STUDIES ON ISOLATION, CHARACTERIZATION OF

SOME IMPORTANT NUTRACEUTICAL COMPONENETS

FROM ORANGE (Citrus Sinensis) BY-PRODUCTS AND ITS
EXPLORATION IN WEANING FOOD

By
MOHAMMED ALEEM ZAKER
M.Tech (Food Technology)

COLLEGE OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY

VASANTRAO NAIK MARATHWADA KRISHI VIDYAPEETH
PARBHANI - 431 402 (M.S.) INDIA
2017
 STUDIES ON ISOLATION, CHARACTERIZATION OF
SOME IMPORTANT NUTRACEUTICAL COMPONENETS
FROM ORANGE (Citrus Sinensis) BY PRODUCTS AND ITS
EXPLORATION IN WEANING FOOD

Submitted By

MOHAMMAD ALEEM ZAKER

M. Tech. (Food Technology)

DISSERTATION
Submitted to the
Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani
In
Partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
FOOD TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY

VASANTRAO NAIK MARATHWADA KRISHI VIDYAPEETH
PARBHANI - 431 402 (M.S.) INDIA
2017
Affectionately Dedicated to
My Beloved Parents
And
Family
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the dissertation or part thereof has not been

previously submitted by me for a degree or diploma of any other University

orInstitute.

PLACE : PARBHANI (Mohammad Aleem Zaker)

Date : (Reg. No. 2014T03P)
Dr. A. R. Sawate
Ph.D (Food Technology)
Professor and Head,
Department of Food Engineering,
College of Food Technology,
Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth,
Parbhani- 431 402 (M.S.) India.

CERTIFICATE – I

This is to certify that Mr. MOHAMMAD ALEEM ZAKER has satisfactorily

prosecuted his course credits and research work for a period not less than six semesters

and that the dissertation entitled “STUDIES ON ISOLATION,

CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME IMPORTANT NUTRACEUTICAL

COMPONENETS FROM ORANGE (Citrus Sinensis) BY PRODUCTS AND ITS

EXPLORATION IN WEANING FOOD” submitted by him is the results of original

research work and is of sufficiently high standard to warrant its presentation to the

examination. I also certify that the dissertation or part thereof has not been previously

submitted by him for the award of a degree of any university.

PLACE: PARBHANI. Dr. A. R. Sawate

DATE: / /2017 (Research Guide)
 CERTIFICATE -II

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “STUDIES ON ISOLATION,

CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME IMPORTANT NUTRACEUTICAL
COMPONENETS FROM ORANGE (Citrus Sinensis) BY PRODUCTS AND ITS
EXPLORATION IN WEANING FOOD” submitted by Mr. MOHAMMAD ALEEM
ZAKER to the Vasantaro Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (FOOD
TECHNOLOGY) has been approved by the student's advisory committee after Viva-voce
examination in collaboration with the external examiner.

External Examiner Dr. A.R. Sawate

(Research Guide and Chairman)

Members of Advisory Committee:

Dr. A.T. Taur Dr. H.M. Syed

Associate Professor Head
Dept. of Food Engineering Dept. of Food Chemistry and Nutrition
College of Food Technology College of Food Technology
VNMKV, Parbhani. VNMKV, Parbhani

Prof. H.W. Deshpande

Head
Dept. of Food and Ind. Microbiology
College of Food Technology
VNMKV, Parbhani. .

Associate Dean and Principal

College of Food Technology,
V.N.M.K.V., Parbhani – 431 402.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To esteem the Highness of Almighty Allah, I feel myself inept as my words have
lost their expressions, knowledge is lacking and diction is too short to express gratitude
in the rightful manner to the blessings and support of Allah Almighty whose help had
flourished my ambitions and helped me to attain goals. Quivering hands feel mortified to
hunt for words of praise for Holy Prophet (Sal Lal Lahu Alayhi Wa Sallam) for
enlightening our lives with the faith in Allah, selecting course of contented conscience,
converging all His kindness and mercy upon him.
Allah Almighty had been so helpful in His blessings by giving me a prospect to
toil under the esteem supervision of my honorable guide Dr. A .R. Sawate , Head and
Professor, Department of Food Engineering, College of Food Technology, V.N.M.K.V.,
Parbhani who conceived, detailed and shaped the research problem and provided adept
guidance. His valuable suggestions, sympathetic behavior and co-operative nature during
the course of present investigation would remain encouraging me forever in my life.
I owe high esteemed respect to Prof. P.N. Satwadhar Associate Dean and
Principal, College of Food Technology, V.N.M.K.V., Parbhani for providing necessary
facilities during the present investigation.
I sincerely express my deep sense of gratitude and great indebtedness to the
advisory committee members, Dr. A.T. Taur, Associate Professor, Department of Food
Engineering, Dr. Syed H.M, Professor and head, Department of Food chemistry and
Nutrition, Dr. D.M. Shere, head, Department of Food Science and Technology, Prof. H.
W. Deshpande, head, Department of Food and Industrial Microbiology, College of Food
Technology, V.N.M.K.V., Parbhani for their valuable suggestions and constant
encouragement.
I wish to place on record my sincere thanks to, Prof. D.R. More, Prof. V.S.
Pawar, Prof. Ghatge, Prof. B.M. Patil, Prof. Machewad, Prof. Sadawarte, prof. Imran
Hashmi, College of Food Technology. Thanks to non- teaching staff of College of Food
Technology, for their kind co-operation during completion of my Ph.D education.
I would also like to extent huge, warm thanks to my batch mates Prof. R. B.
Kshirsagar and Prof. K. S. Gadhe (both are in service Ph.D candidate), Syed Khaja
arifuddin, Ravi Kale. All of them had taught me in my graduation and gives their
complete moral support in completion of my Ph.D also. It’s my fortune to gratefully
acknowledge the supports of some special individuals like Tareq, Azeem, Shahed, Naser,
Muzzafar, Jawwad, Abrar, Mudassar and others as their presence always means a lot
to me.
I expand my thanks specially Pradeep Thorat, Sangle, Shirale and other juniors
who helped me in completion of my task.
Mere words are never sufficient to express my whole hearted sense of reverence to
my parents, my wife (Jabeen) and her family for their sincere encouragements and
inspiration throughout my research work and lifting me uphill this phase of life. I owe
everything to them. I think words with me are insufficient to express the feelings of my
heart to acknowledge them for their difficult job of educating me and keeping me in all
comforts. Besides this several people have knowingly and unknowingly helped me in the
successful completion of this project.

Place: Parbhani
Date: Mohammad Aleem Zaker
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
% : Percentage
0
C : Degree Celsius
A.A.C.C. : American Association of Cereal Chemists
A.O.A.C. : Association of Official Analytical Chemist
ANOVA : Analysis of variance
BD : Bulk Density
C.D. : Critical Difference
CD : Celiac Disease
Cm : Centimeters
Conc. : Concentrated
et al : et alibi (and others )
FFA : Free Fatty Acid
Fig : Figure
g : Gram
HA : Hector
hrs : Hours
ICMR : Indian Council Of Medical Research
ISI : Indian Standard Institution
Kg : Kilogram
L : Length
M.C. : Moisture Content
mg : Milligram
min. : Minute
ml : Milliliter
mol. wt. : Molecular Weight
mm : Millimeter
MT : Metric Ton
N : Normality
NHB : National Horticulture Board
No. : Number
OAC : Oil Absorption Capacity
ppm : parts per million
Rs : Rupees
S.E. : Standard Error
Sec. : Seconds
SMP : Skim Milk Powder
Temp. : Temperature
V.N.M.K.V. : Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth
Vol. : Volume
w/v : weight by volume
WAC : Water Absorption Capacity
Wt : Weight
 LIST OF FIGURES

In
Figure
Title between
No.
Page no
Proximate composition of weaning food with fortification of
1 114-115
orange waste
Organoleptic evaluation of weaning food with fortification of
2 114-115
orange waste
Effect of pre-treatments on organoleptic evaluation of orange
3 119-120
waste based weaning food
Proximate composition of weaning food with addition of orange
4 119-120
waste
5 Colour characteristics of orange waste based weaning food 120-121
6 Phytochemical constituents of orange waste based weaning food 122-123
7 Minerals composition of weaning food 122-123
8 Vitamin content of weaning food 123-124
Effect of pretreatment on cold paste viscosity of orange waste
9 126-127
based weaning food
Effect of pretreatment on hot paste viscosity of orange waste
10 126-127
based weaning food
11 Energy values (kcal) of orange waste and weaning food 132-133
 LIST OF FLOW SHEET

Sr. No. Title Page No.

1 Preparation of orange peel powder 78
2 Preparation of orange pomace powder 79
Process (flow sheet) for preparation of orange waste based
3 80
weaning food
4 Flowchart of roasted weaning food 81
5 Flowchart of malted weaning food 82-83
 LIST OF PLATES
In
Plate
Title between
No.
Page no
1 Nagpur oranges 87-88
2 Orange pomace 87-88
3 Orange peel 87-88
4 Orange Peel Powder 98-98
5 Orange Pomace Powder 98-99
6 Orange Peel oil 98-99

7 Weaning Food with Orange waste 113-114

8 Weaning Food with Orange waste 114-115

9 Weaning Food with Pretreatment 116-117
10 Roasted Flours 118-119
11 Malted Flours 118-119
12 Hunter Color flex EZ 120-121
13 Brookfield viscometer 125-126
14 Total Plate Count of sample T2 130-131
15 Total Plate Count of sample MW1 130-131
16 Yeast and Mold Count of sample T2 131-132
17 Yeast and Mold count of sample MW1 131-132
 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Title
No. No.
Standardization of recipe for formulation of weaning food with
1 83
fortification of orange waste
2 Physical characteristics of oranges 87
3 Per cent yield of orange waste 88

4 Proximate composition of orange peel and pomace powder 88

5 Phytonutrients content of orange peel and pomace powder 89

6 Total polyphenol content in fresh orange peel and pomace extract 92

7 Colour characteristics of orange peel and pomace powder 93

8 Mineral composition of orange peel and pomace powder 94
9 Vitamin composition of orange peel and pomace powder 96
10 Dietary fiber content in orange peel and pomace powder 97
11 Functional properties of orange peel and pomace powder 98
12 Percent yield of orange peel oil 99
13 Physical parameter of orange peel oil 100
14 Colour characteristics of orange peel oil 101

15 Chemical Properties of orange peel oil 102

16 Phytonutrients content of orange peel oil 103

17 Fatty acid profile of orange peel oil 104

18 Vitamin content of Orange peel oil 105

19 Physical parameter of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet 107
20 Proximate composition of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet 108
21 Mineral content of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet 109

22 Standardization of recipe for formulation of weaning food 111

Table Page
Title
No. No.
Proximate composition of weaning food with fortification of orange
23 112
peel and pomace powder
24 Organoleptic evaluation of formulated weaning food 114
Effect of pre-treatments on organoleptic evaluation orange waste based
25 116
weaning food
26 Proximate composition of organoleptically accepted weaning food 118
27 Colour characteristics of orange waste based weaning food 120
28 Phytochemical constituents of organoleptically accepted weaning food 121
29 Total polyphenol content of orange waste based weaning food 121
30 Minerals composition of orange waste based weaning food 122
31 Vitamin content of orange waste based weaning food 123
Effect of pretreatment on cold paste viscosity of orange waste based
32 125
weaning food
Effect of pretreatment on hot paste viscosity of orange waste based
33 126
weaning food
34 Functional properties of weaning food 127

35 Microbial qualities of control sample during storage 130

36 Microbial qualities of malted sample during storage 131

37 Energy values (kcal) of orange waste and weaning food 132
38 Cost of production of orange peel powder 133
39 Cost of production of orange pomace powder 134
40 Cost of production of orange waste combination powder 135
Cost economics of orange waste combination powder based weaning
41 136
food
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Sr. No. CHAPTER Page No.

1-16
1 INTRODUCTION
17-60
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
61-85
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
86-136
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
137-145
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
I-XLI
6 LITERATURE CITED

7 APPENDIX-I

8 ABSTRACT
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Citrus is an ancient crop, with records of human cultivation extending back to at

least 2100 B. C. (Moore, 2001). Citrus fruits belong to the family Rutaceae, in which the
leaves usually possess transparent oil glands and the flowers contain an annular disk
(Kale and Adsule, 1995). South China and Assam are the origin of many citrus fruits and
include lime, lemons, and oranges. Limes, lemons and Citrus reticulate are indigenous to
Assam (Bhattacharya and Dutta, 1956). The mandarin seems to be the most highly
evolved type of all the loose-skinned or kid-glove oranges which have been developed in
China at a very early date and cultivated in Mediterranean countries for many generations
(Evans, 2002). Citrus species are considered to be native to tropical climates, but
excellent quality can be produced in a subtropical climate, which is mostly available
23.5–40º north and south to the equator. Optimum temperature, relative humidity,
sunshine, and well-distributed rainfall can produce heavy yields and excellent quality
fruit, provided that the nutrient supply is optimum (Ladaniya, 2008). The place of origin
of citrus fruits is believed to be south eastern Asia and these were subsequently brought
to the Middle East and Southern Europe and further distributed to many other countries
by the assistance of travelers and missionaries following the paths of civilization
(Ruberto, 2001).
Citrus is one of the major fruits cultivated globally for its fruit juice content.
Although there are certain areas of high concentration in terms of production, the leading
areas of production for the international fresh market are in the Mediterranean regions of
which Spain is the dominant. Brazil is the leading exporter of juice in the world.
According to United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, citrus ranks first in
terms of value in the international fruit trade. Citrus species are highly diversified leading
to the development of many cultivars which results from hybridization and mutations.
The tree is evergreen and produces fruits of different forms and sizes (from round to
oblong). Citrus fruits generally grow on shrubs or medium to small trees. The leaves of
the plants are usually dark green and shiny with some being toothed (Ebadi, 2000). The

1
fruit is fragrant, juicy and full of flavor. A cross section of the fruit reveals layers
consisting of an outer skin or rind known as epicarp (yellow to orange in color) which
together with the white mesocarp layer are responsible for protecting the fruit against
physical damage. The internal part, also known as pulp, is segmented and contains juice
sacks which are rich in vitamin C and soluble sugars (Ofosubudu et al., 2007).
Botanically, citrus is classified as a special type of berry termed ‘hersperidium’.
The fruit develops from a superior ovary with all the tissues derived from the ovary
(Albrigo and Cater, 1997). Citrus ovary is made of 6 to 20 carpels which are united to
form locules. The development of the fruit from the flower stage takes 6-18 months
depending on the type or cultivar (Soule and Grierson, 1986). As a result of massive
hybridization, there are literally thousands of citrus cultivars in the world.
Consequently, the taxonomic classification of citrus becomes quite complex with
many diversities and is not universally agreed upon. However, in general, citrus can be
categorized into five major groups viz; Sweet orange, Mandarins, Grape fruits, Lemon
and Limes (Young, 1986). Out of these 5 major groups, there are other citrus groups that
are widely cultivated and important for various purposes, such as sour or bitter oranges
(Citrus aurantium Linnaeus), pummelos (Citrus grandis Osbeck), citrons (Citrus medica
Linnaeus), calamondins (Citrus mitis Blanco), bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso), Kaffir
lime (Citrus hystrix DC.) and kumquats (Fortunella sp. Swingle). Moreover, the
feasibility of hybridization across various groups of citrus results in the emergence of
many novel cultivars, and in some cases is difficult to identify (Ortiz, 2002). Some of
these hybrids are tangelos (hybrids of grapefruits and mandarins), tangors (hybrids of
mandarins and sweet oranges), orangelos (hybrids of sweet oranges and grapefruits),
citranges (hybrids of trifoliate oranges and sweet oranges), citrangors (hybrids of
citranges and sweet oranges), limequats (hybrids of limes and kumquats) and other
hybrid varieties.
China is the leading country of the world in the production of fruits with total area
of 11834450 hectors and production of 137066750 in metric tons. India is the second
largest producer of the fruits in the world with total area and production of 7216312
hectors and 8877134 metric tons respectively. Brazil is at the third position in fruits
production with total area of 2325385 hectors and production of 38368678 in metric tons.

2
The other countries having wide production and area for fruits include United States of
America, Indonesia, and Philippines etc. The major fruit crop in India with highest
production share is banana with 33.4 per cent, followed by mango with 20.7 per cent.
Citrus crop and papaya crop stands at third and fourth position with 12.5 and 6.3 per cent.
Minor crops include guava, grapes, apples, sapota etc. States with the leading fruit
production are Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh with 15 and 12 per cent respectively.
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu shares 9 and 8 per cent of the total production of fruits in India.
Leading citrus producing states are Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra with the total per
cent of 17.2 and 15.8 per cent. Madhya Pradesh and Punjab also contribute significantly
in the production of the citrus fruits and standing at the third and fourth position with
11.1 and 9.4 per cent. (NHB, 2016).
Citrus fruits are well endowed with a variety of phytonutrients. Phytonutrients are
vital in both; health promotion and disease prevention. The dietetic and therapeutic
properties of all citrus fruits are similar due to their phytonutrients contents (Okwu,
2005).The term phytonutrients refer to plant nutrients with particular biological activities
in supporting human health. Phytonutrients are mainly natural bioactive compounds from
plants with general benefits to human health. The secondary metabolites of plants provide
humans with numerous biologically active products, which have been used extensively as
food additives, flavors, colors, insecticides, drugs, fragrances and other chemicals (Zhao,
2007). Phytochemicals constitute one of the most numerous and widely distributed
groups of substances in the plant kingdom. Plants produce chemicals known as secondary
metabolites that are not directly involved in the process of growth but acts as deterrents to
insects and microbial attack. Alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, flavonoids, terpenoids
and phenolic compounds all fit in this category (Okwu, 2004). Phytochemicals that
possess many ecological and physiological roles are widely distributed as plant
constituents. Citrus plants synthesize and accumulate in their cells a great variety of
phytochemicals including low molecular phenolic (hydroxy benzoic and
hydroxycinnamic acids, acetophenones, terpenoids, flavonoids, stilbenes and condensed
tannins) (Yano et al., 1999).
There are about 40 limonoids in citrus with limonin and nomilin being the
principal ones. These compounds, which occur in high concentration in grapefruit (C.

3
vitis) and orange juice (C. sinensis) partly, provide the bitter taste in citrus (Craig, 2002).
Limonoids possess the ability to inhibit tumor formation by stimulating the enzyme
glutathione S-transferase (GST). It is a detoxifying enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of
glutathione with dangerous electrophiles to form less toxic and more importantly water
soluble compounds that can be easily excreted from the body. Orange and lemon oil
contain substantial amounts of GST that also possesses anti-cancer activity. Citrus pulp
and the albedo (the white of the orange) are rich in glucarates. These substances have
potentials in preventing breast cancer and to lower the risk and symptoms of
premenstrual syndrome (Hasegawa and Zhang, 1994).
Essential oils are product obtained from vegetable raw materials (Berger, 2007),
and are complex mixtures whose composition may include volatile terpenic compounds,
(C5H8)n, where the compounds are monoterpenes if n=2, sesquiterpenes when n=3,
diterpenes when n=4 etc (Smith et al., 2001). These are secondary metabolites in plants
(Mazen, 2002) and responsible for the characteristic aroma on the fruit. Essential oil from
citrus is a large type of natural flavors and fragrances, which is popularly used in food
industries, daily chemical product and health care field (Shengmin et al., 2012).
The citrus species are a potential source of variable oil which might be utilized for
edible and other industrial application like pharmaceutical components, in nutritious
supplements and for cosmetic industry and aromatherapy (Maria et al., 2012). It is
composed of mostly (greater than 90 per cent) D-limonene, and is often used in place of
pure D-limonene. D-limonene can be extracted from the oil by distillation (Bauer et al.,
2001). Orange oil is an essential oil produced by cells within the rind of an orange fruit.
In contrast to most essential oils, it is extracted as a byproduct of orange juice production
by centrifugation, producing cold pressed oil (Dominique et al., 1989). The quality and
chemical composition of orange essential oil depends on several factors like
geographical, climatic conditions, methods of extractions, chemo type and biotype of the
plant. Most of the substances are part of the terpene group (limonene, α-pinene, sabinene,
β- pinene, myrcene and δ-3-carene) with limonene being the dominant one. Long chain
aliphatic hydrocarbon alcohols and aldehydes like octanol, decanal and octanal are
second important group of substances (Verzera et al., 2004).

4
 Flavonoids are phytochemicals found in citrus fruits. The flavonoids have strong
inherent ability to modify the body’s reaction to allergens, viruses and carcinogens. They
show anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and anti-cancer activity. Quercetin,
myricitin, rutin, tangeritin, naringin and hesperidin are found amongst the common
flavonoids in citrus fruits. These flavonoids are responsible for the bitter taste of some
grape fruits, lemons and oranges (Okwi and Emenike, 2006). Quercetin has demonstrated
significant anti-inflammatory activity because of direct inhibition of several initial
processes of inflammation. For example, it inhibits both; the production of histamine and
other allergic/inflammatory mediators. In addition, it also exerts potent antioxidant
activity and ascorbic acid sparing action. Quercetin also shows remarkable anti-tumor
properties. Quercetin may have positive effects in combating or helping to prevent
cancer, prostatitis, heart diseases, cataracts, allergies/inflammations and respiratory
diseases such as bronchitis and asthma (Yano et al., 1999). Hesperidin is a flavonoid
glycoside found abundantly in citrus fruits. Hesperidin reduces cholesterol also it has
anti-inflammatory effects. Hesperitin also showed an ability to penetrate the blood brain
barrier in an in vitro model (Del et al., 1997).
The sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) constitutes one of the world’s most popular
and recognizable fruit crops. Oranges are regarded as high source of ascorbic acid and
other fruit acids. Morphologically, the fruit is composed of two major sections; the
pericarp also known as the peel or rind and the edible portion referred to as the pulp. The
external colored portion of the peel referred as epicarp or flavedo, which consist of waxy
layer, a mixture of cutin, pigments in a form of chloroplast or chromoplast and oil glands.
The internal white portion of the peel referred as mesocarp or albedo which consist of
consists of large lobed cells with numerous large intercellular spaces and scattered
vascular elements. The tissues of albedo consist of large spaces which are spongy in
nature. Both the albedo and flavedo (peel) contain a higher concentration of bitter
principles and pectin than other parts of the fruits. The edible portion (pulp) consists of
segments, the ovarian locule which are enclosed in a locular membrane and filled with
juice sacs. The main composition (in terms of percentage) of citrus are 85-90 per cent
water, 6-9 per cent sugars and less than 2 per cent for acids, pectin, minerals essential
oils, fiber, protein and fat (Izquierdo and Sendra, 2003).

