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xL xR yH
Horizontal distance = xR – xL
Vertical distance = yH – yL
yL
y P2(x2,y2)
d x2 x1 2 y 2 y1 2
P1(x1,y1)
Slope of a Line:
y P2(x2,y2)
y 2 y1
m tan m
x 2 x1
y2 – y1
The slope, m is positive if the line is inclined
upwards to the right but is negative if the line is
inclined downwards to the right. For horizontal
P1(x1,y1) x2 – x1
lines, m = 0 and for vertical lines, it is undefined,
x i.e m = .
1
For parallel lines, m1 = m2 ; for perpendicular lines, m1 .
m2
Midpoint of a Line Segment:
M (x, y) x1 x 2 y1 y 2
x y
2 2
P1(x1,y1)
x
Angle Between Two Lines:
y
Let be the angle measured counterclockwise
L2 from line L1 to line L2.
m2 m1
tan
1 m1 m2
P1P = k P1P2
P(x,y)
Then x = x1 + k (x2 – x1)
y = y1 + k (y2 – y1)
P1(x1,y1)
Note that k is positive if the directed line
x segments P1P and P1P2 are similarly directed
and negative if P1P and P1P2 are oppositely
directed.
Point-Slope Form: y – y1 = m (x – x1) where (x1, y1) are the coordinates of a given
point
y 2 y1
Two-Point Form: y – y1 = (x – x1) where (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) are given points
x2 x1
Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + b y
x y b
Intercept Form: 1
a b
p
where a – x-intercept of the line
Normal Form: x cos y sin p a x
where p – distance of the line from the origin
To reduce the equation Ax + By + C = 0 into the normal form, divide through
by A2 B 2 (using the sign in front of B), then transpose the constant
term to the right, i.e.
Ax By C
p
A2 B 2 A2 B 2 A2 B 2
Note that p can be positive or negative. If p is positive, it means that the line
Ax + By + C = 0 is above (or to the right of) the origin while if p is negative, it
means that the line is below (or to the left of) the origin.
Ax+By+C2=0
C 2 C1
d
d
A2 B 2
x
Ax+By+C1=0
Ax1 By1 C
d
A2 B 2 d
P1(x1,y1)
As in the normal form of a line, use the sign in front of B
in the denominator. Hence, d could come out either positive x
or negative. If d is positive, it means that the point is above
the line while if it is negative, it means that the point is below the line.
Area of a Triangle:
x1 y1 1
1
A x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
P1(x1,y1) P2(x2,y2)
Note that for the computed area to be positive,
x the vertices should be numbered in the
counterclockwise order
The area formula is sometimes written in the more convenient form shown below.
1 x1 x2 x3 x1
A
1
x1 y 2 x2 y3 x3 y1 x1 y3 x3 y 2 x2 y1
2 y1 y2 y3 y1 2
1 x1 x2 x3 . . . . xn x1
A
2 y1 y2 y3 . . . . yn y1
Examples:
1. Find the area of the pentagon having vertices at (3. 0), (2, 3), (–1, 2), (–2, –1) and
(0, –2).
Solution:
y
Numbering the vertices in the counterclockwise
P3(-1,2) order, the area is
P2(2,3)
1 3 2 1 2 0 3
A
2 0 3 2 1 2 0
P1(3,0) x =
P4(-2,-1)
1
9 4 1 4 0 (6 0 4 3 0)
P5(0,-2) 2
31
= square units
2
2. What is the equation of a line that passes through (4, 0) and is parallel to the line
x – y – 2 = 0?
Solution:
The equation of the required line is x – y + k = 0. To find k, substitute the coordinates
of the given point. Hence, 4 – 0 + k = 0. Hence, k = –4.
x–y–4=0
3. Find the equation of the line through (3, 1) that is perpendicular to the line x + 5y + 5
= 0.
Solution:
The equation of the required line can be obtained by interchanging the coefficients of
x and y from the given equation and changing the sign of one of them, i.e.
5x – y + k = 0 5(3) – 1 + k = 0 k = –14
5x – y –14 = 0
A conic section is the locus of a point that moves such that its distance from a fixed point
(called focus) is in constant ratio to its distance from a fixed straight line (called directrix).
This constant ratio is called eccentricity. The circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola
compose the conic sections (or simply conics) since each of them can be formed by a plane
which is made to intersect a cone.
The Circle:
A circle is the locus of a point in a plane that moves so that it is always equidistant from a
fixed point (called the center). The fixed distance is called the radius.
A circle is produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the base of the cone.
Equations of a Circle:
or x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
The Parabola:
A parabola is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that its distance from a fixed
point (called the focus) equals its distance from a fixed line (called the directrix). It is
formed when the cutting plane is parallel to one of the elements of the cone. Since the
parabola is a symmetrical curve, the line of symmetry is called the axis of the parabola.
