Math 21 Modulepages187274

Chapter 4
Integration and Its Applications
4.1 Antidifferentiation and Indefinite Integrals

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
s
• recognize antidifferentiation as the inverse process of differentiation
ic
at
• integrate algebraic functions and functions involving the six circular functions
h
• integrate functions using substitution rule em
at
M
• find a particular antiderivative given an initial condition

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• solve problems involving rates of change given initial conditions (e.g. rectilinear
e
motion)
ut
tit
In Chapters 1 and 2, we developed tools for differentiation, and saw various applications of the
s
In
derivative as a rate of change. Now we introduce antidifferentiation, the process which reverses
UP
differentiation. Given a function f , can we find a function F whose derivative is f ? We will see
that this process is related to the computation of the area of a region in the plane.
4.1.1 Antiderivatives or Indefinite Integrals

Definition 4.1.1. A function F is an antiderivative of the function f on an interval I if F 0 (x) =
f (x) for every value of x in I.
Example 4.1.2.
1. An antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F (x) = 4x3 + x2 .
2. An antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G(x) = sin x.
3. Another antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F1 (x) = 4x3 + x2 − 1.
4. Another antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G1 (x) = sin x + π.
179
180 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Remark 4.1.3. If an antiderivative of f exists, then it is not unique.
Theorem 4.1.4. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antiderivative of

f on I is given by F (x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
Remark 4.1.5. By the theorem above, we can conclude that if F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of f ,
then F2 (x) = F1 (x) + C. That is, F2 and F1 differ only by a constant.
Terms and Notations:
• Antidifferentiation is the process of finding antiderivatives.

Z
• If F is an antiderivative of f , we write f (x) dx = F (x) + C.
Z
• The symbol , called the integral sign, denotes the operation of antidifferentiation.
ic s
at
• The function f is called the integrand.
tive of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .

h em
• The expression F (x)+C is called the general antiderivative of f . Meanwhile, each antideriva-
at
M
Example 4.1.6.
of
Z
12x2 + 2x dx = 4x3 + x2 + C

1.
e
ut
tit
Z
2. cos x dx = sin x + C
s
In
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Theorem 4.1.7 (Theorems on Antidifferentiation).

Z
1. dx = x + C
2. If a is a constant, then Z Z
af (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
3. If f and g are defined on the same interval, then

Z Z Z

f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.
4. If n is any real number and n 6= −1, then
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 181
Z
1
5. dx = ln |x| + C
x
Example 4.1.8. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z
1. x5 dx
x6
= +C
6
Z
2. 2 dx
Z
=2 dx = 2(x + C1 ) = 2x + 2C1 = 2x + C
Z
3
3. dx
x5
3x−4
Z Z
3
s
−5
= 3x dx = 3 x−5 dx = +C =− 4 +C
ic
−4 4x
at
Z
em
4u /4 du
3
4.
h
at
4u7/4 16u7/4
= +C = +C
M
7/4 7
of
Z
12x2 + 2x dx

5.
e
ut
12x3 2x2
Z Z
2
+ C2 = 4x3 + x2 + C
tit
= 12x dx + 2x dx = + C1 +
3 2
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In
Z √
6. t 2t − 3 t dt
UP
2t3 6t5/2
Z Z Z
2t2 − 3t /2 dt = 2t2 dt − 3t /2 dt =
3 3
= − +C
3 5
x2 + 1
Z
7. dx
x2
x−1
Z
1
1 + x−2 dx = x +

= +C =x− +C
−1 x
3x2 + 5
Z
8. dx
4x
Z Z Z
3 5 3 5 3 5
= x+ dx = x dx + x dx = x2 + ln |x| + C
4 4x 4 4 8 4
Theorem 4.1.9 (Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions).

Z Z
1. sin x dx = − cos x + C 4. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z Z
2. cos x dx = sin x + C 5. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z Z
3. sec2 x dx = tan x + C 6. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

Z
1. (sin x + cos x) dx
= − cos x + sin x + C
Z
cos x
2. dx
sin2 x
Z Z
1 cos x
s
= · dx = csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
ic
sin x sin x
at
em
Z
3. tan2 x dx
h
at
Z
sec2 x − 1 dx = tan x − x + C

=
M
of
Z
dx
4.
e
1 + sin x
ut
1 − sin x 1 − sin x
Z Z
1
tit
= · dx = dx
1 + sin x 1 − sin x cos2 x
s
In
Z
sec2 x − sec x tan x dx = tan x − sec x + C

=
UP
Theorem 4.1.11 (Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions).

ax
Z
1. ax dx = + C (a > 0 and a 6= 1)
ln a
Z
2. ex dx = ex + C

Z
1. 7x dx
Solution.
7x
Z
7x dx = + C.
ln 7
Z
2. 22x · 5x dx
Solution.
Applying laws of exponents,
20x
Z Z Z
2 · 5 dx = 4 · 5 dx = 20x dx =
2x x x x
+ C.
ln 20
Theorem 4.1.13 (Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions).
Z Z
1. cosh x dx = sinh x + C 4. csch2 x dx = − coth x + C
Z Z
2. sinh x dx = cosh x + C 5. sech x tanh x dx = − sech x + C
Z Z
s
3. sech2 x dx = tanh x + C 6. csch x coth x du = − csch x + C
ic
at
Example 4.1.14.
csch x − tanh3 x
em
Z
1. dx
h
at
tanh x
M
Solution.
csch x − tanh3 x
of
Z Z
dx = (csch x coth x − tanh2 x) dx
tanh x
e
ut
Z
= (csch x coth x + sech2 x − 1) dx
stit
= − csch x + tanh x − x + C.
In
The next two theorems give antiderivatives yielding the inverse circular and hyperbolic functions.
UP
Theorem 4.1.15 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions).

Z
dx
1. √ = sin−1 x + C
1 − x2
Z
dx
2. = tan−1 x + C
1 + x2
Z
dx
3. √ = sec−1 x + C
x x2 − 1
Theorem 4.1.16 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions).

Z
1 p
1. √ dx = sinh−1 x + C = ln(x + x2 + 1) + C
x2 + 1
Z
1 p
2. √ dx = cosh−1 x + C = ln(x + x2 − 1) + C, x > 1
x2 − 1

−1
Z
1  tanh x + C , if |x| < 1

1 1 + x
3. dx = = ln +C
1 − x2 2 1 − x
coth−1 x + C , if |x| > 1


1
It is recommended that the concise formula for the integral of be used rather than the
1 − x2
complicated piecewise function.
x4
Z
1. dx
x2 + 1
Solution.
x4 x3
Z Z
1
dx = x 2
− 1 + dx = − x + tan−1 x + C.
s
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 3
ic
at
2t4 + 3t2 + 4
Z
2. dt
em
t2 − 1
h
Solution.
at
2t4 + 3t2 + 4 2t3
Z Z Z
9 9 9 1 + t
M
2 2
dt = 2t + 5 + 2 dt = 2t + 5 − dt = +5t− ln +
t2 − 1 t −1 1 − t2 3 2 1 − t
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C.
e
ut
4.1.2 Integration by Substitution

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In
Suppose F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), and g is a differentiable function of x whose range is

contained in the domain of F . Recall the chain rule:
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Dx [F (g(x))] = F 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).
Hence, F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) is an antiderivative of g 0 (x). If we take u = g(x), then du = g 0 (x) dx.
The following theorem thus allows us to take the antiderivatives of more complex functions:
Theorem 4.1.18 (Substitution Rule). If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range

is an interval I and f is continuous on I, then
Z Z
0
f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = f (u) du.
Example 4.1.19.
Z
(1 − 4x) /2 dx
1
1.
−4
If we let u = 1 − 4x, then du = −4 dx. We multiply the integrand by . Thus,
−4
1 2u3/2

−4
Z Z Z Z
1/2 1/2 1/2 du 1
u /2 du = − ·
1
(1 − 4x) dx = (1 − 4x) · dx = u − =− + C.
−4 4 4 4 3
We put the final answer in terms of x by substituting u = 1 − 4x. Therefore,
(1 − 4x)3/2
Z
1/2
(1 − 4x) dx = − + C.
6
Z
2. x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx
du
Let u = x3 − 1. Then du = 3x2 dx, or = x2 dx. By substitution,
3
3 − 1 11

Z Z
du 1
Z
u11 x
x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx = u10 · = u10 du = +C = + C.
s
3 3 33 33
ic
at
Z
x
3. dx
em
(x2 + 1)3
du
h
at
Let u = x2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx, or = x dx. By substitution,
2
M
1 u−2
Z Z
x 1 −3 1
dx = u du = · +C =− + C.
of
2 3 2 2 −2 4(x + 1)2
2
(x + 1)
e
ut
Z
4. cos4 x sin x dx
stit
Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx, or −du = sin x dx. By substitution,

In
u5 cos5 x
Z Z
UP
cos x sin x dx = − u4 du = − + C = −
4
+ C.
5 5
Z
x sec3 x2 tan x2 dx

5.
du
Let u = sec x2 . Then du = sec x2 tan x2 · 2x dx, or = sec x2 tan x2 · x dx. By

2
substitution,
Z Z
3 2 2
x sec x tan x dx = sec2 x2 sec x2 tan x2 · x dx

1 u3
Z
1
= u2 du = · +C
2 2 3
sec3 x2

= + C.
6
tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Z
6. ds
s2 cos 1s
Let u = 1s . Then du = − s12 ds or −du = ds
s2
. By substitution,
tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Z Z
tan u + tan u sin u
2 1 ds = − du
s cos s Z cos u
sec u tan u + tan2 u du

=−
Z
sec u tan u + sec2 u − 1 du

=−
= − (sec u + tan u − u) + C
= − sec 1s − tan 1s + 1s + C.
√
Z
7. t t − 1 dt
Let u = t − 1. Then u = dt. Also, t = u + 1. By substitution,

√ 2u5/2 2u3/2
Z Z Z
1/2 3/2 1/2
t t − 1 dt = (u + 1) u du = u +u du = + +C
5 3
5/2 3/2
2 (t − 1) 2 (t − 1)
= + + C.
5 3
ic s
t3
Z
8. √ dt
at
t2 + 3
em
du
Let u = t2 + 3. Then du = 2t dt, or = t dt. Also, t2 = u − 3. By substitution,
h
2
at
t3 t2 · t
Z Z Z
du
M
−1
√ dt = √ dt = u /2 (u − 3)
t2 + 3 t2 + 3 2
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!
Z 3/2
1 1/2 −1/2
1 2u 1/2
= u − 3u du = − 6u +C
e
2 2 3
ut
3/2
t2 + 3
tit
1/2
= − 3 t2 + 3 + C.
3
s
In
√
Z q
UP
9. 4 + x dx
√ 1 dx
Let u = 4 + x. Then du = √ dx or 2 du = √ . By substitution,
2 x x
√
√ √
Z q Z
x
q
4 + x dx = 4 + x · √ dx
x
√ √ √
Z
dx
q
= 4+ x· x· √ ( x = u − 4)
x
Z
u /2 · (u − 4) · 2 du
1
=
Z
2u /2 − 8u /2 du
3 1
=
2 · 2u5/2 2 · 8u3/2
= − +C
5 3
√ 5/2 √ 3/2
4 (4 + x) 16 (4 + x)
= − + C.
5 3
At this point, among the six circular functions, we know the antiderivatives of only the sine and
the cosine functions. We will see that the antiderivatives of the other circular functions involve the
natural logarithmic function.
Theorem 4.1.20.
Z
1. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
Z
2. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z
3. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
Z
4. csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C
Proof. We shall prove items 1 and 3 only. Statements 2 and 4 can be proved similarly.
ic s
Z Z
sin x
at
First, note that tan x dx = dx. Let u = cos x. Then du = (− sin x) dx. Hence,
cos x
em
Z Z
1 h
tan x dx = − du = − ln |u| + C = − ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec x| + C.
u
at
M
That proves the statement for the tangent function.

of
Now, for the secant function, note that

e
ut
sec2 x + sec x tan x

Z Z Z
sec x(sec x + tan x)
tit
sec x dx = dx = dx.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
s
In
Let u = sec x + tan x. Then du = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx. Therefore,

UP
Z Z
du
sec x dx = = ln |u| + C = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
u

Z
x3 csc x4 dx

1.
Solution.
Let u = x4 . Then du = 4x3 dx. Therefore,
Z Z
3 4 1 1 1
csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C = ln csc x3 − cot x3 + C.

x csc x dx =
4 4 4
sin( x2 ) + 4
Z
2. dx
cos( x2 )
Solution.
Let u = x2 . Then du = 21 dx. Hence,

sin( x2 ) + 4
Z Z
sin u + 4
x dx = 2 du
cos( 2 ) cos u
Z
= 2 (tan u + 4 sec u) du
= 2 (ln | sec u| + 4 ln |sec u + tan u|) + C

= 2 ln | sec( x )| + 4 ln sec( x ) + tan( x ) + C.