5
 Among the major orange producing countries of the world, Brazil is at the first
position with production area of 729583 hectors and total production of 18012560 metric
tons. America is at the second position in terms of area and production with 250582
hectors and 8166480 metric tons in production. China occupies the third position with
total area of 475000 hectors and 6500000 metric tons in production. India is at the fourth
position with total production and productivity of orange of 334939 of hectors and
3886198 in metric tons. The other countries having good area and production capacity
includes Mexico, Spain and Egypt. In 2011-12 the total area was 329.1 hector and 3128.5
metric tons was the production while productivity in metric tons /hector was 9.5. While in
the year 2012-13 total area (in hectors) was 311.2 and 2906.3 metric tons was the
production while productivity in MT/HA was 9.3. Compared to the previous year in the
year 2013-14 the productivity got increased with the total area (in hectors) was 330.0 and
343.14 MT was the production while productivity in MT/HA was 10.4. Leading orange
producing states in India are Punjab and Madhya Pradesh with 30 and 26 per cent.
Maharashtra is at the third position in producing the oranges with 22 percent followed by
Rajasthan and Assam with 7 and 5 per cent respectively. The all India area, production
and productivity of orange increased (NHB, 2016).
Nagpur Santra is loose skinned Mandarin, excellent in taste and flavor. It is the
most widely cultivated commercial variety in India. The pulp is tender, saffron or orange
colored with excellent blend of sugar and acid. This variety has been found since the last
250 years in Vidarbha. Raje Raghoji Bhosle brought it from Aurangabad to Nagpur in
18th century. It has spread in entire Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, part of Uttar Pradesh
and Ganganagar district of Rajsthan. The santra belt of Nagpur and Amravati district is
declared as export zone and it is called as California of India. Fruits are tighter in
beginning but become loose if harvesting is delayed (Deshmukh and Joshi, 2007).
The processing of fruit and vegetables produces large amounts of wastes from
processing activities like washing, peeling, blanching and sterilization processes.
(Kroyer, 1995). By-product from agriculture and food processing can become one of the
most serious sources of pollution (Blasi et al., 1997). The problems arising from disposal
of waste stress the needs of research to develop an acceptable commodity from waste,
however researchers have explored possibilities of using these components in other ways

6
(Braddock and Crandall, 1981) for examples; the pigmented part of peel has been
suggested as a potential source of natural carotenoids (Braddock and Kesterson, 1974).
Classical waste management strategies include incineration, land filling or use as cattle
feed, but these do not take advantage of the chemical content of these specific types of
waste and it generates huge amount of waste products causing environmental pollution.
According to current environmental legislation, any waste could be considered as
raw material as long as there is an option to develop method for its valorization (Moller et
al., 2001). The food wastes can be classified in to different categories such as crop waste
and residues; fruit and vegetable by-products; distilleries abs breweries by-products; milk
and dairy by-products; meat, poultry, fish products and egg industry by-products. During
apple processing, pomace is the major by-product, which consists of crushed flesh, stalks,
peels, seed etc (Rahman, 1995). A growing demand in developed countries for safer
foods and cleaner production processes has been observed in recent times. The
processing of agro product results the formation of waste materials in high amount
(Martin et al., 2012) and commonly are in the form of peels, seeds and oilseed meals
(Stanikova et al., 2005) and accumulation of the wastes pose a problem to the
environment as they are prone to microbial spoilage (Garcia et al., 2005).
Over 400 by-products can be made from citrus in addition to juice (Bates et al.,
2001). The utilization of solid wastes either directly as cattle feed or after drying or
fermentation and either utilization for production of various by-products are more
economical. In production of juices and concentrates large amounts of solid wastes
accumulate consisting of peels, pulp, seeds, stem, skin, cores and pits. In fruit processing
industry seeds and peels are discarded as waste at present (Tressler and joslyn, 1961).
Pectin has been manufactured from citrus peel for more than 50 years. All citrus contain
pectin and richest sources are lime, lemons, oranges (Bates et al., 2001) and grapefruit
(Mohamed, 1999).
Pollution has not only scientific aspect but also sociological economic affecting
adversely on the human being and is environment. Food industry waste and byproducts
are substances that originated during processing and can be further utilized in different
ways. If we could produce valuable products from the industry by products through new

7
scientific and technological methods, environmentally pollution by product can be
converted into products with a higher economic value.
In case of citrus fruits processing industries only about 49 per cent of the entire
fruit is utilized, the rest being disposed. The wastes from citrus industry contain high
organic matters and moisture contents (around 82 per cent on wet basis), which turns
them into toxic and hazardous environment pollutants (Perazzini et al, 2010). In addition,
the cost of drying and storage or transportation concern with financial limitation for
waste utilization. All such factors and lack of proper management and non availability of
technology, these wastes are either disposed off for decomposition and compost
production or incinerated (Ajila et al. 2010). This has led to a drive, by the agro industry,
for waste reduction and upgrading techniques to reduce costs and achieve new sources of
income. In fact, agro waste may be a source of high-added value products potentially
useful as beneficial food constituents, food flavors and antioxidants or as cosmetics,
chemo preventive agents, drugs or drug adjuvants.
Therefore, efforts have been made to explore possibility of reusing plant wastes as
the source of organics (Kaneria et al., 2009). Thus, it needs to be managed by utilization
or by transformation. To comply with, there is a growing interest in recycling of waste
biomass of agro products that sometimes focused to judge as potential therapeutic agent.
Sometimes plant parts such as bark, stalks, leaves, fruits, roots, flowers, pods, seeds,
stems, latex, hull and fruit rind which are considered as wastes contain important
phytochemicals with antimicrobial properties (Aref et al., 2010).
The processing industry creates a large amount of waste by-product in the form of
peel, seeds, rag (the membranes between the citrus segments) and pulp (juice sacs),
representing 50-60 per cent of the whole fruit being discarded after juicing (Siles et al.,
2010). Approximately 50 to 60 per cent of citrus fruit are transformed into citrus peel
waste (Wilkins et al. 2007). This results in accumulation of large quantities of citrus peel
waste as a byproduct in citrus processing industry. Accumulated large quantities of the
orange peel waste along with environmental considerations to avoid health hazards
derived from unsatisfactory disposal methods addressed the indispensable need for
finding alternative biotechnological solutions for waste valorization (Martín et al., 2013).
Citrus peel, remaining after juice extraction, is the primary waste fraction amounting to

8
almost 50 per cent of the fruit mass (Braddock et al., 1995). A very large amount of
oranges byproduct wastes, such as peels which are formed every year (Manthy and karel,
2001). High value products could be manufactured upon using orange peel waste as a
potentially valuable low cost resource (Balu et al., 2012).
Child malnutrition is a major global health problem, leading to morbidity and
mortality, impaired intellectual development and working capacity, and increased risk of
adult disease (Kim et al., 2009). 10 million children under the age of 5 years old die each
year (Bryce et al., 2005). More than half of the deaths occur because of malnutrition. If
adequate health systems were in place nearly 2/3 of the deaths could be prevented. Part of
the health systems picture is to promote appropriate feeding practices for infants and
young children. In developing countries, there is an urgent need of nutritious foods to
meet the nutritional requirements of ever increasing populations. Soybean products are
frequently incorporated into products used for the treatment or prevention of
malnutrition.
Protein Energy Malnutrition is by far the most lethal form of malnutrition. It is an
imbalance between the supply of energy and protein, and the body’s demand for them to
ensure optimal growth and function. Recently it is the most widespread and serious health
problem of children in the world being moderate or severe forms (USAID, 2002).
Although infants and children of some developing nations dramatically exemplify this
type of malnutrition, it can occur in persons of any age in any country. Inadequate intake
of food essential nutrients leads to under nutrition, resulting in deterioration of physical
growth and health. On the other hand, excess intake of high-energy food relative to the
body’s needs results in overweight and obesity (Ahima, 2005).
Deficiencies of protein and energy usually occur together, but when one
predominates and the deficit is severe, kwashiorkor (primarily protein deficiency) or
marasmus (predominantly energy deficiency) ensues. Childhood malnutrition remains a
common problem in much of the developing world (Mosha and Bennink, 2005).
Nutrition and health in the first year of life affect growth and development of children
and most growth faltering occurs during this time (Semproli and Gualdirusso, 2007).
Usually, in resource poor settings, the availability of nutritionally sound weaning foods is
a major limitation in ensuring optimum feeding of infants and young children after 6

9
months of age when breast feeding alone becomes inadequate (Dewey, 2005). In
addition, weaning foods often fail to meet the nutritional requirements of infants (WHO,
2008) because they are mostly plant foods with low energy and nutrient density and
contain anti-nutrient factors such as phytic acid and tannins that limit the absorption of
essential micronutrients also mineral deficiencies are likely to occur if these foods are
processed in a way that does not ensure enhanced bioavailability of the micronutrients
(Towo et al., 2006).
Protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies begin during weaning
and/or immediately thereafter as most foods used for weaning do not provide adequate
amounts of energy, protein and micronutrients (Mosha and Bennink, 2005). Protein-
energy malnutrition generally occurs during the crucial transitional phase when children
are weaned from liquid to semi-solid or fully adult foods. During this period, children
need nutritionally balanced, calorie-dense supplementary foods in addition to mother’s
milk because of the increasing nutritional demands of the growing body. In most
developing countries, the prevalence of under nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies is
high among infants and young children aged 6 to 23 months, which increased the risk of
underweight, stunt growth, and death at these ages (UNICEF, 2009). Ideally, all children
in this age range are breastfed, however, when they get older, the energy and nutrient
contribution of weaning food become increasingly necessary for meeting daily
requirements. For many infant and young children, however, the small quantities of
cereal-based porridges commonly fed to them do not contain enough energy and
micronutrients to meet daily requirements (Nestel et al., 2003). Malnourished children
are often victim of various infections like weight loss, iron deficiency, iodine deficiency,
vitamin A deficiency etc. As with underweight, the prevalence of different micronutrient
deficiencies varies widely across states.
Prevention of malnutrition can be started by providing nutrient dense
supplementary foods to the children (Bisla et al., 2012). India remains home to one
quarter of the world’s undernourished population, over a third of the world’s underweight
children, and nearly a third of the world’s food-insecure people (UN, 2015). India is
home to 40 percent of the world’s malnourished children and 35 percent of the
developing world’s low-birth-weight infants; every year 2.5 million children die in India,

10
accounting for one in five deaths in the world. According to the National Family Health
Survey of India, 48 per cent of children in India are malnourished. 55 per cent of children
living in rural areas suffer from malnutrition compared to 45per cent of children in urban
areas. The situation is particularly grave in states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan. According to the Indian Council of Medical Research, there is a
great lack of nutrition with many leaving out the most crucial nutrients from their diet
(Blakeman, 2005). Problem of malnutrition in children continues to be critical in most
under developed and developing countries. This problem associated with inadequate
protein and amino acids supply to the growing child. India’s progress in reducing child
malnutrition has been slow. The prevalence of child malnutrition in India deviates further
from the expected level at the country’s per capita income than in any other large
developing country (Braun et al., 2008). Malnutrition is brought about by the inadequacy
or over consumption of one or more of the essential nutrients necessary for survival,
growth and reproduction, as well as productivity at work (UNICEF, 2001).
Development of weaning/complementary foods is guided by: 1) high nutritional
value to supplement breastfeeding, 2) acceptability, 3) low price, and 4) use of local food
items. During formulation of any weaning foods made from locally-available raw
materials, the techniques of food processing, storage and distribution; socio-economic
status; cultural and religious factors; sensory properties; and food quality and safety
issues should be taken in to account (Yewelsew et al., 2006). All over the globe
functional foods are gaining popularity in view of their inherent health benefits. Today
consumers are more health conscious and very choosy in their food habits. Consumers
are looking for such foods which supplement not only the balanced nutrition but also add
on to their health and well-being. In this sector more emphasis has been given especially
with respect to children food. Weaning is the most important and critical stage in the
growth and development of children. Hence there is a need to bestow keen attention in
developing weaning food. The commercial weaning food manufacturers have focused
much on supplementing the balanced nutrition to various age groups of children but less
emphasis has been given on health and well-being of children. In this direction a need has
been aroused to develop functional weaning food to cater the requirement of weaning
children.

11
 Weaning is a gradual process of introducing solid foods to an infant’s diet,
alongside breast milk from the age of three to four months, since the breast feeding alone
cannot meet the infant nutritional requirement (Salmon and Shackefford, 2008).
Accordingly, formulation and development of nutritious weaning foods from local and
readily available raw materials has received considerable attention in many developing
countries. The commercially standardized foods are generally magnificent and can help
meet the nutritional requirements of young children in both developed and developing
countries (Asma et al., 2006). Young children are the most vulnerable, if not adequately
addressed; malnutrition can lead to a permanent negative impact on their quality of life
(Sandoval et al., 2002). Adequate nutrition and health care during the first several years
of life is fundamental to the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
for child survival and the prevention of malnutrition (Lutter, 2003). Thus arises the need
for baby and weaning foods. Most babies need extra food beside breast milk as they grow
fast and breast milk is no longer enough to support their growth (Srivastava, 2002).
Thus, weaning food plays a vital role in the all round growth, development and
mental health of children. Weaning foods are needed to fill the gap between the total
nutritional needs of the child and the amount provided by the breast milk and also bridge
the change in milk diet to adult food. A variety of complementary foods are
commercially available with high nutritive value, which are directly used for instant
preparation of gruels. However these products are beyond the economic means of most
families. So mothers use traditional gruels – water suspensions of maize or sorghum, as
complementary foods for infants. These gruels usually have low energy density and poor
protein, vitamin and mineral contents (Njongmeta et al., 2003). Several types of weaning
foods are being marketed in India. Some are Balamul, Farex, Cerelac and Nustem. They
contain about 15 per cent protein and are nutritionally balanced. Most of these baby foods
being nutritious blends of cereals, legumes and milk, are excellent supplements to child
milk food and they are convenient to feed. But they are quite expensive and are beyond
the purchasing power of the parents belonging to middle and lower income groups. Due
to this, parents belonging to lower income strata feed their own children with foods that
the adults eat (Neena and Vaidehi, 1998).

12
 Different ingredients from different sources have been utilized in the formulation
of weaning food to meet the requirements of the nutrients. Milk is a biological fluid of
exceptional complexity, containing essential nutrients for the growth and development of
infants. However, bovine milk-based dried formulations have become a prominent
feature of weaning food dietetics (Thompkinson and Kharb, 2007). Attempts have been
made to utilize the ingredients like chickpea, wheat (Haque, 1981), ragi, green gram,
groundnut etc. in weaning food formulations (Annan and Plahar, 1995). Cereals and
millets are the staple food of a large majority of the population in the world. They also
form the main sources of proteins in the several developing countries and are important
ingredients in weaning foods preparations (Suhasini and Malleshi, 2003). In this research
for preparation of weaning food the raw ingredients along with orange waste are
sorghum, green gram, rice and foxtail millets.
Sorghum is a major cereal in the semi-arid regions of the world where it is an
important food and feed crop. Sorghum species (Sorghum vulgare and Sorghum bicolor)
are members of the grass family. Sorghum is known by a variety of names: great millet
and guinea corn in West Africa; kafir corn in South Africa; dura in Sudan; mtama in
eastern Africa; jowar in India, and kaoliang in China (Purseglove, 1972). It is usually
referred to as milo or milo-maize in North America. The USA is a major producer of
sorghum, but the grain is not consumed as human food except for a very small fraction,
but as animal fodder, whilst in the semi-arid tropics of Africa and India the grain forms
the staple diet for large populations, where nearly all the produce is used directly as
human food. Sorghum, like other cereals, is an excellent source of starch and protein. It is
a gluten-free cereal, which bears significance in the present day scenario where the
occurrence of Celiac Disease (CD), an immunological response to gluten intolerance is
on the rise. Grain sorghum contains phenolic compounds like flavonoids, which have
been found to inhibit tumor development (Shahidi and Naczk, 1995). The starches and
sugars in sorghum are released more slowly than in other cereals (Klopfenstein and
Hoseney, 1995) and hence it could be beneficial to diabetics (Toomey, 1988).
Mung bean or green gram (Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek) has been cultivated in
India since prehistoric times and is believed to be a native crop of India (Vavilov, 1926).
Mungbean is one of the most important short season summer-growing legumes grown

13
widely throughout the tropics and subtropics (Thomas et al., 2004), being well suited to
different cropping systems. It is cultivated throughout Southern and Eastern Asia, Central
Africa, some parts of China, South and North America and Australia, particularly for its
protein-rich grains. Mung bean is a warm seasonal annual legume, grown mostly as a
rotational crop with cereals like wheat and rice. Mung bean plants are erect with branches
carrying pods in clusters near the top of the plant. Pods contain 8–15 seed grains. The
grains are green or brown colored and globes in shape with a flat hilum. The crop’s main
advantages are that, as a legume, it does not require fertilization for nitrogen and that it
has a short growth cycle (75–90 days), requires little water and fits easily into crop
rotations with cereals. It grows well under most adverse arid and semiarid conditions.
Mung bean is considered a good source of protein (Engel, 1978). Its different food
products such as dhal (i.e., thick stews from dehulled and split grains), sweets, snacks,
and savory foods have evolved and became popular in the Indian subcontinent (Singh et
al., 1988), whereas products like cake, sprouts, noodles, and soups evolved in oriental
countries like China (Singh and Singh, 1992), the Philippines (Rosario, 1991) as well as
in Iran (Amirshahi, 1978) and Thailand (Prabhavat, 1990).
It constitutes important cereal-based diets to many people in India, Pakistan,
Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, and China (Jansen et al ., 1996). It is consumed in
different forms and ways, for example, as a viand, boiled, or cooked with vegetables or
meat, as well as a dessert or incorporated in bread or cake. It can be used to make sprouts
for egg rolls and other vegetable dishes (Mendoza et al., 2001). They are rich in
phosphorus and provitamin A and relatively free from antinutritional factors. The high
protein levels and high lysine/low methionine amino acid profile of mungbean
complement the high carbohydrate and low lysine/high methionine content of cereals to
forma much balanced amino acid diet (Jaiwal et al., 2001).
Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza
glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food
for a large part of the world’s human population, especially in Asia. It is the agricultural
commodity with the third highest worldwide production. Rice is the staple food of over
half the world’s population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries
in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa.

14
Rice provides 20 per cent of the world’s dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19
per cent and maize (corn) 5 per cent.
A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of
rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that is between
white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties of rice – each prevalent in different
parts of the world. It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether
and how the rice is polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is
prepared before consumption (Bienvenido, 1993). Rice production in India shows a
steady upward trend, but it is subjected to wide year-to-year fluctuations compared to
wheat, as a significant portion of the crop is not irrigated. Indian Basmati rice is
traditionally grown in Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. With the introduction
of high-yielding PUSA 1121 variety, India’s long-grain basmati rice production has been
improving, and its cultivation has spread to other parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh.
The term millet is employed for several related genera, some used to produce
grain, or forage or both. The most widely cultivated millets are finger millet (Eleusine
coracona), foxtail millet (Setaria itallica), pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoideum), proso
millet (Panicum miliaceum), barnyard millet (Echinochooa colona) etc. Millets are
considered the least important of cereals, with annual production less than 2 per cent of
the world’s grain. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) has the longest history and is the
second most widely cultivated species of millet, especially in East Asia where it was
domesticated together with Common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). Among the millet in
Japan, Foxtail millet is the most important and in India the crop is widely cultivated and
used for various purposes (Purseglove, 1972). The seeds are small and measure around 2
mm in diameter. They are encased in a thin, papery hull which is easily removed upon
threshing. Seed color can vary greatly between varieties grown and range from a pale
yellow, through to orange, red, brown and black. A thousand of these seeds weighs
approximately 2 grams. The protein in foxtail millet is known to be deficient in Lysine,
and its amino acid scores are comparable to that of Maize. In different grain varieties,
higher the protein content, lower is the Lysine content in the protein. It is relatively high
in leucine and methionine. The starch in some foxtail millet varieties contain 100 per cent

15
amylopectin, and the starches contained in foxtail, proso and barnyard millets are more
digestible than maize starch. The total ash content of foxtail millet is good and is much
higher than the more commonly consumed cereal grains including sorghum.
In the view of the importance of orange waste and its essential oil as a therapeutic,
medicinal and nutritional value, the present investigation has been undertaken with
following objectives.
Objectives:
i) To study preparation and proximate composition of fresh orange peel
powder and pomace powder
ii) To determine phytochemicals like total alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins,
tannins and phenolic content in the orange peel powder and pomace
powder
iii) To estimate Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Vitamin A content in fresh peel
powder and pomace powder
iv) To study extraction of peel oil from fresh peel powder
v) To study physico-chemical characteristics of the peel oil
vi) To determine the phytochemicals like total alkaloids, flavonoid,
saponin, tannins and phenolic content and fatty acid profile of the
orange peel oil
vii) To study physico-chemical characteristics of the raw materials used
for preparation of weaning food
viii) To study preparation of weaning food with incorporation of orange
waste
ix) To assess quality of prepared weaning food by sensory evaluation,
nutritional status and microbial quality
x) To assess energy and techno economical feasibility of the product

16
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of literature is an essential and important part of scientific investigation.

Its main purpose is to determine the previous work done and to assist the delineation of
objectives, hypothesis and research procedure to be followed. This chapter deals with the
comprehensive review of literature. In concerning with present investigation the literature
pertaining to different aspect of the present study has been reviewed under the following
captions.

2.1 Potential of food processing waste

2.2 Nutraceutical/Phytochemical status of orange waste
2.3 Effect of treatment (Roasting and Malting) on quality of food product
2.4 Medicinal/Therapeutic value of orange waste
2.5 Processing and value addition of fruit waste
2.6 Formulation and quality evaluation of weaning food
2.1 Potential of food processing waste
Rapid advancement in the field of agriculture tremendously increased the
availability of agriculture produce. The net impact by the revolution in agriculture is the
fast development of food processing industries all over the world. Food industrialization
has generated large quantity of food products, provides employment to large number of
people and uplifted the economic status, at the same time; it generated waste in huge
quantities causes’ environmental pollution.
Rahmat et al. (1995) stated that food waste can be classified into different
categories such as crop waste and residue; fruit and vegetable by-products; sugar starch
and confectionery by-products; grain legume by-products; distilleries and brewery by-
products; milk and dairy by-products; meat poultry fish products and egg industry by-
products.
Larrauri et al. (1996) concluded that major source of waste are fruit and vegetable
processing industries. During processing of apple, pomace is major by-product, which
consists of crushed flesh, stalk, peel and stone etc. The type of waste from mango

17
processing industries is mainly peel (15-20%) course fibrous pulpy waste (5-10%) kernel
(15-20%). The waste from starch industry like tapioca, produce waste in the form of
tapioca rind or peeling, spent pulp. Rice husk is by-product during rice milling. The
major waste from sugarcane industries are bagasse, molasses and sugarcane press mud.
Wine making industry produces grape pomace as by-product consist of skin, seed and
stem in an estimated amount of 13 percent by weight of grape.
Grigelmo-Miguel and Martin-Belloso (1999) stated that due to the high dietary
fibre content, the co-products could be used to change physicochemical properties of
diets. A number of researchers have used fruits and vegetable by-products such as apple,
pear, orange, peach, blackcurrant, cherry, artichoke, asparagus, onion, carrot pomace as
sources of dietary fiber supplements in refined food.
Moller et al. (2001) reported that any waste could be considered as raw material
as long as there is an option to develop method for its valorization. The high value
products could be manufactured upon using orange peel waste as a potentially valuable
low cost resource. The citrus peel, remaining after juice extraction, is the primary waste
fraction amounting to almost 50% of the fruit mass.
Schieber et al. (2001) studied that large amounts of residues are produced from
agricultural processing which, without a proper treatment and disposal, may create
serious environmental problems for example and in particular, several tones of agro-
industrial residues are generated every year as the result of the transformation of fruits
and vegetables into food and drink products. More recent approach involved the use of
processing technology to fractionate potentially high value component from them, there
by turning waste in to product.
Torres et al. (2002) reported that the waste from the starch industry like tapioca,
produce waste in the form of tapioca rind or peeling, splent pulp. Rice husk is a by-
product during rice milling. The major waste from sugar cane industry is bagasse,
molasses and sugar cane press mud. Wine making industry produces grape pomace as a
by-product consist of skin, seed and stem in an estimated amount of 13% by weight of
grapes.
Licandro and Odio (2002) studied the main by-products of citrus processing are
the peel, pulp and seeds, which account for 40-60 per cent of the weight of the raw

18
material these residues can be further processed into 3 main categories: animal feed, raw
material used for further extraction of marketable products and food products. Although
most of the citrus by-products are used for animal feed there are many useful by-products
made from different portions of the citrus fruits, such as pectin, dried pulp, molasses,
marmalades, candied peel, peel seasoning, purees, beverage bases, citrus alcohol, bland
syrup, citric acid, seed oil, flavonoids and other products. Hence, the utilization of citrus by-
products to produce more valuable products is getting increasingly important.
Laufenberg et al. (2003) studied about specific treatment with physical and
biotechnological agent followed by tailored recovery procedure, agriculture waste might
provide value added natural anti-oxidant, anti-microbial agent, vitamins etc, along with
macromolecule (enzyme, cellulose, protein, pigment, lipid, starch) of innumerous interest
to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Several other compound occurring in
hydrolyzate obtain through by product/waste pre-treatment can be further transfer in to
more sophisticated natural chemical (such as pharmaceutical, flavoring, vitamins and
organic acid) macromolecule such as (biopolymers, lubricant and microbial enzyme) and
biofuel through tailored biotechnological processes.
Laufenberg et al. (2003) stated the waste streams are only partially valorized as
animal feed, transformed into biomass fuel or subjected to composting, whereas the main
volumes are managed as wastes of environmental concern. New technologies have been
proposed for more efficient utilization of agro-industrial residues, not only for their re-
use in agriculture, but also for the production of common and novel products for other
sectors and applications. Indeed, after the appropriate pretreatment of the raw material,
followed by tailored recovery procedures (usually extraction), most natural residues
obtained from agricultural processing can provide value-added natural oils, antioxidants,
colorants, fragrances, preservatives, biocides and other bioactive substances of enormous
interest to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food or even other industries. An array of natural
extracts is commercially available, many of them being advertised as dietary
supplements, which are believed to improve overall health and prevent disease.
Wyman (2003) found that the components of pretreated by-product and waste
remain unexploited and might compose an environmental problem. Thus the recently
adopted valorization steps, lead to complete exploitation of by-products and waste

19
biomass with remarkable improvement of the environment and economic sustainability of
the overall approach, such as enzymatic pre-treatment and extraction/recovery (via
precipitation, membrane or chromatographic technology, as well as supercritical fluid
extraction) of natural chemical, biomaterial and food ingredients (vitamins, pigment,
antioxidant, gelling agent, pectin, oligosaccharide and dietary fiber) followed by
biotechnological conversion of some of the obtained chemical/by-products into some
sophisticated tailored bio-compound such as flavoring, pharmaceutical, secondary
building blocks etc.
Choudhury et al. (2004) showed that in Europe, the amount of byproducts and
waste produced in food processing activities accounts for approximately 2.5×108 tonnes
per year. A substantial part of these residues still comprises important amounts of the
original raw materials, since up to 75% of the original vegetables and fruits may end up
as a solid residue.
Wu et al. (2007) studied that in citrus industry, emphasis were laid on orange
fruits harnessed and marketed fresh or as processed (canned) juice, while fruit peels
produced in great quantities during the process are mainly discarded as waste. For this
reason, researchers have focused on the utilization of citrus products and by-products.
Thus, the peels of sweet orange are not only left out as waste but also considered as one
of the major factors that hamper the development of citrus industry.
Federici et al. (2009) showed that biotechnological application in the field of
industrial residue management promotes sustainable development of economy of country.
The objective concerning food processing by-product, waste and effluent recovery of
final chemical and the production of precious metabolites by chemical and
biotechnological processes.
Martín et al. (2013) stated that accumulation of large quantities of citrus peel
waste as a by-product in citrus processing industry need environmental considerations to
avoid health hazards derived from unsatisfactory disposal methods addressed the
indispensable need for finding alternative biotechnological solutions for waste
valorization.
Rafiq et al. (2016) reviewed citrus peel as a source of functional ingredient.
Processing of citrus by-products potentially represents a rich source of phenolic

20
compounds and dietary fibre. These citrus fruit residues, which are generally discarded as
waste in the environment, can act as potential nutraceutical resources. Due to their low
cost and easy availability such wastes are capable of offering significant low-cost
nutritional dietary supplements. The utilization of these bioactive rich citrus residues can
provide an efficient, inexpensive and environment friendly platform for the production of
novel nutraceutical or for the improvement of older ones.
2.2 Nutraceutical/Phytochemical status of fruit waste
Stashenko et al. (1996) extracted citrus essential oil from different parts of fruits
(Flavedo) as well as in leaves and identified dl-limonene, β-myrcene, α-pinene, sabinene,
Δ-3-carene, α-terpinolene and other major aromatic compounds from citrus species.
Reische et al. (1998) studied that the chemical constituents of the essential oils
may participate in physiological reactions. For instance, balsams and resins contain
essential oils and they act as protective seals against diseases or parasites, and also
prevent loss of sap when the three trunks are damaged. These aromatic compounds are
important raw materials with wide applications particularly in the food and flavor
industries.
Braddock (1999) reported that the essential oils contain many volatile
compounds, mainly aldehydes, ketones, esters, alcohols and terpenes which give the
characteristic aromas and flavors of the citrus fruits.
Shrikhande (2000) studied the pomegranate peels contain 249.4 mg/g of phenolic
compounds as compared to only 24.4 mg/g phenolic compounds found in the pulp of
pomegranate.
Gorinstein et al. (2001) found that the total phenolic compounds in the peels of
lemons, oranges and grapefruits were 15 per cent higher than pulp of these fruits. Peels
from apples, peaches and pears as well as yellow and white flesh nectarines were found
to contain twice the amount of total phenolic compounds as that contained in fruit pulp.
Apple peels were found to contain up to 3300 mg/100 g of dry weight of phenolic
compounds. Total phenolic compounds of seeds of several fruits such as mangoes,
longans, avocados and jackfruits were higher than that of the edible product, grape seeds
and skins, the byproducts of grape juice and white wine production, are also sources of
several phenolic compounds.

