NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

OF FRESHWATER FISH AND

SALT WATER SHRIMP
BY: MARK NEWMAN
M.N. AQUA NUTRITION CONSULTING
FOR: USSEC
 Fish Digestive System Comparison
Mouth Esophagus Stomach Midgut Hindgut Anus

Trout

Pyloric
Caeca

Catfish

Gall
Bladder

Carp

Pharyngeal
Teeth
Epibrancheal
Organ

Silver
Milkfish
Carp
Gizzard

Pyloric
Caeca
Litopenaeus
vannamei
Basic Internal Anatomy
Schematic Representation of Decapod
Alimentry Tract
Hepatopancreas Functions:
• Synthesis of enzymes
• Absorption of nutrients
• Lipid and carbohydrate
metabolism
• Production, storage, and
distribution of materials for
processes of molt and
vitellogenesis
• Detoxification of heavy
metals and toxic organic
compounds
Nutrient Requirements of
Fish and Shrimp
Energy
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins
 ENERGY

• Fish and shrimp obtain energy by oxidizing the chemical bonds of

complex molecules to lower energy states.
– 334 Kcal in ATP per mole of glucose oxidized.
– That is about 50% efficiency.
(15-30%)
(3-6% of ME)
 Methods of Determining
Feed Energy Values
GE DE ME
Analytical Calorimetry - adiabatic bomb 
calorimeter measures heat released
on complete combustion of feed

Indirect Measurement - digestion coefficients 

determined on the basis of ratios of energy
to inert indicator in samples of food and feces

Direct Measurement - direct measurement  

of total energy in feed, feces, and urine
& gill excretions

Physiological Fuel Values - calculated energy   

values based on GE,digestion coefficients and
assumed energy loss from nitrogen excretion
 Physiological
Physiological Fuel Values
Fuel Values: Fish
(kcal/g) ( kcal/g )

Gross Digestible Energy

Nutrient Class
Energy Trout Catfish Carp

Protein 5.65 4.5 4.1 4.1

Fat 9.45
Unsaturated  8.5 8.5 8.5
Saturated  7.5 8.1 8.1
Phospholipid  -- -- 7.2
Carbohydrate 4.1
Raw Starch  1.6 2.5 2.5
Gelatinized Starch  2.3 3.0 2.9
Dextrin  3.2 -- 3.3
Fiber  0 0 0
Physiological Fuel Values:
Physiological Fuel Shrimp
Values
(kcal/g) ( kcal/g )

Gross Digestible
Nutrient Class Energy Energy
Protein 5.6 4.5
Fat 9.4
Unsaturated  8.5-9.0
Saturated  7.5-8.0
Phospholipid  7.2
Carbohydrate 4.1
Raw Starch  1.6
Gelatinized Starch  2.3
Dextrin  3.2
Fiber  0
1 kg  4080 kcal
Gain DE
Nutrient Requirements of
Fish and Shrimp
Energy
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins
PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS
• Structure of protein
– Amino acid sequence
– Disulfide bridges
– Hydrogen bonds
– Van der Waals forces
• Amino acids are building
blocks of protein but also
have metabolic roles.
• Continuous synthesis and
degradation of protein.
• Deposition of amino acids
into body protein is 25-55%
of AA’s consumed.
 Typical Protein Levels in Diets for Freshwater
Fish

Species Fry Juveniles Adults

Trout 55 - 48 50 - 45 46 - 36
Catfish 50 - 40 40 - 30 32 - 25
Tilapia 45 - 40 40 - 30 32 - 25
Carp 45 - 40 40 - 30 36 - 25

Total Balanced Protein, assuming minimum 90% digestibility

 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

• M Met Methionine
• A Arg Arginine
• T Thr Threonine
• T Trp Tryptophan

• H His Histidine
• I Ile Isoleucine
• L Leu Leucine
• L Lys Lysine

• V Val Valine
• P Phe Phenylalanine

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FOOD
 Soy Protein Amino Acid Profile
& Essential Amino Acid Requirements of
Fish
Soybean Rainbow Channel Blue Common
Amino Acid*
Protein Trout Catfish Tilapia Carp

Arg 7.4 5.7 4.3 4.2 4.3

His 2.5 2.5 1.5 1.7 2.1
Iso 5.0 2.6 2.6 3.1 2.5
Leu 7.5 4.1 3.5 3.4 3.3
Lys 6.4 6.0 5.1 5.1 5.7
Met & Cys 3.1 3.0 2.3 3.2 3.1
Phe & Tyr 8.3 5.3 5.0 5.7 6.5
Thr 3.9 2.4 2.0 3.7 3.9
Try 1.4 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.8
Val 5.1 3.5 3.0 2.8 3.6

