FUEL CELLS

Fuel Cells are energy conversion devices set to replace combustion engines
and compliment batteries in a number of applications. They convert the chemical
energy contained in fuels, into electrical energy (electricity), with heat and water
generated as by-products. Fuel cells continue to generate electricity for as long as a
fuel is supplied, similar to traditional engineers. However unlike engines, where
fuels are burnt to convert chemical energy into kinetic energy, fuel cells convert
fuels directly into electricity via an electrochemical process that does not require
combustion. This process enables fuel cells to be more efficient (75%-83%) at
creating electricity than engines which have to go through an additional step to
convert the kinetic energy into electrical energy. They can be stacked and connected
in series to generate higher voltage without making any noise

All fuel cells contain either solid or liquid Electrolytes sandwiched between
two electrodes. There are a number of different Types of Fuel Cells, and these are
characterized by their particular electrolyte. Different types of fuel cells operate at
different temperatures and on a variety of fuels, including both gaseous fuels such as
hydrogen, natural gas, propane and biogases, to liquid fuels such as methanol and
ethanol. Low temperature fuel cells require pure hydrogen, whereas higher
temperature fuel cells can operate directly on hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas.
How fuel cells work?
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells used in automobiles—also called
Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells—use hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air to
produce electricity. The diagram shows how a PEM fuel cell works.
Types of Fuel Cells
Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This
classification determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind
of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required,
and other factors. These characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells
are most suitable. There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each
with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications. Learn more about:

 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells

 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

 Alkaline Fuel Cells

 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

 Regenerative Fuel Cells

 Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies

Advantages of fuel cell
 Fuel cells eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; the only byproduct is
water.
 If the hydrogen used comes from the electrolysis of water, then using fuel cells
eliminates greenhouse gases.
 Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can therefore
eliminate economic dependence on politically unstable countries.
 Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere where there is water and electricity,
production of potential fuel can be distributed.
 Installation of smaller stationary fuel cells leads to a more stabilised and
decentralised power grid.
 Fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines
 Most fuel cells operate silently, compared to internal combustion engines
 Low temperature fuel cells (PEM, DMFC) have low heat transmission which makes
them ideal for military applications.
 Operating times are much longer than with batteries, since doubling the operating
time needs only doubling the amount of fuel and not the doubling of the capacity of
the unit itself.
 Fuel cells have no “memory effect” when they are getting refuelled.
 The maintenance of fuel cells is simple since there are few moving parts in the
system
Disadvantages of fuel cell
 Fuelling fuel cells is still a problem since the production, transportation, distribution
and storage of hydrogen is difficult.
 Reforming hydrocarbons via reformer to produce hydrogen is technically
challenging and not clearly environmentally friendly.
 The refuelling and the starting time of fuel cell vehicles are longer and the driving
range is shorter than in a “normal” car.
 Fuel cells are in general slightly bigger than comparable batteries or engines.
However, the size of the units is decreasing.
 Fuel cells are currently expensive to produce, since most units are hand-made.
 Some fuel cells use expensive materials.
 The technology is not yet fully developed and few products are available.
APPLICATIONS
There are many uses for fuel cells — right now, all of the major automakers are
working to commercialize afuel cell car. Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains,
planes, scooters, forklifts, even bicycles. There are fuel cell-powered vending machines,
vacuum cleaners and highway road signs. Miniature fuel cell for cellular phones,laptop
computers and portable electronics are on their way to market. Hospitals, credit card
centers, police stations, and banks are all using fuel cells to provide power to their facilities.
Wastewater treatment plants and landfills are using fuel cells to convert the methane gas
they produce into electricity. Telecommunications companies are installing fuel cells at cell
phone, radio and 911 towers. The possibilities are endless

Fuel Cell Vehicles

Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have the potential to significantly reduce our dependence
on foreign oil and lower harmful emissions that cause climate change. FCVs run on
hydrogen gas rather than gasoline and emit no harmful tailpipe emissions. These vehicles
are in the early stages of development, and several challenges must be overcome before
these vehicles will be competitive with conventional vehicles. However, the potential
benefits of this technology are substantial.