21
 Someya et al. (2002) studied that the edible pulp of bananas (Musa Paradisiaca)
contains 232 mg/100 g of dry weight phenolic compounds, this amount is about 25 per
cent of that present in the peel.
George et al. (2004) showed that the peels and seeds of tomatoes are richer
sources of phenolic compounds than its pulp. The peel of tomato has significantly higher
levels of total phenolic compounds, total flavonoids, lycopene, ascorbic acid and
antioxidant activity as compared with the pulp and seeds.
Sharma and Tripathi (2006) studied the organic constituents present in essential
oils include terpenes and their oxygenated derivatives, aromatic compounds of benzenoid
structure, aliphatic hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives as well as nitrogen or
sulphur containing compounds. Other compounds present in essential oils are alcohols,
aldehydes, acids and other aromatic compounds were also studied.
Zia-ur-Rehman (2006) reported the flavonoids of citrus have been shown to be
powerful antioxidant and free radical scavengers.
Serena (2007) revealed that fruit and vegetable wastes are inexpensive, available
in large quantities, characterized by a high dietary fibre content resulting with high water
binding capacity and relatively low enzyme digestible organic matter Dietary fibre
concentrates from vegetables showed a high total dietary fibre content and better
insoluble/soluble dietary fibre ratios than cereal brans.
Lin et al. (2010) found that extracted orange essential oil is an effective agent to
inactivate bacteria on the food contact surfaces. This is related to inactivating pathogenic
bacteria on the food contact surfaces with orange essential oil, which can be mass
produced from regular agricultural waste.
Dhanavade et al. (2011) studied extraction, identification of antimicrobial
compounds and demonstration of antimicrobial activity of lemon (Citrus lemon L.) peel
against bacteria. The peel of citrus fruits is a rich source of flavanones and many
polymethoxylated flavones, which are very rare in other plants. These compounds, not
only play an important physiological and ecological role, but are also of commercial
interest because of their multitude of applications in the food and pharmaceutical
industries. The citrus peel oils show strong antimicrobial activity. The antimicrobial
activity has been checked in terms of MIC by using different solvents against

22
microorganisms like Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCIM 2036 for which MIC was 1:20 in
presence of methanol, for Salmonella typhimurium NCIM 5021 the observed MIC was
1:20 in presence of acetone. In case of Micrococcus aureus NCIM 5021 the observed
MIC was 1:20 when ethanol was used as solvent. The compounds like coumarin and
tetrazene were identified by GC/MS of lemon peel extract.
Arora and Kaur (2013) found that the large amount of waste of orange peel and
pulp can be used as nutraceutical at the industrial level. They also evaluate the
antimicrobial and antioxidant potency. Antioxidants are the products that protect from
various diseases, aging and UV damage. By combining the antioxidant with another
substance like with some vitamins etc. orange waste can be used as a food supplement. It
can also be used in the cosmetics like in sunscreen lotion and anti aging substance. That
can be used in the antimicrobial drugs for the animal growth promotion
Talens et al. (2013) studied that orange peel is of particular interest given the
variety of compounds it contains. It has been recognized as an interesting source of
dietary fiber, natural antioxidants, food colorants and flavors.
Yang and Kang (2013) showed that essential oil from Korean Citrus unshiu peel
has significant antioxidant activity and has antibacterial activities against some gram-
positive bacteria. The product of Citrus unshiu peel in South Korea is abundant, therefore
the essential oil of Citurs unshiu might be used as antioxidant and/or anticorrosive
additive to improve the food quality and control the growth of food spoilage microbial
pathogens. Also, the antioxidant compounds of the essential oil from Citrus unshiu peel
were isolated and used as antioxidant in foods.
Ngele et al. (2014) showed that acetone, dichloromethane and methanol fractions
of unripe epicarp of Citrus sinensis have antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S.
aureus. This suggests that unripe epicarp extracts of Citrus sinensis can be beneficial in
developing a novel antibacterial agent that can be used in treating bacterial infections.
The antimicrobial activity may not be unconnected to the phytochemical constituents.
Hegazy and Ibrahium (2012) evaluated the efficiency of different organic solvents
such as methanol, ethanol, dichloromethane, acetone, hexane and ethyl acetate for
extraction of flavonoids and polyphenolic compounds (TFC and TPC respectively) from
the orange peel. Also, the effect of these solvents on the yield percentage, chelating

23
activity, antioxidant/radical scavenging capacity and reducing power ability of the
produced extracts were investigated. Their results revealed that all extracts of the orange
peel exhibited variable antioxidant activity. Specially, the ethanolic extract showed the
highest (p < 0.05) values for yield (%), TPC, TFC, chelating and antioxidant activities (%
DPPH scavenging activity). It is concluded that, the solvent play a vital role in the
extraction of the plant constituents.
Shalini et al. (2015) reported that citrus is the largest fruit crop worldwide, with
approximately 100 million metric tons produced annually. The family of citrus fruits
consists of oranges, kinnow, khatta, lime, lemon, grapefruit, malta, sweet orange etc. The
large quantities of processed citrus fruits result in large amounts of by-products. Citrus
peel, remaining after juice extraction, is the primary waste fraction amounting to almost
50 per cent of the fruit mass. It is processed to dried pulp cattle feed and molasses, the
latter being incorporated into the cattle feed or fermented for the production of valuable
products like biogas, ethanol, citric acid, various enzymes, volatile flavoring compounds,
fatty acids and microbial biomass. Pectin is also produced from the peel by acid
extraction, dietary fibers by mechanical processing, while the recovery of flavonoids and
carotenoids are new potential applications. Citrus by-products, if utilized fully, could be
major sources of phenolic compounds. The peels, in particular, are an abundant source of
natural flavonoids, and contain higher amount of phenolics compared to the edible
portions. It has been reported that the contents of total phenolics in peels of lemons,
oranges, and grapefruit were 15 per cent higher than those in the peeled fruits. Flavonoids
in citrus are a major class of secondary metabolites. The peel contains the highest amount
of flavonoids than other parts and those flavonoids present in citrus fruits belong to six
peculiar classes according to their structure. They are: flavones; flavanones; flavonols; is
of lavones; anthocyanidins and flavanols. Flavonoids from citrus that have been
extensively studied for anti-oxidative, anti-cancer, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory
activities, effects on capillary fragility, and an observed inhibition of human platelet
aggregation. Recent research suggests that citrus fruits possess another health benefit
phytochemicals called limonoids, highly oxygenated triterpenoid. Citrus limonoids
appear in large amounts in citrus juice and citrus tissues as water soluble limonoid
glucosides or inseeds as water insoluble limonoidaglycones. The limonoid aglycones are

24
responsible for the development of delayed bitterness in citrus and are converted to then
on bitter limonoidglucosides during fruit maturation. Citrus fruits contain the
limonoidslimonin, nomilinandnomilinic acid, while both neem seeds and leaves contain
the limonoidazadirachtin. Currently limonoids are under investigation for a wide variety
of therapeutic effects such as antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, anti-neoplastic and anti-
malarial.
2.3 Effect of pretreatment (Malting and Roasting) on quality of food product
Pathirana et al. (1983) studied the steeping and germination times and the effect
of heat treatment on malt quality. The parameters used to assess the malt quality were the
malting loss, cold and hot water extracts, reducing sugar content of the extract, diastatic
power and liquefying power. A steeping time of 18 hr and a germination time of 4-5 days
were found to be optimum for malting. Due to the rapid inactivation of hydrolytic
enzymes at high temperatures, killing at moderate temperatures (around 100˚C) for short
periods (3-4 hr) is recommended.
Taur et al. (1984) reported significant increase in reducing sugars, free amino
acids and ascorbic acid during 24 hrs of germination of five varieties of sorghum.
Malleshi and Desikachar (1986) studied the effect of processing conditions on dry
matter loss and quality characteristics of malt from INDAF-6 variety of finger millet.
Increasing the temperature of malting from 15 to 35°C caused increased dry matter loss.
Drying the malt to 12% moisture and kilning at 70°C for about 45 min resulted in malt of
desired aroma, maximum retention of a-amylase and minimum loss of available lysine.
Bhise et al. (1988) stated that malting losses were directly proportional to
steeping and germination periods. The malting loss in 48 hr germinated sorghum grain
was found to increase from 3.2 to 9.2 per cent when the steeping period was increases
from 8 to 18 hr.
Colmenares and Bressani (1990) studied the changes in chemical composition and
nutritive value during germination such as protein, crude fiber, and ash content, whereas
lipid and phytic acid nation of amaranth grain.
Mbithi-Mwikya et al. (2000) studied the effects of germination on nutritional,
anti-nutritional factors and viscosity of millets flour. Seeds were germinated for 48 h at
30ºC. Most of the important changes namely increasing nutritional parameters, lowering

25
of viscosity and anti-nutritional factors were observed significantly when grains were
subjected for 48 h germination.
Nirmala et al. (2000) reported the hybrid ragi, Indaf-15 was germinated up to 96
hr at 25°C and the sprouts, drawn at 24 hr intervals, were dried, devegetated, powdered
and evaluated for malting loss, reducing sugar, free sugar profile, starch content, dietary
fiber and an array of carbohydrate-degrading enzymes. Malting loss was maximum
(32.5%) at 96 h. The total reducing sugar content increased from 1.44 to 8.36%, whereas
the total carbohydrate content decreased from 81 to 58% at 96 h of germination.
Dewar (2003) reported that the malting and fermentation are the traditional
processing methods that are widely used in Africa for the preparation of foods and
beverages. Malting is the controlled germination followed by controlled drying of the
kernels. The malting is done to promote the development of hydrolytic enzymes, which
are not present in non-germinated grain
El-Adawy et al. (2004) reported that germination was associated with increase of
vitamin concentrations and bioavailability of trace elements and minerals.
Magala-Nyago et al. (2005) studied the effects of germination in finger millet and
soybean. They observed that the β-carotene significantly increased during germination, in
case of finger millet, the increase in β-carotene was highest (126.9%) at 30ºC for 48 h
and (1102.7-8316.9%) 25ºC for 72 h for soybean.
Adelekan and Oyewole (2010) reported three varieties of sorghum grains were
germinated before fermentation to Ogi. The protein and ash contents of Sorghum vulgare,
Sorghum guineensis and Sorghum bicolor increased by 7.20 and 40.20%; 5.44 and
29.20%; and 4.00 and 42.18% respectively. Fermentation of the germinated grains
however caused decreases in the protein, ash, fiber and fat contents. Supplementation of
oven-dried (60%) powder with treated 30% (w/w) soybeans flour yielded products of
higher protein contents which ranges from 284% for ogi made from S. vulgare, 270% for
ogi made from S. guineensis and 271% for ogi made from S. bicolor. Similarly,
supplementation of ogi with 30% (w/w) soya-flour generally resulted in increase in fat
contents (approx. 130%), ash (approx. 54.9%) and fiber (approx. 217%).
Binqiang et al. (2010) studied the influence of removal of shoot and rootlet on dry
matter losses of oat seeds after germination for five days and the color of malted oat

26
powder deepened after drying. Moreover, the length of the shoot and rootlet can be
considered as the indicators of the development of color in malted and dried oat seeds.
The contents of protein, starch and phytate decreased significantly, the free amino acids,
reducing sugars, free sugars and phenolic compounds increased to a larger extent due to
germination.
Claver et al. (2010) evaluated the optimizing steeping and germination condition
and their effect on sorghum grain in term of malt loss, Soluble Solid (SS) yield, cold
paste viscosity, amylase activity, tannin and protein content. The factors studied included
steeping time and temperature with temperature and time of germination. Germination
significantly affected the increase in malt loss, SS yield, amylase activity and protein
content with a decrease in cold paste viscosity and tannin content of sorghum. Optimum
conditions for sorghum were: steeping time for 24 h at 31°C and 4.5 d of germination at
30°C.
Desai et al. (2010) stated the mineral and fiber contents of cake samples were
improved by the use of various blends of wheat flour and malted ragi flour (80:20; 60:40;
50:50; 40:60 and 30:70) with other ingredients. The results showed that cake samples
enriched with malted ragi flour were rich in mineral contents like calcium, iron,
phosphorus and crude fiber as compared to the control sample.
Azrina et al. (2011) evaluated proximate content and fatty acid composition of
germinated and non-germinated legumes (kidney, mung, soy bean and peanut) and rice
varieties (red, black, Barrio, brown and milled).
Hossam et al. (2011) studied effect of soaking on total phenols, total flavonoids,
tannins, vitamin E, β-carotene and antioxidant activity of raw sorghum. The measured
compounds were observed to be significantly decreased after soaking.
Laura et al. (2011) prepared cookies from blends of germinated pigeon pea,
fermented sorghum and cocoyam flours. The effects of varying the proportions of these
components on the sensory and protein quality of the cookies were also evaluated.
Rusydi et al. (2011) evaluated the proximate content and fatty acid composition
of germinated and non-germinated legumes (kidney, mung, soy bean and peanut) and rice
varieties (red, black, Barrio, brown and milled). In germinated samples, moisture content
increased significantly while carbohydrate, protein and fat were decreased significantly.

27
 El-Moneim et al. (2012) investigated the changes in chemical composition,
amylose and minerals content after soaking, cooking, germination and fermentation of
three white sorghum varieties, named ‘Dorado’, ‘Shandaweel-6’, and ‘Giza-15’. The
chemical composition concluded including crude protein, oils, crude fiber and ash.
Minerals content i.e. Zn, Fe, Ca, K, Na, Mg, Mn and Cu were investigated. After
treatments chemical composition, amylose and minerals were decreased.
Karki and Kharel (2012) studied the chemical changes during germination and
malting of six Nepalese finger millet varieties. Germination increased (p<0.05) total
reducing sugar and glucose contents in all millet varieties. Starch, amylose and
amylopectin contents in unmalted millets were between 71.32 to 79.86, 20.39 to 24.13,
and 49.11 to 55.72% dry basis (db) respectively; whereas, those of malted millets were
63.74 to 67.12, 16.62 to 19.27 and 44.47 to 50.18% (db) respectively.
Krishnan et al. (2012) studied the effect of decortication, popping and malting on
bioaccessibility of calcium, iron and zinc in finger millet. The seed coat fraction of the
millet was also included in the studies. Malted millet showed higher values of
bioaccessibility for all the minerals while seed coat fractions exhibited comparatively
lower values, because of high proportion of inhibitory factors.
Narsih et al. (2012) studied the time of soaking and germination improves the
nutritional value of sorghum. Soaking for 24 and germination for 36 h produced sorghum
with higher nutritional values of sorghum and this may leads to designing new foods
using germinated sorghum.
Ogbonna et al. (2012) evaluated sorghum varieties for nutritional and anti-
nutritional factors after malting. A raw grist sample of the sorghum variety served as
control. The results suggest that malting, as a processing technique; can be used to
effectively enhance the nutritional/organoleptic status of sorghum grist with concomitant
reduction in some of its anti-nutritional factors.
Asante et al. (2013) studied the malting parameters such as germination energy,
malt yield as well as malt loss of the rice variety. The results revealed that, alpha amylase
production in the rice variety used peaked on the 8th day of germination with an estimated
activity of 19.436 U/ml. The results also suggested that the rice variety can be accredited
for having good germination energy since nearly 100% of the rice seeds sprouted on the

28
4th day of germination under the prevailing conditions. The malt yield was 57.14% with a
corresponding malt loss of 42.86% on the 8th day of germination.
Chauhan and Singh (2013) determined the influence of germination process on
proximate composition and physic-chemical properties like bulk density, water
absorption index and water solubility index of amaranth grains. The grains were
germinated for 12, 16, 20 and 24 h at temperature of 32°C.The germinated amaranth
grains were dried in a tray drier at 45ºC for 18 hr time and ground for further analyses.
The higher protein and fiber was noticed at 16 hr germinated amaranth grains as compare
to ungerminated grains. Germination period (12, 16, 18 and 20) decreased the fat content
of amaranth grains whereas, no change was found in ash content of germinated grains as
compare to control.
Murugkar et al. (2013) formulated multi-nutrient mixes with different
combinations of cereals, millets, pulses, soy protein isolate and dairy whitener as per the
nutritional requirements of school-going children. Effect of malted finger-millet or
sprouted green gram present in the mixes on the nutritional and functional properties
were studied and compared with their un-sprouted counterparts. The crude protein
content of sprouted mixes ranged from 22.5 to 24.8 % and was significantly higher (p≤
0.05) than un-sprouted mixes (15.5% to 18.7%). Fats were degraded significantly (p≤
0.05) during sprouting/malting.
Chaudhary and Vyas (2014) prepared premixes using non germinated millet,
pulse and oilseed as well as germinated (24, 36 and 48 hours) ingredients in order to
investigate the effect of duration of germination on several nutritional and anti-nutritional
factors.
Christian et al. (2014) reported that the dry matter of white and red sorghum
varieties samples were respectively 89.44±0.21% and 90.15±0.20%. The thousand kernel
weights were respectively 34.66±0.33g and 31.79±0.35g and the germination rates were
97.66±1.2% and 75.33±1.5%. The protein content of Benin’s white and red varieties and
imported variety ranged from 9.75±0.7 % to 12.21±0.1 % whereas ash content were
ranged from 1.25± 0.02 to 1.4±0.04%. The phenolic compounds content of Benin and
imported variety were 0.49±0.01, 1.77± 0.02 and 0.76g± 0.02/100g DM respectively

29
while oxalate content of samples varied from 0.33± 0.01 to 1.39±0.06g/100g DM
respectively.
Sonone (2014) reported that the germination of grain increases the moisture
content, total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar, protein, starch (amylose)
content, water absorption index, particle size and water solubility index.
Riar et al. (2015) determined the soaking and germination time of soybean grains
which were germinated under controlled condition. The un-germinated and germinated
flours were evaluated for its chemical (proximate) and physicochemical properties. It was
found that the germination of soybean reduced the carbohydrate content from 22.1 to
17.9%, starch 12.23 to 10.21%, amylopectin 6.2 to 4.4%, ash content from 4.95 to 4.59%,
fat 24 to 10%, falling number 341 to 98, and oil absorption capacity 3.45 to 3.26%
respectively. The germination of grains increased the moisture content from 10 to 11%,
total sugar 3.55 to 5.6%, reducing sugar 0.45 to 0.61%, non-reducing sugar 3.1 to 4.99%,
protein content 29.09 to 34.99%, amylose content 5.8 to 6.4%, water absorption capacity
120.4 to 123.4%, particle size 0.091 to 0.094 μm and water solubility index 16 to 28%
respectively.
Seenaa et al. (2006) evaluated raw and processed (roasted and pressure-cooked)
seeds of mangrove wild legume (Canavalia cathartica) of southwest coast of India for
nutritional and antinutritional qualities. The seeds consist of 28–32% proteins and 1600–
1630 kJ/100 g of energy. A significant difference was seen between the proximate
composition of raw and pressure-cooked seeds (Po0:05, t-test). Among the minerals,
potassium was highest (240–828 mg/100 g) followed by phosphorus (84–120 mg/100 g)
and sodium (21–41 mg/100 g). Globulins (18.2%) constituted the bulk of the seed
proteins followed by albumins (7.3%) as in most of the legumes.
Mridula et al. (2007) studied the effect of roasting on physical properties and
sensory acceptability of soybean for making sattu formulation at different temperature
and time combination. GMD of soybean is increased with increase in roasting
temperature and time. Roasted soybean flour can be incorporated up to 10% for best
sensory acceptability with 50% barley and 40% Bengal gram.
Meera et al. (2011) studied the effect of heat treatment on the development of
rancidity after long-term storage of flour. It was observed that when the thermal duration

30
was for a shorter time, the shorter was the storage duration in certain varieties. Exposure
of grains to moist heat for 15 min retarded hydrolytic rancidity significantly (p < 0.05) in
CSH-5 until 6 months of storage and in the remaining varieties until 8 months of storage,
Heat application for 15 min retarded the development of rancidity irrespective of the
morphological variations and the oil 18 content.
John et al. (2014) studied the effect of different heat processing methods on
physicochemical and nutraceutical properties of Amaranth grain. Amaranth species of
Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. and Amaranthus cruentus L. grains were prepared by
roasting and popping, milled and analyzed for changes in in-vitro protein digestibility,
gruel viscosity, pasting characteristics, antioxidant activity, flavonoids and total
phenolics.
Kumar et al. (2014) studied the soaking and roasting methods were used to reduce
the anti-nutritional factors in horse gram. Further wheat based common food product
chappathi was incorporated with processed horse gram flour to improve the nutrient
content. The sensory evaluation of food product was carried out by a panel of 10 trained
member using 9-point hedonic scales. Chappathi prepared from wheat flour incorporated
with 10 percent soaked and dried or 15 percent roasted horse gram flour was highly
acceptable.
2.4 Medicinal/Therapeutic value of fruit waste
Deschner (1993) studied on experimental induction of tumors on citrus flavonols.
The intake of quercetin in experimental diets lowered the incidence of colon tumors in
azoxymethanol treated rats. As well as fibrosarcoma in mice induced by 20
methylcolanthene (20-MC) produced 100% tumor incidence and the onset of tumors
within 7 weeks while Flavonoids treated mice produce tumors in the 9th week. It was
report1 that the tumor incidences in mice treated with quercetin and luteolin-mixed diets
were 52% and 60%, respectively in inhibiting tumor growth in mice. Subcutaneous
administration of 20 MC along with the flavonoids compounds (Quercetin, luteolin) was
found to have a significant effect on tumor expression.
Stange et al. (1993) reported the antifungal activity of plant crude extracts, oils
and secondary metabolites of C. sinensis. The compound 3-[4-hydroxy,3-(3-methyl-2-
butenyl)-phenyl]-2-(E)-propenal isolated from hexane extract of injured peel of C.

31
sinensis L. Osbeck cv. Valencia or C. paradisa Mac Faden cv. Marsh showed activity
against Penicillium digitatum and against Cladosporium cucumerinum on Silica gel thin
layer chromatography plates using 7 µg of compound.
Seddon et al. (1994) studied that another group of phytochemicals found in citrus
are carotenoids. Pink grapefruit have a high content of beta-carotene while other citrus
fruits such as tangerines and oranges contain high levels of other carotenoids (lutein,
zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin) that have significant anti-oxidant activity. These carotenoids
are associated with a lower incidence of age-related macular degeneration, the leading
cause of blindness in human after the age sixty five.
Del (1997) reported that Citrus phenolic compounds particularly flavonoids
possess an important antioxidant activity toward radicals. The citrus flavonoids have the
ability to capture electrons, block and/or scavenge the radicals. The citrus flavonoids
form a tautomeric dislocation, which prevents the propagating chain reactions of these
oxygen free radicals.
Yano (1999) studied that hesperidin reduces cholesterol while hesperidin has anti-
inflammatory effects. Hesperitin also showed an ability to penetrate the blood brain
barrier in an in vitro model.
Orlikwoski (2001) reported that tangeritin is a polymethoxyleted flavone that is
found in tangerine and other citrus peels. Tangeritin shows potential as an anti-cancer
agent. It strengthens the cell wall and protects it from invasion.
Craig et al. (2002) studied that citrus oil contains limonoids and it possesses the
ability to inhibit tumor formation by stimulating the enzyme glutathione S-transferase
(GST). GST is a detoxifying enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of glutathione with
dangerous electrophiles to form less toxic and more importantly water soluble
compounds that can be easily excreted from the body. Orange and lemon oil contain
substantial amounts of GST that also possesses anti-cancer activity. Citrus pulp and the
albedo (the white of the orange) are rich in glucarates. These substances are being studied
extensively for their potentials in preventing breast cancer and to lower the risk and
symptoms of premenstrual syndrome.
Imbesi and De Pasquale (2002) reported that citrus essential oils can also be used,
to some extent, as a traditional medicine.