2 2 2
Similar results can be derived for the remaining hyperbolic functions.
Theorem 4.1.22.
Z
1. tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C
Z
2. coth x dx = ln | sinh x| + C
ic s
Z
at
3. sech x dx = 2 tan−1 (ex ) + C
= tan−1 (sinh x) + C h em
at
Z
M
4. csch x dx = ln |csch x − coth x| + C

of
e
Also, one can generalize Theorems 4.1.15 and 4.1.16 to the case when the constant 1 in the integrand
ut
is replaced by some other positive number, as shown in the next theorem.

s tit
In
Theorem 4.1.23. Let a > 0.

UP
Z
du u
1. √ = sin−1 +C
a2 − u2 a
Z
du 1 −1 u

2. = tan +C
a2 + u2 a a
Z
du 1 u
3. √ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a
Z
1 u p
4. √ du = sinh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 + a2 ) + C
u2 + a2 a
Z
1 u p
5. √ du = cosh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 − a2 ) + C, u > a
u2 − a2 a

1 −1 u



 a tanh + C , if |u| < a
a
Z 
1 1 a + u
6. du = = ln
+C
a2 − u2 2a a − u
 1 coth−1 u + C , if |u| > a



a a
Proof. We will prove the first statement only and leave the proofs of the rest as exercises.
Let a > 0. Then,
Z Z Z
du du du
√ = √ q = q , since a > 0.
a − u2
2
a2 1 − u2
a 1− u 2

a2 a
u 1
Let v = . Then dv = du and hence
a a
Z Z
du dv u
√ = √ = sin−1 v + C = sin−1 + C.
a2 − u2 1 − v2 a
1
As before, it is recommended that the concise formula for the integral of be used.
a2 − u2
Example 4.1.24. Evaluate the following integrals.
Z
1
1. √ dx
s
9x2 + 1
ic
at
Solution.
Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and
Z
1 1
Z
1 1 1
h em
at
√ = √ du = sinh−1 u + C = sinh−1 (3x) + C
2
9x + 1 3 2
u +1 3 3
M
x2
Z
of
2. dx
x6 − 25
e
ut
Solution.
tit
Let u = x3 . Then du = 3x2 dx and

s
In
x2
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
= du = − du
UP
6
x − 25 3 2
u − 25 3 25 − u2
5 + x3

1 1 5 + u 1
=− · ln + C = − ln +C
3 10 5 − u 30 5 − x3
Z 2
3 dx
3.
0 4 − x2
Solution.
Z 2 2 " #
2 + x x= 3 2
2 +
3 dx 1 1 3
2 + 0
= ln = ln − ln

4 − x2 2 · 2 2 − x x=0 4 2 −
2 2 − 0
0 3

1 1
= [ln 2 − ln 1] = ln 2
4 4
2x − 1
Z
4. √ dx
x2 + 4x − 5
Solution.
Let u = x2 + 4x − 5. Then du = (2x + 4)dx and
2x − 1 2x + 4 − 4 − 1
Z Z
√ dx = √ dx
x2 + 4x − 5 Z x 2 + 4x − 5
Z
2x + 4 5
= √ dx − √ dx
x 2 + 4x − 5 x2 + 4x − 5
Z Z
1 5
= √ du − √ dx
u 2
x + 4x + 4 − 4 − 5
√
Z
5 dx
=2 u− p .
(x + 2)2 − 9
Let v = x + 2. Then dv = dx and

2x − 1
Z Z
p 5
√ dx = 2 x2 + 4x − 5 − √ dv
x2 + 4x − 5 v2 − 9
p v
= 2 x2 + 4x − 5 − 5 cosh−1 +C
3
−1 x + 2
p
2
= 2 x + 4x − 5 − 5 cosh + C,
3
s
where v > 3, i.e. x > 1.
ic
at
4.1.3 Particular Antiderivatives
h em
Now suppose that given a function f (x), we wish to find a particular antiderivative F (x) of f (x)
at
that satisfies a given condition. Such a condition is called an initial or boundary condition.
M
of
Example 4.1.25.
e
1. Given that F 0 (x) = 2x and F (2) = 6, find F (x).

ut
tit
Solution.
s
In
Since F 0 (x) = 2x, we have Z

UP
F (x) = 2x dx = x2 + C.
The initial condition F (2) = 6 implies that F (2) = 22 + C = 6. we get C = 2. Therefore,

the particular antiderivative that we wish to find is
F (x) = x2 + 2.
√
2. The slope of the tangent line at any point (x, y) on a curve is given by 3 x. Find an equation
of the curve if the point (9, 4) is on the curve.
Solution.
Let y = F (x) be an equation of the curve. The slope of the tangent line mT L at a point
√
(x, y) on the graph of the curve is given by F 0 (x) = 3 x. We have
Z
F (x) = 3x /2 dx = 2x /2 + C.
1 3
The initial condition that (9, 4) is on the curve implies that F (9) = 2 · 93/2 + C = 4. We obtain
C = −50. Thus, an equation of the curve is
y = 2x /2 − 50.
3
4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited

Suppose that a particle is traveling along a straight line and s (t), v (t) and a (t) are equations of
motion, velocity and acceleration, respectively, of the particle. Recall that
v(t) = s0 (t) and a(t) = v 0 (t).
Therefore, s(t) is a particular antiderivative of v(t) while v(t) is a particular antiderivative of a(t).
Example 4.1.26.
s
1. A heavy projectile is fired straight up from a platform 3 meters above the ground with an
ic
initial velocity of 160 m/s. Find an equation of motion of the particle. (Use −10 m/s2 for
at
acceleration due to gravity.)
Solution.
h em
at
Let the acceleration and velocity of the particle at time t be given by a (t) and v (t).
M
Since a(t) = −10 at any time t and v (t) is a particular antiderivative of a (t), we have
of
Z
e
v(t) = −10 dt = −10t + C.

ut
tit
The initial velocity is 160 m/s, so v(0) = 160. Thus, 160 = −10 · 0 + C, or C = 160, and we
s
In
obtain
UP
v(t) = −10t + 160.

Let s (t) be the position of the particle from the ground at time t. Now s (t) is a particular
antiderivative of v (t), so
Z
s (t) = (−10t + 160) dt = −5t2 + 160t + C.
The initial condition s(0) = 3 yields C = 3. Finally,
s(t) = −5t2 + 160t + 3.
2. The acceleration of a particle moving along a line at t seconds is given by a (t) = t2 + 2t.
Find an equation of motion of the particle if the particle is one unit to the right of the origin
when t = 0, and 3 units to the left of the origin when t = 2.
Solution.
Since v(t) is an antiderivative of a(t), we have
t3
Z
t2 + 2t dt = + t2 + C1 .

v(t) =
3
Because there is no initial condition involving velocity, we antidifferentiate the previous ex-
pression to obtain a general expression for s(t) first:
Z 3
t4 t3

t 2
s(t) = + t + C1 dt = + + C1 t + C2 .
3 12 3
The initial condition s(0) = 1 yields C2 = 1. Meanwhile, the other initial condition s(2) = −3
4 8
implies that + + 2C1 + 1 = −3, or C1 = −4. Therefore, an equation of motion of the
3 3
particle is
t4 t3
s(t) = + − 4t + 1.
12 3
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.1.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Find the following antiderivatives.
Z Z
6
4 csc x cot x + 2 sec2 x dx
3/4 4

1. x − 5x − 4 dx 5.
x
Z Z
2 cot2 θ − 3 tan2 θ dθ

2. (4s + 3)(s − 5) ds 6.
4z 2 − 6z + 3
Z Z
1
3. √ dz 7. dx
z 1 − cos x
Z
4. (5 cos x − 4 sin x) dx
B. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.
ic s
Z p Z
3
16n2 − 8n + 1 dn coth2 x csch2 x dx
at
1. 5.
em
Z
sec2 x
p Z
4
2. z 8 z 3 + 3 dz h 6. dx
1 − 16 tan2 x
at
√
sec2 (3 t)
Z Z
x
M
3. √ dt 7. √ dx
t 2
x − 8x
of
ex
Z
1
Z 4 cos 8. √ dx
e
x2 e2x − 4
ut
4. dx Z
3 1 x
tit
3
x sin 9. √ dx
x2 x + 4x2 + 5
4
s
In
C. Solve the following problems completely.

UP
1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
d2 y
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx
Find an equation of the curve.
D. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)
1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from a platform 8 feet above the ground. After 2
seconds, the ball is 2 feet below the platform. Find the initial velocity of the ball.
2. If the brakes on a car can give the car a constant negative acceleration of 8 m/s2 , what
is the maximum speed it can go to be able to stop within 25 meters after the brake is
applied?
Supplementary Exercises
A. Verify that F is an antiderivative for f .

x x2 + 1
1. F (x) = − ; f (x) =
4(4x2 + 5x − 4) (4x2 + 5x − 4)2
2. F (x) = x ln x − x; f (x) = ln x
3. F (x) = x sin x + cos x; f (x) = x cos x
3x4 + 2x3 − 2x + 1

3 2 2 −1 2x + 1
4. F (x) = ln |x − x + 1| + √ tan √ ; f (x) =
3 3 x5 + x + 1
B. Find the following antiderivatives.
Z Z
2 2
1. x (x − 1) dx 5. (tan x + cot x)2 dx

√ √
Z Z
1 cosh x
2. y 3
y+ √ 4 y
dy 6. p dx
8 − cosh2 x
ic s
1 2
Z √ Z
sec θ

3
7. dθ
at
3. 2 t+ √ dt
3
t sec θ − tan θ
em
1 − t2
Z Z
3 csc2 t − 5 sec t tan t dt

4. 8. dt
h
1 + t2
at
M
C. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.

of
e
Z
tan2 x 1 + sin2 x
Z
ut
2 3 4
1. 2x (4 + 3x ) dx 11. dx
cos2 x
tit
Z √ √
cot 3 x csc2 3 x
Z
s
2. (2y − 1)6 dy √
In
12. 3 √ 2 dx
x2 (4 + cot2 3 x)
UP
s3
Z
√
Z q
3. √ ds 13. 4 − 4 − x dx
3s2 + 1
Z
t Z
csch cot−1 x

4. dt 14. dx
t4 + 2t2 + 1 1 + x2
Z Z
5. 4x[3x + cos(2x2 + 1)] dx sech x 2 + coth2 x dx

15.
Z
cos x
Z
x
6. dx 16. 5x ecsch(5 ) csch(5x ) coth(5x ) dx
(1 + sin x)5
Z Z
7. csc3 (2x + 1) cot (2x + 1) dx 17. sinh x tanh x dx
tanh2 (ey )
Z Z
8. sin θ cos θ cos (cos 2θ) dθ 18. dy
cosh y − sinh y
Z
dx
Z
sec2 θ − cos2 θ tan θ dθ

9. 19. √
2
4x + 8x + 13
Z
dx
Z
sin y − tan2 y sec2 y dy

10. 20. √
16 − e−2x
cosh−1 (log5 x)
Z
2x + 10 Z
21. 2
dx 26. dx
x + 2x − 3
q
Z x (log5 x)2 − 1
1
22. √ dx
Z
sin 2x + 2 sin x
e2x −4 27. dx
Z sin2 x + 1
1 Z x
3 +1
23. √ dx 28. dx
25 + 16x2 9x + 1
Z Z
x 1
24. √ dx 29. √ dx
x4−1 e2x + 4
Z
Z
dx sech r
25. 30. p dr
52−x − 5x 15 coth2 r + 1
D. Solve the following problems completely.
1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
d2 y
ic s
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx
at
Find an equation of the curve.
em
3. An equation of the tangent to a curve at the point (1, 3) is y = x + 2. If at any point (x, y)
d2 y
h
on the curve, = 6x, find an equation of the curve.
at
dx2
M
E. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
of
gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)

e
ut
1. A sandbag is released from a balloon rising vertically with a velocity of 16 ft/s at the
tit
instant when the balloon is 64 feet from the ground. How many seconds after its release
s
will the bag hit the ground?

