Selection of generator

In the generation of electricity, the electric generator converts mechanical energy

into electrical energy. The generator forces electric charge to flow through an external

electrical circuit (Agarwal, 2015; Kadam, 2015).

The electric generators types depend on the type of generating equipment will use,

the electrical energy that is produced is either DC or AC. The AC generators are

classified as single-phase or poly-phase. A single-phase generator is limited to 25kW or

less and it generates AC power at a specific voltage. Poly-phase generators produce two

or more alternating voltage. (Angela, 2017; Rana-Muhammad-Awais, 2017).

The DC generators are classified as shunt, series, or compound-wound. Most DC is the

compound-wound type. Shunt generators are used as battery chargers and exciters for AC

generators. Series generators are used for direct flow of current in one direction. The

rotating commutators of generator provide the rectifying action (Aslam, 2017; Shandilya,

2017).

Generating system of hydropower scheme is selected based on the following:

1. The estimated power of a hydropower system

2. Type of supply system and electrical load: AC or DC

3. Available generating capacity in the market

4. Generator with cost-effective

Normally, Pico hydro systems use AC generator either synchronous or induction

machine type. This is because the system is used to supply AC electrical appliances and
DC generators above 2kW are very expensive and have brush gear that requires

maintenance (Kanello, 2017; Evans, 2017).

Furthermore, DC switch for the voltage and current is more expensive than

equivalent AC switch. However, for storing energy, the batteries of brush permanent

magnet DC generator are preferred. One common advantage of using DC type of

permanent magnet generator over the AC generator is that the DC generator is designed

to provide high current at a minimum voltage required for charging a battery and

operation of direct current loads. This is related with load type to be supplied. Moreover,

the permanent magnet generator is selected as it is much cheaper and has smaller overall

size rather than the off wound field (Vivek-Brahmbhatt, 2017; Dirjish, 2017). Other than

that, there is no power that is wasted to generate the magnetic field, that is why it is more

efficient.

Radial type generator

A pico generator using a permanent magnet essentially refer to an RFPM(Radial

Flux Permanent Magnet) generator. The RFPM generator, which has an iron core slot in

the stator, is easy to manufacture and has a high output voltage and power as well as

efficiency. However, because of the existence of iron core slot of the stator, the RFPM

generator experiences cogging torque. The cogging torque can bring about an increase in

the torque ripple, the vibration and noise generation. It is an important factor to consider

for determination of the minimum water intensity required to generate power in a hydro

generator( Gyeong-Chan Lee, 2013; Tae-Uk Jung, 2013 ).

 The three constructive types of hydro generator considered in this work are

permanent-magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs), but one has an axial-flux (AF-

PMSG) topology, the other one is of radial-flux outer-rotor (RFOR-PMSG) type, while

the third one is of radial-flux inner-rotor (RFIRPMSG) type. In the following sections,

each of the three PMSG topologies is investigated using finite-element field analysis to

comparatively showing their relative merits and demerits(Adrian Augustin POP, 2011;

Florin Jurca, 2011).

Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction occurs, According to the Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction, when electricity is created by moving a conductor through a

magnetic field. It can also occur when a magnetic field passes through a conductor. To

create electricity in a DC generator, the conductor is rotated, and the field is held. In an

alternator, the conductor is held stationary and the field is rotated. (Technician Academy,

2018; Electrical Easy, 2016)

Parts of the generator

Rotor

The rotor is a magnetic iron core wrapped in a coil of wire. The two ends of the

coil attached to copper slip rings that then attach to brushes. Around the core and

windings are finger poles that are placed with alternating north and south charges. As the

rotor spins, the alternating finger poles create a magnetic field around the iron core.

Although the core, windings, and poles are the most crucial parts of the rotor assembly,

the rotor assembly also contains a cooling fan, slip rings, brushes, and bearings. These are
responsible for directing current to the windings, keeping the alternator from overheating,

and allowing proper movement of the main assembly parts is stationary. (Technician

Academy, 2018; Semat et al., 1958)

Stator

The stator is stationary and is where the mechanical to electrical energy

conversion takes place within the alternator. The stator consists of an iron core and

copper windings. The iron core completes the magnetic circuit created by the rotor.

Tooth-like structures, hence the name teeth, extend radially inward from the outer

diameter of the stator core. These teeth face the rotor poles and provide an iron magnetic

path that connects the N and S poles of the rotor via the stator.

Besides funneling and channeling the flux through the stator, these teeth house the

stator windings. The stator windings are insulated copper wires that are formed into coils

and inserted into the empty slots between adjacent teeth. As discussed above, when the

rotor rotates with DC current flowing in the field winding, it will produce an AC

magnetic flux in the stationary stator. This time-varying flux that links the rotor and

stator serves to induce a voltage in the stator wire according to Faraday’s law: (Theraja,

1995; Bakshi, 2009)

𝑒= − (dΦ / 𝑑𝑡 )

Where:

e = voltage induced in the conductor

Nc = number of conductors in series

𝑑Φ / = time rate of change of flux

 This relationship describes the voltage induced in each length of the stator wire

located in the slots. Since the voltage induced in the stator wire is directly proportional to

the number of conductors in series, typically the stator wire will be coiled multiple times

through each slot to increase Nc and thereby increase the voltage induced in the total

length of wire. There are design reasons limiting the optimum number of conductors per

slot, but this is beyond the scope of this paper. If only one stator wire or winding were

used in this manner we would end up with a single-phase machine. However, this is not

an efficient use of the machine space and iron circuit. Consequently, almost all

alternators employ 3 stator windings to create a 3-phase machine.