32
 Roger (2002) studied that the leaves of the citrus species are rich in an aromatic
essence formed by d-limonene, I-linalol and other terpenes and hydrocarbons in lesser
proportions. They are sedative and antispasmodic and their use is recommended for those
people who are suffering from nervousness, insomnia, palpitations and migraine or
asthma.
Chau and Huang (2003) investigated the dietary fiber content of the peel of
orange (Liucheng cultivar). They found the peel to contain 57 per cent dry weight total
dietary fiber; of this 47.6% dry weight was the insoluble fraction and 9.41% dry weight
the soluble fraction. The insoluble fraction is the dominant fraction thus providing health
benefits such as intestinal regulation and increased stool volume
Okwu (2004) studied the hydroxyl radical is the most cytotoxic of all these
radicals. Also, polyunsaturated fatty acids present in cell membranes are easily oxidized
by both; enzymatic and oxidative peroxidation through free radical chain reaction.
Initiation of lipid per oxidation can be induced by free radicals (superoxide, hydroxyl and
singlet oxygen) produced in biological systems. These electrically inert species have the
ability to interact and alter genetic constitution. They exhibit catatonic, mutagenic and
carcinogenic actions. It has been reported that lipid peroxidation can be inhibited by
flavonoids acting as strong radical scavengers and singlet oxygen quenchers. It has also
been proposed that citrus flavonoids react with peroxyl radicals; thus, bringing about the
termination of the radicals reaction.
Okwu et al. (2004) reported that flavonoids are another phytochemicals found in
citrus fruits. The flavonoids have strong inherent ability to modify the body’s reaction to
allergens, viruses and carcinogens. They show anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-
microbial and anti-cancer activity. Quercetin, myricitin, rutin, tangeritin, naringin and
hesperidin are found amongst the common flavonoids in citrus fruits. These flavonoids
are responsible for the bitter taste of some grape fruits, lemons and oranges. Quercetin is
a flavonoid and more specifically a flavonol that constitutes the aglycone of the glycoside
rutin. Quercetin is found to be the most active due of the flavonoids and many medicinal
plants owe much of their activity due to their high quercetin content.
Anagnostopoulou et al. (2005) evaluated seven different extracts, fractions and
residues of Navel sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) peel for their radical scavenging activity

33
by the DPPH and luminol induced chemiluminescence methods. High phenolic content
and radical scavenging activities were found for the ethyl acetate fraction. Comparison
was made with reference compounds, Trolox, ascorbic acid, quercetin, which is already
known for their good antioxidant activity. The radical scavenging activity of the ethyl
acetate fraction approached the activity of the standards. Total phenolic content showed a
small relation with radical scavenging activity. The antioxidant activity found in the
fractions of Citrus sinensis, should be attributed to the presence of flavonoids and other
phenolic compounds. Among the various classes of flavonoids: flavanone glycosides,
flavones and flavonols seem to prevail as indicated by two dimensional thin layer
chromatography and color reactions. It showed that ethyl acetate fraction of navel sweet
orange peel can be used as antioxidant in food and medicinal preparations.
Figuerola et al. (2005) revealed values of 54 per cent DM in the orange peel
(Valencia cultivar) they studied, and Grigelmo-Miguel and Martin Belloso (1999)
presented values of 37.8 g/100 g DM. Both authors were in agreement that the primarily
fraction of dietary fiber in orange is the insoluble fraction.
Moreira et al. (2005) reported that the citrus peel essential oils are the most
versatile essential oils. These oils are mainly used for flavoring fruit beverages,
confectioneries, soft drinks, perfuming eau de cologne, soaps, cosmetics and household
products. They are also used in medical treatments as immune stimulating as well as
being anti-inflammatory agents. The citrus peel essential oils are known to exhibit
antimicrobial properties such as antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral and anti-parasite.
Sergeev et al., (2006) reported that polymethoxyflavones derived from sweet
orange (Citrus sinensis L.) inhibit growth of human breast cancer cells via Ca2+-
dependent apoptotic mechanism. The treatment of MCF-7 breast cancer cells with 5-
hydroxy-3,6,7,8,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone (5-OH-HxMF) and 3′-hydroxy- 5,6,7,4′-
tetramethoxyflavone (3′-OH-TtMF) induced a sustained increase in concentration of
intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) resulting from both depletion of the endoplasmic reticulum
Ca2+ stores and Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space. This increase in [Ca2+]i was
associated with the activation of the Ca2+ -dependent apoptotic proteases, μ-calpain and
caspase-12, as evaluated with the calpain and caspase-12 peptide substrates and
antibodies to active (cleaved) forms of the enzymes. Corresponding non-hydroxylated

34
polymethoxyflavones, 3,5,6,7,8,3′,4′-heptamethoxyflavone (HpMF) and 5,6,7,3′,4′-
pentamethoxyflavone (PtMF), were dramatically less active in inducing Ca2+-mediated
apoptosis. Their results strongly suggested that the cellular Ca2+ modulating activity of
flavonoids underlies their apoptotic mechanism and that hydroxylation of
polymethoxyflavones is critical for their ability to induce an increase in [Ca2+]i and, thus,
activate Ca2+-dependent apoptotic proteases.
Li et al. (2007) isolated fifteen polymethoxyflavones (PMFs) and hydroxylated
polymethoxyflavones from sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) peel extract and investigated
their biological activity. All obtained compounds were tested in HL-60 cancer cell
proliferation and apoptosis induction assays. Their results suggested that some
polymethoxyflavones and hydroxylated polymethoxyflavones had moderate anti-
carcinogenic activities, while 5-hydroxy-6,7,8,30,40-pentamethoxyflavone and 5-
hydroxy-3,6,7,8,30,40-hexamethoxyflavone showed strong inhibitory activities against
the proliferation and induced apoptosis of HL-60 cell lines.
Salim-ur-Rehman et al. (2007) determined the effect of citrus peel essential oils
on the microbial growth and sensory characteristics of bread. Citrus peel malta (Citrus
sinensis) and mossumbi (Citrus sinensis) peel essential oils were applied in the dough
and breads. The dose of essential oil at the rate of 0.1% was applied in each case. They
concluded that the essential oils significantly affected sensory characteristics such as
symmetry of form, character of crust, colour of crumb, colour of crust, taste, texture,
aroma and grain of bread. They also inhibited and delayed the microbial growth in the
bread. Maximum inhibitory effect was achieved against molds and bacteria by spraying
the malta peel essential oil on bread. Peel essential oil was sprayed on all slices of bread,
proved to be most effective inhibitory treatment against the bacterial and fungal spoilage
of bread.
Sergeev et al. (2007) showed that individual polymethoxyflavones from orange
peel induce Ca2+ mediated apoptosis in human breast cancer cells and that hydroxylation
of polymethoxyflavones is critical for enhancing their proapoptotic activity. Here, they
report that the fraction of orange peel extract containing a mixture of non-hydroxylated
polymethoxyflavones (75.1 per cent) and hydroxylated polymethoxyflavones (5.44 per
cent) and the fraction containing only hydroxylated polymethoxyflavones (97.2 per cent)

35
induce apoptosis in those cells as well. Treatment of MCF-7 breast cancer cells with
these fractions inhibited growth and induced apoptosis associated with an increase in the
basal level of intracellular Ca2+. Effective concentrations of the hydroxylated
polymethoxyflavones fraction in inhibiting growth, inducing apoptosis and increasing
intracellular Ca2+ were lower than those of the non-hydroxylated polymethoxyflavones
fraction. Their results strongly imply that bioactive polymethoxyflavones from orange
peel exert proapoptotic activity in human breast cancer cells, which depends on their
ability to induce an increase in intracellular Ca2+ and thus activate Ca2+-dependent
apoptotic proteases. Support the hypothesis that an increase in basal levels of
intracellular Ca2+ is associated with induction of apoptosis. Ca2+-mediated apoptosis
triggered by PMFs can be exploited for induction of cell death in prevention of certain
diseases. For example, differences in regulation of intracellular Ca2+ in normal vs. cancer
human mammary epithelial cells may allow selective elimination of cancer cells via Ca2+
mediated apoptosis. Orange peel extract fractions enriched with purified fraction
containing hydroxylated polymethoxyflavones may prove to be useful as dietary
supplements with apoptosis-inducing activity for breast cancer prevention.
Maria et al. (2008) studied the antimycobacterial activity of nine plants used in
Mexican traditional medicine to treat tuberculosis and other respiratory diseases.
Nasturtium officinale showed the best activity (MIC = 100 μg/mL) against the sensitive
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The following plants were active also but at 200 μg/mL:
Citrus sinensis, Citrus aurantifolia, Foeniculum vulgare, Larrea tridentata, Musa
acuminata and Olea europaea. Contrary to the above data, activity against drug-resistant
variants of M. tuberculosis was more evident, e.g. N. officinale was the most potent (MIC
≤ 100 μg/mL) against the four mono-resistant variants tested; F. vulgare and O. europaea
were active against all the resistant variants (MICs ≤ 100 μg/mL). The most susceptible
variant was the ionized resistant, being inhibited by C. aurantifolia, C. sinensis and O.
europaea (MIC = 25 μg/mL). These data point to the importance of biological testing of
extracts against drug-resistant M. tuberculosis isolates, and the bioguided assay of these
extracts for the identification of lead compounds against MDR-TB isolates.
Chutia et al. (2009) reported that citrus essential oils have been recognized as safe
due to their wide spectrum of biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant anti-

36
inflammatory and anxiolytic. Due to their great nutraceutical and economic importance,
numerous investigations have been performed aimed at identifying the chemical
composition, antimicrobial activities of the essential oils from peel of different citrus
species.
Kanzane et al. (2009) analyzed the flavonoid content of several methanolic
extract fractions of navel orange peel (flavedo and albedo of Citrus sinensis)
phytochemically and then assessed for its antioxidant activity in vitro. The chemical
structures of the fractionated constituents were originally determined by comparing their
retention times and the obtained UV spectral data with the available bibliographic data
and further verified by detailed LC-DAD-MS (ESI+) analysis. The main flavonoid
groups found within the fractions examined were polymethoxylated flavones, O-
glycosylated flavones, C-glycosylated flavones, O-glycosylated flavonols, O-
glycosylated flavanones and phenolic acids along with their ester derivatives. In addition,
the quantitative HPLC analysis confirmed that hesperidin is the major flavonoid
glycoside found in the orange peel.
Sarainya et al. (2009) studied the phenolic and flavonoid compound were more
potent antioxidant and exhibits various other physiological activities including anti-
inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-allergic, anti-carcinogenic and anti hypertensive
activities. The recovery of such value added compound from by-product and waste has
increase their availability.
Xiao et al. (2009) studied the effects of two major polymethoxyflavones namely,
nobiletin and 3,5,6,7,8,39,49-heptamethoxyflavone (HMF) and two major
monodemethylated polymethoxyflavones namely 5-hydroxy-3,7,8,39,49-penta-
methoxyflavone (5HPMF) and 5-hydroxy-3,6,7,8,39,49-hexamethoxyflavone (5HHMF),
on the growth of human lung cancer H1299, H441 and H460 cells. Monodemethylated
polymethoxyflavones were much more potent in growth inhibition of lung cancer cells
than their permethoxylated counterpart polymethoxyflavones. In H1299 cells, cell cycle
analyses further revealed that monodemethylated polymethoxyflavones caused
significant increase in sub-G0/ G1 phase, suggesting possible role of apoptosis in the
growth inhibition observed, whereas the permethoxylated counterpart
polymethoxyflavones did not affect cell cycle distribution at same concentrations tested.

37
These results strongly suggested that the phenolic group is essential for the growth
inhibitory activity of monodemethylated Polymethoxyflavones.
Viuda-Martos et al. (2010) followed the Fernandez-Lopez’s study, proving that
orange fiber has a positive effect with regards to retarding oxidation and reducing the
microbial growth of unwanted microbes, therefore increasing the shelf-life of the
sausage. They also successfully maintained the levels of polyphenolic compounds in the
sausage, thereby conferring a health advantage to the consumer.
Kaviya et al. (2011) studied the antibacterial activity of citrus sinesis peel by
producing the silver nano particles. Citrus sinensis peels have been effectively used for
the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. They have demonstrated the use of a natural,
renewable and low-cost bio reducing agent. Structural analysis by XRD together with the
elemental analysis by EDAX, strongly suggests formation of elemental silver
nanoparticles instead of their oxides. The size of the particles is found to be 35 and 10nm
at 250C and 600C, respectively as deduced from TEM measurement. Silver nano particles
synthesized at 250C and 600C using Citrus sinesis peel aqueous extract, their results
showed diverse zones of inhibition using the agar well-diffusion method against
Escherichia coli (250C 12.5 mm, 600C 16.0 mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (250C 11.7
mm, 600C 13.4 mm) and Staphylococcus aureus (250C 7.8 mm, 600C 9.2 mm). The
results suggest that the synthesized silver nano particles act as an effective antibacterial
agent.
Shalaby et al. (2011) evaluated the efficacy of Citrus aurantifolia and Citrus
sinensis against osteoporosis in an ovariectomized rat model. Administration of Citrus
extracts increased trabecular bone mineral content and bone mineral density of tibia,
improved the levels of phosphorus and calcium. Their results demonstrated that Citrus
extracts reduced bone loss in ovariectomized rats. They investigated the phytochemical
constituents of those plants, collected in Saudi Arabia, for the first time. Eighteen
compounds were obtained from both plants and classified into, eight coumarins (1 - 8),
eight flavonoids (9 - 16) and two sterols analogues (17 and18). Leaves and peels of
Citrus aurantifolia afforded eleven components, while those of C. sinensis afforded
fourteen compounds. Structures of the isolated compounds were deduced by UV, NMR
and MS spectra, and comparison with related structures, in which isobergapten (6),

38
marmesin (7), myricetin (11), 4',5,7- trihydroxy-3,6-dimethoxy flavone (12), and
quercetin-3-O-robinobioside (14), were reported to first time from Citrus species,
Coumarins, flavonoids and sterols from Citrus aurantifolia and Citrus sinensis could be
responsible for their anti osteoporotic activity.
Liu et al. (2012) isolated product 1 (82.25 per cent valencene), product 2 (73.36
per cent decana), product 3 (78.12 per cent octanal) and product 4 (0.61 per cent linalool)
from sweet orange peel oil by combined usage of molecular distillation and column
chromatography. The antioxidant activity of sweet orange oil and these products was
investigated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl and reducing power assay. In their test
product 1, product 2 and product 4 had antioxidant activity nut lower than sweet orange
oil. The antimicrobial activity was investigated in order to evaluate their efficacy against
5 microorganisms. The result showed that sweet orange oil, product 2 (73.36 per cent
decana), product 3 (78.12 per cent octanal) and product 4 (0.61 per cent linalool) had
inhibitory and bactericidal effect on the microorganism. Valencene did not show any
inhibitory effect. Saccharomyces cerivisiae was more susceptible, especially to the crude
sweet orange oil (minimal inhibitory concentration 6.25 µL/mL). The cytotoxicity was
evaluated on the Hella cells using the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl) – 2,5-diphenyl
tetrazolium bromide assay. All the test sample showed significant cytotoxicity on the cell
lines with IC (50) value much less than 20µg/mL.
Vasudeva and Sharma (2012) concluded that essential oil of Citrus limettioides
can be used in skincare formulations for acne control, in treatment of various infectious
diseases like typhoid fever, food poisoning, inflammation, sepsis, endocarditis, bladder,
prostate and epididymal infections. Along with this it can also be used as safer and
alternative means of food preservation. No serious or life-threatening side effects were
observed on the haematological and biochemical parameters of mice fed with specific
dose of essential oil of Citrus limettioides, therefore the essential oil can be recommended
as safe fumigant for preservation of food commodities.
Ebrahimi et al. (2013) evaluated the effect of different levels of dried sweet
orange (Citrus sinensis) peel on growth performance in broilers. A total of 400 male
broiler chicks (Ross-308) were randomly allocated to treatments varying in supplemental
dried sweet orange peel powder. The dietary groups consisted of five diets fed for 42

39
days: control diet without feed additive, diet containing 1.5 per cent feed additive only in
starter phase, diet containing 1.5 per cent feed additive during whole period (starter +
grower), diet containing 3 per cent feed additive only in starter phase, diet containing 3
per cent feed additive during whole period. The growth responses achieved by broilers
from all groups complied with the standards. However, adding up to 3 per cent dried
sweet orange peel powder in diet seems to depress feed intake, body weight gain
increasing feed conversion ratio of both starter and growing broilers. Conversely, dried
sweet orange peel powder in the proportion of 1.5 per cent of feed seems to promote feed
intake and weight gain in the period between the 1-21 days of age, indicating that dried
sweet orange peel powder can constitute a useful additive in the feeding of broilers.
Lu et al. (2013) studied the effects of orange fruit extracts in high-fat (HF) diet-
induced obesity mice. Female C57BL/6 mice were fed with a chow diet (control), an HF
diet, HF diet supplemented with 1% w/w citrange peel extract (CPE) or 1% w/w citrange
flesh and seed extract (CFSE) for 8 weeks. Results showed that both CPE and CFSE
regulated the glucose metabolic disorders in obese mice. In CPE and CFSE-treated
groups, the body weight, blood glucose, serum total cholesterol (TC) and low density
lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) levels were significantly reduced relative to those in the
HF group. To explore the mechanisms of action of CPE and CFSE on the metabolism of
glucose and lipid, related genes expressions in liver were assayed. In liver tissue, the
expression level of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) and its target
genes were down-regulated by CPE and CFSE as revealed by qPCR tests. In addition,
both CPE and CFSE decreased the expression level of liver X receptor (LXR) and both
involved in lipid and glucose metabolism. Results suggested that CPE and CFSE
administration could ameliorate obesity and metabolic disorders in HF diet-induced
obesity mice probably through the inhibition of PPAR and LXRs gene expressions.
Among the main flavonoids of citrange extracts were naringin and poncirin both could be
the bioactive compounds in this process.
Omodamiro and Umekwe (2013) concluded that ethanolic extract of orange peel
and leaves are potent anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent. This shows
that sweet orange peel which are considered as waste material of the fruit and leaves
could serve as potential antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent.

40
 Rakesh et al. (2013) concluded that all the Citrus fruits are rich source of various
nutrients and can be helpful in fighting against malnutrition problem in developing
countries. C. limon is a good source of vitamin C and phenolic compounds. It is available
in every season and very economical as compared to other studied fruits. Therefore, daily
consumption of the juice of C. limon with food may reduce malnutrition and the risk of
cardiovascular and cancer diseases as well.
Srividhya et al. (2013) studied the efficacy of citrus fruit peel extracts against
pathogens causing gastrointestinal disorders. The citrus fruit peel extact used Citrus
paradisi Mac fad (Grapefruit), Citrus sinensis (Orange), Citrus Limon (Lemon) and
Citrus aurantifolia (Lime) against the gastrointestinal pathogens. The role of citrus fruit
peel extract against the common pathogens of the gastrointestinal tract revealed them as
better inhibitory agents than synthetic compounds. There is the need for novel
compounds which can have a significant effect on these organisms and it is always
preferred to take natural medicines which have lesser side effects than the synthetic ones.
Adriani et al. (2014) found that the blood cholesterol level decreased when the
sheep has been given 8 per cent orange waste meal, from 69.6 mg/dL to 64 mg/dL and
also the LDL decreased with 10 per cent, while the HDL has not increased. The LDL:
HDL ratio is better, because the ratio is wider than the ratio that has not been added with
sweet orange waste meal. The triglyceride level in sheep blood has been decreased
although according statistical analysis were non-significant; the sheep that given SOW
meal 4 per cent has 24.8 per cent, 33.53 per cent in 6 per cent SOW and 23.4 per cent in 8
per cent SOW compared with the placebo. The sweet orange waste meal can be used as
cholesterol and triglyceride decreasing in sheep blood. The optimum is 8per cent orange
waste meal.
Fahad (2014) studied the peel and pulp from three different citrus fruits for their
phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid contents and radical scavenging properties. Pulp from
orange, mandarin and lemon contained 123.02, 104.98 and 98.38 mg GAE/100 g total
phenolics; 61.38, 38.52 and 57.63 mg/100g ascorbic acid and 69.31, 62.82 and 59.60 %
antiradical activities against DPPH radicals, respectively. Peel from orange, mandarin
and lemon 178.90, 169.54 and 61.22 mg GAE/100 g total phenolics; 62.45, 54.87 and
25.68 mg/100g ascorbic acid and 67.58, 68.57 and 46.98 % antiradical activities against

41
DPPH radicals, respectively. His results revealed that peel and pulp from locally grown
citrus fruits are valuable sources of health benefiting bioactive components, hence they
can be considered for use in food products formulation with the objective of adding
health benefits to foods such as increased antioxidant potential.
Mehmood et al. (2015) evaluated antibacterial effect of Citrus sinensis peel
extracts against several pathogenic bacteria associated with human and fish infections
viz., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Serratia marcesnces,
Shigella flexneri, Enterobacter amnigenus, Salmonella Typhimurium and Serratia
odorifera. Methanol, ethanol, chloroform and diethyl ether solvents were used for
extraction. In vitro antibacterial activity was analyzed by agar well and agar disc
diffusion methods. They found that ethanol extract showed highly significant inhibition
of E. coli and K. pneumonia (12.6±0.94 mm and 11.6±1.2 mm) whereas methanol extract
of C. sinensis also showed high zone of inhibition of S. odorifera (10.0±2.16 mm). The
potential activity of active extracts was assessed and also compared with standard
antibiotics through activity index formulation. Phytochemical screening of all solvents
had determined the presence of terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, glycosides and flavonoids.
It was also found that Chloroform/Methanol (5:5) and Butanol/Ethanol/Water (4:1:2.2)
solvent systems showed significant separation of active phytochemical constituents.
These findings reveal the potential use of Citrus sinensis peel to treat infectious diseases,
which are being caused by microorganisms.
Paul and Bhattacharyya (2015) studied the radical scavenging potential and
phytochemical contents of cookies fortified with peel powder and juice of fresh
pomegranate (Punica granatum) fruits. DPPH radical scavenging activities of were
significantly higher with increasing percentage of fortification of both the components,
indicating greater proportions of less polar phytochemicals in the cookies. This has also
been substantiated by the fact that contents of flavonoids and anthocyanins were
increased significantly on fortification with peel powder and juice. However, fortification
beyond 10 per cent peel powder or 50 per cent juice was not recommended as such
conditions would deteriorate the physical quality of the cookies, which would ultimately
affect the commercial aspect. The study thus lend credence to the fact that fortification of

42
otherwise by-product of food industry – pomegranate peel powder, could be efficiently
utilized for preparation of popular food item like cookies, which has long shelf life, good
eating quality and are widely consumed.
Ekhlas and Taai (2016) studied the protective role of the extracts of sweet orange
(Citrus sinensis L.) peels against genotoxicity induced by cyclophosphamide on human
peripheral lymphocytes using the micronucleus and chromosomal aberration tests. In
order to test the effectiveness of the extracts, three concentrations of 5, 10 and 15 μg/ml
where tested the prevention or minimization the effect of the drug (80 μg/ml) on human
blood lymph. The extracts of the orange peel has anti-mutagenic potential induced by
cyclophosphamide this may prevent the mutagenic effect of various genotoxic or
carcinogenic agents. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that dangerous effect of
anticancer drug CP could be avoid by using the treatment of especially peel sweet orange
which are considered as waste materials of the fruit at the same time with CP and pre -
treatment , may be due to it contains natural antioxidant such as ascorbic acid, flavonoids,
phenolic compounds and pectins. This strategy is necessary for diminishing the
deleterious side effects of anticancer drug with preservation of its chemotherapeutic
efficacy and also, could be of significance in human therapy, animal and plant diseases.
2.5 Processing and value addition of fruit waste
Larrea et al. (2005) investigated the effects of incorporating extruded orange pulp
on the quality of cookies. They successfully increased the dietary fiber content of the
biscuit (11.25% DM) compared to the control (2.10% DM). The quality of the biscuit,
however, was found to be quite hard but it was reported that this issue could be improved
with the addition of the correct levels of water as fiber generally has high water
absorption abilities. The gelling and thickening abilities of orange fiber was explored in
an enriched yogurt.
Fernandez-Lopez et al. (2008) added orange fibre to salchichon, a dry fermented
sausage. They found no negative effects on flavor; its presence promoted the growth of
micrococcus thus decreasing nitrite levels and it was shown to possibly have a protective
role against rancidity.
Magada (2008) incorporated the orange and mandarin peel powder in the biscuit
preparation. Powder was used at three levels 5, 10 and 15%. Sensory evaluation and

43
chemical analysis of the prepared biscuits shows that addition of peel powder up to 5 and
10% were acceptable, while 15% addition was not accepted. They concluded that
addition of peel powder increases the crude fiber, ash and ether extract of the biscuits as
well as there is increase in the shelf life of biscuits as compared to control. Addition of
peel powder inhibits the peroxidation of the lipids, so the peel powder could be used
instead of synthetic antioxidants. Moreover biological activity in-vivo shows that addition
of 10% peel powder increases the weight gain, improves liver function and reduces the
cholesterol level and blood glucose level.
Ruiz et al. (2008) incorporated the 3, 5, 7 and 10 per cent of mango peel powder
and analyzed for physicochemical and sensory characteristics of yogurt. They concluded
that the mango peel powder has a yield of 40 per cent, has very good sensory
characteristics, such as taste and characteristic yellow color, showed 70 per cent
solubility in yogurt also providing its characteristic smell and color of mango, indicating
that in addition to behaving functional ingredient due to its high fiber content also acts as
a flavoring and coloring. The significant content of beta carotene in the peel of mango
yogurt offers a natural preservative system, since this was a useful life of 30 days. The
natural yogurt made with addition of 10 per cent of mango peel powder before
inoculation, showed a good texture, flavor and color characteristic.
Abd El-aal and Halaweish (2010) evaluated the preservative/antioxidant activity
of orange peel extract in soybean oil after accelerated oxidation at 65°C. A significant
different was found in moisture and hexane extract content of Baladi and novel orange
peel. No differences (P >0.05) in total phenol and total flavonoids content were observed
between Baladi and novel orange peel whole extracts. Orange peel extracts treated with
hexane had higher (P≤ 0.05) phenolic content than whole extract. Baladi orange peel
extract had higher (P≤ 0.05) DPPH radical scavenging activity than Novel peel extract.
Soy bean oil treated with orange peel extract had higher (P≤ 0.05) inhibition oxidation
than synthetic antioxidants. Orange peel extract and synthetic antioxidants reduced (P≤
0.05) free fatty acid, TBA and P-anisidine values of soy bean oil during storage at 65°C
for 7 days. Orange peel extended the induction period to reach a peroxide value of 20
meq/kg in soy bean oil under tested conditions to over 5 days for BHT, BHA and
400ppm, 6 days for both 800 ppm and 1200 ppm, and 7 days for 1600 ppm.