In
2. If a particle starts from rest, what constant acceleration is required to move the particle
UP
50 meters in 5 seconds along a straight line?

3. Two stones are thrown vertically upward at the same time, one with an initial velocity of
32 ft/s from a height of 128 feet, the other with an initial velocity of 64 ft/s from a height
of 80 ft. If the stones travel along parallel paths, when will the second stone overtake the
first?
4.2 The Definite Integral

We have probably known of some formulas regarding the area of specific shapes, or polygons for a
better term.
√ For instance, the area of an equilateral triangle of side length s is give by the function
s2 3
A(s) = . A square of side length s has area A(s) = s2 , and so on. In general, the area of any
4
polygon is the sum of the areas of the triangles into which it can be decomposed. It can be seen
that this computation is independent of the way in whiich we divide the polygon into the needed
triangles.
Now, we deconstruct this notion of area for us to be able to find the area of a region bounded by a
curve and some vertical lines.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
• generalize the notion of area of a polygonal region to the area of any plane region;
• derive an expression that gives such a formula, given any function f (x);
ic s
at
• use the properties of summation to obtain an exact number that gives the desired area.
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.2.1 Area of a Plane Region: The Rectangle Method

Definition 4.2.1. (Sigma Notation) Let n be a positive integer, and F be a function such that
{1, 2, . . . , n} in is the domain of F . We define:
n
X
F (i) := F (1) + F (2) + . . . + F (n)
i=1
We read the left hand side as ”the summation of F (i), with i from 1 to n.
Remark 4.2.2.
1. The variable i is called a dummy variable. It can be changed arbitrarily, especially when two
or more summations are involved in a single calculation.
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 197
2. In general, the summation need not start from 1. As long as we have k ∈ , , where k < n, we Z
can define the summation of F (i), with i from k to n:
n
X
F (i) := F (k) + F (k + 1) + . . . + F (n)
i=k
However, for convenience of calculations, we start from i = 1.
Theorem 4.2.3. (Properties of Summation) Let n be a positive integer, c be a real number,

and F and G be functions defined on the set {1, 2, . . . , n}.
n
X
1. c = cn
i=1
n
X n
X
2. cF (i) = c F (i)
ic s
i=1 i=1
at
n n n
em
X X X
3. F (i) ± G(i) = F (i) ± G(i)
i=1 i=1 i=1
h
at
n
n(n + 1)
M
X
4. i=
2
i=1
of
n
e
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
i2 =
ut
5.
6
tit
i=1
s
In
Example 4.2.4.
UP
30 30 30 30 30
X X X X X 30(31)
1. (6i − 1) = 6i + 1=6 i+ 1=6· + 1 · 20 = 2750
2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
10 10 10 10 10
X X X X X 10(11)(21) 10(11)
2. (i − 1)2 = (i2 − 2i + 1) = i2 − 2 i+ 1= −2· + 10 = 285
6 2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
10 n n n n
X X X X X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
3. (i − 1)2 = (i2 − 2i + 1) = i2 − 2 i+ 1= + +n =
6 2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n(2n2 − 3n + 1)
6
The Area of a Plane Region
Suppose we wish to find the area of the region R in the first quadrant bounded by the curve
f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the vertical line x = 2.
We calculate the area AR of the region R in the following manner:
s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
1. First, we divide the interval [0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. Note that
UP
2−0 2
∆x = = .
n n
2. Let ci be the right endpoint of the ith subinterval, i = 1, 2, .., n.
3. Next, we cover the region with n circumscribed rectangles of width ∆x and height f (ci ).
4. Let Ai be the area of the ith rectangle. We get
Ai = f (ci ) · ∆x.
5. The area of the region can be approximated by taking the sum of the areas of the n circum-
scribed rectangles. Thus,
Xn
AR ≈ Ai
i=1
or
n
X
AR ≈ f (ci ) · ∆x
i=1
2
But ∆x = and f (ci ) = c2i . So,
n
n
X 2
AR ≈ c2i ·
n
i=1
2i
Moreover ci = i · ∆x = . So,
n
n 2
X 2i 2
AR ≈ ·
n n
i=1
6. We simplify the right hand side using summation formulas and obtain
n n
X X 8i2
AR ≈ Ai =
n3
i=1 i=1
n
8X2
= i
s
n3
ic
i=1
at
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ·
em
n3 6
h 4(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=
at
3n2
M
of
7. Note that if we increase the number of rectangles, we get a better approximation of the area.
In fact, we define the area of the region to be
e
ut
tit
n
X
AR := lim Ai .
s
n→∞
In
i=1
UP
We obtain
n
X 4(n + 1)(2n + 1) 8
AR := lim Ai = lim = .
n→∞ n→∞ 3n2 3
i=1
In the previous illustration, we calculated the area AR of a plane region R bounded above by a
continuous function y = f (x) and below by the interval [a, b] by covering R with n circumscribed
rectangles of equal width ∆x. We then let n → ∞ to calculate the area
n
X
AR := lim f (ci ) · ∆x
n→∞
i=1
where ci is the right endpoint of ith subinterval and ∆x is the width of the ith rectangle, i =
1, 2, ..., n.
The following alternative method can be used to calculate AR .

Instead of taking the right endpoint ci of the ith subinterval, we can take any number x∗i in the
ith subinterval and let the height of the ith rectangle be h = f (x∗i ). The area of the region is now
s
given by
ic
n
at
X
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x.
em
n→∞
i=1
h
at
4.2.2 The Definite Integral
M
To find the area of some plane regions R bounded above by y = f (x) and below by the interval
of
[a, b], it is sometimes more convenient to use rectangles of different widths.

e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Given an interval [a, b], we define a partition of the interval to be a sequence of numbers
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < xn = b
the divides interval into n subintervals where the length of the ith interval is given by ∆xi =
xi − xi−1 , where i = 1, ..., n. When the subintervals are of equal length we say that the partition is
a regular partition.
For a regular partition, the length of each subinterval tends to 0 as n → ∞. However, if the
partition is not regular, this is not always true. Instead, we define max∆xi to be the length of the
longest subinterval in the partition. This length is called the mesh size of the partition. The area
of the region is now given by
Xn
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi .
max∆xi →0
i=1
Definition 4.2.5. Let f be defined on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi
a max∆xi →0
i=1
if the limit exists and does not depend on the choice of partitions or on the choice of numbers x∗i
in the subintervals. If the limit exists, the function is said to be integrable on [a, b].
Terminologies and Notations:
ic s
• The process of calculating the integral is called integration.
at
em
Z b
• In the notation for the definite integral f (x) dx: h
a
at
Z
M
– The integral sign resembles the letter S because an integral is the limit of a sum.
of
– The function f (x) is called the integrand.

e
– The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration: a is the lower limit of integra-
ut
tion, while b is the upper limit of integration.

tit
– We use the same symbol as the antiderivative because the definite integral is closely
s
In
linked to the antiderivative, as shall be seen in the following section.

UP
n
f (x∗i )·∆xk is called a Riemann Sum, after the mathematician Bernhard Riemann
P
• The sum
i=1
who formulated much of the concepts in integral calculus.
Remark 4.2.6. We note the following:
1. The definite integral is a number which does not depend on the variable used. The value of the
definite integral does not change if x is replaced by any other variable. For example,
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (t) dt.
a a
Z b
2. Geometrically, the definite integral f (x) dx gives the net-signed area between the graph of
a
the curve y = f (x) and the interval [a, b]. In particular, if the graph of y = f (x) lies above
Z b
the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives the area of the region bounded by the curve
a
y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.
3. If the function f is continuous, a regular partition can be used to compute the definite integral:
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x
a n→∞
i=1
4. The interval [a, b] must be contained in the domain of the function f to define the definite
Z 1
1
integral of f from [a, b]. For instance 2
dx is not a definite integral, since the 0 is not in
0 x
1
the domain of f (x) = 2 . This type of integral is called an improper integral, which is not in
x
the scope of this course.
Example 4.2.7. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 2
1. x2 dx
0
ic s
Solution.
at
We have seen that the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the
em
Z 2
8 8
vertical line x = 0 and x = 2 is square units. Therefore, x2 dx = . h
3 0 3
at
M
Z 6
2. 2x dx
of
−2
e
ut
Solution.
tit
The value of the given definite integral is the net-signed area between the curve y = 2x and the
s
In
x-axis over the interval [−2, 6].

UP
Z 6
1 1
We have that 2x dx = · 6 · 12 − · 2 · 4 = 32.
−2 2 2
Theorem 4.2.8. If a function is continuous on [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].
Example 4.2.9.
1. Polynomial functions are integrable on any closed interval.
2. The function f (x) = |x| is integrable on the interval [−1, 2], although it is not differentiable on
(−1, 2).
3. The sine and cosine functions are integrable on any closed interval.
Theorem 4.2.10 (Properties of the Definite Integral). Let f and g be integrable on [a, b].
Z b Z a
1. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b
a
s
Z
ic
2. f (x) dx = 0
at
a
em
Z b
3. c dx = c(b − a) h
a
at
Z b Z b
M
4. c f (x)dx = c f (x) dx
a a
of
Z b Z b Z b
e
5. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx

ut
a a a
tit
6. If f is integrable on a closed interval I containing the three numbers a, b and c,

s
In
Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
UP
a a c
regardless of the order of a, b and c.

4.2.3 Exercises
A. Let R be the region bounded by y = 4 − x2 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].
1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
B. Find the value of the following definite integrals.

Z 8
1. 10 − 3x dx
−2
Z1
2. x2 cos x dx
1
Z 4√
3. 16 − x2 dx
−4
2 √
Z
s
4. 3− 4 − t2 dt
ic
0
at
C. Do as indicated.
1. If
Z 6
f (x) dx = 3 and
Z 6
g(x) dx = 8, find
Z 6 h em
[3f (x) − 2g(x)] dx.
at
−1 −1 −1
M
Z ln 2 Z ln 2
15 2
16 sinh2 (x) + 16 dx.

2. Given that cosh (x) dx = + log 2, find
of
ln 0.5 16 ln 0.5
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
e
2
[f (x)]2 dx = 32.
ut
3. Find the value of [f (x) − 5] dx, given f (x) dx = −17 and

−1 −1 −1
tit
Z 2 Z 5 Z 5 Z 2
s
4. If f (x) dx = f (x) dx and f (x) dx = 21, and f (x) dx = 7, find

In
−5 Z 5 −2 −5 −2
Z −2
UP
f (x) dx + f (x) dx.

−5 2
Z 2 Z 1 Z 1
5. If g(x) dx = 4 and 3g(x) dx = 6, evaluate g(x) dx.
−1 −1 2
A. Using the theorems on summation, prove the following:

n
X n2 (n + 1)2
i3 =
4
i=1
B. Let R be the region bounded by y = x3 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].
1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
C. Find the value of the following definite integrals.

Z 12 Z 7
1. 4 dx 4. −|12 − 3x| dx
−3 2
Z 6 Z 3
2. 15 + 4x dx 5. cosh−1 x dx
−4 3
6 Z −10
csc−1 w
Z 5 Z
3. |2x − 5| dx 6. dw dx
0 4 −10 csc w
D. Do as indicated.
√
1. Find the area enclosed by the x-axis and the semicircle y = 16 − x2 , on the following
intervals: (a) [0, 4], (b) [2, 4], (c) [0, 2], (d) [−2, 4].

