Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple,

Hampi, Karnataka

Meera Natampally

1 Background

The Hindu temple architecture is a typical trabeated style of construction based on

precise grid design and symmetry. The Vijayanagara architecture is said to be a cul-
mination of Dravidian temple building tradition, a foremost temple building style of
southern India. The marvelous architectural design of the temple complex and its
elements with the structural system using stone is an impeccable synergy between
structural innovation and architectural expressions. The foundation of Vijayanagara
Empire was laid in 1336 AD, ruled by three dynasties Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva.
Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, and it is a village in Bellary
district, Karnataka surrounded by lush greenery. The essential elements of the style
are sacred, precise, and harmonious geometry. Hampi is recognized by the UNESCO
and 56 out of the many monuments are protected by UNESCO.

2 Objective

The objective is to visually reconstruct the missing parts of the temple complex in
detail, which is an attempt to restore its original glory digitally. The objective of the
research is to digitally interpret Hampi/Vijayanagara architecture for interaction and
understanding by commoners. Also, to create an open access digital cultural knowl-
edge bank with digital archives on the evolution of temples architecture of Hampi,
where data can be constantly updated by other interested researchers practitioners

M. Natampally (✉)
PRINCIPAL ARCHITECT SEKOS architecture firm, Bengaluru, India
e-mail: mn.architect@gmail.com

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 333

B. Chanda et al. (eds.), Heritage Preservation,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7221-5_16
334 M. Natampally

and broader public. Besides, to represent the temple complexes and temple elements
graphically, pictorially, and digitally and in turn making it navigational and partici-
patory to all users.

3 Introduction

3.1 Planning of Vijayanagara Temples

The Vijayanagara Empire made a significant remark in the history of temple archi-
tecture during its reign 1336–1565CE was a notable period of temple architecture
that developed during their rule. The empire built temples, monuments, and planned
towns. In addition to this, they also made modifications to the existing monuments
and structures across South India.

3.2 Elements of Vijayanagara Style of Architecture

∙ It is a combination of Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles which evolved

earlier in the centuries (Fig. 1a). Vijayanagara period was associated with sculp-
tures (Fig. 1b) and paintings (Fig. 1c) apart from developing temple architecture.

(a) (b 1) (b 2)

(b3) (c1) (c 2) (d1) (d 2)

Fig. 1 a Panoramic view of vittala temple, b Sculptures of Hampi, c Paintings of Hampi, d Granite
structures of Hampi
Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple, Hampi, Karnataka 335

∙ The sculptures are much defined with less ornamentation and high proportions
(Fig. 1b). Western Chalukyas preferred sandstone but Vijayanagara used granite
as it helped to reduce the density of the sculptures and is durable (Fig. 1d).
∙ Temples are covered with strong enclosures where the huge granite stones were
used, granite gave a more crude rugged appearance as it was sharply cut and skill-
fully modeled (Fig. 2a). Granites are placed one above the other without mor-
tar joints and sheer self-weight of the stone makes it stand as strong enclosures
(Fig. 2b).
∙ Small shrines consist of a cell and porch (Fig. 2c) and the medium- sized shrines
consist of a cell, antechamber/antarala leading to a mantapa, which is an enclosed
pillar called ardha mantapa, which has 2 entrances on its sides and along the axis
of the cell the entrance leads to a maha mantapa (Fig. 2d), an open-pillared hall
which has 3 entrances.
∙ In the Krishna temple, especially the east gopuram is very elaborate with brick
and stucco work and it stands as one of the largest gopurams in Hampi (Fig. 3a).
Larger in scale and higher than the main temple, this structure forms an impressive
entrance to the complex. The gopuram is covered with detailed stucco figures of
warriors, probably depicting the conquest of Orissa (Fig. 3b).
∙ The plinth is very defined with a carved frieze about 4–5 ft high (Fig. 3c) with
ornated-stepped entrances on all the 4 sides supported by ornate pillars (Fig. 3d).
There are double plinths in some of the mantapas.
∙ The columns have rampant horse and rider supported by other animals (Fig. 4a)
and figure-sculptured panels, miniature panels is a favorite Vijayanagara era motif
and 8- or 16-sided bands. The capitals are usually banana flower motifs (Fig. 4b).
∙ The sun shades are stone carved, sometimes doubly carved are also noticed
(Fig. 4c). The parapet is constructed with brick and lime mortar are very ornate
and sometimes brick and lime mortar sculptures are noticed in the niches Fig. 4d.
Stepped tanks are constructed using chlorite slabs (Fig. 4e).