44
 Mervat (2010) prepared burger from orange albedo (raw albedo, cooked albedo
and raw and cooked albedo) and four concentrations of them (0 per cent (control), 5 per
cent, 10 per cent and 15 per cent) were added to beef burger mix with 20 per cent fat.
Results indicated that the highest protein content (16.61 per cent) was observed with 5
per cent of raw albedo+cooked albedo, ash and fiber also recorded high values. The
cooking properties were improved with some of added materials when comparing with
control treatment. In this regard, adding 15 per cent albedo of all types was decreased
shrinkage by 35.53 per cent than that of control, also the differences in fat retention
noticed between all type albedo. The sensory and textural taste properties and over all
acceptability were improved by using 5 per cent. On the other hand, burgers with adding
albedo (at any type and concentration) were less hard than that of the control treatment,
Sendra et al. (2010) recorded that orange fiber increased the viscosity of the
yogurt. At low concentrations it proved the presence of fiber to have a disruptive effect
on the structure of the yogurt. Consequently, after pasteurization at higher levels of fiber
(greater than 6%), it was found to strengthen the gel.
Hanan and Youssef (2012) incorporated the citrus fruit waste mainly Tangerine
peel powder, Abo-Sora peel powder, Baladi orange peel powder, and Baladi lemon peel
powder in biscuits. The 10% incorporation of citrus peels powders in wheat biscuits
increased crude protein, crude fat contents as well as crude fiber, moisture contents,
caloric value and nutritive value. Moreover, they could be recommended for caloric
reduced diets for obese and over-weight persons especially 10% Tangerine peel powder
supplemented wheat biscuits. Likewise, the rather relative low carbohydrate content in
the four studied wheat biscuits fortified with 10% citrus peels powders could be
recommended for the diet regimen of diabetic persons.
Babiker (2013) incorporated orange peels at 5, 7.55 and 10 per cent levels in the
preparation of bread. It concluded that, the poor baking quality of bread produced from
orange peels supplements has been attributed to the dilution of the functional gluten
proteins and/or the interaction between fibrous materials and gluten which can partly
explain the poor baking quality. The bread samples prepared by adding orange peels have
lead to increase in the water absorption while the arrival time and dough stability were

45
decreased. So fiber as a food industry by product is recommended to be used as food
additives to gain nutritional and healthy benefit.
Elsharnouby et al. (2013) extracted the pigments from the citrus peel and added it
in the jelly. It was found that the ethyl acetate is the best solvent in extracting carotenoids
from citrus peel, followed by ethanol 90%. HPLC was used to identify the extracted
pigments and their components. Natural extracted pigments were used in food product
(e.g. Jelly) evaluations and gave the better values for the color, flavor and taste compared
to commercial samples with artificial additives. Regarding to the overall acceptability of
jelly samples, they found that slight insignificant reduction in overall acceptability was
achieved for jelly sample prepared with the first addition ratio 0.0066 per cent. However,
no significant changes were observed in sensory characteristics of jelly samples prepared
by addition of 0.0066% comparing to control.
Sharoba et al. (2013) utilized the orange waste (OW), carrot pomace (CP), potato
peels (PP) and green pea peels (GPP) in the preparation of cake. The OW, CP, PP and
GPP byproducts were replaced with wheat flour (72 per cent) at 5, 10, 15 and 20 per cent
levels and studied for rheological characteristics. Sensory evaluation showed that all high
fiber substituted cake samples were significantly lower than control cake sample in all
sensory characteristics, except cake samples prepared with 5 and 10 per cent of orange
waste and carrot pomace had no significant differences (P>0.05) with control cake. The
results showed that the sources of dietary fiber had significant effects on the dietary fiber
composition and technological properties. Moreover, the high effect on hydration
properties which would affect the further application in real food system. Overall, the
results suggested that orange waste, carrot pomace, potato peels and green pea peels
could be used as a good raw material to produce dietary fiber powders.
Bandyopadhyay et al. (2014) prepared the cookies by using the mango peel
powder and mango kernel powder and it can be revealed that 20% level of incorporation
of mango peel or kernel powder were optimum. At higher percentage level, the cookies
had a slight bitter taste which may be due to high polyphenol content. Mango peel
powder and mango kernel powder impart health benefits through its fibre and antioxidant
content in cookies.

46
 Bonsi et al. (2014) studied that the orange flesh sweet potato flour can be used at
25 per cent replacement levels with maize in the formulation of highly acceptable, good
quality weaning foods based on the soy-fortified traditional Roasted maize meal (roasted
maize meal porridge) to help alleviate macro and micro-nutrient malnutrition problems in
Ghana and other West African countries. The obvious contribution of high levels of β-
carotene makes OFS a useful ingredient with the potential to improve the vitamin A
content of such blends. Dietary diversity of entire families to include natural food sources
rich in pro-vitamin A may provide the long-term solution to preventing VAD in
developing countries because orange flesh sweet potatoes and other indigenous leafy
vegetables rich in β-carotene can be easily grown as gardens in communities, making
sources sustainable and cheaper compared to periodic oral dosing with vitamin A.
Preparation of blend demonstration as a weaning food and encouraging women to include
the orange flesh sweet potato as vegetables in their diets could be an important strategy to
improve vitamin A status.
Chikku and Estherlydia (2014) prepared jams from peels of fruits like orange,
pineapple, pomegranate and banana and analyzed for antimicrobial properties. Fruit peel
pectin was extracted from pineapple (Ananas comosus L.), orange (Citrus sinensis L.),
pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) and banana (Musa balbisiana Colla) and processed to
make jams. Total soluble solids, acidity, pH, and moisture were analyzed by the standard
methods of AOAC. Sensory evaluation was conducted using a five point hedonic scale.
The antimicrobial potency of the peel jams was studied using disk inhibition method.
Results indicated that the mean Brix was 68.5, pH ranged from 4.4-5.9, this would hinder
microbial growth and maintain keeping quality of jams. Pineapple peel jam was most
acceptable by the panel. Pomegranate peel jam should highest antimicrobial activity
against Shigella. There are numerous ways of utilizing and processing indigenous fruits
at household and industry level. Utilization of fruits will improve the nutritional status,
broaden the food base, raise standards of living and provide opportunities for income
generation.
Mishra et al. (2014) developed the weaning food with pulse banana and pineapple
pomace and also conducted the storage studies. Eight blends, prepared with banana flour
30 per cent pulse flour and pineapple pomace flour were incorporated in the ratio 70:0,

47
65:5, 60:10, 55:15, 50:20, 45:25, 40:30 and 35:35. They conclude that the utilization of
pulse and pineapple pomace flour along with banana flour increases the nutritional value
of weaning food. On critical evaluation of the result during storage, it was found that the
ash, protein, fat, and ascorbic acid content of weaning food decreased with increase in
storage period. From all the preparations, it was seen that the weaning food with 50 per
cent pulse flour, 30 per cent banana flour and 20 per cent pineapple pomace flour was
accepted by panel judges depending on sensory evaluation and was best according to
nutritional value having moisture 3.87 per cent, ash 4.28 per cent, fat 2.1 per cent, protein
22.51 per cent and Vitamin C 37.35 mg/100g.
Singh and Genitha (2014) prepared the paneer with different antioxidants
extracted from fruit peels of pomegranate, lemon and orange. Maximum antioxidant
activity was found in pomegranate followed by lemon and minimum in orange peel. It
can be concluded from the study that pomegranate peels due to its high antioxidant
activity and phenolic content may prove to be a better substitute in place of synthetic
antioxidants in extending the shelf life of food product by preventing the peroxide
formation in the product containing fat and oil. In addition natural antioxidants are safe
and impart health benefit to the consumer.
Ukey et al. (2014) prepared weaning food from sun dried and tray dried drumstick
leaf powder. They concluded that weaning food prepared from 5 g level of sun dried and
tray dried drumstick leaf powder is highly acceptable than the weaning food prepared
from 10 g and 15 g level of sun dried and drumstick leaf powder. The weaning food
prepared from sun dried drumstick leaf powder is having slightly higher nutritional
content than weaning food prepared from tray dried drumstick leaf powder and the mean
overall sensory acceptability scores are higher for 5 g treatments than 10 g and 15 g
treatments of the weaning food prepared from both sun dried and tray dried drumstick
leaf powder.
Younis et al. (2015) evaluated the influence of addition of mosambi peel powder
on papaya jam. Mosambi peel was treated with 5% of salt and/or sodium bicarbonate
overnight to remove bitterness. Different levels of treated and untreated mosambi peel
powder (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5%) were added to papaya jam and were evaluated for
texture and sensory properties. They concluded that the mosambi peel powder had

48
significant effects on the functional and technological properties. Furthermore, mosambi
peel powder had high WHC and OHC values, which can be exploited for food
applications. They evaluated that firmness and chewiness values of the jam added with
mosambi peel powder increased significantly as compared to control, whereas
adhesiveness and cohesiveness values decreased with increasing levels of mosambi peel
powder. Sensory evaluation showed that jam prepared by addition of peel powder was
acceptable up to 5% level of incorporation. However, jam made by the addition of
untreated peel powder was not acceptable due to bitterness resulted from mosambi peel
powder.
2.6 Formulation and quality evaluation of weaning foods
Kapoor and Gupta (1981) prepared a low cost protein-energy-rich weaning food
by using soybean and cheese whey. Undamaged soybeans were soaked in 5 volumes of
water containing 0.5 per cent sodium bicarbonate for about 12 hour at 25±20C. The soak
water was drained and the beans blanched in boiling water for 30 min, cooled in tap
water and dehulled manually; the cotyledons were separated from plumules by sieving
and the hulls were removed by flotation. The soybean cotyledons were disintegrated with
the entire amount of cheese whey in a micro-pulverizer. The slurry was passed through a
muslin cloth, to remove any particles which would clog the homogenizer. The soy-whey
mix was condensed to 35 per cent solids in a vacuum pan. Calculated quantities of fresh
hydrogenated oil, fat-soluble vitamins and sodium citrate were added to the concentrate.
The blend was homogenized in two stages, first at 3000 psi and second at 500 psi. The
blend was fortified with ferrous sulphate (IP) to obtain the desired level of iron before
spray drying in an Anhydro (Denmark) pilot-scale unit employing inlet and outlet air
temperatures of 190±10C and 95±10C respectively. The powdered product was dry-mixed
with water soluble vitamins and DL-methionine using a horizontal mixer. Synthetic
capsoroma flavourings like vanilla, pineapple or strawberry were also added, before
packaging. The manufacturing method, consisted soaking, blanching and dehulling
soybeans, grinding the soy-whey mixture, adding oil and oil-soluble vitamins,
homogenizing the mix, spray drying, fortifying with water soluble vitamin, flavouring,
and packaging. The product was free from anti-trypsin activity.

49
 Malleshi and Desikachar (1982) utilized ragi (Eleusine coracana) and green gram
(Phaseolus radiates) for the preparation of malted weaning food. The ragi and green
gram were steeped in water for 16 hr, and germinated for 48 and 24 hr respectively, dried
and powdered after removal of the vegetative portion and bran. Refined ragi flour was
mixed with green gram flour in the ratio of 70:30 to produce a malted weaning food
(MWF).
Reddy et al. (1990) formulated four weaning mixes using local foods and
traditional processing techniques. The foods used to formulate weaning mixes were jowar
(Sorghum vulgarae), bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice
(Oryza sativa), Italian millet, moth beans, green gram, bengal gram, rajkeera seeds,
potatoes and spinach leaves. The four techniques used were roasting, malting
(germination), puffing and fermentation.
Ashturkar et al. (1992) developed four weaning foods namely, RGB-
Rajkeera:green gram:bengal gram dhal (2:0.5:0.5), BRB-bajra:rice flakes:bengal gram
dhal (0.5:0.5:1), JSB- jowar:soybean:bengal gram dhal (2:0.5:0.5), JPG-jowar:puffed
Bengal gram:green gram (2:0.5:0.5) mixes .
Dominguez et al. (1993) prepared weaning foods by mixing decorticated and
press-dried pearl millet (70%) and cowpea (30%) with and without sorghum malt.
Decorticated millet and cowpea flours were cooked into slurry and press dried to produce
flakes. The heat applied during cooking of the slurry and press drying to develop proper
paste properties for the preparation of porridge like weaning foods.
Kshirsagar et al. (1994) evaluated effect of roasting and malting of the
constituents as well as addition of 5% barley malt on nutrient availability and rheological
properties of weaning food. The ionisable iron and soluble zinc were higher in malted
and 5% barley malt added weaning food. However, in vitro protein and starch
digestibility were higher in malted weaning food only. Malting and addition of 5% barley
malt were found to reduce the cold, hot and cooked paste viscosity of weaning foods,
thereby causing increased calorie density.
Kshirsagar et al. (1994) used locally available ragi (variety ‘HR-374), green gram
(variety BM-4), groundnut (variety ICGS-4) and skim milk powder in the ratio of
35:35:10:20 to formulate a weaning food containing not less than 20% protein. Different

50
processing techniques like roasting of ragi, green gram dhal and groundnut; malting of
ragi, germination of ragi and whole green gram followed by roasting in an oven and
addition of 5% barley malt were adopted for developing the weaning food.
Akpapunam and Sefa-Dedeh (1995) studied the effects of traditional lactic acid
fermentation and addition of malt on the physicochemical properties of maize-cowpea
blends. The products were high in protein (18.4%-19.4%) and low in fat (0.5%-1.3%) and
fibre (0.5%-0.7%). Fermentation reduced the pH from 6.7 to 4.4. The unfermented
sample without malt was about four times as thick in consistency as those containing it.
Prakash and Ramanatham (1995) assessed high protein weaning blends from acid
stabilized rice bran protein concentrate and rice, with or without green gram for their
physicochemical characteristics and nutritional quality. The protein contents of weaning
blends 1 (rice bran protein concentrate 25% + rice flour 75%) and weaning blend 2 (rice
bran concentrate 20% + rice flour 60% + whole green gram 20%) were 20.6 and 21.8%,
respectively. These represent calorie dense formulations with 377 and 372 calories/100g,
which conform to ISI specifications. The protein efficiency ratios of blends 1 and 2 were
2.1 and 2.2, respectively. The formulations possessed high water absorption capacity of
310 ml/100g at 270C, which increased to 360 ml/100 g at 600C. The gruel viscosities of
reconstituted blends were low, when compared to two rice-based commercial
preparations.
Griffith et al. (1998) formulated weaning blends from 60% cereal and 40%
legume combination using teff, pearl millet, cowpea and peanut. Amino acid scores were
calculated using reported amino acid data for teff, pearl millet, cowpea and peanut. The
blends were formulated in proportions as: PMP (60% pearl millet + 40% peanut), PMC
(60% pearl millet + 40% cowpea), TPMC (20% teff + 40% pearl millet + 40% cowpea)
and TPMP (20% teff + 40% pearl millet + 40% peanut). Four blends were prepared by
each of four traditional processing methods: control (unprocessed), roasting, germination
and natural fermentation.
Delgado and Saldivar (2000) added sorghum diastatic malt (SDM) to pre-
gelatinized pastes from regular maize flour for hydrolyzing the starch to produce
liquefied foods with 15% solids. Viscosities of the blends decreased as the concentration
of SDM increased. Addition of 6.66% SDM based on total amount of solids reduced

51
viscosity by 50% when compared with food that did not contain any SDM. Addition of
33.3 or 46.6% SDM reduced viscosity by 70 or 75%, respectively. Most of the reduction
in viscosity occurred within 1-3 min of incubation with warm water. Weanling rats were
fed a combination 33.3% SDM and 66.6% of either quality protein maize (QPM), regular
maize (RMZ) or decorticated pearl millet (DPM) to estimate protein efficiency ratios
(PER), protein digestibility, biological value (BV), and net protein utilization (NPU). Rat
growth was positively correlated with dietary lysine and essential amino acid (EAA)
scores; therefore, animals fed QPM weanling food had significantly higher (P<0.05)
protein digestibility corrected EAA scores, PER, BV and NPU than counterparts fed diets
based on RMZ or DPM. This demonstrates that it is feasible to produce nutrition
liquefied weaning foods blending 33.3% SDM with 66.6% QPM using simple processing
techniques.
Nwanekezi and Okorie (2002) formulated infant weaning foods using different
processing methods from complementary mixtures of maize and groundnut (unprocessed
maize + roasted groundnut; fermented maize+ fermented groundnut and malted maize+
malted groundnut). Equal weights of skim milk were added to all three samples to
improve their protein qualities.
Plahar et al. (2003) standardized an extrusion cooking process for production of
high protein weaning food based on peanuts, maize and soybeans. Different blends were
evaluated to achieve desirable chemical, physical, functional and sensory characteristics
with the maximum possible level of peanuts.
Suhasini and Malleshi (2003) formulated weaning foods based on malted wheat
and chickpea (MWF), popped wheat and chickpea (PWF) and roller dried blend of wheat
and chickpea (RWF). The composition of weaning foods were as : MWF (malted wheat
60% + malted chickpea 30% + skim milk powder 5% + sugar 5%), PWF (popped wheat
60% + popped chickpea 30% + skim milk powder 5% + sugar 5%) and RWF (roller dried
food based on the blend of wheat 60% + chickpea 30% + skim milk powder 5% + sugar
5%).
Wambugu et al. (2003) studied the effects of addition of fermented and malted
sorghum flours on the proximate composition, viscosity, pH and consumer acceptability
of extruded instant sorghum weaning foods. It is concluded that porridges made from

52
composites of extruded plain/malted/fermented sorghum flours seem to offer the best
route to address the identified problem of child nutrition. Of the many chemical changes
that occur during germination, the one that has the greatest effect on viscosity is the
conversion of starch by amylase enzymes into dextrin and maltose. Since these products of
starch hydrolysis do not gelatinize when cooked, the germination of grains can have a
marked effect on the viscosity of starchy porridges. Malt is therefore an important ingredient
in addressing the issue of dietary bulk of weaning foods required in meeting a growing
infant’s energy needs.
Afoakwa et al. (2004) prepared the traditional weaning foods by steeping maize
in water for 24 hours, mixed with cowpea and co-milled into a meal. 50% moisture
dough was made with the addition of water and fermented for 24 hours. The product was
dried using solar drier (40-600C for 72 hours) and oven dried (600C for 8 hours), and
packaged in polypropylene bags.
Reema et al. (2004) prepared burfi, pinni and sevian from wheat flour, germinated
wheat flour and germinated wheat flour supplemented with germinated green gram/soy
flour. The grains of wheat, green gram and soybean were germinated for 24 hours at 25-
370C and dried at 600C for 8 hours and milled into flours. Fresh carrots were grated and
cauliflower leaves were chopped and sun-dried for 3-5 days and then powdered. The
samples of germinated and un-germinated grains were used for preparation of burfi, pinni
and sevian along with 5% supplementation of dried carrot or cauliflower leaves.
Sadana and Chabra (2004) developed low cost weaning foods namely panjiri,
kheer, halwa and dalia using germination, malting, roasting and pressure cooking
processes. The formulations were based on germinated wheat, pulses (Bengal gram,
green gram and lentil) and roasted groundnut in the ratio of 75:25:25. The grains were
allowed to germinate at room temperature in wet muslin cloth for 24 - 48 hours.
Germinated grains were dried at 600C for 7-8 hours. Germinated and un-germinated dried
grains were milled into flour and dalia. The germinated grain flours were used to develop
formulations while un-germinated wheat formulations were treated as control.
Mariam (2005) formulated composite blends (weaning foods) based on locally
available cereals and legumes, to chemically evaluate their nutrient values and compare

53
with those of a proprietary formula and recommended daily allowance (RDA). Three
composite blends were used;
Diet 1: Dehulled rice: Groundnut: Bambaranut: Carrot (60:20:10:10 per cent w/w)
Diet 2: Acha grain: Benniseed: Crayfish: Garden egg (ABC) (60:25:10:5 % w/w)
Diet 3: Yellow maize: Soya beans: Groundnut (MSG) (60:30:10 % w/w)
The results indicated that crude protein, lipid, fiber, ash, moisture, energy and
carbohydrate were either comparable or higher than values in the proprietary formula.
Frequent feeding on these foods is recommended to increase daily nutrient intake.
Inclusion of other nutrient-dense food commodities or appropriate micronutrients is
necessary to raise the level of nutrients. Finally it could be concluded that formulated
complementary foods from locally available food commodities have great potential in
providing nutritious foods that are practical, food-based approaches, aimed at combating
the problem of malnutrition among infants and children in Nigeria.
Ali et al. (2006) developed instant weaning foods from sorghum based staple
dried flakes and studied the effects of fermentation and the addition of malt on the
nutritive value and functional properties of weaning food. The prepared weaning blends
composed of 42% sorghum supplemented with 20% legumes, 10% oil seeds and 28%
additives (sugar, oil, skim milk powder and vanillin. The results indicated that the blends
were found to contain 16.6 to 19.3% protein, 68.7 to 72.7% carbohydrate, 0.9 to 1.3%
fiber and 405.8 to 413.2 kcal per 100g energy. The iron content of the blends ranged from
5.3 to 9.1 mg/100g and the calcium content ranged from 150 to 220 mg/100 g. All blends
reconstituted well and formed a soft paste when stirred with hot or cold water. The water-
holding capacity, wettability and bulk density were within the ranges of corresponding
values of commercial weaning foods. Sensory attributes, viscosity values, and in vitro
digestibility varied among the blends, whereas lysine content improved considerably (p ≤
.05) for all blends. All blends had similar keeping quality, with no signs of spoilage or
development of off-flavors or colors after 10 months of storage. Most blends remained
free of aflatoxins.
Maruf Ahmed et al. (2008) developed weaning food from wheat flour and
soybean flour, with whole milk powder and sugar. The six samples of weaning food
using 5% and 10% soya flour and control sample were processed without soya flour.