Magnets

There are various advantages to the use of permanent magnets in electrical

machine design. Using permanent magnet excitation instead of electrical excitation gives

two major advantages – the machine will not need slip-rings or a complex exciter and

power electronics as well as there will not be any excitation losses on the rotor. These

two aspects will grant a more reliable and efficient machine. Yet, the use of permanent

magnets also brings along some phenomena and problems that are not desired in an

efficient industrial electrical machine and hence need to be overcome during the design

process(Ants Kallaste, 2014; Toomas Vaimann, 2014).

Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) have been an object of

numerous research studies with different structures and geometries for different

applications. The topology of micro-wind generator considered for this paper is the radial

flux interior permanent magnet rotor spoke-type machine. This topology has radial
mounted permanent magnets with alternating circumferential magnetization, buried

inside the rotor core and placed between rotor pole shoes, so the magnetic flux lines from

the magnets are concentrated in the rotor poles and forced towards the air-gap. Due to

this configuration, the more magnetic material can be used while keeping the same air-

gap radius of the structure or the same volume of magnetic material can be used for a

smaller air gap radius of the generator. It is known that the magnetic flux generated by

the arrangement of spoke type permanent magnets is highly concentrated in an air gap,

thus this design topology could produce high power density compared to the other

PMSG(Mihai Chirca, 2016; Claudiu Oprea, 2016).

Generator Losses

Another set of important efficiency related data are the losses of the machine.

Electric generator losses depend on the power level and rotational speed on which the

generator is working at the time. In conventional generator design process only rated

values of those parameters are taken into account. This cannot be considered to be the

best solution, as generator power level and rotational speed values are varying in

time(Ants Kallaste, 2014; Toomas Vaimann 2014).

After learning how the generator works, let’s next examine where and how power

losses occur within the alternator. Power losses occur in the alternator due to different

mechanisms. These can be classified into 3 categories: electrical, magnetic, and

mechanical (Pallack, 2017; Daware, 2017).

Generator efficiency
 The generator system is the most important in the modern electric power system.

Recently, various generation systems such as renewable power generation are much

investigated. In order to reduce gas fuel consumption of the diesel engine, the increase of

the generator system efficiency has gained a lot of attention. Furthermore, the output

voltage of the generator has to be kept constant at any speeds of the diesel engine,

because the output voltage of this generator is directly connected to the load(Chong-Hyun

Cho, 2018; Jin-Woo Ahn, 2018).

Currently, on the global market of electric energy production, can see the

development of non-conventional energy sources based on exploiting renewable energy

sources. In order to obtain electric energy from such sources, it is necessary to build a

device which can able to transform that kind of energy. One such device can be a high-

efficient generator set for small hydroelectric plants of the new generation(P. Pistelok,

2015; M. Baranski, 2015).

Now we are ready to turn our attention directly to alternator efficiency. In words,

alternator efficiency is simply the ratio of electrical output power by the alternator to the

mechanical input power. According to (Siskind, 1966) As an equation:

𝜂 = Pout / Pin

where:

η = alternator efficiency

Pout = electrical input power

Pin = mechanical output power

 Further, by the law of conservation of energy (please note that energy is simply

the product of power multiplied by time), the mechanical input power is equal to the

electrical output power plus the losses:

Pin = Pout + Plosses

where:

Pin = mechanical input power

Pout = electrical output power

Plosses = alternator power losses

so that:

η= 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 / 𝑃out + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Where:

η = alternator efficiency

Pout = electrical output power

Plosses = alternator power losses

If we study this simple relationship a bit we will see that for a given amount of

electrical output power, if the losses go down, the efficiency goes up. And since the

mechanical power input is equal to the electrical power output plus the losses, it must go

down. So as losses go down, efficiency goes up and mechanical input power from the

engine goes down.

Cost of alternatives

Pico-hydro turbine is one of the alternative renewable energy to replace the

existing power supply sources in the remote settlement. Most of the houses of off-grid
areas are still using a conventional generator which is generally costly to maintain and

operate as their main power supply. Based on the scenario in our country, the price

increase of fuel recently had a major impact on the usage of the generator. To overcome

this burden, another alternative solution must be considered in order to replace the usage

of the existing generator. Since the rural settlements are located near to the water supply

due for the daily needs and activities, therefore, the implementation of a pico-hydro

turbine as one of the alternative way to replace the generator is the compatible choice.

Furthermore, the pico-hydro turbine has less installation set-up which no involvement of

a dam or reservoir. It also involves less maintenance and replacement cost as well as

environmentally friendly for the longterm application(Masjuri Musa, 2011; Juhari Ab.

Razak, 2011).

The cost of each monitoring and repair alternative is comprised of the following

components:

First cost, i.e. the capital cost of the implementation of an alternative; Maintenance

cost, which includes the costs of special tests for leak detection; Unit outage costs, for the

implementation of tests and repairs. These costs are calculated from the composite unit

costs per day of the outage, as determined by each utility for each unit. They include

energy and capacity replacement costs. Future probable costs, which are based on the

assessed probabilities of future winding failures and the replacement of windings.

The above costs can be accumulated over the remaining expected life of a unit or for any

other selected period(Joe Kapler, 1997; Jun Xie Jan Stein,1997).