4 Research

This temple was built by the king (Krishnadevaraya) in 1513 AD to celebrate the
conquest of the eastern kingdom of Udayagiri. The main deity installed in the temple
was the figure of Balakrishna. Description for all the structures in Krishna temple is
as below (Fig. 5).

∙ This temple has 2 strong enclosures with the outer enclosure having 2 entrances
and the inner enclosure with 3 entrances. The temple faces east with a garba-
griha/a sanctum sanctorum followed by antarala, ardha mantapa, maha mantapa,
336 M. Natampally

(a) (b 1) (b2) (c1)

(c2) (d 1) (d2)

Fig. 2 a Strong wall, b Enclosure granite blocks are placed one above the other, c Smaller shrine,
d Plan and view of maha mantapa

(a1) (a1) (b)

(c1) (c 2) (d)

Fig. 3 a East gopuram, b Stucco figures of warriors c Maha mantapa d Maha mantapa

and a large eastern gopuram all along the same axis. The sanctum sanctorum and
the antarala are enclosed to circumambulation at the lower level, which depicts
Ramayana sculpture panels and very ornate pilasters and niches attached to the
garbagriha. The artha mantapa has 4 pillars and 2 entrances on north and south
flanked by yali motifs (Fig. 6).
Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple, Hampi, Karnataka 337

(a1) (a2) (a3) (a4) (b)

(c) (d1) (d 2) (e)

Fig. 4 a Yali motifs and columns supported with pillars, b Cad drawing of pillars, c Stone-carved
sunshades, d Parapet constructed with brick and lime mortar, e Stepped tank

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 5 a Plan of krishna temple, b Aerial view of krishna temple, c East elevation of maha mantapa,
d Small shirine and north gopuram seen at near
338 M. Natampally

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6 a Section of Balkrishna temple, b Plan of Balkrishna temple, c Entrance of Balkrishna

temple

(a) (b1) (b2)

(c) (d) (e)

Fig. 7 a Ramayana sculpture panels, b Ornate pilasters and niches, c Plan of the maha mantapa,
d Columns at the periphery of maha mantapa, e Portion of the ceiling of maha mantapa

∙ The sanctum sanctorum and the antarala are enclosed to circumambulation at the
lower level which depicts Ramayana sculpture panels (Fig. 7a) and very ornate
pilasters and niches attached to the garbagriha (Fig. 7b). The maha mantapa also
has 2 entrances here and the third entrance as we find usually along the axis is
blocked with the mantapa (Fig. 7c). Here mantapa has 16 free standing columns
at the center and at the periphery (Fig. 7d). The cells on either side of the maha
mantapa are highly proportionate with a conical roof filled with ornate brick and
lime mortar sculptures (Fig. 7e).
Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple, Hampi, Karnataka 339

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8 a Plan of the Secondary Goddess Temple, b Columns with triple block of carvings, c View
of the Secondary Goddess Temple

4.1 Secondary Goddess Temple

∙ On the northwestern side of the main temple is a temple dedicated to the goddess
which has a sanctum sanctorum, antarala, and maha mantapa. In addition to this,
a small cell facing the south opens to the maha mantapa (Fig. 8a).
∙ There are 2 more cells to the southwest of the garbagriha, one facing east and the
other facing north where superstructure of these two are missing (Fig. 8b).
∙ Here the temple complex has 2 levels; the southeast is lower than the rest of the
area (Fig. 8c). It has 3 sides colonnade housing few mantapas.
∙ Joints between the mandapa basement and the upapithas of the two structures indi-
cate that the hall is a later insertion: it is built in two stages.
∙ Columns have triple blocks of carvings separated by polygonal sections, with
beveled brackets above. Beveled brackets carry beams and an angled eave.

4.2 North and South Gopuram

∙ Above their granite entrance pathway, gopuras feature ascending storeys built with
wood, brick, and plaster stucco figures, which are undoubtedly a Vijayanagara
inception inspired from the smaller Chola and Pandya gopuras and styles (Fig. 9a).

(a) (b) (c1) (c2)

Fig. 9 a North gopuram, b Stuco figures, c South gopuram

340 M. Natampally

Most of the ruins have lost their towers or superstructures above the roof, as
they were mainly made out of woodwork and red bricks with lime stone mortar
and sculptures made of plaster stucco figures, as we can make out of this ruined
entrance tower (Fig. 9b).
They are less durable and weaker than their rocky counterparts. Over time, they
have collapsed and decayed due to weather and negligence, with the granite path-
ways or gateways beneath left almost intact (Fig. 9c). There is no doubt that the
ruined tower was once lofty and beautiful, with a typical Dravidian shala roof, a
half barrel-shaped top section.