54
They concluded that the moisture content of the processed weaning food was found lower
than that of control. The protein, ash and fat of the samples with soya flour were higher
and carbohydrate contents were lower than that of control sample. No remarkable change
in moisture content, peroxide value, fatty acid value and flavor were observed up to 4
months of storage in ambient condition indicating that the products were shelf stable up
to 4 months of storage. The bacterial count increased with the increase of storage time.
Amankwah et al. (2009) studied the effect of fermentation and malt addition on
the viscosity of maize-soybean blends. The weaning foods were prepared by material
balance method to target 18 per cent protein and 59 per cent carbohydrate. This method
was used to achieve the control blend of 70 per cent maize flour and 30 per cent soy bean
flour. The rest of the blend were formulated by adding either 5 or 10 per cent malt to the
unfermented, 2 days fermented and 3 days fermented maize flour and mixing each with
30 per cent soy bean flour. There results showed that, as fermentation time increases
there is increase in the viscosity due to the increase in protein, crude fiber and fat during
fermentation. They concluded that malting alone led to a reduction in product viscosity
but fermentation led to an increase. However, the cumulative effect of fermentation and
malting with the addition of malt after the fermentation reduced viscosity.
Sood et al. (2010) prepared ready to use mixes by using cereals, pulses,
vegetables/fruits and nuts with soy-whey. Different products like idli, dhokla, halwa,
sattu and upma were prepared.
Usha et al. (2010) developed weaning food from a combination of germinated
sorghum, germinated green gram and rice flour with incorporation of pumpkin flour at
10, 20 and 30 per cent concentrations. The mix was analyzed for its sensory, nutritional
and physical parameters. The nutrient analysis of the weaning mix highlighted that an
increase in incorporation of pumpkin flour increased the energy, fat, protein, beta
carotene, fiber and antioxidant levels. It was also observed that cooking time and
gelatinization temperature increased with increasing incorporation of pumpkin flour. This
property helps to offer the weaning infant a less viscous yet energy dense mix.
Elemo et al. (2011) produced weaning food from sorghum and cowpea based on a
malted technology with a view to determining the amylase activity, nutritional
composition/properties and its ability to meet the recommended daily allowances. They

55
produced malted sorghum flour, steamed cow pea flour and blended in 2:1 ratio. Finally
they concluded that weaning food formulation based on germinated sorghum and cooked
cowpea had improved nutritional qualities. They were good source of protein, energy, B-
vitamins, iron and phosphorus. Germination significantly increases the essential amino
acid of the formula. However, fortification of this weaning food by addition of food rich
in calcium and vitamin A e.g.; fish, carrot etc should be explore to improve and increase
these micro-nutrients and also enhance the protein quality.
Imtiaz et al. (2011) developed weaning food formulations (F1 to F5) by using
locally available resources. The formulations were based on germinated wheat and mung
bean, sugar and skim milk powder. For preparation of germinated wheat and mung bean
flour, seeds were soaked in water for 12 h at 30 ± 2 0C, germinated for 60 hours at 33.5 ±
2 0C in a seed germinator, dried at 600C for 8 hours, dehulled, roasted at 1450C for 2
minutes and milled, after which weaning foods’ formulations samples were developed by
mixing the ingredients. The compositions of formulations are: MF (Mungbean flour): WF
(wheat flour): MP (full fat milk powder): S (Sucrose) = F1 is mixed as 1.2:6.8:1:1; F2 is
mixed as 2.4:5.6:1:1; F3 is mixed as 3.6:4.4:1:1; F4 as 4.8:3.2:1:1 and F5 is mixed as
6:2:1:1.
Salve et al. (2011) formulated weaning foods from locally available flours of
cereal grain and legumes such as wheat flour, soybean flour and chick pea flour using
household technologies like blending and roasting. The proximate composition of
product showed that proteins (16.2 to 21.1%), fat (1.9 to 4.5%), fiber (1.28 to 1.78%), ash
(0.7 to 1.40%) and carbohydrates (67.66 to 77.2%). Also showed that soy flour / chickpea
flour alone or in combination, both increased the amount of protein significantly. Soy
flour fortification was considered the best because it is rich in protein with good product
acceptability. The total energy expressed in terms of Kcal per 100 g of product varied
from 350.7 to 395.8. The various minerals viz., calcium, phosphorus and iron were found
to increase on supplementation with 10% skimmed milk powder.
Bisla et al. (2012) formulated home based recipes for development of different
types of premixes. The criteria of selection were based on easily availability of
ingredients, commonly consumed by local people, low in cost. Keeping all the
consideration in mind ten products viz - Bhakarwadi, Bhakri, Halwa, Namakpara, Pua,

56
Rings, Vegetable pakodi, Chana murmura premix, Murmura moong dhal premix, Suji
groundnut premix, Suji ki kheer premix were standardized. Four variant of different
recipes were prepared i.e. standard, variant A, variant B, variant C. In all the variants,
Rice flour (10 g), wheat flour (10 g), Soy flour (10 g), Cow pea leaves (5 g), Bengal gram
leaves (5 g) incorporated except standard but in variant A ingredients were incorporated
in unprocessed form, in variant B instead of raw wheat flour malted wheat flour was
incorporated, and in variant C fermentation of wheat flour dough was done by adding
curd at 370C for 6 hours.
Wakil and kazeem (2012) developed infant weaning food from sorghum - cowpea
blends fermented with four combinations of starter organisms (Lactobacillus plantarum
and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (AB1), Lactobacillus plantarum and Pediococcus
acidilactici (AB2), Pediococcus acidilactici and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (AB3), and
Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus acidilactici and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (AB4))
for 72 h and sampled 12 hourly for pH, titrable acidity, proximate analysis, antinutritional
factors and sensory quality attributes. There was a steady drop in pH with corresponding
increase in titratable acidity throughout the fermentation period in all the combinations.
The weaning food produced using the combination of Lactobacillus plantarum and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (AB1) had the highest (26.50%) protein content and the least
antinutrient content while Sample AB4 showed the highest value of antinutrients.
However, samples fermented with the three combinations (AB4) had the highest
preference rating. Finally they concluded that fermentation of sorghum-cowpea
formulated weaning blends with combinations of Lactobacillus plantarum and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (AB1) had the highest nutritional contents and the least
antinutrients and may be recommended for good quality weaning food.
Ahmad et al. (2013) prepared the weaning food by incorporating the three levels
of papaya fruit powder and combination of multipurpose flour and milk powder. The
composition and nutritive value of weaning food is based on rice flour, gram flour,
papaya powder and milk powder represented the balanced quantity of protein,
carbohydrate and ash content and these samples were acceptable in sensory evaluation.
The protein content of these weaning food samples were found to be in between 18.42–
19.20%. Thus based on the ranking data, gram flour based weaning foods exhibited a

57
suitable nutritional profile. They can be stored safely in two packaging materials/system
namely; combination film with air packaging system [CF (APS)], pet jar with air
packaging system [PJ (APS)] and combination film with nitrogen flush packaging
[CF(NP)] for more than four month. Till four-month study there was no sign of any
deterioration.
Mohammed Satter et al. (2013) prepared a highly nutritive instant weaning food
in laboratory by using locally available food resources like rice, sugar, skim milk powder,
butter with the aim to ensure the availability of low cost weaning food in Bangladesh.
The developed food was evaluated and compared with three imported commercial
weaning foods (Cerelac wheat – milk as F-1, Cerelac rice- milk as F-2 and Biomil rice-
milk as F-3) for their nutritional characteristics and microbiological quality. The highest
protein efficiency ratio and feed efficiency ratio were shown in the rats feed on the
prepared weaning food than the imported commercial weaning foods. The overall
bacteriological status of the prepared and the imported commercial weaning foods were
observed to be satisfactory. They concluded that the highly nutritive low cost instant
weaning food in laboratory was satisfactory to meet food safety requirement, ensure the
rapid growth of infants and finally, help to reduce malnutrition situation and give extra
support to nourishment for the children of Bangladesh, also costs of the developed
weaning food is considerably cheaper than the three imported commercial weaning foods
of same quality and suitable for low income people of Bangladesh.
Ajiwe and Nwaigbo (2014) prepared weaning foods using locally available
cereals such as maize (Zeamays), millet (Pennisetum glaucum), sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor), wheat (Triticum aestivum) and Legumes such as African yam bean
(Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean), Pigeon Pea
(Cajanus cajan) and Soybean (Glycine max). Twenty composite blends were formulated
in different ratios (cereal:legume) ; 60:30:10, 70:20:10, 50:40:10, 40:50:10 in that order.
The results of antinutritional levels showed that the tannin, trypsin inhibitor, saponin,
phytate, alkaloid and HCN were significantly different at p<0.05 when compared with the
commercial products (Cerelac and Nutrend). Equally, the results of sensory evaluation of
weaning food formulations rated more than average for all sensory attributes. The results
indicated that the overall tested weaning foods could be used to substitute the more

58
expensive commercial products (Cerelac and Nutrend). The study revealed that some of
the weaning food formulations were rich in protein, carbohydrate, energy, fat, iron,
calcium, zinc, phosphorus, sodium, vitamin C and vitamin E. Even though they were low
in potassium, B-vitamins and vitamin A, they are good formulae for infant weaning
foods. Understandably, the higher mineral/vitamin contents of Cerelac and Nutrend could
be attributed to fortification practices normally carried out on such products. Equally,
from the results it became clear that the local formulations compared favorably well with
the commercial products like Cerelac and Nutrend as well as recommended daily dietary
allowance for infants. Frequent feeding on these foods is also recommended to increase
daily intake of these nutrients.
Amol (2014) prepared weaning food from germinated barley, sorghum and
soybean. The heat and trial method were used for all the grains at different soaking and
germination time. The chemical composition of all three grains of barley, sorghum and
soyabean showed there is decrease in ash content, carbohydrate, fat, starch, amylopectin
and falling number and increase in moisture, total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing
sugar, amylose content and protein content; this is due to metabolic activity including
respiration, enzymatic activity, etc. Conclusively the germination of grains increases
nutritional value by reducing the anti-nutritional factors, total calorific value and
desirable degradation and synthesis of nutrients due metabolic activities including
respiration, enzymatic activity and synthesis of new molecules and degradation of
macromolecules.
Kavitha and Parimalavalli (2014) prepared extruded weaning food from flour
blends made with wheat flour, maize flour, green gram and groundnut flour. Material
balance method was used in obtaining the proportions of flour that contained 15%
protein, above 55% carbohydrate and 7% fat as the constraints. The first batch of material
was raw and considered as control. The second and third batch samples were roasted and
germinated respectively. These formulations were extruded at 180 rpm screw speed, 100
± 10℃ die temperature and 15 ± 2 kg/h feed rate in an extruder. They concluded that
roasting and germination process decreased 2-5% of fat, fibre, ash and carbohydrate
content. However improved expansion ratio and length was seen in control sample. The

59
germinated extruded weaning food was better in nutritional composition when compared
to other two samples.
Usman et al. (2016) produced weaning food from the blends of sorghum, malted
sorghum and soybean flour. It showed that sorghum malt flours can be used to improve
the physicochemical and rheological properties of cereal-based weaning food blends.
Both the water holding capacity and viscosity of the blends decreased as the
concentration of malt inclusion was increased. However, the least gelation concentration
of the blends was increased with an increase in the quantity of malt inclusion. Almost all
the pasting factors of the weaning food blends, except the breakdown viscosity, got
reduced with the inclusion of sorghum malt. Specifically, the weaning food blends from
Samsorg 17-(M10) and Hybrid-(M5) could be regarded as appropriate formulations for
developing weaning foods due to the exhibited characteristics of relative low final
viscosity, setback and pasting temperature.

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CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present investigation “Studies on Isolation and Characterization of Some

Important Nutraceutical Components from Orange By-products and its Exploration in
Weaning Food” was carried out in the Department of Food Engineering, College of Food
Technology, VNMKV, Parbhani Maharashtra, India, during the year 2014-17. Details of
materials used and analytical methods employed during the study are presented under
suitable headings and sub-headings.
3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Raw Materials
3.1.1.1 Oranges
Nagpur variety of oranges was obtained from local market of Parbhani district,
Maharashtra. Nagpur oranges are medium size, oblate in shape, with yellowish green to
orange colour skin, which is easily peel able, rind thin, fine texture, good flavor and taste.
The pulp is tender, saffron or orange colored, with excellent blend of sugar acid. Nagpur
orange differs from other oranges due to growth habit, physical-chemical properties and
taste. Nagpur oranges were selected on the above given characteristics in the
geographical indication by Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidhyapeeth, Department of
Horticulture, Akola, Maharashtra.
3.1.1.2 Sorghum
Sorghum was obtained from local market of Parbhani district, Maharashtra.
3.1.1.3 Rice
Rice was obtained from local market of Parbhani district, Maharashtra.
3.1.1.4 Green gram
Green gram was obtained from local market of Parbhani district, Maharashtra.
3.1.1.5 Foxtail millets
Foxtail millet was obtained from local market of Parbhani district, Maharashtra.
3.1.2 Chemicals
Chemicals required for processing of raw materials, preparation and analysis of
formulated products were obtained from Dept. of Food Engineering, Dept. of Food

61
Science and Technology, Dept. of Food Chemistry and Nutrition, Dept. of Food and
Industrial Microbiology and Nutraceuticals Lab, College of Food Technology,
V.N.M.K.V, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India. These chemicals were of analytical grade.
3.1.3 Equipments

The equipments and machineries required in the present investigation were

obtained from College of Food Technology, V.N.M.K.V., Parbhani, Maharashtra.

3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Physicochemical analysis
3.2.1.1 Physical analysis
3.2.1.1.1 Color
Color is the visual property, color of orange peel powder, pomace powder and
prepared weaning food were determined as per the method given by (Jambamma et al.,
2011) using hunter lab Color flex meter where L*, a* and b* values indicates

L*(lightness) axis : Black to white

a*(red to green) axis : Positive values are red , negative values are green, 0-neutral
b*(yellow to blue) axis : positive values are yellow, negative values are blue, 0-neutral
C- chroma,
h- hue
3.2.1.1.2 Geometric Mean Diameter
The geometric mean diameter was calculated by using the relationship
(Mohesenin, 1986)
Geometric mean diameter, Dm= [LBT]1/3
Where, L= longest intercept (Length),
B= longest intercept normal to L (Width) and
T=longest intercept normal to L and B (Thickness)
3.2.1.1.3 Surface area
The surface area were measured (Topuz et al., 2005) by using a formula,
S=πGM 2
Where, S – surface area (mm2),
GM – mean geometrical diameter (mm)

62
3.2.1.1.4 Speherecity
The speherecity is used to describe the shape of the grain. The sphericity was
calculated using the relationship (Mohesenin, 1986)
Sphericity, F = Dm/ L
Where, Dm= Geometric mean diameter and
L= longest intercept (Length)

3.2.1.1.5 1000 seed weight

It was determined by measuring weight of 1000 sorted seeds of each variety on
electronic balance and was expressed in grams

3.2.1.1.6 Porosity
The porosity of the grains all varieties were calculated from values of bulk and
true densities of each variety respectively, using the relationship given by (Mohsenin,
1970).
Porosity = True density-Bulk Density X 100
True density
3.2.1.1.7 Angle of Repose
The height of raw material piled of each variety on a circular disc was measured
and used to calculate the angle of repose (θ) of respective variety, using formula (Razavi
and Milani, 2006).
Angle of repose (θ) = tan -1 (h/r)

Where, h- height of seed piled,

r- radius of circular disc
3.2.1.1.8 Edible index
It is the ratio of edible part to total weight of multiplied by 100. The edible index
was calculated and expressed in percentage.
3.2.1.1.9 Waste index
It is ratio of waste part to total weight of multiplied by 100. The waste index was
calculated and expressed in percentage.

63
3.2.1.2 Proximate analysis
3.2.1.2.1 Determination of moisture content
Moisture content was determined according to method given by (AOAC, 2005).
Sample (2g) was weighed in an aluminum dish and placed in a hot air oven maintaining a
130±1oC for 4 h. it was then cooled to room in a desiccators and loss in weight in
percentage was reported as moisture content.
3.2.1.2.2 Determination of crude Fat
Total fat content was determined according to method given by (AOAC, 2005).
Sample (10g) was weight accurately in a dry thimble and extraction was done by using
petroleum ether (60-80oC boiling range) as solvent for 12 h. the extract was collected in a
previously weighed dry flat bottom flask and the solvent was evaporated over hot water
bath. The flask was dried in an oven at 100oC, cooled and weight was taken. The fat
content expressed as g/100g of sample.
3.2.1.2.3 Determination of crude protein content
The total protein content was determined by micro-Kjeldhal method according to
method given by (AOAC, 2005). Sample (1g) and 1g of digestion mixture was taken in to
Kjeldhal flask. To this 20 ml of sulphuric acid was added and digested until the organic
matter oxidized. The digest cooled and volume was made up to 50 ml with distill water.
An aliquot of 5 ml was taken for steam distillation with 20 ml of 40 per cent
NaOH solution. The liberated ammonia was absorbed in 10 ml 0f 2 per cent boric acid
containing a few drops of mixed indicator. This was titrated against N/70 HCL.
Simultaneously, standard (Ammonium sulphate) was done to estimate the amount of
nitrogen content of the sample. The protein content of the sample was calculated in
percentage using the factor 6.25.
3.2.1.2.4 Determination of carbohydrates
This was essentially performed by method suggested by Ranganna, (2011).The
sample was weighed (0.5 g) accurately in test tube and kept in ice water bath for few
minute followed by the addition of cold H2SO4 (72 per cent) with gentle stirring. The
viscous paste was diluted with distilled water to obtain final concentration 2 N with
respect to acid. It was then refluxed at 98°C for 3-4 hours to achieve complete hydrolysis.
The sugar content was estimated by Phenol-H2SO4method, using glucose as standard.

64
The orange yellow color was read at 480 nm on spectrophotometer. From the calibrated
curve the concentration of sugar in hydrolysate was calculated and per cent total sugar in
the sample was quantified Ranganna, (2011).
3.2.1.2.5 Determination of crude fiber content
Crude fiber content was determined according to method given by (AOAC,
2005). Sample (2g) was taken in to a digestion flask, 200 ml of 1.25% sulphuric acid was
added, connecting to a condenser and was boiled for 30 min. it was filter immediately
through a linen cloth and washed with near boiling water until free of acid. To the
residue, 200 ml of NaOH solution (1.25%) was added connecting to a condenser and
boiled for 30 min. followed by immediately filter through a sintered crucible and washed
thoroughly with near boiling water to remove alkali. Finally residue was washed with
alcohol followed by ether. Then drying was done at 100oC and weight was taken. The
sintered crucible was transferred to muffle furnace and the material was made in ash and
weight was determine. The crude fiber in percentage of original sample was calculated.
3.2.1.2.6 Determination of Ash content
Ash content was determined according to method given by (AOAC, 2005). The
orange peel powder and pomace were accurately weight in a clean silica crucible. The
content of the crucible was dried on a hot plate (100-200oC). The temperature of the
muffle furnace was slowly raise to 250-300oC. After it the temperature was again raised
to 550oC. The weight of crucible with its ash content was recorded and the ash content
was calculated and expressed as percentage of original sample.
3.2.2 Phytochemicals analysis
3.2.2.1 Alkaloid determination
Five gram of the sample was weighed into a 250 ml beaker and 200 ml of 10%
acetic acid in ethanol was added and allowed to stand for 4minutes, this was filtered and
extract was concentrated on a water bath to one quarter of the original volume.
Concentrated ammonium hydroxide added drop wise to the extract until the precipitation
was completed. The whole solution was allowed to settle and the precipitate was
collected and washed with dilute ammonium hydroxide and then filtered. The residue
was alkaloid which was dried and weighed (Harbone, 1973).

65
 Alkaloid (%) = W3-W2
X 100
W1
Where, W1 =initial weight of sample,
W2 =weight of the extract and
W3 = final weight of the residue
3.2.2.2 Total Flavonoid Determination
Ten gram of the sample was extracted repeatedly with 100ml of 80% aqueous
methanol at room temperature. The whole solution was filtered using Whatman filter
paper No. 42 (125 mm). The filtrate was transferred into crucible and evaporated into
dryness over water bath and weighed to a constant weight (Bohm, 1994).
3.2.2.3 Tannin determination
Finely grounded sample was weighed (0.2g) into a 50 ml sample bottle. Ten of
70% aqueous acetone was added and properly covered. The bottle was put in an ice bath
shaker and shaken for 2 hrs at 300oC. The solution was then centrifuge and the
supernatant stored in ice, 0.2 ml of the solution was pipette into the test tube and 0.8 ml
of distilled water was added. Standard tannin acid solution was prepared from a 0.5mg/ml
of the stock and the solution made up to 1ml with distilled water, 0.5 ml of
Folinciocateau reagent was added to the sample and standard followed by 2.5 ml of 20%
Na2CO3 the solution was then vortexed and allowed to incubate for 40 min at room
temperature, its absorbance was read at 725 nm against a reagent blank concentration of
the same solution from a standard tannic acid curve prepared (Markkar, 1996).
3.2.2.4 Saponin determination
Two gram of the finely grinded sample was weighed into a 250 ml beaker and
100 ml of Isobutyl alcohol was added. Shaker was used to shake the mixture for 5hours
to ensure uniform mixing. The mixture was filtered using No 1 Whatman filter paper into
100 ml beaker containing 20 ml of 40% saturated solution of magnesium carbonate. The
mixture obtained again was filtered using Whatman filter paper No 1 to obtain a clean
colorless solution. One (1 ml) was added into 50 ml volumetric flask using pipette, 2 ml
of 5% iron (iii) chloride (FeCl3) solution was added and made up to the mark with
distilled water. It was allowed to stand for 30 min for the colour to develop. The
absorbance was read against the blank at 380 nm (Bruneton, 1999).

66
 Saponin = Absorbance of sample x concentration of stndard
_
Absorbance of standard 1

3.2.3 Determination of Total Polyphenol Content

Preparation of acetone extract
Orange and pomace were obtained from peel and pomace was homogenized with
chilled phosphate buffer (0.05M, pH 7.5) USING a homogenizer. The homogenate was
made up to 80% acetone with respect to acetone by adding chilled acetone and mixed
thoroughly and filtered using cheesecloth. The residue was washed with 80% chilled
acetone, filtered and air dried (acetone powder). The filtrates (80% acetone extract) were
combined and kept in 40C for further studies. The extractability of 80% ethyl alcohol
forth extraction of bioactive compounds from orange and pomace peel also carried out in
the same way using ethyl alcohol instead of acetone.
The 80% acetone extract used for the estimation of total phenolic compounds,
anthocyanin and carotenoid contents and evaluated for antioxidant activity. The dried
powder obtained after filtering was used for the estimation of dietary fiber and enzymes
Determination of total phenolics content
Orange and pomace peel extracts 80% acetone, 80% ethanol and 0.05M sodium
phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) were centrifuged for 15 min at 10,000Xg. The clear
supernatants obtained were subjected to total polyphenol estimation using the method of
Swain and Hills (1959). The 0.5 ml of extract, 4.5 ml of ethanol was added and to this 0.5
ml phenol reagent (Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, diluted 1:2 with water) was added and the
contents were incubated at room temperature for 3 min to this 1 ml of saturated Na2Co3
was added and the reaction mixture was incubated at room temperature for 60 min. The
absorbance was recorded at 675 nm, Gallic acid was used as a standard. The total
polyphenol content in the extract was expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE).
3.2.4 Analysis of Minerals
Mineral content of food was estimated by method given by (Ranganna, 1986).
3.2.4.1 Estimation of Potassium
It was determined by using flame photometric technique. The sample for
potassium estimation was digested using HClO4 and HNO3. The 0.5 g sample was taken.

67
In that, 5 ml HNO3 was added and kept overnight. Next day, again 5 ml HNO3 was added
and sample digested by boiling on gas burner. Boiling continued till color changes to
colorless. The volume digested made 100 ml by adding distilled water and potassium was
estimated by flame photometer.
Volume of digest 100
Potassium (%) = Reading (ppm) X ----------------------- X ------------
Weight of sample 1000000
3.2.4.2 Estimation of Calcium
Titrometric determination of calcium was done. Aliquot of 25 ml of mineral
solution was taken and diluted to 150 ml with distilled water. 2-3 drops of methyl red
indicator was added in it. Strong ammonia was added to neutralize the solution which
changes pink to yellow. Then the mixture was allowed to boil for few minutes and 10 ml
of ammonium oxalate was added. Mixture was again boiled for 2 minutes and glacial
acetic acid was added till the color become pink. The mixture was kept aside in warm
place (overnight) and when precipitate settled down, the supernatant was tested with a
drop of ammonium oxalate to ensure the completion of precipitation. Precipitate was then
filtered with Whatman No.4 filter paper and washed with warm distilled water. The
contents were filtered through filter paper and given washings of warm distilled water.
The precipitate was transferred to a beaker by making a hole in the centre of filter paper
and by giving washings of H2SO4 (2 N, 5ml) twice. Then solution was heated to 700C and
titrated against N/100 KMnO4. The end point of titration was persistent pink colour.
Simultaneously a blank was also run.
1 ml of 0.01N KMnO4 = 0.2004 mg calcium
3.2.4.3 Estimation of Phosphorous
It was done by spectrophotometric method. 5 ml of ash solution was obtained by
dry ashing. 5 ml of molybdate reagent was added into ash solution and mix. Then 2 ml of
aminonaphthol sulphonic acid solution was mixed and made volume up to 50 ml. A
similar blank was prepared using water in place of sample. The solutions were allowed to
stand for 10 minute and colour was measured at 650 nm by setting the blank at 100 per
cent transmission.