Fuel cell vehicles are the least polluting of all vehicles that consume fuel directly.
Fuel cell vehicles operating on hydrogen stored on-board the vehicles produce zero
pollution in the conventional sense. Neither conventional pollutants nor green house gases
are emitted. The only byproducts are water and heat. The simple reaction that takes place
inside the fuel cell is highly efficient. Even if the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels,
fuel cell vehicles can reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, a global warming concern, by
more than half. Fuel cells used as auxiliary power units (APUs) to power air conditioners
and accessories in over-the-road trucks could reduce emissions by up to 45% from long
haul vehicles, and deliver economic benefits to the truck owner in lower fuel use and less
wear and tear. According to DOE, fuel cell APUs in Class 8 trucks can save 670 million
gallons of diesel fuel per year and 4.64 million tons of CO2 per year.

Electrovan developed by Craig Marks and associates is the first fuel cell vehicle.
The Electrovan had a Union Carbide fuel cell that used liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.

A Look Inside
FCVs look like conventional vehicles from the outside, but inside they contain
technologically advanced components not found on today's vehicles. The most obvious
difference is the fuel cell stack that converts hydrogen gas stored onboard with oxygen
from the air into electricity to drive the electric motor that propels the vehicle. The major
components of a typical FCV are illustrated below.
DESCRIPTION AND PURPOSE OF FUEL CELLS IN VEHICLES
Transportation is one of these application areas in which fuel cells can be used.
Despite the fact that fuel cells have high initial cost, they provide more benefits in
transportation than other fuel systems, because of their environmental advantages,
engineering simplicity, and economy.

First of all, zero or low emissions, lack of noise pollution, and no waste of natural
resources are the environmental advantages of fuel cell technology that make it attractive.
A lot of research done by different scientists supports this fact clearly. The Energy
production systems which are depending on fuel burning are more harmful to Nature than
fuel cells , because burning fossil fuels such as gasoline or diesel adds greenhouse gases to
the earth’s atmosphere. CO2 is one of these harmful gases which cause greenhouse effect.
But, fortunately, the amount of CO2 could be decreased by wide usage of fuel systems,
according to source generated fuel .Furthermore, harmful gases production of fuel cells can
be reduced to a minimum relying on the hydrogen production method . Also, it should
certainly be said that, fuel cells prevent noise pollution , emphasizes that despite the fact
that to be related with various applications, especially with buses. But, it seems that the fuel
cells are convenient to use in urban transit buses but certainly in time they are going to
spread among vans and cars, railways and marine applications.

In addition to two modes of transportation, urban buses and cars, fuel cells have
more application areas such as railways and marine applications. fuel cell powered trains
are more useful in areas without electric rail network. By this feature of fuel cell, they
reduce the overall cost of urban transportation, reducing the usage of electricity. On the
other hand, marine applications are expensive due to some reasons, submarines serve
mainly for military, where costs are less important than that of civil purposes .In
conclusion, as a result of being useful for our environment, being appropriate for engines
and engineering applications and having various economical advantages, compared to other
fuel systems, a lot of benefits can be obtained with Fuel Cell Systems in transportation
despite their initial cost problems. It is obvious that after the problem of not being
affordable is solved by scientists, Fuel Cell Systems will become the most popular battery
system of the world. Today most of the companies making battery systems for different
applications are working on Fuel Cell Systems being a good long-term outer disturbances
become effective when driving at high velocities, fuel cell vehicles produce less sound
pollution compared to other conventional cars . Fuel cells can be an opportunity to stop or
reduce wasting of natural energy resources. The dependence on fossil fuels such as gasoline
can be decreased by usage of Fuel Cells.

Secondly, appropriate features for engines and engineering applications can be

obtained with fuel cells. They exhibit high thermodynamic efficiency, simple operation
variety, and high co-generation capability .Fuel cell vehicles, not limited by Carnot Cycle,
are expected to achieve energy efficiencies of 40 to 45 percent and very possibly higher .
Also, effective responses can be obtained from fuel cells due to uncomplicated reactions.
Furthermore, lack of productivity can be decreased to level of 13% by using fuel cells in
co-generation mode .

