angle  or angle PVQ or n

Q
V.
Terminal
side

V 

Initial
side
P
m