HW-01. Lagrangain mechanics.

First introduction
*
M.G. Ivanov
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Department of Theoretical Physics

December 29, 2019

— I won’t be introduced to the pudding, please, — Alice said

rather hastily, — or shall we get no dinner at all. May I give
you some?
But the Red Queen looked sulky, and growled — Pudding
— Alice; Alice — Pudding. Remove the pudding! — and the
waiters took it always so quickly that Alice couldn’t return
its bow.

Lewis Carroll. Through the looking glass

Abstract
It is classical Lagrangian mechanics.
To learn how to write quantum equations, it is necessary to be able to write classical
ones. So, Dhruv — Lagrangian; Lagrangian — Dhruv. Remove the Lagrangian!

1 Minimal and extremal principles

The condition of static equilibrium is the extremum of potential energy. The equilibrium is
stable if the potential energy has a minimum.
Before the concept of potential energy was invented, this principle was formulated in relation
to the case of a system of absolutely rigid bodies and inextensible ropes in a homogeneous gravity
field, as a statement that in the position of stable equilibrium the height of the center of mass
of the system is minimal.
Geometric optics is described by the Fermat principle (1662): the beam propagation time
should be extreme (on short arcs — minimum).
This gave hope that extreme principles could be extended from static to dynamic.
Extreme principles are good because they allow you to briefly describe the laws for the phys-
ical system. The extreme value can be recorded through different parameters. So, we can easily
rewrite the laws of physics in different variables, in particular, to describe the motion instead
of Cartesian coordinates, we can take other continuous parameters describing the configuration
of the system — generalized coordinates.
Let’s try to guess the principle of stationary action after the classics1 . By analogy with the
Fermat principle, we assume that we need to look for a minimum of some integral, which we
call an action. In mechanics, the natural parameter is time, so we choose it as an integration
variable. Let’s start with the particle motion in the potential 𝑈 (𝑥).
*
e-mail: ivanov.mg@mipt.ru
1
We do not try to describe in detail the real way of development of science, so the story is not about how
the variational principles arose, and how they could arise.

1
 𝑈 (𝑥)

The particle moves the fastest in the “pits” of potential and slows down at the “tops”.
The integrand must be as small as possible at the tops (where the particle is delayed),
and in the pits that the particle skips quickly, the integrand may be larger. The first thought
2
that arises is to place the kinetic energy 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣2 under the integral. However, the kinetic
energy does not contain information about the potential. The second idea is to place potential
energy with a minus sign under the integral. However, the potential energy does not contain
information about the mass of the particle. The third idea is to place the difference of kinetic
and potential energies under the integral.
∫︁𝑡1 (︂
𝑚𝑥˙ 2
)︂
𝑑𝑥
𝑆[𝑥(𝑡)] = − 𝑈 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑡, 𝑥˙ = . (1)
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

Suddenly this thought leads to success.

The integrand in action is Lagrangian (or Lagrange function).

2 Functional and functional derivative

𝑆[𝑥(𝑡)] is functional, it is number function from function 𝑥(𝑡). 𝑆[𝑥(𝑡)] is function of infinite
number of arguments, from 𝑥(𝑡) for all 𝑡 ∈ (𝑡0 , 𝑡1 ).
One have to find extremum of this functional.
To find extremum of function of finite number 𝑁 of variable one can use differential. Dif-
ferential is difference of function value in two points up to linear terms in 𝑑𝑥:
𝑁
∑︁ 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) − 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑜(𝑑𝑥) = 𝑖
𝑑𝑥𝑖 .
𝑖=1
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
We have extremum iff 𝑑𝑓 = 0 for all sets of 𝑑𝑥𝑖 , i.e. iff 𝜕𝑥𝑖 = 0 for all 𝑖. Here 𝜕𝑥𝑖 is not a fraction,

it is symbol of partial derivative.

Similarly variation of action 𝛿𝑆 is difference of functional 𝑆 value for two trajectories up to
linear terms in 𝛿𝑥(𝑡):
𝛿𝑆 = 𝑆[𝑥(𝑡) + 𝛿𝑥(𝑡)] − 𝑆[𝑥(𝑡)] + 𝑜(𝛿𝑥)
We have extremum iff 𝛿𝑆 = 0 for all functions 𝛿𝑥(𝑡).
∑︀𝑁 ∫︀𝑡1
If one can represent 𝛿𝑆 in the form (it is similar to 𝑑𝑓 with 𝑖=1 · · · replaced by · · · 𝑑𝑡,
𝑡0
𝑑𝑥𝑖 replaced by 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑖 replaced by 𝑡)
∫︁𝑡1
𝛿𝑆
𝛿𝑆 = 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, (2)
𝛿𝑥(𝑡)
𝑡0
𝛿𝑆 𝛿𝑆
then 𝛿𝑆 = 0 for all functions 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) iff 𝛿𝑥(𝑡)
= 0 for all 𝑡. Here 𝛿𝑥(𝑡)
is not a fraction, it is symbol
of functional derivative.

2
3 Problem
2
The Lagrangian for (1) is 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑥) ˙ = 𝑚2𝑥˙ − 𝑈 (𝑥).
a) Write 𝑆[𝑥(𝑡) + 𝛿𝑥(𝑡)] − 𝑆[𝑥(𝑡)] as integral over 𝑡.
b) Expand integrand up to first order in 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) and 𝛿 𝑥(𝑡),
˙ omit all terms of higher powers.
c) Integrate all terms with 𝛿 𝑥(𝑡)
˙ by parts to convert them to terms with 𝛿𝑥(𝑡).
d) What boundary conditions should be imposed on 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) to make the boundary term disap-
pear? Let us impose the conditions.
e) Rewrite 𝛿𝑆 in the form (2).
𝛿𝑆
f) Write the extremum condition 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) = 0 and compare it with equation of motion.
g) If equation of motion rewritten in the form 𝑝˙ = 𝐹 , what is 𝑝 and 𝐹 for the system, desribed
by (1)? What is condition of 𝑝 conservation?
h) Express 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑥˙ − 𝐿 in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑥. ˙
i) Calculate 𝐸˙ = 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑡
if equation of motion is valid.
𝛿𝑆 ˙ 𝑑𝐸
j) Let 𝛿𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑓 (𝑡) = 0. Calculate 𝐸 = 𝑑𝑡 under this condition. What is physical sence of 𝐸 and
𝑓 (𝑡)?

References
[1] Landau L.D., Lifshitz M.E., Mechanics. Volume 1 of Course of Theoretical Physics.
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1976