In addition, Fuel cells, having hydrogen as a source fuel, have many special features
for engineering applications. For example, due to having high power density, and low
working temperatures, fuel cells can easily give responses to various power demands.
Another superior facility of hydrogen is its high diffusivity. Hugely reactive hydrogen’s
low density gives it a high diffusivity. Fuel cells can be used to provide propulsion or
auxiliary power for many transportation applications. In some article it is told that
submarines, , have been one of the areas in which fuel cell development started early on.
Also we can apply fuel cell systems for aerospace works .Due to many reasons, it is easier
to design a fuel cell vehicle than conventional vehicles. In other words, a strong system,
more reliable features and motionless parts can be obtained easier. For example, there are
“no transmission and distribution losses because of dispersed generation” in fuel cell
vehicles. In addition, fuel cells are 99.99% reliable way of converting power.
Finally, in addition to environmental and engineering advantages fuel cells have lots of
economical benefits. These advantages of fuel cells provide them investment for them. In
addition to these works, the parliaments of governments should encourage manufacturers to
produce Fuel Cells and pass useful laws about using Fuel Cell Systems in different
application areas. It should not be forgotten that Fuel Cell Systems are the best solution to
the problems of energy production.

FUEL CELL CAR

Fuel Cell Stacks

Most fuel cells designed for use in vehicles produce less than 1.16 volts of
electricity—far from enough to power a vehicle. Therefore, multiple cells must be
assembled into a fuel cell stack. The potential power generated by a fuel cell stack depends
on the number and size of the individual fuel cells that comprise the stack and the surface
area of the PEM.
Benifits

Less Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles emit greenhouse gases (GHGs), mostly

carbon dioxide (CO2), that contribute to global climate change. FCVs powered by pure
hydrogen emit no GHGs from their tailpipe, only heat and water. Producing the hydrogen
to power FCVs can generate GHGs, depending on the production method, but much less
than that emitted by conventional gasoline and diesel vehicles.

Less Air Pollutants

Highway vehicles emit a significant share of the air pollutants that contribute to
smog and harmful particulates in the U.S. FCVs powered by pure hydrogen emit no
harmful pollutants. If the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, some pollutants are
produced, but much less than the amount generated by conventional vehicle tailpipe
emissions.

Reduced Oil Dependence

FCVs could reduce our dependence of foreign oil since hydrogen can be derived
from domestic sources, such natural gas and coal, as well as renewable resources such as
water. That would make our economy less dependent on other countries and less vulnerable
to oil price shocks from an increasingly volatile oil market.

Challenges

Several challenges, technical and otherwise, must be overcome before fuel cell
vehicles (FCVs) will be a successful, competitive alternative for consumers.

Onboard Hydrogen Storage

Some FCVs store enough hydrogen to travel as far as gasoline vehicles between fill-
ups about 300 miles but the storage systems are still too large, heavy, and expensive. FCVs
are more efficient than conventional cars, and hydrogen contains three times more energy
per weight than gasoline does. However, hydrogen gas contains only a third of the energy
per volume gasoline does, making it difficult to store enough hydrogen to go as far as a
gasoline vehicle on a full tank—at least within size, weight, and cost constraints.

Hydrogen can be stored in three basic ways:

 As a gas in high-pressure tanks. Current FCV designs use high-pressure (5,000- to

10,000-psi) tanks to store hydrogen. These systems are large, heavy, and costly, but
they are the most cost-effective solution in the near term.
 As a liquid at sub-zero temperatures (-423°F). Since hydrogen is densest as a liquid,
this method allows more hydrogen storage than gaseous high-pressure storage but
costs 30 times more and suffers from safety and performance issues. Liquid storage
isn't likely to be commercially viable for more than a decade.
 Materials-based storage. Hydrogen can be stored inside solid materials through
absorption, adsorption, and chemical reactions. Materials-based systems have the
potential to be small and lightweight and may prove to be the best solution in the
long term. However, they are still in the early stages of development.

Vehicle Cost

FCVs are currently too expensive to compete with hybrids and conventional
gasoline and diesel vehicles. Manufacturers must bring down production costs, especially
the costs of the fuel cell stack and hydrogen storage.