FOOD *Expressed as percent of crude protein

 FATE OF CONSUMED PROTEIN (NRC, 2011)

CONSUMED PROTEIN
INDIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN (NOT REQUIRED)

DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN
(NON-ESSENTIAL AA’S AND ESSENTIAL AA’S)
INEVITABLE
CATABOLISM
(REQUIRED, 20-40%)

PREFERENTIAL
CATABOLISM
(NOT REQUIRED)

CATABOLISM OF
EXCESS AA’S
(NOT REQUIRED)

ESSENTIAL AA’S AVAILABLE FOR DEPOSITION

AA’S USED IN
METABOLISM
(REQUIRED, BUT MINOR)

PROTEIN DEPOSITION (AND PROTEIN DEGRADATION)

FOOD (25-55% OF CONSUMED AA’S)
 Litopenaeus
vannamei

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FOOD
Production Parameters of Commercial-Scale Round Pond at
Oceanic Institute in 1988. (Wyban and Sweeney, 1991)

• Total annual production (Kg/ha) 44,960

• Average Temperature (°C) 26
• Stocking Density (pl’s/square meter) 103
• Harvest Weight (g) 17.8
• Growth (g/week) 1.35
• Survival (%) 90
• FCR 2.08
• Weeks 12.8
• Pond Size (ha) 0.2
• Feed Type 35% protein (Rangen)
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 Final weight (g) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of L.
vannamei (0.57 g initial weight) fed two commercial
diets (30% and 40% CP) at three different feeding
levels (50%, 75%, and 100%), in tanks.

Protein – Rate Final weight FCR

30-100% 10.33b 1.41a

30-75% 9.47c 1.18b

30-50% 8.12d 0.93c

40-100% 11.34a 1.18b

40-75% 10.28b 1.14b

40-50% 8.73d 0.86c

D.A. Davis. Auburn Univ.

30 x 1.0 = 30 kg of protein
FOOD 40 x 0.75 = 30 kg of protein
 Requirements for Essential Amino Acids of
Penaeid Shrimp (as % of protein)
Comparison of Various Amino
Essential Essential
Acids Amino Acid Profiles
as % of Protein
Amino Used Tissue
to Amino Acid Profile
Formulate Shrimp Average
Diets Published
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Acids P. P. P. P. for all Amount in
astecus japonicus monodon sp. Species Feeds(5)
Arg 5.17 5.32 6.34 6.50 5.83 5.8
His 3.15 1.57 2.31 1.10 2.03 2.1
Iso 4.47 3.01 4.60 4.90 4.24 3.5
Leu 9.75 5.25 7.76 9.90 8.16 5.4
Lys 6.09 5.53 6.54 6.40 6.14 5.3
Met & Cys 4.85 2.55 2.80 3.60 3.45 3.6
Phe & Tyr 8.43 5.85 5.75 8.80 7.21 7.1
Thr 5.38 2.87 4.79 4.40 4.36 3.6
Try 1.10 - - 1.10 1.10 0.8
Val 5.07 2.90 5.69 3.40 4.26 4.0

(1) Shewbart et al, 1972 (4) Boghen and Castell, 1981

(2) Tacon, 1990 (5) Akiyama et al, 1991
(3 )
FOOD Marsden et al, 1991
 Requirements for Essential Amino
Acids of Penaeid Shrimp (asfor
Requirements % of
Essential Amino Acids of
protein)
Essential Avg. for all Penaeid
PublishedFoxShrimp
et al, (as2011
NRC, % of Millamena,
protein) Richard, 2010
AA’s species Akiyama, 1995 (Ref. Fox, 1998. (monodon)
(vannamei) (monodon)
vannamei 1995)
Arg 5.83 5.8 4.28 (95) 5.2 5.8
His 2.03 2.1 1.71 (38)
Iso 4.24 3.5 2.16 (48)
Leu 8.16 5.4 3.65 (81)
Lys 6.14 5.3 4.5 4.5 (100)
Met 2.16 (48)
Met+Cys 3.45 3.6 2.93 (65)
Phe 2.48 (55)
Phe+Tyr 7.21 7.1 4.50 (100)
Thr 4.36 3.6 3.02 (67)
Try 1.10 0.8 0.45 (10)
Val 4.26 4.0 2.93 (65)
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 Figure 1c. Shrimp (7 g) were offered one feeding
for 30 minutes after fasting overnight. Methionine
levels (ug/ml) of hemolymph is presented for diets
1 and 2 (+Lys, Meth, Arg, Taur).
60
Diet 1 Diet 2
50

40
Axis Title

30

20

10

0
-30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285
Time (minutes)
Feed Feed
offered withdrawn

D.A. Davis. 2017.