Equations of a Parabola:
General equations:
Standard Forms:
If the right side of the equation is positive, the parabola opens upward;
if the right side of the equation is negative, the parabola opens downward.
If the right side of the equation is positive, the parabola opens rightward;
if the right side of the equation is negative, the parabola opens leftward.
y
PF
Latus rectum, LR = 4a e
PD
Directrix
2a For a parabola, e = 1.
V F Axis
a a x
2a
D
P
The Ellipse:
An ellipse is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that the sum of its distances
from two fixed points (called the foci) is a constant and is equal to the length of the major
axis (2a). It can also be defined as the locus of a point that moves such that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point (or focus) to its distance from a fixed line (or directrix) is a
constant and is less than one.
The ellipse is the conic section formed if the cutting plane is making an angle (other than
90o) with the axis of the cone.
Equations of an Ellipse:
Standard Forms:
Major axis
Center at (h, k), Major axis horizontal y
( x h) 2 y k
2 a
1
a2 b2 x
( x h) 2 y k
2
1
b2 a2
x
V2 F2 C F1 V1
a a x
D2
P c
PF2 c
e <1
PD2 a
The Hyperbola:
The hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane that moves such that the difference of its
distances from two fixed points (called foci) is a positive constant and is equal to the length
of the transverse axis (2a). It can also be defined to be the locus of a point that moves such
that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point (or focus) to its distance from a fixed line (or
directrix) is a constant and is greater than one.
The hyperbola is the conic section formed if the cutting plane is parallel (but not coincident)
to the axis of the cone.
x h 2 y k 2 1
a2 b2
x
y k 2 x h 2
Transverse
axis
1
a2 b2
O x
PF2 c
e >1
PD2 a
Directrix
d
Latus rectum,
LR = 2b2/a
b
F2 V2 V1 F1
a C a x
b
P D2
c
Asymptote
Degenerate conic (point circle, one line, two intersecting lines) – the conic formed if the
cutting plane passes through the vertex of the cone.
Examples:
1. Find the value of k for which the equation x2 + y2 + 4x – 2y – k = 0 represents a point
circle.
a. 5 b. 6 c. –6 d. –5
Solution: Reducing the given equation into the standard form
(x2 + 4x + 4) + (y2 – 2y + 1) = k + 4 + 1
(x + 2)2 + (y – 1)2 = k + 5
For a point circle, the radius, a = 0 a2 = 0
k + 5 = 0 k = –5
2. The equation x2 – y2 – 4x – 6y – 5 = 0 represents
a. a circle b. an ellipse c. a hyperbola d. two straight
lines
Solution: Reducing the given equation into the standard form
(x2 – 4x + 4) – (y2 – 6y + 9) = 5 + 4 – 9
(x – 2)2 – (y – 3)2 = 0
[(x – 2) + (y – 3)][(x – 2) – (y – 3)] = 0
(x + y – 5)(x – y + 1) = 0
x+y–5=0 x–y+1=0
Therefore, the given equation represents two straight lines.
This is also the general equation of a conic section: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
When B ≠ 0, the principal axes of the conic are inclined by an angle θ expressed as
B
tan 2
AC
In other words, the principal axes are not parallel to the coordinate axes. The curve
can be obtained from the equation given by determining the value of the discriminant
B2 – 4AC.
Examples:
1. Using the discriminant, identify the curve represented by the equation
3x2 + 6xy + 3y2 – 4x + 7y = 12
Solution: For the given equation, A = 3, B = 6 and C = 3.
2. Find the angle of rotation that will eliminate the xy term in the equation
3x2 + 6xy + 3y2 – 4x + 7y = 12
Solution:
B 6 6
tan 2 2 tan 1 90 θ = 45o
AC 33 0
When B = 0, the principal axes of the conic are parallel to the coordinate axes, i.e.
the x- and the y-axes.
Polar Coordinate System:
In this system, the location of a point in a plane is expressed by the ordered pair (r, θ) where
r (called the radius vector) is the distance of the point from the origin (or the pole) and θ
(called the polar angle) is the angle that the radius vector makes with the Ox axis (also
called the polar axis).
(r, θ)
Sign Convention:
• r is negative (–) when laid off at the extension of the terminal side of θ in the
opposite
quadrant
Examples:
1. What is the polar equation of a vertical line 5 units to the right of the origin?
Solution:
x r cos θ = 5
2. Express the polar equation r = 4a sin θ in rectangular form.
Solution:
y
r = 4a sin θ x 2 y 2 4a x 2 y 2 4ay
x y
2 2