Fuel cell system costs have decreased significantly over the past several years but
are still nearly twice as high as those for internal combustion engines. Likewise, onboard
hydrogen storage costs are currently $15–$18/kWh for high-pressure gaseous storage,
while the commercialization target is $2/kWh. There is potential to reduce this cost using
lower-cost carbon fiber tanks or materials-based storage technologies, such as metal
hydrides.
Fuel Cell Durability and Reliability
Fuel cell systems are not yet as durable as internal combustion engines and do not
perform as well in extreme environments, such as in sub-freezing temperatures.

Fuel cell stack durability in real-world environments is currently about one third of
what is needed for commercialization. Durability has increased substantially over the past
few years from 29,000 miles to 57,000 miles, but experts believe a 150,000-mile expected
lifetime is necessary for FCVs to compete with gasoline vehicles

Competition with Other Technologies

Manufacturers are still improving the efficiency of gasoline- and diesel-powered

engines, hybrids are gaining popularity, and advances in battery technology are making
plug-in hybrids and electric vehicles more attractive. FCVs will have to offer consumers a
viable alternative, especially in terms of performance, durability, and cost, to survive in this
ultra-competitive market.

Safety

Hydrogen, like any fuel, has safety risks and must be handled with caution. We are
familiar with gasoline, but handling compressed hydrogen will be new to most of us.
Therefore, developers must optimize new fuel storage and delivery systems for safe
everyday use, and consumers must become familiar with hydrogen's properties and risks.

Public Acceptance

Finally, fuel cell technology must be embraced by consumers before its benefits can
be realized. Consumers may have concerns about the dependability and safety of these
vehicles, just as they did with hybrids
FUEL CELL BUS

Disadvantages of fuel cell vehicles

Conceptually, replacing the current oil-based infrastructure with hydrogen would

cost billions, maybe trillions, of dollars.

Although abundant in the universe, hydrogen is fairly rare in our atmosphere,

meaning that it has to be extracted (for example through electrolysis, as explained above)
and currently, the process is cost prohibitive and inefficient.

Its production at energy plants creates excessive carbon dioxide.

When it burns, a hydrogen flame is virtually invisible; coupled with the gas’s
propensity for escaping, in small amounts, almost any tank, there are concerns about
explosions. On the plus side, hydrogen is so light it typically is dispersed in the air very
quickly.On-board storage is a major issue; a hydrogen tank would currently be too large for
a car.It is a very flammable gas (think of the Hindenburg), which further adds to the on-
board storage problems. Fuel Cell Cycling in the Cities [FCCC] is a new program
involving in getting people to cycling in the city with the aid of fuel cell propulsion
systems. The FCCC is a program designed to get people fitter, thinking about
fitness/health, reducing air pollution, and to depict the future of zero emission
transport and allowing the community to become familiar with the technology .For a
decade or more, Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) have been touted as the “next big thing”
in automobiles. Now, with fleets of FCVs in the hundreds and the increasing
utilization of fuel cells in commercial vehicles, it appears that the FCV may be on
the verge of commercialization by mid-decade. With substantial support from the
largest automakers, the pressure is on gas companies and governments to make sure
that hydrogen fueling stations are available to support this emerging market. Pike
Research forecasts that fuel cell transit buses will be at the vanguard of the FCV
movement, with sales growing compound annual growth rate of 31.7% by 2015.
Fuel cell light vehicles will be commercially launched in 2014 in most regions of the
world, and their sales will reach almost 670,000 vehicles per year by 2020.

LIST OF FUEL CELL VEHICLES

Audi A2H2-hybrid vehicle, BMW H2R ICE-Liquid Hydrogen, Mercedes-Benz

NECAR 5, Honda FCX - hybrid vehicle, Mitsubishi FCV, Nissan X-Trail FCHV-
hybrid vehicle, Toyota FCHV-hybrid vehicle, VW Bora Hy-motion-Fuel cell,
Mercedes-Benz Citaro fuel cell bus, Yamaha FC-me, Zemships, , Type 214
submarine (These are equipped with a diesel engine and fuel cell propulsion),
Formula Zero Championship, the world's first hydrogen race series.