2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f (x) = 2 − |x − 5|, the two
coordinate axes, and the line x = 10.
Z 6 Z 6 Z 6
3. If f (x) dx = 12, g(x) dx = −2 and h(x) dx = −7, find the value of
−3 −3 −3
s
−3
ic
Z
f (x) 3h(x)
+ 3g(x) − dx
at
6 4 7
Z b Z b em
4. Let k be any real number, and a, b be real numbers such that a 6= b. Given that
h Z b
at
2
g(x) dx = k and 2
[g(x)] dx = k + 2k − 1, find the value of [3g(x) − 2]2 dx.
M
a a a
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

Now that we have the necessary background about antiderivatives and definite integrals, we are
ready to state (and prove) the two statements that link differential and integral calculus.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:
• state the First and Second Fundamental Theorems of the Calculus,
• provide a proof using the concepts we had discussed so far, and
• apply these theorems to solve complicated integrals more conveniently.
4.3.1 First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus
s
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. Then the value of the definite integral
ic
Z b
at
f (x) dx depends only on the function f and the values of a and b, and is independent of our
em
a
choice of the variable in the function. That is, h
at
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2 8 2 8 2 8 8
x dx = y dy = r dr = u2 du =
M
0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3
of
We have to be careful here, though: we cannot use i, since we know for a fact that i2 = −1.
e
ut
Hence, its usage in the example above will be problematic.

tit
Z x
s
We consider a function defined by F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and
In
a
x is any number in [a, b].
UP
Example 4.3.1.
Z x
1. Let F (x) = t2 dt. Evaluate F at x = 0 and x = 2.
0
Z 0
a. F (0) = t2 dt = 0
0
Z 2
8
b. F (2) = t2 dt =
0 3
Z x
2. Let F (x) = 2t dt.
0
Notice that F (x) gives the areaZ of the triangle under the curve y = 2t in the interval [0, x].
x
Therefore, we get that F (x) = 2t dt = 21 · x · 2x = x2 . In this case, F 0 (x) = 2x. Note that
0
F 0 (x) = f (x).
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 207
As was illustrated inZthe previous example, the next theorem states that in general, for a function
x
of the form F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x is any number in
a
[a, b], F 0 (x) = f (x).
ic s
at
em
Theorem 4.3.2 (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a function
h
continuous on [a, b] and let x be any number in [a, b]. If F is the function defined by F (x) =
at
Z x
f (t) dt, then
M
a
of
F 0 (x) = f (x)
e
ut
tit
Example 4.3.3. Find the derivative of the following functions.

s
In
Z x
1. F (x) = t2 dt
UP
Solution.
Let f (t) = t2 . Applying the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we obtain F 0 (x) = x2 .
Z x
cos t2 + 1 dt

2. F (x) =
−π
Solution.
In this case, let f (t) = cos t2 + 1 . Thus, F 0 (x) = cos(x2 + 1).

Z 3
3. F (x) = sin 2t dt
x
Solution.
To apply the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we first need to switch the upper and
lower
Z limits of integration. Using the first property of the definite integral, we have F (x) =
x
− sin 2t dt. Now let f (t) = sin 2t. Finally, we get that F 0 (x) = − sin 2x.
3
Z g(x)
Remark 4.3.4. Suppose F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a function continuous on [a, b] and let
Z xa
g (x) ∈ [a, b]. If we let H(x) = f (t) dt, then F (x) = H(g(x)). Using the chain rule, we get
a
F 0 (x) = H 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x). By the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, H 0 (x) = f (x). So we
have
F 0 (x) = f (g(x)) · g 0 (x)
Example 4.3.5. Find the derivative of the following functions.

Z x2
1. F (x) = t2 dt
−1
F 0 (x) = (x2 )2 · 2x = 2x5
Z cos x
dt
s
2. F (x) =
ic
1 t
at
1
F 0 (x) = · (− sin x) = − tan x
em
cos x
Z 0
h
t
at
3. F (x) = 2
dt
2x+1 t + 1
M
Z 2x+1
t
of
F (x) = − 2
dt
0 t +1
e
2x + 1 2x + 1 2x + 1
ut
F 0 (x) = − 2
·2=− 2 ·2=− 2
(2x + 1) + 1 4x + 4x + 2 2x + 2x + 1
s tit
Z x
In
4. F (x) = sin2 t dt
Z−x−1
UP
0 Z x
2
F (x) = sin t dt + sin2 t dt
−x−1 0
Z −x−1 Z x
2
=− sin t dt + sin2 t dt
0 0
F 0 (x) = − sin2 (−x − 1) (−1) + sin2 x = − sin2 (x + 1) + sin2 x
tanh(x)
t−1
Z
2
5. F (x) = sinh dt
x3 3
Z 1 Z tanh(x)
2 t−1 2 t−1
= sinh dt + sinh dt
x3 3 1 3
Z x3 Z tanh(x)
2 t−1 2 t−1
=− sinh dt + sinh dt
1 3 1 3
3
0 2 x −1 2 2 tanh(x) − 1
F (x) = sinh · 3x + sinh · sech2 (x)
3 3
We end this part with a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus.
Z x
d
Proof. Let f be continuous on [a, b]. We wish to show that f (t) dt = f (x).
dx a
Z x
Let F (x) = f (t) dt. We have
a
F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
F 0 (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
Consider the expression . We have
∆x
Z x+∆x Z x
f (t) dt − f (t) dt
F (x + ∆x) − F (x) a a
=
∆x ∆x
Z x+∆x
f (t) dx
x
=
∆x
Now, consider the function f (t) on [x, x + ∆x]. Since f is continuous, we use the Mean Value
ic s
Theorem for Integrals to conclude that there exists c ∈ [x, x + ∆x] such that
at
em
Z x+∆x
f (t) dt = f (c) [(x + ∆x) − x] = f (c)∆x
h
x
at
Thus,
M
Z x+∆x
of
f (t) dx
F (x + ∆x) − F (x) f (c)∆x
F 0 (x) = lim x
e
= lim = lim = f (c)

ut
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

tit
Note that c depends on x and ∆x. Finally, because x ≤ c ≤ x + ∆x and lim x = lim (x + ∆x) =
∆x→0 ∆x→0
s
In
x, we conclude by the Squeeze Theorem that lim c = x. Hence, by continuity of f ,

∆x→0
UP

0
F (x) = lim c = f lim c = f (x)
∆x→0 ∆x→0
4.3.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Theorem 4.3.6 (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a

function continuous on [a, b]. If F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
Z b ix=b
f (x) dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
a x=a
Example 4.3.7. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 2 3 x=2
2 x 8 8
1. x dx = +C = + C − (0 + C) =
0 3 x=0 3 3
Z 6
x=6
2

2. 2x dx = x = 36 − 4 = 32
−2 x=−2
Z 3
dx
3.
−1 (x + 2)3
Solution.
We use integration by substitution to get the desired antiderivative. Let u = x + 2. Then
du = dx. We get that
u−2
Z Z
dx 1 1
= u−3 du = +C =− 2 +C =− +C
(x + 2)3 −2 u (x + 2)2
We now have
s
3 Z 3 x=3
ic
Z
dx dx 1 1 24 12
= =− + = =
at

−1 (x + 2)3 −1 (x + 2) 3
x=−1 50 2 50 25
Remark 4.3.8. By the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Substitution Rule,
h em
at
M
Z b
x=b
0

f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (g(x)) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a))
of
a x=a
e
If we let u = g(x), we have that

ut
tit
Z b
u=g(b)
0

s
f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (u)

In
a u=g(a)
UP
Therefore,
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du
a g(a)
Example 4.3.9. Evaluate the following definite integrals using the previous remark.
Z 3
dx
1.
−1 (x + 2)3
Solution.
Again, we let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. We use the previous remark and put the limits of
integration in terms of the new variable u. If x = −1, then u = 1. If x = 3, then u = 5. We
now have
u−2 u=5
Z 3 Z 5
dx −3 1 1 12
3 = u du = =− + =
−1 (x + 2) 1 −2 u=1
50 2 25
√
Z 11 1
2. 2x(x2 + −3) 3 dx
2
Solution.
√
Let u = x2 − 3. Then du = 2x dx. Moreover, if x = 2, then u = 1. If x = 11, then
√ 2
u= 11 − 3 = 8. Thus,
√ 4 4 4
11 8
3 3 u=8 3(8) 3
Z Z
2
1 1 3(1) 3 45
2x(x + −3) 3 dx = u3 du = = − =
2 1 4 u=1 4 4 4
Z π2
√
sin t
3. √ dt
π2 t
4
Solution.
√ dt dt 2 π
Let u = t. Then du = √ , or 2du = √ . In addition, if x = π4 , then u = . Meanwhile, if
2 t t 2
s
x = π 2 , then u = π. Thus,
ic
√
at
Z π2 Z π u=π
sin t
√ dt = 2 sin u du = 2(− cos u) π =2−0=2
em

π2 t π
4 2 u= 2
h
at
Z 2
4. |x| dx
M
−1
of
Solution. (
e
x ; x≥0
ut
Recall that |x| = . We use the 6th property of the definite integral and obtain
−x ; x < 0
tit
Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
s
In
|x| dx = (−x) dx + x dx
−1 −1 0
UP
x2 x=0 x x=2
2

= − +
2 x=−1 2
x=0
1 5
= 0− − + (2 − 0) =
2 2
Remark 4.3.10.
1. The Fundamental Theorems of CalculusZ establish a close connection between antiderivatives
and definite integrals. For this reason, f (x) dx is also referred to as an indefinite integral,
and the process of antidifferentiation as integration. However, note that in Advanced Calculus,
the indefinite integral is defined independently of the antiderivative and does not always
coincide with the antiderivative of a function.
2. To use the Second Fundamental

Z 2 Theorem of Calculus, the function f must be continuous on
1 1 ix=2 1 1
[a, b]. For instance, 2
dx 6
= − = . In fact, the definite integral of f (x) = 2 on
−1 x x x=−1 2 x
[−1, 2] cannot even be defined since the interval is not contained in the domain of f .
4.3.3 Exercises
A. Find the derivative of the following functions.
2 7
t3
Z Z
t2 + 1 dt

1. F (x) = 3
dt 3. F (x) =
1−3x 1 + t csc x
Z 1
x√
Z cos x
2. F (x) = 1 + m3 dm 4. F (x) = y 2 dy
1 sin x
B. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following functions at the given value
of x:
√
x 3 x2 −5x+6
3r3 + sech r
Z
t
Z
1. h(x) = dt ; x = −8 3. f (x) = dr ; x = 3
s
2
t + 8t + 1
−8 3r3 − sech r
ic
9−x2
at
3x2 −10 cos(x2 )
2we−w
Z Z
z sinh(z)
2. g(x) = dz ; x = −2 4. g(x) = dw ; x = 0
em
2 cos2 z − 4 2x+1 tan−1 w
h
at
C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
M
of
Z π Z π
2 2
1. sin x dx 7. cos x cos(π sin x) dx
e
ut
0 0
Z 4 Z 2
tit
2
p
2. (1 + 3t − t ) dt 8. y y − 1 dy
s
0 1
In
64 √ π
1+ 3y
Z Z
2 p
3. √ dy 9. sin 2y 1 − sin ydy
UP
3 y
1 0
π ln 3
cos2 θ
Z Z
1+
4
4. dθ 10. tanh x sech3 x dx
0 cos2 θ ln 2
Z π x x Z 4
1
5. sin2 cos dx 11. √ √ 3 dw
π 2 2 1 w ( w + 2)
3
Z π
tan u 2
1 2
Z
6. du 1
2π sec u − tan u
12. 1+ dm
3 1 m2 m
A. Find the derivative of the following functions.
Z x Z 2x3
1. F (x) = t2 sin t dt 1
2. F (x) = ds
0 x 1 + s2
√
3
" !#
t2 − 1
Z x Z 2x Z 3s2 √
d
3. F (x) = √ 3
dt 4. F (x) = t3 + 1dt ds
sec x 1 + t 5 ds 1
B. Find an equation of the tangent line and normal line to the graph of the following functions at
the given value of x:
1−4x
√
x2 5 s2 + 1
Z Z
1. h(x) = sec(t − 1) dt ; x = −2 4. h(x) = ds ; x = 1
2−x −3 tan−1 (s)
2
0 πx sinh−1 v
Z Z
1+u π
2. f (x) = du ; x = 1 5. g(x) = dv ; x =
x5 −1 1 + u + u2 csc(x) sinh v 2
cos(x2 )
0 2we−w
Z Z
4 ln(cosh u) + 1 π
3. f (x) = du ; x = 6. g(x) = dw ; x = 0
cos x
2
u +1 2 2x+1 tan−1 w
C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
ic s
at
π
3
Z
1
Z
3 2 11. sin x − dx
1. x − 4x + 5x − 8 dx
em
−2 0
2
√
Z π
h Z ln 4
4
at
2. 3
tan (y)(1 + tan y) dy 2 12. sinh x cosh x dx
π ln 0.5
M
6 Z ln 3
tanh x sech3 x dx
Z 6
5x2 13.