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 Recommended Proportions
of
Energy to Protein
Species Digestible Digestible DE / DP
Protein Energy ( kcal / g )
(%) ( kcal /100g )

Trout 46.8 420 9.0

43.0 405 9.4
40.5 390 9.6
36.0 346 9.6

Catfish 45.0 400 8.8

36.0 324 9.0
28.8 276 9.6
27.0 237 8.8

Tilapia 40.5 356 8.8

36.0 324 9.0
31.5 290 9.2

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FOOD
 Litopenaeus
vannamei

Kcal/Kg diet (NRC 2011) 3,000

DE/DP Ratio in Shrimp (w/ 30% dig. Prot.) = 10

THERE ARE NO FAT SHRIMP.

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 Nutrient Requirements of Fish
and Shrimp
Energy
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins

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 Lipid Requirements
 Energy
 Essential Fatty Acids
1. Components of phospholipids
2. Eicosanoids: Paracrine hormones

 Phospholipids
1. Polar lipids.
2. Structure and function of cell membranes.

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 Essential Fatty Acid Requirements
Of Freshwater Fish
Species Amount Amount Linolenic EPA DHA
Omega 6 (%) Omega 3 (%) 18:3n3 20:5n3 22:6n3

Trout 1.0 – 2.0 √ +√ +√

Or 1.0 √ +√
Catfish 0.5 – 1.0 √
Or 0.5-0.7 √ +√

Or 0.5-0.7 √ +√ +√

Tilapia (0.5-1.0) 0.5 – 1.0 √

Or 0.5-0.7 √ +√

Or 0.5-0.7 +√ +√
Carp (1.0) 1.0 √
Or 0.5 √ +√
Or 0.5 +√ +√
FOOD
 PHOSPHOLIPID FUNCTIONS
• IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF CELL MEMBRANES
• HOMEOVISCOSITY (Selective permeability)
• METHYL DONOR (PC)
• ESSENTIAL FOR ACETYLCHOLINE (PC)
• CRUSTACEANS: Essential for the release of
cholesterol from hepatopancreas, and transport
as lipo-proteins. Component of cell
membranes. Avoid “molt death” in lobsters.
• FISH: Cell membranes, Attractant, lipid
transport, biochemical and physiological
functions during embryonic and fry stages.

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 SOYBEAN LECITHIN - COMPOSITION

Nutrient %
Acetone Insolubles 64
Phospholipids
(PC, PE, PI, PA,
minor phospholipids,
glycolipids,
complexed sugars)
Triglycerides & Fatty Acids 35
Moisture 1
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 Litopenaeus
vannamei

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 Essential Fatty Acid Composition of
Various Lipid Sources
Lipid Source 18:26 18:33 20:53 22:63

Plant Sources
Corn oil 58 1 0 0
Linseed oil 17 56 0 0
Palm oil 10 1 0 0
Soybean oil 50 10 0 0
Sunflower oil 70 1 0 0

Marine Sources
Cod liver oil 5 1 16 14
Cuttlefish liver oil 1 2 12 18
Herring oil 1 1 8 5
Menhaden oil 3 1 13 8
Sardine oil 3 1 13 10
Short-neck clam oil 1 1 19 14
Squid liver oil 3 3 12 10

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 Recommended Cholesterol Levels
In Shrimp Feeds

Size of Shrimp ( g ) Percent in Feed

0.0 – 0.5 0.40

0.5 – 3.0 0.35
3.0 – 15.0 0.30
15.0 – 40.0 0.25

From: Akiyama et al., 1995. These values are for clear water culture
or super intensive culture. Extensive or semi-intensive culture would
require lower levels of cholesterol.

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CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF VARIOUS MARINE SOURCES.
LIPID SOURCE % CHOLESTEROL IN OIL

SQUID OIL 1.3

HERRING OIL, PACIFIC 0.8

COD LIVER OIL 0.6

SALMON OIL, WILD 0.5

MENHADEN OIL 0.5

Adapted from NRC, 2011.

 Nutrient Requirements of
Fish and Shrimp
Energy
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins
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 CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

• The ability of a species to utilize carbohydrates depends

on:
– Digestive carbohydrases
– Endogenous metabolic enzymes
– Glucose clearance from bloodstream
– Uptake efficiency by tissues
– Efficiency of utilization for growth and protein sparing.