68
 mg of phosphorous in aliquot x total volume of x 100
taken for estimation ash solution
Phosphorous (mg/100g) =
ml of ash solution taken for estimation x weight of sample

3.2.4.4 Estimation of Magnesium

Magnesium was estimated by colorimeteric method. Measure 10 ml of ash
solution into a 15 ml graduated centrifuge tube. Add 1 drop of methyl red indicator.
Neutralize solution with NH4OH and ammonium oxalate and make the solution to a
volume of 13 ml. Mix and allow to stand overnight. Centrifuge for 10 min. and discard
precipitate. Measure 1 ml of the supernatant liquid from above into a 15 ml centrifuge
tube. Add 3 ml of water, 1 ml of ammonium phosphate and 2 ml of NH 4OH. Mix and
allow standing overnight. Centrifuge for 7 min, discard the supernatant liquid, mix with 5
ml of dilute NH4OH, centrifuge for 7 min and discard supernatant liquid. Dry the
precipitate by placing the tube to container of hot water. Add 1 ml of dilute HCl and 5 ml
of water to dissolve the precipitate. Add 1 ml of molybdic acid solution, 0.5 ml
hydroquinone and 0.5 ml sodium sulphite solution. Mix and allow standing for 30 min.
Transfer the solution to colorimeter tube and read the absorbance in a colorimeter using a
No. 66 red filter. Set the instrument scale at zero with scale.
3.2.4.5 Estimation of Iron
It was done by orthophenanthroline method. 5 ml of acid extract was pipette out
in 25 ml volumetric flask. 1 ml of hydroxylamine hydrochloride was added in it. After 5
min 5 ml of acetate buffer and 1 ml of phenanthroline reagent was added. Volume was
made 25 ml with distil water and color was read on spectrophotometer at 550 nm with
standard solution.
3.2.5 Analysis of Vitamin Content
3.2.5.1 Determination of vitamin A
About 10 g of sample was homogenized, weighed and transferred into a ground
bottom flask, 30 ml of extraction solution, 0.1 per cent antioxidant and few drops of KOH
were added and reflux for 30 min at 70°C. The sample was cool down, vitamin A was
extracted into hexane, and the combined hexane extract was washed with water and then
dried the hexane layer to about 2 ml on a water bath or rotary evaporator. The final

69
volume was made up to 50 ml with the mobile phase. The mobile phase, standard and
sample were filtered through 0.45 μ membrane filter and were degassed before injection.
Calibration curve was made by a standard in mobile phase with five point calibrations
and analyzed independently by HPLC. A standard curve was plotted between the
concentration of vitamin A and peak area obtained. For HPLC analysis, an Elipse × BD –
C18 column (4.6 × 250 mm 5 μm) was used with a linear gradient of methanol: water
(95:5) at constant flow rate of 1 ml /min by using a binary pump with column
temperature 40°C. A multiple wavelength detector was employed for the detection o of
pecks using a wavelength of 325 nm and a bandwidth of 8 nm (Mohammed Satter et al.,
2013).
3.2.5.2 Estimation of Vitamin C
Ascorbic acid content was determined by titration of a known weight of sample
with 2, 6-dichlorophenol indophenol dye using oxalic acid (AOAC, 2000). The 2, 6-
dichlorophenol dye which is blue in alkaline solution and red in acid solution reduces
ascorbic acid to a colorless form. Ascorbic acid was expressed as mg/100g by using given
formula.
Dye Factor = 0.5/ Titre
Titre x Dye factor x Volume made up x 100
Ascorbic acid =

(mg/100g) Aliquot of extract taken x Wt. or volume of sample

for estimation taken for estimation
3.2.5.3 Estimation of Vitamin E
This was determined spectrophotometrically using a modified standard method of
(AOAC, 2005). Into 3 stoppered centrifuge tube, 1.5 ml of peel and pomace extract 1.5
ml of standard and 1.5 ml of water were pipette out separately. To all the tubes 1.5 ml
xylene were added, mixed well and centrifuged at 300 rpm xylene (10ml) layer was
transferred in to another stoppered tube. To each tube 1.0 ml of dipydiryl reagent was
added and mixed well. The mixture (1.5 ml) was pipette out in to cuvette and the
extinction was read at 460 nm (A460). Ferric chloride solution (0.33 ml) was added to all
the tubes and mixed well. The red colour develop was readily extract after 15 minutes at
520 nm (A520) in a visible spectrophotometer.

70
3.2.6 Estimation and characterization of dietary fiber
Determination Soluble and insoluble dietary fiber
The dietary fiber estimation was done by an enzymatic gravimetric method (Asp
et al., 9183). Fresh peel /peel acetone powder (0.5g) was homogenized in 20 ml of
sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.0). Alpha-amylase enzyme (Termamyl) 50 ml was added
and incubated at 500C for 30 min with occasional stirring. The contents were cooled to
room temperature, 10 ml water was added and pH was adjusted to 1.5 with 4N HCL. To
this mixture, pepsin (50 mg) was added and incubated in a shaking water bath at 37oC for
1 hr. The contents were again cooled to room temperature; 10 ml of water was added and
adjusted the pH to 6.8 with 4N NaOH solution. To this mixture, pancreation (50 mg) was
added and incubated for 1h at 370C. The contents were cooled and adjusted the pH to 4.5
with 4N HCL and filtered through a dried and weighed crucible containing 0.5g of celite
(Drying and weighing of crucible was done by adding 0.5g of celite into the crucible and
washing it with 20 ml of 95% ethanol and 20 ml of acetone. It was then dried in oven at
1050C for 30 min and weighed).
The residue (Insoluble fiber) retained on the crucible, washed with 20 ml of 95%
ethanol and 20 ml of acetone, the crucible was dried at 1050 C overnight and weight was
taken.
To the filtrate (Soluble fiber), four volumes of 95% ethanol was added and kept at
room temperature for one hour for precipitation. The precipitate was filtered through a
dried and weighed crucible containing of celite as described earlier and washed with 20
ml of 95% ethanol and 20 ml of acetone. Crucibles were dried at 1050 C for overnight
and weight was taken. The crucibles were incinerated at 5000C in a muffle furnace for 8
hrs. Blank was processed as above without sample for both soluble and insoluble dietary
fibre analysis.
3.2.7 Functional Properties Determination
3.2.7.1 Density
The density was calculated by filling the approximate 1 g of ground sample in a
burette containing toluene. Then raised in toluene level was measured and an average of
two reading of true density was calculated as

71
 Weight of ground sample
3
Density (kg/m ) =
Rise in toluene level
3.2.7.2 Bulk Density (B.D)
The method of Onwuka (2005) was used. Ten grams of each sample was
measured into a clean 100 ml graduated measuring cylinder and its volume was recorded
in each case. Then in each case, the bottom of the cylinder was tapped repeatedly on a
padded table until no further reduction was seen in volume. Its volume was recorded as
the packed volume. The bulk density was calculated for both the loose and packed
version using the general formula below:
Weight of sample (g)
Bulk Density (g/cm3) = ----------------------------------
Volume occupied (cm3)
3.2.7.3 Determination of Dispersability
Dispersability was measured by placing 10 gm of the sample in 100 ml stoppered
measuring cylinder, adding distilled water to reach a volume of 100 ml, stirring
vigorously, and allowing it to settle for three hours. The volume of settled particles was
subtracted from 100 and the difference was reported as percentage dispersability.
3.2.7.4 Determination of Water Absorption Capacity (WAC)
Water absorption capacity is defined as the quantity of water that is bound to the
fibers without the application of any external force (except for gravity and atmospheric
pressure).
Accurately weighed dry sample (1g) was taken in a graduated test tube; around 30
ml of water was added and hydrated for 18 h. The supernatant was removed by passing
through sintered glass crucible under vacuum. The hydrated residue weight was recorded
and it was dried at 105°C for 2 h to obtain residual dry weight.
Residue hydrated weight - Residue dry weight
Water Absorption Capacity (g/g) = -------------------------------------------------------------
Residue dry weight
3.2.7.5 Determination of Swelling Capacity
Swelling capacity was determined by the method described by Takashi and Sieb,
(1988). 3-5 g complementary diets were weighed into tarred 50 ml centrifuge tube. About

72
30 ml distilled water was added and mixed gently. The slurry was heated in a water bath
at 950C for 30 min. During heating, the slurry was stirred gently to prevent clumping of
the sample. On completion of the 30 min, the tube containing the paste was centrifuged at
3000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was decanted immediately after centrifugation. The
tubes were dried at 500C for 30 minutes, cooled and then weighed (W2). Centrifuge tubes
containing sample alone were weighed prior to adding distilled water (W1).
W2 (g)-W1 (g)
Swelling Capacity = ------------------------------------
Weight of sample (g)
3.2.7.6 Determination of Oil Absorption Capacity
The sample (1.0 g) was mixed with 10 ml refined soybean oil, kept at ambient
temperature for 30 min and centrifuged for 10 min at 2,000×g (Sosulski et al., 1976 and
Baljeet et al., 2014).
3.2.7.7 Determination of Solubility Index
Solubility index of the complementary diets was determined in triplicates by the
method of Leach et al. (1959) as modified by Okoli (1998). One gram sample was
suspended in 50 ml distilled water in a clean dry beaker. The suspension was
mechanically stirred at a rate sufficient to keep the sample completely suspended. The
beaker was placed in a thermostatic water bath with the temperature set at 60oC for 30
min with gentle stirring. The stirrer was subsequently removed and rinsed with distilled
water to bring the total water content to 60 ml. The mixture was then centrifuged at 4000
g. The supernatant was decanted into tarred evaporating dish. It was thereafter
evaporating to dryness at 120oC. The percentage of soluble extract from the sample was
calculated on dry weight basis.
3.2.8 Extraction and analysis of orange peel oil
3.2.8.1 Extraction of orange peel oil
Extraction of orange peel oil was carried out by the method summarized by
(Nickavar et al., 2003). In search of getting maximum yield of oil, the peels were
extracted for different periods of time (60,100,140,180 and 240 min) and the other
parameters viz. amount of orange peel (60 g) and quantity of solvent (150 ml) are kept
constant. 60 g of peel were crushed and extracted with petroleum ether (60-80oC) for

73
60,100,140, 180 and 240 min in a soxhlet apparatus. The extract was concentrated under
reduced pressure under vacuum drier. The extracted oil was stored in dark place at room
temperature.
3.2.8.2 Physical analysis of orange peel essential oil
Physiochemical analysis of orange peel oil was done as per the methods given by
(Njoku and Evbuomwan, 2014).
3.2.8.2.1 Determination of specific gravity of orange peel essential oil
Density bottle was used for determining the density of the oil. A clean and dry
bottle of 25 ml capacity was weighed (W0) and then filled with the orange peel oil,
stopper inserted and reweighed to give (W1). The oil was substituted with water after
washing and drying the bottle and weighed to give (W2). The specific gravity is
expressed in terms of ratio of oil to water.
3.2.8.2.2 Determination of refractive index of citrus peel essential oil
The Abb's refractometer was used for the determination of refractive index. It
gives values up to the 4th decimal place. The refractive index is denoted by nD 25”
where n is the refractive index at 25°C taken with sodium light (D-line). First, the
refractometer was standardized with distilled water which has refractive index of nD 29.5
= 1.3315. Then it was cleaned with acetone and dried with cotton. After this, a drop of
orange peel essential oil was placed between the prisms of refractometer. The telescope
was rotated to bring the border line of total refraction to the junction of cross-wire in the
telescope. The refractive index was recorded at room temperature.
3.2.8.2.3 Determination of specific extinction of citrus peel essential oil
Specific extinction of oil is a measure of degree of oxidation and emulsification.
Orange peel oil specific extinction was measured at 232 and 270 nm.
3.2.8.2.4 Determination of the solubility of citrus peel essential oil
Approximately 6 drops of water was added to the test tube containing 3 drops of
orange peel essential oil. The test tube was stirred thoroughly with a glass stirring rod.
Two separate phases was observed. The pH of the water was measured to determine if the
essential oil is partially soluble in water and whether it has changed the pH of the water.
It was observed that the pH paper did not change color. Thus, the orange peel essential oil

74
is a water insoluble compound. Solubility of citrus peel essential oil in Ethanol and
Isopropyl alcohol was determined by the same procedure.
3.2.8.3 Chemical analysis of orange peel oil
3.2.8.3.1 Determination of Iodine value of orange peel oil
0.2 g of oil was taken in 500 ml conical flask. To this 20 ml of chloroform was
added and oil was completely dissolved. This solution was kept in dark for 30 min. To
this, 20 ml of KI solution was added and was mixed well. Titration was done against
0.1N Na2S2O3 solution using starch as an indicator with vigorous shaking to extract
iodine from the chloroform layer. Blank was conducted similarly in absence of oil.

A x N x 0.1269 x 100
Iodine number = ------------------------------
Weight of oil
Where, A= ml of Na2S2O3
N=Normality of Na2S2O3
3.2.8.3.2 Determination of peroxide value of orange peel oil
30 ml of acetic acid chloroform solution was measured into a flask containing 2 g
of the oil sample. A 0.5 ml saturated solution of potassium iodide was then added,
followed closely by the addition of 30 ml of distilled water. The flask content was then
titrated against 0.1M sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) until the yellow colour almost
disappeared. 0.5 ml starch indicator was added and the titration continued until the end-
point (where the blue black color just disappeared). A blank titration was also performed.
Where, S and B represent sample and blank titrations respectively.
The peroxide value is thus calculated,
A x N x 100
Peroxide value = --------------------------
(meq/kg oil) weight of oil
Where, A= ml Na2S2O3 (Test-Blank)
N= Normality of Na2S2O3 solution
3.2.8.3.3 Determination of saponification value of orange peel oil
5.3716 g of orange peel essential oil were weighed into a conical flask separately.
25 ml of 0.1N ethanolic potassium hydroxide was added to the conical flask and content
constantly stirred for 1 hr followed by reflux. Phenolphthalein indicator was then added

75
to the conical flask and titrated with 0.5M HCl till the solution changes to colorless. The
same procedure was repeated for the blank.
3.2.8.3.4 Determination of acid value of orange peel oil
25 ml of diethyl ether and 25 ml of ethanol was mixed in a 250 ml beaker. The
resulting mixture was added to 5.0858 g orange peel essential oil in a 250 ml conical
flask and few drops of phenolphthalein were added to the mixture. The mixture was then
titrated with 0.1M KOH to the end point with consistent shaking for which a dark pink
color was observed and the volume of 0.1M KOH (V) was noted.
Titre value x Normality of KOH x 56.1
Acid value = ---------------------------------------------------
(mg KOH/g) weight of sample
3.2.8.3.5 Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value of orange peel oil
TBA value of orange peel oil was measured by standard method (Ronald, 2001)
Prepare sample TBA
1. 50 to 200 mg oil sample was accurately weighed into a 25 ml volumetric flask.
Sample was dissolved in a small amount of 1-butanol and bringed to volume with 1-
butanol. Mixing of solution was done thoroughly.
Perform TBA reaction
2. 5.0 ml of sample solution was transferred to a dry screw-cap glass test tube. Add 5.0
ml of 0.2% TBA in 1-butanol was added and the tube was capped. A reagent blank
was prepared (i.e., 5.0 ml each of 1-butanol and 0.2% TBA) at the same time.
3. Vortex and incubated for 2 hr in a 95°C water bath.
4. Tubes were removed from the bath and cooled under running tap water for 10 min
(until they reach room temperature).
Measure sample absorbance
5. Spectrophotometer was turn on and wavelength was set to 532 nm. The instrument
was allowed to warm up ≥30 min before taking any readings.
6. Zero spectrophotometer with the reagent blank and then absorbance was measure of
the test sample using a glass cuvette.

76
Prepare standard curve
7. A series of aliquots were transferred (0.1 to 1 ml) of 0.2 mM TMP prepared in 1-
butanol to separate 25-ml volumetric flasks, and filled each to the mark with 1-
butanol.
8. The TBA reaction was performed (steps 2 to 4).
9. Meas Absorbance of each standard was measured at 532 nm and plot against moles
malonaldehyde in the reaction (5-ml aliquot added in step 2). Determine the slope of
this curve.
Determine TBA value
10. Calculate K, a constant derived from the assay, using the following equation:
(mol malonaldehyde/5 ml) x malonaldehyde mol. wt. × DF × 106
A532
K = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
m
where, (mol malonaldehyde/5 ml) A532 is represented by 1/slope of the standard curve
(step 9), the mol. wt. of malonaldehyde is 72.03 g/mol, DF is the dilution factor, 10 6
converts the units so that results can be expressed as mg malonaldehyde eq/g sample and
m is the sample mass (in mg).
11. The TBA value was calculated using the following equation, which expresses the
result as mg malonaldehyde eq/g oil:
TBA value = K x A532
Where, A532 is the absorbance of the test sample at 532 nm.
12. Alternatively, TBA value was calculated according to the AOCS method, which
expresses the result as the increase of absorbance measured at 532 nm due to the
reaction of the equivalent 1 mg of sample per 1 ml volume with TBA.
(50 × A532)
TBA value = -------------------
m

77
Where, the factor 50 is based on the volume from a 25-ml volumetric flask and a cuvette
path length of 1 cm, A532 is the absorbance of the test solution (already corrected based
on reagent blank), and m is the mass (in milligrams) of the test sample (A.O.A.C., 1990).
3.2.9 Determination of Fatty Acid composition of orange peel oil
Fatty acid profile of the orange peel oil was determined by using Gas
chromatography. Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAMES) was prepared according to method
of Morrison and smith, (1964). Orange peel oil (10-20 mg) was saponified for 1 hour
with 1 ml of methanolic KOH (0.7 N) at 60oC followed by neutralization with 1 ml of
methanolic HCl (0.7 N). The resulting free fatty aid were extracted in hexane and
evaporated to dryness. The fatty acid was methylated using boron trifluoride (14 per cent
methanol) and 0.2 ml benzene. The FAME was extracted in hexane, washed with water
and evaporated to dryness. Fatty acid analysis was performed using gas-liquid
chromatograph (Shimadzu, GC-14B, Shimadzu Corporation, Japan) fitted with a fused
silica capillary column (BP 21:30 m length, 0.30 mm and 0.50 µm film thickness). The
GC was equipped with flame ionizing detector, clarity Lite 420 integrated and at
isothermal conditions. The column temperature was set at 220oC, the injector temperature
at 230oC and the detector temperature at 240oC. Nitrogen gas was used as a carrier gas
with a flow rate of 1 ml/min. individual fatty acid in orange peel oil were identified by
comparison with the retention times of standard fatty acid methyl esters.

78
3.3 Preparation of weaning food
3.3.1 Preparation of orange peel powder
The weaning food was prepared by selecting the local varieties of the sorghum,
green gram, foxtail millets and rice, to which different quantities of the orange peel
powder and orange pomace powder was added.
Orange fruits

Cleaning and washing

Removal of peel

Cutting the peel in small pieces

Extraction of Peel oil Defatted peel

Spread in the cabinet tray

HDPE at the bottom

Drying (60- 650C; for 16-18 hr)

Grinding and sieving

Orange peel powder

Flowchart 1: Preparation of orange peel powder

79
3.3.2 Preparation of orange pomace powder
Orange pomace was obtained by washing and extraction of juice using juice
extractor. Orange pomace was washed twice with warm water (30°C). Washing was done
to reduce free sugar and ash content (Larrauri, 1999). Orange pomace was then spread on
aluminium trays and dried in cabinet drier. Drying bed thickness was 0.5 cm. Drying was
carried out at 60oC for 7 hrs. Dry pomace was pulverized using domestic grinder and
sifted through sieve of 250 μm particle size and packed in airtight polypropylene jar and
stored in cool and dry place.
Orange

Washing

Peeling

Extraction of Juice

Orange juice

Pomace

Washing twice with water (30°C)

Spreading on aluminium trays (0.5 cm bed thickness)

Drying (60oC for 7 hours)

Dry Pomace

Pulverization using domestic grinder

Sifting (250 μm particle size)

Packing in airtight polypropylene jar

Flowchart 2: Preparation of orange pomace powder

80
3.3.3 Process (flow sheet) for preparation of orange waste based weaning food

Procured sorghum Procured rice Procured green gram Procured foxtail millet

Cleaning Cleaning Cleaning Cleaning

Sorting and grading Sorting and grading Sorting and grading Sorting and grading

Malting and roasting Malting and roasting Malting and roasting Roasting

Ground to fine flour Ground to fine flour Ground to fine flour Ground to fine flour

Flour blending
(30:20:20:20:)

Addition of orange waste powder (peel and pomace in 1:1) at

different level (10, 20 and 30 per cent)
Addition of water

Make slurry containing 16% solids

Precooking for 15 min. at 850C

Roller drying at 50 Psi

Film crushing

Skim milk Sieving

powder Sugar (15 per cent)
10 per cent
Dry mixing

Packaging

Flowchart 3: Preparation of orange waste based weaning food

81
3.3.4 Roasted weaning food
The raw material used for the preparation of weaning food viz; Sorghum, green
gram, foxtail millet and rice were cleaned and sorted. Roasting was done at 70-80oC for
the time of 10-12 minute in a stainless steel pan at low flame to avoid the burning of the
grains. Roasting was followed by grinding in the electrical grinder to make fine flour and
sieved by 60 mesh sieves. Roasting give a pleasant flavor to flour (Salve et al., 2011).
The weaning food was prepared as per the method given by (Amankwah et al., 2009 and
Annan and Plahar, 1995).
Sorghum, Green gram, Rice and Foxtail millets

Cleaning

Sorting and grading

Roasting (70-80oC 10-12 min)

Grinding

Sieving (60 mesh)

Sorghum Flour (30%) Green gram Flour (20%) Rice Flour (20%) Foxtail Flour (20%)

Flour Blending

Addition of orange waste powder @ 10,20,30%

Addition of water, milk powder (10%)

Make slurry of 16% solids

Precooking 15 min at 85oC

Slurry

Weaning food

Flowchart 4: Preparation of roasted weaning food

82
3.3.5 Malted weaning food
The flour samples prepared by taking 500 g of sorghum, foxtail millet, green
gram and rice were sterilized by soaking in ethanol 2% for 1 min. The grains then soaked
in tap water for 12 h at room temperature. The soaked seeds were germinated in petri
dishes with wet cotton at dark place. Two layers of wet paper towels were used to cover
the seeds to prevent rapid moisture loss. They were germinated at 33.5 ± 2°C and watered
2 to 3 times a day for 60 h. The sprouts were washed and dried at 130°C for 1 h in an
electric oven. The dried sprouts were ground in a hammer mill and sieved with a 60 mesh
screen. The flour was put, in triplicates, into polyethylene bags and packed in a glass
container. They were stored in a refrigerator at 4°C until nutritional analysis. The
weaning food is prepared according to the process given by (Bisla et al., 2012 and
Tehseen et al., 2014).
Sorghum, Green gram, Rice and Foxtail millets

Cleaning

Sorting and grading

Soaking (12 hr at 30±20C)

Germination (60 hr at33.5±20C)

Drying (8 hr at 60±20C)

Dehulling

Grinding

Sieving (60 mesh)

Sorghum Flour (30%) Green gram Flour(20%) Rice Flour (20%) Foxtail Flour (20%)

Flour Blending

Addition of orange waste powder @ 10,20,30%

83
 Addition of water, milk powder

Make slurry of 16% solids

Precooking 15 min at 85oC

Slurry

Weaning food
Flowchart 5: Preparation of malted weaning food

3.4 Standardization of recipe for formulation of weaning food with fortification

of orange waste
Table 1. Standardization of recipe for formulation of weaning food with fortification
of orange waste
Sorghum Rice Green Foxtail Orange
Flour Flour gram Millet waste
Weaning Food
(g) (g) Flour (g) (g)
(g)
Control 30 20 20 20 -----

30 20 20 20 10
Sample I
30 20 20 20 20
Sample II
30 20 20 20 30
Sample III

3.5 Rheological characteristics (Cold and hot paste viscosity) of orange waste based
weaning food
Paste viscosity of developed orange waste based weaning food was determined by
using Brookfield Viscometer (Model DV-3).
The prepared energy food was reconstituted with milk at 15 per cent solid
concentration and heated on water bath up to 85oC. Viscosity was measured by
Brookfield and it was expressed as hot paste viscosity. Cold paste viscosity was measured
without heating (Malleshi and Desikachar, 1982). The prepared 15 per cent solid

84
concentration of orange waste based weaning food was taken in a beaker and this beaker
was placed below the Brookfield viscometer at proper position. For measurement of paste
viscosities spindle no. 64 was used and the spindle was rotated from 10 to 100 rpm (shear
rate) and finally the digital reading of viscosity in centipoises was observed on the screen
of Brookfield viscometer.
3.6 Sensory qualities of weaning food prepared with orange waste
The sensory evaluation of prepared weaning food was carried out by a 10 member
semi-trained panel comprised of postgraduate students and academic staff members of
the faculty who had some previous experience in sensory evaluation of bakery products.
The panel members were requested in measuring the terms identifying sensory
characteristics and in use of the score. Judgments were made through rating products on a
9 point Hedonic scale with corresponding descriptive terms ranging from 9 ‘like
extremely’ to 1 ‘dislike extremely’ (Amerine et al., 1980).
3.7 Microbiological analysis
Microbiological analysis for weaning food was carried out by the method of
(Ranganna, 1986). One gram of each sample was taken; in to this 9 ml of 0.5% saline was
added and then further diluted to four folds. 1 ml of each appropriate solution was plated
in required medium (Nutrient agar media and potato dextrose agar media) and then
incubation was carried out. In each count after incubation, the average count of colonies
present on petri plates were multiplied by dilution factor and expressed as cfu (colony
forming unit)/ g of sample.
3.7.1 Total plate count
The total plate count of weaning food was determined by using simply a total
palte count agar containing 10 per cent (w/w) salt. The pour plate technique was used for
the isolation of bacteria. The dilution was made up to 10-5 and I ml of aliquot was used
for the isolation. All process was carried out strictly in a sterile area with the help of
laminar air flow. Plates were incubated at 37oC for 48 hrs, and results noted in cfu/ml.
3.7.2 Yeast and mold count
The yeast and mould count of sample was determined by using Potato Dextrose
Agar (PDA) and the pour plate technique was used for the isolation. The media was
sterilized and poured into plates. The dilutions of sample were made upto 10-5 and then 1

85
ml of aliquot was used. Plates were incubated at 370C for 48 h, and results noted in
cfu/ml.
3.7.3 Coliform count
The Coliform and basically E. Coli is the indicator microbes of water
contamination by feces and therefore it is mandatory to examine the contamination. The
Coliform gives red oink colonies on VRB agar so it was used for examination. Using the
pour plate technique, appropriately 1 ml aliquots was taken in duplicate plate and
tempered VRB agar was added. The agar was allowed to solidify, and then overlay of
about ml of VRB agar was added. Plates were inverted and incubated at 35oC for 24
hours and coliform count noted.
3.8 Theoretical energy value
Energy value of finished product was estimated on the basis of per cent chemical
composition and was expressed as Kcal/100g (Gopalan et al., 2011).
3.9 Techno-Economical Feasibility of weaning food
The cost of production of weaning food was calculated by considering the raw
materials cost, processing cost, admissible cost and miscellaneous cost.
3.10 Statistical analysis
All processing equipments and analysis of samples were run in triplicate. Analysis
of variance was calculated using standard ANOVA procedure. The data obtained for
various treatments was recorded and statistically analyzed by complete randomized
design (CRD) to find out the level of significance as per the method proposed by (Panse
and Sukhatme, 1967). The analysis of variance revealed at significance at P< 0.05 level.
The standard error (SE) and critical difference (CD) at 5 % level were mentioned where
required.