of
3. x sin dx ln 2
6
e
1 14.
ut
Z π
π
(
6 2 3x 3x x≤0
Z
x ;
tit
4. sec tan dx 15. f (x) dx if f (x) =

−
π 4 4 −π sin x ; x>0
s
3
In
√
3 Z ln 5
tan−1 x e−x tanh(e−x ) dx
Z
3 16.
UP
5. dx
0 1 + x2 ln 0.2
Z e4
Z 1 csch cot−1 x
1
6. dx 17. p dx
1 + x2 e2 x ln2 x − 1
0
Z 1 −1
2
e
coth2 (ln x + x)(x + 1)
Z
2 sech (x)
7. dx 18. √
1 x 0 x 1 − x2
Z 0 Z 1
1
8. |3x + 1 |dx 19. √ dx
−1 0 1 + e4x
Z 3 Z ln 5
sinh x
9. (|3x − 6| − 1) dx 20. dx
0 1 e − e−x
x
Z 4 Z 3 log (x3 +2x2 )
2 3
10. |s2 − 4s + 3| ds 21. √ dx
log x+2
0 1 x·4 3
4.4 Generalization of the Area of a Plane Region
Now that we know the most important properties of the definite integral, we are able to perform
some geometric calculations. One such computation generalizes the concept of a plane region
we discussed earlier.
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:
• express the area bounded by arbitrary curves as a definite integral;

• use the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus to compute such areas; and
• use the concept of vertical and horizontal strips to perform convenient calculations for
area.
Let f be a continuous function. Recall the following:
ic s
at
Z b n
f (x∗i ) ∆x.
P
1. f (x)dx = lim
em
a n→∞i=1
h Z b
at
2. If the graph of y = f (x) lies entirely above the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives
a
M
the area of the region bounded by the curves y = f (x), the x-axis and the vertical lines
of
x = a and x = b. This is illustrated in the figure below.

e
ut
stit
In
UP
We generalize the problem to finding the area of a plane region bounded by several curves such
as the one shown below.
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 215
ic s
at
em
Some Preliminaries:
h
at
M
1. The coordinates of an arbitrary point on a curve y = f (x) in terms of x are given by the
of
ordered pair (x, f (x)).

e
ut
tit
Example 4.4.1.
s
In
a. y = x2
UP
b. y = x3
The height h of a curve at x with reference to the x-axis is given by:

a. h = f (x), if the curve is above the x-axis.
b. h = −f (x), if the curve is below the x-axis.
Example 4.4.2.
ic s
a. y = x2
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
b. y = x3
UP
The height (or distance) between two curves at x is given by
h = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) − (y-coordinateof the lower curve)
Example 4.4.3.
a. y = x2 and y = x + 1
h = (x + 1) − x2 = −x2 + x + 1
b. y = x2 and y = −1
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
h = x2 − (−1) = x2 + 1
s tit
In
UP
Area between Two Curves: Vertical Approach
Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be the equations of two curves that are continuous on [a, b] such
that g (x) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. To find the area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g (x)
in the interval [a, b], we modify the method used for finding the area of a region bounded above
by a curve the lies and below by the x-axis in a given closed interval:
ic s
1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. We assign the width
at
of the ith rectangle to be ∆x. Note that
∆x =
b−a
hem
at
n
M
2. Let i = 1, 2, ..., n. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. We assign the height
of
hi of the ith rectangle to be the distance between the two curves at x∗i :
e
ut
hi = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i )
s tit
In
3. The area of the ith rectangle is now given by

UP
Ai = hi ∆x = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x

4. We approximate the area AR of the region R by getting the sum of the areas of the n
rectangle:
n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x

AR ≈ Ai =
i=1 i=1
5. We let n → ∞ and define this to be the area of the region:

n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x

AR = lim Ai =
n→∞
i=1 i=1
6. By the definition of the definite integral, we get

Z b
AR = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a
Formula for the Area of a Plane Region

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ g (x) for all x ∈ [a, b],
then the area of the region R bounded above by y = f (x) , below by y = g (x) and the
vertical lines x = a and x = b is
Z b
AR = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a
Suggestion: We can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
Z b
AR = h dx
a
where:
ic s
at
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region along the x-axis
em
• h is the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I
h
• dx is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I
at
M
Example 4.4.4.
of
e
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x3 , the x-axis and x = −2.
ut
s tit
In
UP
The interval covered by the region along the x-axis is

I = [−2, 0]
Meanwhile, the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I is given by
h = 0 − x3 = −x3
Therefore, the area of given plane region is given by
Z 0
AR = −x3 dx
−2
We evaluate the definite integral and obtain
0
x4 x=0
Z
3
AR = −x dx = − = 0 − (−4) = 4 square units
−2 4 x=−2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x2 + 2, y = −1, x = −1 and x = 2.
s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
We have the following:
I = [−1, 2] ; h = (x2 + 2) − (−1) = x2 + 3
Therefore, the area of the desired region is given by
2
x=2
x3
Z
(x2 + 3) dx =

AR = + 3x
−1 3
x=−1
8 1
= AR = + 6 − − − 3 = 12 square units
3 3
3. Find the area of the region bounded by y = 2 − x2 and y = −x.

We solve for the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to get I.
ic s
2 − x2 = −x
at
x2 − x − 2 = 0
em
(x + 1) (x − 2) = 0
h
at
x = −1 or x = 2
M
Thus, I = [−1, 2]. Meanwhile,

of
e
h = 2 − x2 − (−x) = −x2 + x + 2

ut
tit
The area of the plane region is

s
In
2
x=2
x3 x2
Z
UP
2

AR = (−x + x + 2) dx = − + + 2x
−1 3 2 x=−1

8 1 1 9
= − +2+4 − + −2 square units
3 3 2 2
Notice that the formula for the area of a plane region assumes that the upper curve y = f (x)
is always above the lower curve y = g (x) in [a, b]. That is, the formula for the height h of a
rectangle at an arbitrary x is the same throughout the region. In the case that this is not so,
we have to divide the region into an appropriate number of subregions to apply the formula.
Example 4.4.5.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = cos x, y = sin x and the lines x = 0 and x = 2π.
ic s
We divide the interval into three subregions R1 , R2 and R3 . To determine the appropriate
at
x-interval covered by each of these three subregions, we solve for the x-coordinates of the
em
points of intersection of y = cos x and y = sin x in the interval [0, 2π]:
h
at
sin x = cos x
M
1 1
· sin x = · cos x
of
cos x cos x
tan x = 1
e
π 5π
ut
x= or x =
4 4
s tit
In
We now have the following:

UP
For R1 : For R2 : For R3 :

I = [0, π4 ] I = [ π4 , 5π
4 ] I = [ 5π
4 , 2π]
h = cos x − sin x h = sin x − cos x h = cos x − sin x
The required area is given by:
AR = AR 1 + AR 2 + AR 3
Z π Z π Z 2π
4 4
= cos x − sin x dx + cos x − sin x dx + cos x − sin x dx
5π
0 0 4
√
= 4 2 square units
2. Find the area of the region shown below. The boundaries are y = x2 , y = 2x and 7x+4y = 15.
We divide the interval into two subregions R1 and R2 and solve for the points of intersection:
ic s
Intersection of y = x2 and 7x + 4y = 15:
at
15 − 7x
em
x2 =
h 4
4x2 + 7x − 15 = 0
at
M
(4x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
5
of
x= or x = −3
4
e
ut
Intersection of y = 2x and 7x + 4y = 15:

tit
7x + 4 (2x) = 15
s
In
x = 1
UP
Intersection of y = x2 and y = 2x:
x2 − 2x = 0
x (x − 2) = 0
x=0 or x=2
We now have
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−3, 1] I = [1, 2]
15 − 7x
h= − x2 h = 2x − x2
4
Finally,
AR = AR 1 + AR 2
Z 1 Z 2
15 − 7x 2 40
2x − x2 dx =

= −x dx + square units
−3 4 1 3
An Alternative Method Using Horizontal Rectangles
In the method we employed to find the area of a plane region, the plane region is covered using
rectangles oriented vertically. Now consider the case of the plane region below. If rectangles
oriented vertically are used to find the area of the plane region, the region would have to be
divided into two subregions because the formula for the height of the rectangle is not consistent
throughout the region. In one subregion, the upper curve is the line, while the lower curve is
the lower branch of the parabola. In the other subregion, the upper curve is the upper branch
of the parabola, while the lower curve is the lower branch of the parabola.
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
Notice, however, that if we use rectangles oriented horizontally, the expression for the length of
tit
the rectangle is the same throughout the given region. This is in contrast to the approach using
s
vertical rectangles, where the expression for the height of the rectangle is the same throughtout
In
the region.
UP
The length of a rectangle oriented horizontally is given by

l =(x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)
Throughout the region, the curve on the right is always the parabola, while the curve of the left
is always the line.
The following gives an alternative method for finding the area of a plane region using horizontal
rectangles, which would be more convenient to use in finding the area of some regions such as
the one shown above.
Formula for the Area of a Plane Region

If u and v are continuous functions in y on the interval [c, d] and v (y) ≥ u (y) for all
y ∈ [c, d], then the area of the region R bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on the right
by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d is
Z d
AR = (v(y) − u(y)) dy
c
ic s
at
em
Suggestion: Again, we can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
h
at
Z d
M
AR = l dy
c
of
where:
e
ut
• [c, d] is the interval I covered by the region along the y-axis;

tit
• l is the length of the rectangle at an arbitrary point y in the interval I;

s
In
• dy is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point y in the interval I.

UP
Some Preliminaries.
1. The coordinates of a point on the curve x = u (y) in terms of y is given by (u(y), y)

Example.
2. The length of the rectangle at an arbitrary y is given by
l =(x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)
Example. In the previous example,
h = (3 − y 2 ) − (y + 1) = −y 2 − y + 2
Example 4.4.6.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by x = 3 − y 2 and the line y = x − 1. (Refer to the
figure in the previous example.)
To find the y-interval covered by the region above, we solve for the y-coordinates of the
points of intersection:
ic s
at
3 − y2 = y+1
em
y2 + y − 2 = 0 h
(y + 2)(y − 1) = 0
at
M
y = −2 or y = 1
of
e
Therefore, I = [−2, 1]. We have already seen that the length of a horizontal rectangle at an
ut
arbitrary y is given by
s tit
In
l = −y 2 − y + 2
UP
We get that the area of the region is given by the definite integral
Z 1
− y 2 − y + 2 dy

AR =
−2
Evaluating this integral, we obtain
y=1
y3 y2 9
AR = − − + 2y = square units
3 2 y=−2 2
y2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x = 4 − y 2 and x = 2 − .
2
We solve for the y-coordinates of the points of intersection:
ic s
at
4 − y2
4 − y2 =
em
2
y2 − 4 = 0
h
at
y = −2 or y = 2
M
4 − y2 4 − y2

of
y2

Therefore, we have I = [−2, 2] and l = 4 − − = . The required area is
2 2
e
ut
2
y2 y 3 y=2
Z
16
tit
AR = 2− dy = 2y − = square units
−2 2 6 y=−2 3
s
In
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x2 = 4y and the parabola y 2 = −4x.
UP
The curve on the right is the upper branch of the parabola y 2 = −4x. We isolate x and
y2
get x = − . On the other hand, the curve on the left is the left branch of the parabola
4 √
x2 = 4y. We solve for x and obtain x = ±2 y. Since the curve of interest is the left branch
√
of the parabola, the equation of the curve is x = −2 y.
We solve for the y-coordinates of the points of intersection and obtain

√
y2 = −4 (−2 y)
y 4 − 64y = 0
y = 0 or y = 4
y2 √
Thus, we get I = [0, 4] and h = − + 2 y. Finally,
4
3
4
y2 y3 4y 2 y=4 16

√
Z
AR = − + 2 y dy = − + = square units
4 12 3 y=0 3
s
0
ic
at
hem
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
4.4.1 Exercises
A. Find the area of the following regions.
1. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1)
2. Trapezoid whose vertices are the points A(−1, −1), B(2, 2), C(6, 2) and D(7, −1)
3. Region bounded by the upper branch of the parabola x = y 2 , the tangent line to the parabola
at (1, 1) and the x-axis
4. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 3 and y = x + 7.
5. Region bounded by y = 6x − x2 and 2y = 5x + 6.
6. R is bounded above by the graph of y = |2x|, and below by the parabola y = x2 − 8.
7. Region shown below. Boundaries are y = 5 − x2 , y = 2x + 2, y = −x − 1
ic s
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8. Region bounded below by the curves y = 3−x and y = 3x , and the line y = 9
s
In
9. Region bounded by the curve y = tanh2 (x), the x-axis, and the line x = ln 14
UP
10. Region bounded by the curve y = 2x , the coordinate axes, and the lines x = 4 and y = 8
A. Find the area of the following regions.

1. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1 and y = 7 − x
2. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1)
3. Triangle with vertices at A(−2, 2), B(5, 8), and C(1, −4).
4. Triangle with vertices at A(0, 0), B(4, −8), and C(−2, −4).
5. Quadrilateral with vertices A(−5, −3), B(1, 6), C(6, 6), and D(12, −3).
6. Region bounded by the line y = −9 and the curve y = 16 − x2 .
7. Region bounded below by the x-axis, and above by the parabola x = y 2 and the tangent
line to the parabola at (2, 4).
8. R is bounded below by the graph of y = 3 sin x, above by the graph of y = −2 cos2 x,
and between x = 0 and x = 2π
9. Region shown below. Boundaries are x = y 2 − 2y, x = 4 − y 2 and x + 2y = 4
10. Set up the integral that gives the area of the region shown below. The parabola and the
circle intersect at the point (2, 0).
ic s
at
h em
at
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of
11. Set up the definite integral(s) equal to the area of the region with the given boundaries.
a. y = tan x, y = cot x, y = x2 − x, x = 1
e
ut
b. y = ln x, y = −x2 − x + 2, 20x − 4y = 5, 4x = 1
tit
√
c. y = x, y = 0, y = 6 − x
s
√
In
d. y = 2x2 , y = − x, 4x + 3y = 10
√
UP
e. y = x, y = −3 x + 1, y=
−x + 1, y = 0
x x
f. y = 2 cos , y = ln , 4x = π
2 √ π
g. xy = 2, y = 2 x, x − 3y = 1, y = 0
B. Do as indicated.
1. The parabola y = 10 − x2 , and the lines y = −2x + 2 and y = 3x + 6, serve as boundaries
of three finite regions in the Cartesian plane. Find the area of each region.
1
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = √ , the x-axis, and the
√ x 4x2 − 1
3
lines x = and x = 1.
3
x2 y 2
3. Derive the formula for the area of an ellipse with equation 2 + 2 = 1.
a b x
4. Derive the formula for the area of the region R bounded by the catenary y = a cosh ,
a
the coordinate axes, and the line x = a, where a > 0.
1
5. Let R be the region under the graph of y = 2 over [1, 4].
x
A. Find a such that the line with equation x = a divides R into two regions having equal
area.
B. Find b such that the line with equation y = b divides R into two regions having equal
area.
C. Do as indicated.
1. TRUE OR FALSE: Any region, whose boundaries can be expressed in terms of functions
and vertical lines, can be divided into two regions of equal area.
2. For the statement above to be always true, what condition(s) must be satisfied?
3. Prove the following statement: If a region is bounded above by y = f (x), below by y =
g(x), and the lines x = a and x = b, then there is a unique line dividing the region into
two regions of equal area.
4. Construct a similar statement for regions bounded on the left by x = u(y), on the right
by x = v(y), and the lines y = c and y = d.
5. Consider the region R bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 4x − x2 and below by the
x-axis. What value of m will make the graph of g(x) = mx divide R into two regions of
ic s
equal area?
at
h em
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In
UP
4.5 Arc Length of Plane Curves

We proceed with another geometric computation which turns out to make use of the derivative.
We only need a fact from Euclidean geometry, which states that the distance between two points
p
on the Cartesian plane, P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ), is d(P Q) = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 .
• characterize a smooth function;
• derive an expression for the length of any smooth function; and
• use a particular orientation of the curve to be ale to construct a convenient expression

for its length.
ic s
at
First, we define a smooth curve. A curve with equation y = f (x) is said to be smooth on [a, b] if
the interval [a, b].

h em
f 0 is continuous on [a, b]. Suppose we want to find the length of the arc of a smooth curve over a
at
M
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ut
s tit
In
UP
We use the previous method of dividing the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length. Let
i = 1, 2, ..., n.
1. Let (xi , yi ) and (xi+1 , yi+1 ) be the endpoints of the arc over the ith subinterval.
2. The distance between the endpoints of the ith subinterval is given by

p
di = (xi+1 − xi )2 + (yi+1 − yi )2 , for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
4.5. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES 233
3. Let ∆xi = xi+1 − xi and ∆yi = yi+1 − yi . So we have

p
di = (∆xi )2 + (∆yi )2
s
(∆xi )2 + (∆yi )2
= · (∆xi )2
(∆xi )2
s
∆yi 2

= 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
4. The length of the arc is approximated by

s
n n 2
X X ∆yi
L≈ di = 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
i=1 i=1
5. We define the length of the arc to be the limit of the sum as n → ∞:
s
s
n n 2
ic

X X ∆yi
L = lim di = 1+ · ∆xi
at
n→∞ ∆xi
i=1 i=1
h em
6. Therefore, length of the arc is given by the definite integral
at
M
s 2
Z b
dy
L= 1+ dx
of
a dx
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ut
stit
Formula for the Length of an Arc

In
If y = f (x) is a smooth curve on the interval [a, b], then the arc length L of this curve
UP
from x = a to x = b is
s 2
Z b Z bq
dy 2
L= 1+ dx = 1 + f 0 (x) dx
a dx a
If x = u(y) is a smooth curve on the interval [c, d], then the arc length L of this curve
from y = c to y = d is
s 2
Z d Z dq
dx 2
L= 1+ dy = 1 + u0 (y) dy
c dy c
Example 4.5.1.
1 2 3/2
1. Find the length of arc of the curve y = x +2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
3
First, we compute
dy 1p 2 p
= x + 2 · 2x = x x2 + 2
dx 2
Therefore,
ic s
s 2
2 p 2p
at
Z Z
L= 2
1+ x x +2 dx = x4 + 2x2 + 1 dx
em
1 1
2
x=2
x3
Z
10
2
h
= (x + 1) dx = + x = units
at
1 3 x=1 3
M
2. Set up the definite integral required to find the arc length of the curve x = (y − 1)2 − 4 from
of
the point (−3, 2) to (0, −1).

e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Here, it is more convenient to use the horizontal orientation of the curve. We have that
dx
= 2(y − 1)
dy
The definite integral that gives the length of arc is

Z 2 p
L= 1 + 4(y − 1)2 dy
−1
4.5. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES 235
3. Set up the definite integral required to find the perimeter of the region enclosed by the curves
1 2

3 1 3
y=x + ,x=− y− and y = .
2 2 2
1
If L1 is the length of the segment from −1, 32 and 1, 32 , L2 is the length of the arc of y = x3 +

2
s
2
ic
1
from 0, 12 to 1, 32 , and L3 is the length of the arc of x = − y − from −1, 23 to 0, 12 ,

at
2
em
then the perimeter P of the enclosed region is given by
h
P = L1 + L2 + L3
at
M
Obviously,
of
L1 = 1 − (−1) = 2
e
ut
tit
We set up the integral to find L2 in terms of x and get that

s
In
Z 1p
L2 = 1 + 9x4 dx
UP
We set up the integral to find L3 in terms of y and get that

Z 3
s
1 2

2
L3 = 1+4 y− dy
1 2
2
Therefore,
3
s
1p
1 2
Z Z
2
P =2+ 1+ 9x4 dx + 1+4 y− dy
0
1 2
2
Remark 4.5.2. Note in the previous example that our expression for the perimeter involves x and
y. This is sometimes the case, especially for the perimeter of regions with varying boundaries. The
thing to take away here is that each integral must contain only one variable of integration; that is,
x and y cannot appear in a single integrand.
4.5.1 Exercises
A. Find the arc length of the following curves in the specified interval:
2
(x − 5) /2 from the point where x = 6 to the point where x = 8.
3
1. y =
3
2. 2x − 4y + 6 = 0 between y = 0 and y = 2
π
3. y = ln(cos x) from x = 0 to x =
4
√
4. 9y 2 = 4x3 from the origin to the point (3, 2 3).
5. 8y = x4 + 2x−2 from the point where x = 1 and x = 2.
x
6. y = a cosh , from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = a
a
7. y = sinh−1 x from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = 4
B. Do as indicated.
ic s
1. Set up a definite integral that gives the length of the arcsine function throughout its domain.
at
√
2. Set up a definite integral that gives the arc length of y = 3 x − 1 from x = 0 to x = 1. (Note
em
that this integral has to be set up in terms of y. Why not x?)
h
at
M
A. Find the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Items 1-7, and Exercises 4.4.2,
of
Part A, 1-5.
e
ut
B. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1,
tit
Part A, Items 8-10, and Exercises 4.4.2, Part A, 6-11.

s
In
C. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each of the regions described
UP
in Exercises 4.4.2, Part B, Items 1-4.

4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 237
4.6 Volumes of Solids

Another application of the definite integral comes in when we consider the volume of solids formed
using special procedures. We consider first right cylinders, the normal type of cylinders we see in
everyday life. Then we consider solids formed by rotating about a particular line.
• understand the different procedures used in computing the volume of a given solid;
• generate expressions for the volume of any solid using cross-sectional area; and
• solve for the volume of solids generated by revolving a plane region about an indicated
axis, using the methods of disks, washers, and cylindrical shells.
s
ic
Volumes of Solids of Revolution1
at
4.6.1
Solids of Revolution
em
h
at
A solid of revolution is a solid obtained when a plane region is revolved about a line called the
M
axis of revolution.
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ut
Example 4.6.1.
tit
1. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by x = y 2 and y = x2 is revolved
s
In
about the x-axis:

UP
2. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by y = sin x and the x-axis in the
interval [0, π] is revolved about the y-axis:
1
Some of figures in this section are taken from [5].
Two methods allow us to find the volume of a solid of revolution:
A. Disk or Washer Method. Use rectangles that are perpendicular to the axis of revolution.
ic s
at
B. Cylindrical Shell Method. Use rectangles that are parallel to the axis of revolution.
h em
at
M
Some Preliminaries. To determine the distance d from an arbitrary point x on a curve to the
of
axis of revolution:
e
ut
tit
1. If the axis of revolution is a vertical line, the horizontal distance from the axis of revolution to
s
an arbitrary point on the curve is given by

In
UP
d = (x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)
2. If the axis of revolution is a horizontal line, the vertical distance from the axis of revolution to
an arbitrary point on the curve is given by
d = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) − (y-coordinate of the lower curve)
Example. Find the distance from an arbitrary point x on the given curve to the given axis of
revolution.
1. y = x2 , x ≥ 0
a. Axis of revolution: x = 5
√
In terms of x: d = x + 2 In terms of y: d = y+2
b. Axis of revolution: x = −2
s
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In
√
In terms of x: d = x + 2 In terms of y: d = y+2
UP
2. x = 4 − y 2
a. Axis of revolution: y = 3
√
In terms of y: d = 3 − y In terms of x: d = 3 − 4−x
b. Axis of revolution: y = −1
√ √
In terms of y: d = y − (−1) = y + 1 In terms of x: d = 4 − x − (−1) = 4−x+1
The Disk or Washer Method
s
A disk and a washer with the formulas for their respective volumes are shown below.
ic
at
h em
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Washer: V = πh(r22 − r12 )

e
Disk: V = πr2 h
ut
r2 = outer radius; r1 = inner radius

tit
In the disk or washer method, the rectangles are oriented so that they are perpendicular to the axis
s
of revolution.
In
UP
When a segment of the axis of revolution is a boundary of the region, as is the case when the
region below is revolved about the y-axis, disks are obtained.
If the axis of revolution does not intersect the region, or intersects the region at only one point, we
get washers. This is illustrated in the following example.
Let us consider the simple case when we only obtain disks. Refer to the region below, bounded
above by the curve y = f (x), in the interval [a, b]. To get the volume of the solid generated when
the region is revolved about the x-axis, we do the following:
ic s
at
h em
at
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s tit
In
UP
1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.
2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. Let the ri = f (x∗i ) be the height of the ith
rectangle.
3. When we revolve the ith rectangle about the axis of revolution, we get the ith disk whose radius
is given by ri and whose height is given by ∆x.
4. The volume of the ith disk is then given by

Vi = πri2 ∆x = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
5. The volume of the solid of revolution can be approximated by adding the volumes of the disks
obtained when the rectangles are revolved about the axis of revolution. The expression becomes
n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
i=1 i=1
6. We define the volume of the solid to be the limit of the sum above as n → ∞:
n
X
V = lim π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
n→∞
i=1
7. By the definition of the definite integral, we have
Z b
V = π [f (x)]2 dx
s
ic
a
at
h em
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The formula below generalizes what is obtained above.