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 CARBOHYDRATES
Activity of Amylase in Yellowtail and Carp
(Shimeno et al. 1977)
Yellowtail Carp
Amylase 12.5 1040
(micromole/min)
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Species differences

Table 2.2 Enzyme activities in a carnivorous and a omnivorous fish

Bureau, 2014.
Enzyme Amylase Trypsin pH

mU/ml mU/ml

Trout 21 1632 7.75

Carp 245 1351 7.27

FOOD
 Carbohydrates
 Monosaccharides
arabinose, ribose, & xylose
glucose & fructose

 Oligosaccharides
sucrose, lactose, & maltose
raffinose & stachyose

 Polysaccharides
starch, dextrin, glycogen, & cellulose
chitin, agar, carrageenan, pectins & gums

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FOOD
 Nutrient Requirements of
Fish and Shrimp

Energy
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins
FOOD
 Minerals

 Inorganic components of the feed

 Structural components of hard tissues
 Component of soft tissues
 Cofactors and/or activators of enzymes
 Function in acid – base balance
 Function in production of membrane potentials
 Function in osmoregulation

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 Macro Minerals
Calcium
 no requirement for dietary supplementation
 maximum level in feed should be 2.0 to 2.3%
Magnesium
 activator of enzymes involved in carbohydrate and
protein metabolism
 seawater contains 1,350mg of Mg / l
 marine fish excrete Mg
 freshwater fish require about 0.025 – 0.07% magnesium
Phosphorus
 available phosphorus requirement = 0.6 to 0.8 %
Potassium
 usually no requirement for dietary supplementation
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 Comparison of Mineral Levels in
Practical Aquaculture Diets*
Element Units Trout Catfish Tilapia Carp
Calcium % 1.5 - 2.3 0.5 - 1.5 0.5 - 1.5 0.5 - 1.5
Magnesium % 0.04 - 0.06 0.2 - 0.45 0.2 -0.5 0.2 - 0.5
Phosphorus (Available) % 0.6 - 0.7 0.45 - 0.6 0.5 - 0.7 0.6 - 0.7
Potassium % 0.6 - 0.9 0.6 - 1.6 0.6 - 1.6 0.6 - 1.6
Cobalt ppm 0.3 - 0.4 0.2 - 0.4 0.2 -0.4 0.2 - 0.5
Copper ppm 5 - 15 15 - 20 15 - 20 15 - 20
Iodine ppm 4-5 2-4 4-5 4-5
Iron ppm 200 - 350 100 - 500 100 - 500 100 - 500
Manganese ppm 40 - 80 15 - 50 25 - 50 25 - 50
Selenium ppm 0.3 - 1.0 0.25 - 1.0 0.4 - 1.0 0.4 - 1.0
Zinc ppm 100 - 150 <100 50 - 150 50 - 150

*Note that these are not minimum or maximum requirements.

FOOD
 Litopenaeus
vannamei

FOOD
 Recommended Mineral Levels
In
Commercial Shrimp Feeds

Mineral Quantity per Kg of Feed

Calcium maximum 2.3%

Phosphorus – available 0.8%
Magnesium 0.2%
Potassium 0.9%

Iron maximum 200 mg

Copper 35 mg
Zinc 150 mg
Manganese 20 mg
Selenium 1 mg
Cobalt 0.05 mg

Adapted from: Akiyama et al, 1991 and Davis and Gatlin, 1991

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 Nutrient Requirements of
Fish and Shrimp
Energy
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Minerals
Vitamins

FOOD
 Vitamin Requirement

Vitamin Concentration



In Tissue
 
 
 



 
 

Adaptive
Response

Optimum
Growth

Vitamin Activity in Feed

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 Vitamin Fortification Levels
in
Practical Fish Feeds
Vitamin Units / kg Trout Catfish Tilapia Carp
A IU 4000 – 8000 1000 – 2000 4000 – 4400 2000 – 4000
D IU 1000 – 2000 500 – 1000 2000 – 2200 1000 – 2000
E IU 100 – 400 30 – 50 50 – 60 50 – 100
K mg R – 12 R – 4.4 0–5 0–5

Thiamin B1 mg 10 – 30 1 – 2.5 10 – 11 5 – 10
Riboflavin B2 g 20 – 40 R–9 15 – 20 10 – 20
Pyridoxine B6 mg 10 – 25 3–5 10 – 11 5 – 10
Vitamin B12 mg 0.02 – 0.05 R – 0.01 0.01 – 0.02 0.01 – 0.02
Niacin mg 150 – 200 R – 14 30 – 80 15 – 30
Pantothenate mg 40 – 60 15 – 20 35 – 50 15 – 35
Folic Acid mg 5 – 10 R – 2.2 5 3–5
Biotin mg 0.1 – 0.4 0–R 0 – 0.1 0.05 – 0.01
Vitamin C mg 100 – 125 50 – 60 50 – 100 50 – 100
Choline mg 500 – 1000 R R – 500 R – 500
Astaxanthin mg 0 – 80 -- -- --

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 The Global Soy in Aquaculture program strives to promote a
profitable and sustainable approach to aquaculture that specifically
shows the utility and value of U.S. soy products