4.3 Kitchen and Storage Granary

∙ A walled-in-kitchen is built into the south east corner of the enclosure. Plain walls
rise on east corner of the enclosure (Fig. 10a). Plain walls rise on kapota, gala, and
undecorated kapota, with a similar kapota serving as a cornice. There is a doorway
on the west. The interior has three by four bays, with half-columns engaged into
the walls. The roof over the east three bays is raised up to create an open clerestory
(Fig. 10b).
∙ In the outer enclosure, there is a domed structure to store granary on the southern
side. There are pavilions and a tank in this enclosure (Fig. 10c) Opposite to the
east entrance is the Krishna bazaar with colonnade and a large tank.

(a) (b 1) (b 2)

(c 1) (c 2) (c 3)

Fig. 10 a Plan of kitchen, b Side view of kitchen, c Elevation of storage granary, section of storage
granary, plan of storage granary
Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple, Hampi, Karnataka 341

4.4 Pushkarni and Ruined Bazaar

∙ The pushkarni which also means sacred stepped water tank, has a small empty
shrine at the center. The shrine is ornated with a dome-like structure with shikhara
made of brick and mortar. The dome is decorated with plastered sculptures. The
plaster is weathered over time. During festivals, the utsava murthy is placed in the
empty shrine. There is a ruined bazaar before the Krishna complex, this area is
modernized and now is known as the Krishna temple bazaar. The ruined colon-
naded bazaar stretches up to half a kilometer (Fig. 11).

5 Visual Reconstruction—Krishna Temple

The visual reconstruction of Krishna temple involves different stages:

1. Documentation of the whole temple physically and pictorially by measure draw-

ing it and producing 2D AutoCAD drawings as existing and photograph of the
past and present study.

(a1) (a2)

(b1) (b2) (b3)

Fig. 11 a Stepped water tank, b Ruined bazaar—Krishna temple

342 M. Natampally

(a1) (a2)

(b1) (b 2) (c)

Fig. 12 Reconstruction of the east gopuram in digital space using historical evidence: a Existing
east gopuram, b Greenlaws picture, c Visually reconstructed image

(a1) (a 2)

(b1) (b2) (c)

Fig. 13 Reconstruction of the shrine in digital space using historical evidence: a Existing small
shrine, b Greenlaws picture, c Visually reconstructed image
Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple, Hampi, Karnataka 343

(a1) (a2)

(b1) (b2) (c)

Fig. 14 Reconstruction of the north gopuram in digital space using historical evidences: a Existing
north gopuram, b Greenlaws picture, c Visually reconstructed image

2. Thorough literature study, history and studying the prototypes, applying archi-
tectural principles like proportion, scale, grammar, etc, consulting sthapatis
[temple sculptors] and art historians.
3. With the above data the missing parts of the structures were visually recon-
structed by using SketchUp software. 3D models are made to resemble the orig-
inal as closely as possible with trial and error methods.
4. The 3D model is applied with texture and walk through is made so that an attempt
is made to resemble the temple to its original glory (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16)
344 M. Natampally

(a1) (a2)

(b 2) (c)
(b 1)

Fig. 15 Reconstruction of the south gopuram in digital space using historical evidence: a Existing
south gopuram, b Greenlaws picture, c Visually reconstructed image

(a1) (a2)

(b1) (b 2) (c)

Fig. 16 Reconstruction of the garbhagriha in digital space using historical evidence: a Existing
garbhagriha view, b Greenlaws picture, c Visually reconstructed image
Visually Reconstructed Krishna Temple, Hampi, Karnataka 345

Acknowledgements The author likes to thank Saiyed Umer, Manavi Puligal, Pooja S., Shruthi N.,
Arjun K. S., Reshma Shetty, and Namrata S. H. for their help in preparing this manuscript.

References

1. Mitchell, G., Wagoner, P.B.: Vijayanagara Architectural Inventory of the Sacred Centre, vols.
1, 2 and 3. Manohar Publishers, New Delhi (2001). Alexander Greenlaw Vijayanagara splendor
and ruins
2. https://c1.staticflickr.com/7/6190/61103868100166c1ca0eB.jpg
3. http://www.trayaan.com/2016/02/hampiruinsvijayanagaramonument-world-heritage-bellary-
karnataka-part-2.html. W OI aY tK GO1s
4. https://www.flickr.com/photos/mukulb/611039707