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Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Disks or Washers

tit
Vertical Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded above by y = f (x), below by

s
y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
In
functions on [a, b]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
UP
of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0 is given by:
1. If only disks are obtained (that is, a boundary of R lies on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r(x)]2 dx
a
where r (x) is the radius of a disk at an arbitrary x in [a, b].
2. If washers are obtained (that is, a boundary of R does not lie on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r2 (x)]2 − [r1 (x)]2 dx
a
where r2 (x) and r1 (x) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary x in [a, b].
Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Disks or Washers

Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on
the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line x = x0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line x = x0
is given by:
1. If only disks are obtained, then

Z d
V = π [r(y)]2 dy
c
where r (y) is the radius of a disk at an arbitrary y in [c, d].
2. If washers are obtained, then

Z d
V = π [r2 (y)]2 − [r1 (y)]2 dy
ic s
c
at
where r2 (y) and r1 (y) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary y in [c, d]. h em
at
M
Suggestion:
of
A. We can think of the volume of a solid of revolution in this way:

e
ut
1. If only disks are obtained:

tit
Z b
s
V = πr2 dw
In
a
UP
where:
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region
• r is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle
2. If washers are obtained:
Z d
π r22 − r12 dw

V =
c
where:
• r1 is given by the distance of the nearer tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• r2 is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle
B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.
Example 4.6.2. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 , x = 0 and x = 2.

1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the x-axis.
ic s
at
h em
at
Since the rectangles must be perpendicular to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles
M
and set up the integral in terms of x. In this case, a boundary of the region lies on the axis of
of
revolution so only disks are obtained.

e
ut
The x-interval covered by the region is [0, 2] and the distance from the farther tip of an ar-
tit
bitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x2 − 0 = x2 . Therefore, the volume is given

s
In
by
UP
πx5 2 32π
Z 2
4
V = πx dx = = cubic units
0 5 0 5
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. Again only washers are
obtained, so we have:
√
I = [0, 4] ; r =2− y
The volume is given by
3


4 2
√
Z
8y 2 y 8π
V = π(4 − 4 y + y) dy = π 4y − + = cubic units
0 3 2 3
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.
ic s
at
h em
at
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e
ut
s tit
In
UP
We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. This time we obtain washers.
We get the following:
I = [0, 2] ; r1 = 4 − x2 ; r2 = 4 − 0 = 4
The volume is given by
2 2
8x3 x5
Z
2 4 = 224π cubic units

V = π 8x − x dx = π −
0 3 5
0 15
cubic units
4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. We use the formula for
washers and get
ic s
√ √
I = [0, 4] ; r1 = y−0= y ; r2 = 2 − 0 = 2
at
Therefore, the volume required is h em
at
M
4 4
y2
Z

V = π (4 − y) dy = π 4y − = 8π cubic units
of
0 2
0
e
ut
tit
The Cylindrical Shell Method

s
In
A cylindrical shell and the formula for its volume are shown below.
UP
Cylindrical Shell: V = 2πrh ∆r

r1 +r2
r= 2 ; r2 = outer radius; r1 = inner radius; ∆r = r2 − r1
Suppose we want to get the volume of the solid generated when the region below is revolved about
the y-axis. In the cylindrical shell method, we orient the rectangles so that they are parallel to the
axis of revolution.
When we revolve the rectangles about the axis of revolution, we obtain cylindrical shells.
ic s
at
h em
at
M
We obtain the formula for the volume of a solid of revolution using cylindrical shells in the following
of
manner:
e
ut
stit
In
UP
1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.
2. Let x∗i be the midpoint of the ith subinterval.
3. The height of the ith rectangle is given byhi = f (x∗i ).
4. For the ith cylindrical shell, r = x∗i , h = f (x∗i ), ∆r = ∆x.
5. Thus, the volume of the ith cylindrical shell is
Vi = 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x

6. The volume of the solid is approximated by adding the volumes of the n cylindrical shells:
n
X X
V ≈ Vi = i = 1n 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
i=1
7. The volume of the solid is defined to be the limit of the above as n → ∞:

n
X
V = lim 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
n→∞
i=1
8. By the definition of the definite integral,

Z b
V = 2πxf (x) dx
a
The formulas below generalize that which was derived above.
s
Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Cylindrical Shells
ic
at
Vertical Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded above by y = f (x) , below by
em
y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
functions on [a, b]. If the line x = x0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
h
at
of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line x = x0 is given by
M
Z b
V = 2πr(x)h(x) dx
of
a
e
ut
where r (x) and h (x) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
tit
arbitrary x in [a, b].

s
In
Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on

the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
UP
continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0
is given by
Z d
V = 2πr(y)h(y) dy
c
where r (y) and h (y) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
arbitrary y in [c, d].
Suggestion:
A. We can think of the formula for the volume using cylindrical shells in this way:
Z b
V = 2πrh dw
a
where:
• r is the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution
• h is the height of an arbitrary rectangle
• dw is the width of an arbitrary rectangle
B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.
Example 4.6.3. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 , x = 0 and x = 2.
s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Since the rectangles must be parallel to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles and
set up the integral in terms of x. The x-interval covered by the region is I = [0, 2]. Meanwhile
the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x − 0 = x and the height
of an arbitrary rectangle is h = x2 . Therefore, we get that
2
πx4 2
Z
3
V = 2πx dx = = 8π cubic units
0 2 0
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. We get the following:
I = [0, 2] ; r =2−x ; h = x2
ic s
The volume is therefore
at
2
em
Z 2 3 4
2x x 8π
V = 2π(2x2 − x3 ) dx = 2π − = cubic units

0 3 4 3
h
at
0
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
In this case, the axis of revolution is horizontal, so use horizontal rectangles and set up the
integral in terms of y. We have the following:
√
I = [0, 4] ; r = y − 0 = y ; h = 2 − y
The required volume is given by

 5

Z 4 4
3 2y 2
 = 32π cubic units
dy = 2π y 2 −

V = 2π 2y − y2
0 5
0 5
4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.
We use horizontal rectangles and set-up the integral in terms of y We get the following
√
ic s
I = [0, 4] ; r = 4 − y ; h = 2 − y
at
The volume of the resulting solid of revolution is
em
 3 5

Z 4 4
1 3 h 2 8y 2 2y 2 
V = 2π 8 − 2y − 4y 2 + y 2 dx = 2π 8y − y − +
at

3 3

0
0
M
224π
= cubic units
of
15
e
ut
Remarks.
tit
1. If the formula for the height of the rectangle is not the same throughout the region, divide the
s
In
region into the appropriate number of subregions.

UP
2. If you are free to choose the method, the best method is that for which the formula for the
height of the rectangle changes least throughout the region.
Example 4.6.4. Let R be the region bounded by x = 3y 2 and x = 4 − y 2 .
For this particular region, it is better to use horizontal rectangles, so we set up all required integrals
in terms of y.
1. Set-up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line y = 1.
Since we are using horizontal rectangles and the axis of revolution is also horizontal, we use
the Cylindrical Shell Method.
We find the y-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the y-interval covered by
the region.
3y 2 = 4 − y 2
4y 2 = 4
y = ±1
ic s
at
We have the following:
h em
h = (4 − y 2 ) − (3y 2 ) = 4 − 4y 2
at
I = [−1, 1] ; r =1−y ;
M
of
The required volume is given by the integral

e
ut
Z 1
2π(1 − y)(4 − 4y 2 ) dy
tit
−1
s
In
UP
line x = −1.
This time the axis of revolution is vertical so we use the Washer Method. We obtain the
following:
I = [−1, 1] ; r = (4 − y 2 ) − (−1) = 5 − y 2 ; h = (3y 2 ) − (−1) = 3y 2 + 1
The required volume is given by the integral
Z 1 h 2 2 i
V = π −y 2 + 5 − 3y 2 + 1 dy
−1
Example 4.6.5. Let R be the region bounded by y = −3x + 8, y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2.

ic s
at
In this case, it is better to use vertical rectangles so we set-up the integral in terms of x. We divide
em
the region R into two subregions R1 and R2 . h
at
M
line x = 2.
of
Vertical rectangles are parallel to the axis of revolution so we use Cylindrical Shell Method.
e
ut
First we find the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the x-interval covered
tit
by the region.
s
Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2:

In
UP
3x + 2 = x2 − 2
x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
x = 4 or x = −1
Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = −3x + 8:
3x + 2 = −3x + 8
x = 1
Points of intersection y = −3x + 8 and y = x2 − 2:
x2 − 2 = −3x + 8
x2 + 3x − 10 = 0
(x + 5)(x − 2) = 0
x = −5 or x = 2
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r =2−x r =2−x
h = (3x + 2) − (x2 − 2) h = (−3x + 8) − (x2 − 2)
= −x2 + 3x + 4 = −x2 − 3x + 10
The volume of the resulting solid when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is the following:
Z 1
V1 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx
−1
The volume of the resulting solid when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 2
V2 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx
1
The required volume is given by:
ic s
V = V1 + V2
at
Z 1 2
em
Z
= 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx + 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx
−1 1
h
at
M
line y = −3.
of
e
ut
This time we use the Washer Method.

tit
For R1 : For R2 :
s
In
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r2 = (3x + 2) − (−3) = 3x + 5 r2 = (−3x + 8) − (−3) = −3x + 11
UP
r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1 r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1
The volume of the solid obtained when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 1 h i 2
V1 = π (3x + 5)2 − x2 + 1 dx
−1
The volume of the solid obtained when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is
Z 2 h i 2
V2 = π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx
1
The required volume is given by:
V = V1 + V2
Z 1 h Z 2
2 i 2 h i 2
= 2
π (3x + 5) − x + 1 dx + π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx
−1 1
4.6.2 Volume of Solids by Slicing2

We recall that the volume of a cylinder is given by
Volume of a cylinder = Area of a cross-section × Height
s
ic
Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = a and x = b
at
such that the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular the x-axis at an arbitrary x in
em
[a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x).
h
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
We obtain the volume of the solid by ”slicing” the solid into vertical cylinders:
2
Some figures in this section are taken from [5].
1. Divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.
2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval.
3. The volume of the ith cylinder is given by
Vi = A(x∗i )∆x
4. The volume of the solid is approximated by

n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = A(x∗i )∆x
i=1 i=1
5. The volume of the solid is defined to be

n
X
V = lim A(x∗i )∆x
n→∞
i=1
s
ic
at
6. The volume of the solid is given by
em
Z b
V = A(x) dx
h
at
a
M
Similarly, we can also find the volume of a solid by slicing the solid into horizontal cylinders.
of
Formula for the Volume of a Solid by Slicing

e
ut
Vertical Cylinders: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to

tit
the x-axis at x = a and x = b. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular

s
the x-axis at an arbitrary x in [a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x), then the
In
volume of the solid is

UP
Z b
V = A(x) dx
a
Horizontal Cylinders: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to

the y-axis at y = c and y = d. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular
the y-axis at an arbitrary y in [c, d] is given by a continuous function A (y), then the
volume of the solid is
Z d
V = A(y) dy
c
Example 4.6.6.
1. Find the volume of the solid shown below.

Note: Cross-sections are circles.
s
The given solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = 1.
ic
at
Note that the cross-sectional area of S in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis at any x ∈ [0, 1]
em
is a circle. If r(x) is the radius of the cross-section at x, then
√ h √ √
2 x− x x
at
r(x) = =
2 2
M
Thus,
of
πx
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 =
e
ut
4
tit
The volume is therefore given by

s
In
1 x=1
πx2
Z
πx π
V = dx = = cubic units.
UP
0 4 8 x=0 8
2. Derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of radius r and height h.
The solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = h. Again,
an arbitrary cross-sectional area in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis is a circle. Let r(x) be
the radius of the cross-section at x. Using similar triangles, we get
r (x) r
=
x h
rx
r (x) =
h
The area of a cross-section is given by
πr2 x2
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 =
h2
We get the desired formula for the volume of a cone
h
πr2 x2 πr2 x3 x=h πr2 h
Z
V = dx = =
0 h2 3h2 x=0 3
ic s
at
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.6.3 Exercises
A. Find the volume of the following solids by slicing:
1. The figure shown below by slicing. Cross-sections are circles.
ic s
2. The solid whose base is the triangular region with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). Cross-
at
em
sections perpendicular to the y-axis are squares.
h
B. Find the volume of the solid generated when the indicated plane region is revolved about the
at
given axis of revolution.
M
π π
of
1. Region bounded by y = cos x, x = , x = and y = 0; about the x-axis.

4 2
e
2. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1, y = 7 − x
ut
tit
a. about y = −1 b. about x = −2
s
In
UP
3. Region bounded by x = y 2 , x = 0, y = 2;
a. about the x-axis b. about x = −1
4. Region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Item 15,
a. about the x-axis b. about x = 1
5. Region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Item 16,
a. about y = −1 b. about x = 4
C. Let R be the region bounded by y = (x − 2)2 , y = x3 and x = −1.
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −2 using the Washer
Method.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = 10 using the Cylin-
drical Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 1.
A. Find the volume of the following solids by slicing:
1. The volume of a sphere of radius 3 using vertical cylinders.

2. The volume of a pyramid with a square base using horizontal cylinders.
3. The solid whose base of is an elliptical region with boundary curve 9x2 + 4y 2 = 36. Cross-
sections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles right triangles with hypotenuse in the base.
B. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the given plane region about the indicated
axis:
1. Region bounded by the curve y = 9 − x2 and the two coordinate axes
ic s
at
a. x = 0 b. x = −4 c. y = −4
h em
2. Region bounded by the curve y = 4x − x2 , the y-axis, and the lines y = 6 and x = 2,
at
M
a. x = 3 b. y = −1 c. x = −4
of
e
3. Region bounded by the curve y = cos x, and the two coordinate axes
ut
tit
a. y = 1 b. x = π c. x = −π
s
In
4. Region bounded by the curve x = y 3 , and the lines x = 8 and y = 1

UP
a. y = 0 b. x = −3 c. x = −1
5. Region bounded by the curve 1 − x = (y − 2)2 , and the lines x = 3, y = 0 and y = 2
a. y = 3 b. x = 5 c. x = −5
6. Region bounded by the curve y = 4 − |x| and the x-axis
a. y = 0 b. y = 5 c. x = 10
7. Region bounded by the curve x − 1 = (y − 2)2 , y-axis, and y = 10

a. x = 0 b. x = −5 c. y = 0
1
C. Let R be the region bounded by y = , x = 4 and y = 1.
x
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −1 using the Washer
Method.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = −3 using the Cylindrical
Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 6.
D. Let R be the region in the first quadrant bounded by x2 + y 2 = 3, y 2 = −x + 3 and y = 0.
1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about x = 4:
a. using the method of washers
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
2. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about y = −5:
ic s
a. using the method of washers
at
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.7 Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

Our main goal for this section is to develop more useful properties of the definite integral. In
particular, we want to direct our discussion in such a way that our complicated computations from
the previous section can be simplified.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:
• compare integrals of distinct functions,
• put uper and lower estimates on the definite integral of a function,
• provide a statement parallel to the Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives, and
• define and compute the average value of a function.
In particular, we need the third goal - that is, to state the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
- to be able to provide a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus. This
ic s
proof will be given in the next section.
at
em
We begin with the following result, which compares the definite integrals of two regions in the same
closed interval [a, b]:
h
at
M
Theorem 4.7.1. If the functions f and g are integrable on [a, b], and if f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x
of
in [a, b], then

e
Z b Z b
ut
f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx.

a a
s tit
The geometric interpretation of the previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. If the
In
graph of y = f (x) lies above the graph of y = g (x) in the interval [a, b], then the net-signed area
UP
between the the curve y = f (x) and [a, b] must be greater than the net-signed area between the
the curve y = g (x) and [a, b].
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 263
Theorem 4.7.2. Suppose f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. If m and M are the
absolute minimum function value and absolute maximum function value, respectively, of f in
[a, b], then
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).
a
The previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. By the Extreme Value Theorem, we
know that if f is continuous on [a, b], then f achieves an absolute maximum value M and absolute
minimum value m on [a, b]. Therefore, the area between y = f (x) and the interval [a, b] is greater
than the area of the rectangle with width (b − a) and height m, but less than the area of the
rectangle with the same width, but with height M .
ic s
at
hem
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
Theorem 4.7.3 (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals). If the function f is continuous
on the closed interval [a, b], then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
Z b
f (x) dx = f (c) (b − a).
a
Geometrically, this means that if a function f is nonnegative and continuous on a closed interval
[a, b], we can find a number c in [a, b] such that area of a rectangle with base equal to the length
of the interval [a, b] and height equal to the height of the curve at c is the same the the area under
the curve y = f (x) from a to b.
Example 4.7.4. Since f (x) = x2 is continuous on [0, 2], there exists c ∈ [−2, 0] satisfying the
s
conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem. That is,
ic
at
Z 2
x2 dx = c2 (2 − 0)
em
0
√ √
h
at
8 2 3 2 3
We get that 2c2 = so c = ± . But c ∈ [0, 2], so c = .
M
3 3 3
In the previous example, there is only one value of c in the interval satisfying the conclusion of the
of
Mean Value Theorem. In general, however, the value of c is not unique.

e
ut
The value of f (c) in the Mean Value Theorem is called the average value of f in the interval [a, b].
tit
It is a generalization of the arithmetic mean of a discrete and finite set of numbers. We thus have
s
the following definition.

In
UP
Definition 4.7.5. If the function f is integrable on [a, b], the average value of f on [a, b] is
Rb
a f (x) dx
fave = .
b−a
Example 4.7.6. The average value of f (x) = x2 on [0, 2] is

Z 2
x2 dx 8
0 3 4
= = .
2−0 2 3
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 265
4.7.1 Exercises
A. Do as indicated.
Z 2
3
1. Given that x dx = , find the average value of f (x) = x in the interval [−1, 2]. Find
−1 2
the value of x ∈ [−1, 2] at which the average value occurs.
Z 3
2. If f is continuous and f (x) dx = 4, show that f takes on the value of 2 at least once
1
on the interval.
3. Use Theorem 4.3.2 to prove the following inequalities:
Z 2 Z 3
1 1 1 4
a. 2+4
dx ≤ c. ≤ dx ≤ 4
0 x 2 2 −1 x3 + 5
Z 2 ln 9+1
x2 − 1
Z
1 64
b. 0 ≤ sin πx dx ≤ 2 d. 0 ≤ sinh3 dx ≤
s
2 2 27 ln 9
ic
0 1
at
4. Find the value of b such that the average value of g(x) = 3x2 − 4x − 1 on [0, b] is equal to
2.
em
h
at
B. Find a closed interval containing the definite integral of the following functions on the corre-
M
sponding closed interval:

of
e
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 on [−1, 2] 1

ut
5. g(x) = on [3, 9]
6 x−2
tit
2. g(x) = on [−4, −2] √

(x + 1)2 6. h(x) = 16 − x2 on [−2, 4]
s
3. f (x) = 3x2 + sin(x) on [0, π]

In
x2 + 5

1 1 7
7. h(x) = on ,
UP
4. g(x) = 2 on [0, 1]
x +1 x−4 2 2
C. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:
1. f (x) = 6x2 − 4x + 1 on [−2, 1]

π
6. f (x) = sec2 3x on 0,
2. f (x) = x3 − 4x − 6 on [1, 5] 18
x+2 √ √
3. f (x) = on [4, 6] csc(π x) cot(π x)

1 1

x−3 7. f (x) = √ on ,
1 x 16 9
4. f (x) = 2 on [1, 3]
x + 2x + 1
1

1+π 1 8. f (x) = p
5. f (x) = sin(3x − 1) on ,π + √ on [16, 64]
3 3 9− x
A. Find a closed interval containing the definite integral of the following functions on the corre-
sponding closed interval:
1. f (x) = 12 + 3x2 + x3 on [−1, 5] 1

5. g(x) = on [3, 9]
x2 −3
2. g(x) = ln(x + 1) on [0, e3 − 1] √
16 − x2
π 6. h(x) = on [2, 4]
3. f (x) = sin−1 (x) + on [−1, 1] x
2
2 − 3x
4. g(x) = cosh−1 (x) on [1, 3] 7. h(x) = on [−3, 3]
x+4
B. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:
9. f (x) = ex on [−3, 1]
s
1. f (x) = 3x − 12 on [−3, 7]
ic
at
2. f (x) = x2 − 3x − 9 on [−3, 3] 10. f (x) = 4x − 2x on [−3, log2 5]
em
3. f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 3 on [−2, 4] 11. f (x) = 2x + 2−x on [−4, −1]
h
4. f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 3 on [−2, 0] 12. f (x) = 4x − 3 on [−2, 2]
at
M
5. f (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x − 1 on [−3, 2] 13. f (x) = sinh(x) on [0, 1]

x 14. f (x) = x cosh(x2 ) on [0, 1]
of
6. f (x) = √ on [1, 5]
24 + x2
15. f (x) = π tanh2 x on [0, ln 3]
e
ut
1
7. f (x) = √ on [0, 2] 16. f (x) = sech(2x) on [− ln 3, ln 5]
tit
16 − x2
1 sinh−1 (x)
s
8. f (x) = √ on [−4, 4] 17. f (x) = √ on [0, 1]

In
9 + x2 x2 + 1
UP

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Chapter 4

Integration and Its Applications

4.1 Antidifferentiation and Indefinite Integrals

• find a particular antiderivative given an initial condition

4.1.1 Antiderivatives or Indefinite Integrals

1. An antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F (x) = 4x3 + x2 .

2. An antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G(x) = sin x.

3. Another antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F1 (x) = 4x3 + x2 − 1.

4. Another antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G1 (x) = sin x + π.

Remark 4.1.3. If an antiderivative of f exists, then it is not unique.

Theorem 4.1.4. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antiderivative of

Terms and Notations:

• Antidifferentiation is the process of finding antiderivatives.

tive of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .

Theorem 4.1.7 (Theorems on Antidifferentiation).

3. If f and g are defined on the same interval, then

4. If n is any real number and n 6= −1, then

Example 4.1.8. Find the following antiderivatives.

Theorem 4.1.9 (Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions).

Example 4.1.10. Find the following antiderivatives.

Theorem 4.1.11 (Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions).

Example 4.1.12. Find the following antiderivatives.

Theorem 4.1.13 (Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions).

Theorem 4.1.15 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions).

Theorem 4.1.16 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions).

Example 4.1.17. Find the following antiderivatives.

4.1.2 Integration by Substitution

Suppose F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), and g is a differentiable function of x whose range is

Dx [F (g(x))] = F 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).

Theorem 4.1.18 (Substitution Rule). If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range

We put the final answer in terms of x by substituting u = 1 − 4x. Therefore,

Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx, or −du = sin x dx. By substitution,

tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Let u = t − 1. Then u = dt. Also, t = u + 1. By substitution,

That proves the statement for the tangent function.

Now, for the secant function, note that

sec2 x + sec x tan x

Let u = sec x + tan x. Then du = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx. Therefore,

Example 4.1.21. Find the following antiderivatives.

Let u = x2 . Then du = 21 dx. Hence,

= 2 (ln | sec u| + 4 ln |sec u + tan u|) + C

Similar results can be derived for the remaining hyperbolic functions.

4. csch x dx = ln |csch x − coth x| + C

is replaced by some other positive number, as shown in the next theorem.

Theorem 4.1.23. Let a > 0.

Let u = x3 . Then du = 3x2 dx and

Let v = x + 2. Then dv = dx and

1. Given that F 0 (x) = 2x and F (2) = 6, find F (x).

Since F 0 (x) = 2x, we have Z

The initial condition F (2) = 6 implies that F (2) = 22 + C = 6. we get C = 2. Therefore,

4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited

v(t) = s0 (t) and a(t) = v 0 (t).

v(t) = −10 dt = −10t + C.

v(t) = −10t + 160.

The initial condition s(0) = 3 yields C = 3. Finally,

s(t) = −5t2 + 160t + 3.

Since v(t) is an antiderivative of a(t), we have

A. Find the following antiderivatives.

B. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.

C. Solve the following problems completely.

A. Verify that F is an antiderivative for f .

C. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.