86
CHAPTER IV

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In the present investigation sincere efforts have been carried out for the studies on
isolation, characterization of some important nutraceutical components from orange by-
products and its exploration in weaning food. The efforts were also made for extraction
of orange peel oil by using soxhlets extraction method at various time intervals. The
physiochemical characteristics, mineral and vitamins compositions, phytochemical
contents, fatty acid profile of orange peel, pomace powder and peel oil were analyzed.
Raw materials which were used for formulation of weaning food viz sorghum, rice, green
gram and foxtail millets were analyzed for their physicochemical characteristics and
mineral content. Also physico-chemical, phytochemicals, rheological, functional,
microbial and sensory evaluation of prepared weaning food was carried out.
Data generated during this investigation are tabulated and statistically analyzed.
The results obtained are discussed under following suitable headings and subheadings.
4.1 Physical characteristics of oranges
Physical specifications of agricultural products constitute the most important
parameters needed in the design of grading, transfer, processing and packaging systems.
Physical specifications, mechanical, electrical, thermal, light, acoustic and chemical
properties are among properties of useful engineering applications. From among the
physical specifications of agricultural product: mass, volume and centre of gravity are of
high importance in sizing systems (Safwat and Moustafa, 1971). Parameters measurable
through sizing systems are: dimensions (length, width, and height), surface area and
weight (Khojastehpour, 1996).
Different physical characteristics of oranges were studied and the results
pertaining the same are presented in table 2.

86
Table 2. Physical characteristics of oranges
Grade of oranges
Physical property Large Medium Small
Length (mm) 90.08 ± 3.50 83.01 ± 3.50 76.20 ± 3.50
Width (mm) 85.00 ± 2.50 77.93 ± 2.50 69.78 ± 2.50
Thickness (mm) 84.20 ± 2.50 75.25 ± 2.50 68.10 ± 2.50
Geometric mean diameter 85.11 ± 2.50 77.28 ± 2.50 70.18 ± 2.50
(mm)
Surface area (mm2) 21.1 ± 1 x103 18.4 ± 1 x103 15.2 ± 1 x103
True density (g cm-3) 0.99 ± 0.50 1.07 ± 0.50 1.09 ± 0.50
Bulk density (g cm-3) 0.38 ± 0.05 0.44 ± 0.05 0.43 ± 0.05
*Each value is average of three determinations
From the table 2 it is observed that mean length of grade one (large), two
(medium) and three (small) of oranges were 90.08± 3.50, 83.01± 3.50 and 76.20± 3.50
mm, and for the mean width were 85.00 ± 2.50, 77.93 ± 2.50 and 69.78 ± 2.50 mm
respectively. The mean thickness values for grade one, two and three oranges were 84.20
± 2.50, 75.25 ± 2.50 and 68.10 ± 2.50 mm respectively. Geometric mean diameter of
grade one, two and three of oranges were recorded as 85.11 ± 2.50, 77.28 ± 2.50 and
70.18 ± 2.50 mm while surface area were 21.1± 1x103, 18.4± 1x103 and 15.2± 1 x103
mm2 respectively. Orange density of grade one, two and three were 0.99± 0.50, 1.07±
0.50 and 1.09± 0.50 g cm-3 respectively. Bulk density of grade one, two and three were
found to be 0.38± 0.05, 0.44± 0.05 and 0.43± 0.05 g cm-3. Obtained results of physical
properties of oranges are more or less in accordance with Sharifi et al., (2007).
4.2 Per cent yield of orange waste
There are many fruits for example orange, apple and peach which are used for the
extractions of their juices. They all contain a byproduct from which different high added
value compound can be recovered and these compounds are having great potential in the
preparation of functional foods. Orange by-products (peel, seed, and pomace) which are
abundant and cheap also constitute an important source of phytonutrients (Askar, 1998).
Per cent yield of orange wastes were determined and results pertaining the same are
presented in table 3.

87
Table 3. Per cent yield of orange waste
Orange waste Weight (g)
Fruits 1000 ± 5.00
Peel 300 ± 5.00
Pomace 160 ± 3.00
Juice 530 ± 5.00
Seeds 10 ± 2.00
*Each value is average of three determinations
The data presented in table 3 shows that waste generation in the orange fruits
were nearly half of their original weight. From 1 kg of oranges 530 ± 5.00 g of juice was
obtained. After extraction of juice, peel is a major fraction in orange waste and results
obtained from 1kg of orange is 300 ± 5.00 g of peel. Pomace followed the peel in waste
fraction of orange and was observed 160 ± 3.00 g in 1kg of oranges. Seeds are present in
minimum amount and were recorded 10 g in 1 kg of oranges. After extraction of juice
from the oranges, generally the remaining fractions are discarded as waste at homes and
industrial scales. The findings are in agreement with the result noted by Chon and Chon,
(1997).
4.3 Proximate composition of orange peel and pomace powder
Proximate composition generally represents the nutritional quality of product. It is
necessary to determine the proximate composition of orange waste so as to judge its
effect on final product after utilization as a novel ingredient. The proximate composition
of orange peel and orange pomace powder was determined and results are given in Table
4.
Table 4. Proximate composition of orange peel and pomace powder
Per cent chemical composition
Orange
Crude Crude Total Crude
Waste
Moisture Fat Protein Carbohydrate fiber Ash
Peel 7.78 ± 1 1.98 ± 6.14 ± 80.27 ± 2.00 11.14 ± 3.81 ±
0.50 1.00 1.00 0.50
Pomace 9.13 ± 1 1.53 ± 7.34 ± 78.62 ± 2.00 6.20 ± 1.00 3.36 ±
0.50 1.00 0.50
*Each value is the average of three determinations

88
 The data presented in table 4 shows that the moisture content of peel and pomace
powder was 7.78 ± 1 and 9.13 ± 1 per cent. This is expected since the sample has been
subjected to drying to reduce the moisture content. The analysis included the content of
protein, fat, ash, carbohydrate and crude fiber. The protein content in peel was 6.14 ± 1
per cent, the fat was 1.98 ± 0.50 per cent, and also the ash was 3.81 ± 0.50 per cent. The
carbohydrate and crude fiber were 80.27 ± 2 and 11.14 ± 1 per cent. The protein content
of pomace was 7.34 ± 1 per cent, the fat was 1.53 ± 0.50 per cent and also the ash content
was 3.36 ± 0.50 percent. The carbohydrate and crude fiber content of pomace were 78.62
± 2 and 6.20 ± 1 per cent.
Ash content is an indication of the level of minerals present in food material this
suggests that orange peel and pomace can help in boosting the mineral content of
prepared product. The carbohydrate level in both peel and pomace powder meaning they
can be exploited as energy source foods for infant. Findings of present investigation were
in close conformity with values described in literature with slight differences Aastha and
Dorcus, (2014). The observed differences may be due to environmental factors like
climate and location etc. The similar findings pertaining to proximate composition of
orange peel and pomace were observed by Ajila et al., (2010) and Oikeh et al., (2013).
4.4 Phytonutrients content of orange peel and pomace powder
Phytochemicals may display their health protective effects in diverse ways. They
can act as antioxidants and protect cells against free radical damage (Omoregie and
Osagie, 2012) also play important role in antibacterial activity and hormonal stimulation
(Mathew et al., 2012). They help in reducing risk for cancer by inhibiting tumor
production (Devasagayam et al., 2004). The phytonutrients content of peel and pomace
were determined obtained results are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Phytonutrients content of orange peel and pomace powder
Per cent phytonutrients (g/100g)
Orange Waste Alkaloid Flavonoid Tannin Saponin
Peel 3.1 ± 0.10 29.8 ± 0.50 1.02 ± 0.05 4.9 ± 0.50
Pomace 1.31 ± 0.10 45.4 ± 0.50 0.73 ± 0.05 11.0 ± 0.50
*Each value is the average of three determinations

89
 It is seen from table 5 that both orange peel and pomace powder are excellent
source of phytonutrients. The alkaloid and flavonoid content of orange peel powder were
3.10 ± 0.10 and 29.8 ± 0.50 g/100g respectively. While the tannin and saponin content of
peel powder were found to be 1.02 ± 0.05 and 4.9 ± 0.50 g/100g respectively.
In orange pomace powder the alkaloid and flavonoid content were found to be
1.31 ± 0.10 and 45.4 ± 0.50 g/100g respectively. It is clear from the obtained result that
orange pomace powder is an excellent source of flavonoid. The tannin and saponin
content of pomace powder were found to be 0.73 ± 0.05 and 11.0 ± 0.50 g/100g. The
citrus peels are rich in nutrients and contain many phytochemicals with strong potential
for use in drug production or as food supplements (Chede, 2013 and Lawal et al., 2013).
The biological function of flavonoids includes protection against allergies, inflammation,
free radicals platelet aggregation, microbes, ulcers, hepatoxins, viruses and tumors
(Okwu, 2004). As a result of availability of flavonoids in citrus fruits peel, they prevent
platelet stickiness and hence platelet aggregation. As antioxidant flavonoids help in
digestion and assimilation of food to the body system. The presence of flavonoid in the
citrus may be the reason for their use in herbal medicine for the treatment of capillary and
vascular weakness, edema, varicose veins, blood clotting and dysfunction. Citrus
flavonoid is good digestive tonic with an appetizer effect and it aids in digestion. It also
has a slight sedative function. This also supports the popular use of lemon and lime or
grape juice for people suffering from upset stomach or indigestion by the natives (Roger,
2002).
Apart from flavonoids, other secondary metabolite constituent of orange waste
includes the alkaloids. Pure isolated plant alkaloids and their synthetic derivatives are
used as basic medicinal agent for analgesic, anti pasmiodic and bacterial effects (Okwu,
2004) they exhibit physiological activity when administrated to animals. Most of the
plant parts used in the cure of diseases have been reported to contain traces of alkaloids,
for instance Azadirachta indica used in the cure of malaria contain alkaloids (Harbone,
1988). The presence of alkaloids in the citrus waste investigated showed that the orange
waste has medicinal benefits.
The presence of tannin could be responsible for the bitter principle and sour taste
of some citrus species. Tannin has astringent properties, hastens the healing of wounds,

90
and inflamed mucous membranes. This also supported the use of lemon juice in herbal
medicines for the treatment of varicose ulcer, hemorrhoids, frostbite and burns by the
native (Okwu, 2004).
Some of the general characteristics of saponin include formation of foams in
aqueous solution, hemolytic activity and cholesterol binding properties and bitterness
(Sodipo et al., 2000). Saponin have natural tendency to ward of microbes which makes
them good for treating fungal and yeast infections. These compounds serve as natural
antibiotics, helping the body to fight infection and microbial invasion (Okwu, 2004).
These compounds also appear to greatly enhance the effectiveness of certain vaccines.
Plant saponin help human to fight fungal infection, combat microbes and viruses, and
knock out some kind of tumor cells particularly lung and blood cancer. They also lower
blood cholesterol thereby reducing the heart disease. (Olivebever, 1986). Saponins reduce
the risk of heart diseases by lowering blood cholesterol level. The most outstanding and
exciting prospect of saponin is, they inhibit or kill cancer cells without killing normal
cell, as the mode of some cancer fighting drugs. Cancer cell have more cholesterol type
compounds on their membrane than normal cells. Saponin therefore binds cholesterol and
thus interferes with cell growth and division.
Nevertheless, the presence of these phytochemicals may therefore make this
hitherto ignored orange fruit waste an untapped source of pharmacologically important
materials. This suggests that by-product recovery from orange wastes offers dual benefit.
The industrial economics of the processing unit is enhanced as useful by-products are
produced from the waste materials while considerably reducing environmental pollution
(Kumar et al., 2011). Our results are in agreement with these assertions as a range of
phytochemicals viz. alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins were detected in the orange
peels and pomace powder. These results for phytonutrients content of orange peel and
pomace powder were found to be at par with reported values of Okwi and Emenike,
(2006).
4.5 Total polyphenol content in fresh orange peel and pomace extract
In human phenolic compounds have been reported to exhibit a wide range of
biological effects including anti bacterial, anti inflammatory and antioxidant property
(Han et al., 2007). The bioactive compounds such as phenolic compounds are responsible

91
for valuable antioxidant potential of extracts from different plant materials such as fruits,
seed, peels, leaves and stem and these are regarded as health beneficial constituents
(Ghafoor and AlJuhaimi, 2011). The use of phenolic is also reported for lowering and
preventing obesity, effecting secretion of a dipokine and prevention of oxidative stress
(Dalar et al., 2014). Total polyphenol content of fresh peel and pomace were estimated
and results pertaining to same are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Total polyphenol content* in fresh orange peel and pomace extract
Total Polyphenol content (mg/g)
Orange waste Acetone extract Alcohol extract Buffer extract
Peel 106.5 ± 5.00 75.14 ± 3.00 28.14 ± 2.00
Pomace 98.01 ± 5.00 39.12 ± 3.00 11.47 ± 2.00
* Each value is average of three determinations
*Values are expressed on dry weight basis as gallic acid equivalents
Orange peel and pomace were extracted with 80 per cent (v/v) acetone, 80 per
cent (v/v) ethyl alcohol, sodium phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.5) separately and the
total phenol content in extracts was determined. It is clear from the data depicted in Table
6 that acetone extracted maximum amount of polyphenol followed by ethanol and buffer
extracts. In orange peel, the polyphenol content by acetone, alcohol and buffer extracts
were found to be 106.5 ± 5, 75.14 ± 3 and 28.14 ± 2 mg/g respectively. From the above
results it can be concluded that the polyphenol content of peel was higher than pomace
and similar findings were stated by Ueda et al., (2000) who determined the total
polyphenol content in Irwin variety of mango peel.
The polyphenol content in orange pomace by acetone, alcohol and buffer extracts
were found to be 98.01 ± 5, 39.12 ± 3 and 11.47 ± 2 mg/g respectively. These results are
comparable with the polyphenol content of grape pomace (68.8 to 98.3 mg/g) as obtained
by Glucan et al., (2004).
The occurrence of high amounts of bioactive compounds in peel and pomace from
locally grown citrus fruits shows the important of these citrus by product due to their
nutraceutical and health potential for use in functional foods. Total polyphenol content in
aqueous methanol extract of ripe peel of Hayden variety of mango to be 70 mg/g
(Larrauri et al., 1996) Fahad, (2014) and Ajila et al., (2010) presented similar findings for
the polyphenol content in fruits peels and pomace.
92
4.6 Colour characteristics of orange peel and pomace powder
Color is the visual property. Color of orange peel and pomace powder, were
measured as per the method given by Jambamma et al., (2011) using hunter lab Color
flex meter where L*, a* and b* values indicates
L*(lightness) axis : Black to white
a*(red to green) axis : Positive values are red , negative values are green, 0-neutral
b*(yellow to blue) axis : positive values are yellow, negative values are blue, 0-neutral
C-chroma*
h-hue
Man has subjective standards for the acceptable range and preferred optima for
these qualities for almost every food. The importance of the color of agricultural
commodities and processed foods cannot be overstressed. In some cases, color changes
are accompanied by undesirable changes in texture, taste or odor. Colour characteristics
of orange peel and powder were determined and obtained results are given in Table 7.
Table 7. Colour characteristics of orange peel and pomace powder
Orange Colour characteristics
waste L* a* b* c* value h* value
Peel 77.87 ± 10.06 ± 55.92 ± 56.82 ± 79.81 ±
3.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 3.00
Pomace 77.88 ± 6.65 ± 37.50 ± 38.08 ± 79.95 ±
3.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 3.00
*Each value is an average of five determinations
It seen from table 7 that there was not much difference in the lightness value of
the orange peel and pomace powder and were recorded as 77.87 ± 3 and 77.88 ± 3. Also
it is clear from the table that there was not much difference in the hue value of the peel
and pomace powder and was recorded as 79.81 ± 3 and 79.95 ± 3 respectively.
a* value indicate the redness and greenness. The orange waste showed positive a*
value which is red. Orange peel powder is having 10.06 ± 1 value of a* while pomace
powder is having 6.65 ± 1. The b* indicates the yellow to blue color. The orange waste
showed high values for yellowness. Orange peel powder was having intense yellow
colour 55.92 ± 3 as compare to pomace powder which was 37.50 ± 3. Also it can be

93
observed from table 7 that C* value of peel powder was higher than pomace powder and
recorded as 56.82 ± 2 and 38.08 ± 2 respectively. Chroma (saturation) will increase with
increase in coloring pigment concentration, and then decrease as the sample becomes
darker (Wrostad, 2002). Results are in good agreement with the results reported by
Susan, (2014).
4.7 Mineral composition of orange peel and pomace powder
Mineral content of orange waste is essential in justifying its food value. Calcium,
iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium are the minerals of interest in current study.
Minerals play a key role in various physiological functions of the body especially in the
building and regulation processes. Fruits are considered as good sources of dietary
minerals (Ismail et al., 2011). The results pertaining to mineral content of peel and
pomace powder of orange are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Mineral composition of orange peel and pomace powder

Mineral content (mg/100g)

Orange waste Potassium Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Iron

Peel 1109 ± 15 501 ± 10 203 ± 5 116 ± 5 7.1 ± 1
Pomace 1191 ± 15 274 ± 10 273 ± 5 114 ± 5 11.6 ± 1
*Each value is the average of three determinations
The data presented in table 8 revealed that orange waste are rich in mineral
content. Among all the mineral peel and pomace contained potassium in high amount and
observed as 1109 ± 15 and 1191 ± 15 mg/100g. The great content of potassium in the
orange peel may have resulted from its abundance in the tissue of orange (Wastowski et
al., 2013). Potassium records an important nutritious role in any organism. Intake of
higher potassium and less sodium content could prevent the hypertension, source of the
cerebral vascular damages and the heart diseases (Cook and Obarzanek, 2009).
It is seen from the table 8 that second abundant mineral in peel and pomace was
calcium and recorded as 501 ± 10 and 274 ± 10 mg/100g. One of the main benefits from
calcium is related to interactions between cells walls. Therefore, it ensures the cells
structure by hard cementing them.

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 The phosphorus content of peel and pomace were recorded as 203 ± 5 and 273 ± 5
mg/100g respectively. The phosphorus contributed in bone formation, energy
metabolism, and nucleic acid metabolism (Murray et al., 2003). The magnesium content
of peel and pomace were 116 ± 5 and 114 ± 5 mg/100g. Magnesium has major nutritional
and therapeutic actions.
The iron content of peel and pomace were 7.1 ± 1 and 11.6 ± 1 mg/100g. Children
under the age of five years are adversely affected by iron deficiency. It is the most
common nutritional problem prevalent in growing children. Poor consumption of green
leafy vegetables compromises the intake of micronutrients like iron and zinc in children
below 5 years in India (Ekaweagwu et al., 2008).
The peels could be consumed as additives in order to fill in the magnesium
deficiencies from the children and old people in the rural zones of the developing
countries. The high mineral content of the orange waste justifies its role for utilizing it as
an ingredient in the preparation of weaning food. The results obtained during present
investigations are more or less similar with obtained by Najris et al., (2009).
4.8 Vitamin compositions of orange peel and pomace powder
Vitamins are organic nutrients needed in small quantities to perform specific
functions. They do not provide energy but are necessary in the use of energy. Vitamins
aid an animal by helping regulate body functions, keeping the body healthy and
promoting resistance to diseases. The results pertaining to vitamin content of orange peel
and pomace are summarized in Table 9.
Table 9. Vitamin composition of orange peel and pomace powder
Vitamin content (mg/100g)
Orange Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin E
Waste (µg/100g)
Peel 569 ± 10 647 ± 10 0.81 ± 0.02
Pomace 227 ± 10 115.3 ± 10 0.62 ± 0.02
*Each value is the average of three determinations
It is observed from Table 9 that orange peel and pomace powder both are unique
source of vitamins. The orange peel content more vitamins as compared to pomace.
Vitamin A content of orange peel powder was 569 ± 10 µg/100g while orange pomace

95
powder which was 227 ± 10 µg/100g. Vitamin A is necessary for normal vision its
deficiency is the leading cause of blindness (Penninston and Tanumihadjo, 2006).
Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable childhood blindness and
reduced immunity towards infections. Deficiency of vitamin A adds more to burden of
malnutrition in India. The province of biochemical vitamin A deficiency is 62 per cent in
children under in India (WHO, 2009). Vitamin A supplementation results in 24 per cent
reduction in childhood mortality (Bhutai et al., 2013).
Vitamin C content of peel powder was 647 ± 10 mg/100g while pomace content
of vitamin C was 115.3 ± 10 mg/100g. Vitamin E content of peel powder was 0.81 ± 0.02
mg/100g while the pomace powder content was 0.62 ± 0.02 mg/100g. The novel roles of
vitamin E include regulation of signal transduction via membrane-bound or recruited
enzymes, regulation of gene expression, activity as a redox sensor, participation in
cellular trafficking and control of inflammation (Brigelius-Flohe, 2009). The results
obtained of vitamins content of orange waste during present investigations are similar
with Yano et al., (2005).
4.9 Dietary fiber content in orange peel and pomace
Dietary fiber (DF) is well established to have much health beneficial effect. It is
shown to have a very important role in prevention of colon cancer, lowering of blood
cholesterol level, blood glucose attenuation, laxation etc (Lupton, 1995). In food
processing, dietary fiber is used as fat replacer to increase viscosity of the product and
reduce oil uptake during drying (Dreher, 2001). The nutritional value of fruit dietary fiber
additionally attributed due to the presence of significant amount of bioactive compounds
such as flavonoids and caratenoid, which are linked covalently to different dietary fiber
components. This represents mainly cellulose fractions, which is a major part of insoluble
dietary fiber. The dietary fiber content in orange peel and pomace was estimated results
pertaining to same are showed in Table 10.

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Table 10. Dietary fiber content in orange peel and pomace
Dietary fiber (g/100g)
Orange waste Total Insoluble Soluble
Peel 29.5 ± 2.00 17.41 ± 2.00 12.09 ± 1.00

Pomace 26.5 ± 2.00 18.08 ± 2.00 8.42 ± 1.00

*Each value is the average of three determinations
It is seen from the table 10 that the total dietary fiber of orange peel powder was
29.5 ± 2 g/100g while that of orange pomace powder, content was 26.5 ± 2 g/100g. The
orange waste contain high amount of insoluble dietary fiber compared to soluble dietary
fiber. The insoluble dietary fiber content of orange peel and pomace is 17.41 ± 2 and
18.08 ± 2 g/100g respectively. The soluble dietary fiber content of orange peel and
pomace is 12.09 ± 1 and 8.42 ± 1 g/100g.
Though in terms of health benefits, both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber
complement each other, each fraction has different physiological effect. Insoluble dietary
fiber helps in better water absorption and intestinal absorption of nutrients whereas
soluble dietary fiber is associated with cholesterol in blood and diminishes its intestinal
absorption. The total dietary fiber contains in Mexican and Persian lime peel was 70.4 per
cent and 66.7 per cent, respectively (Rivera et al., 2004). The characteristics feature of
orange waste is that it has high content of both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber which
is reported to have better health beneficial effect. Soluble dietary fiber content in apple
waste was reported to be 23 per cent of the total dietary fiber however, soluble dietary
fiber contents in wheat bran and oat bran were 6.6 and 15 per cent, respectively, which
are low compare to orange waste (Grigelmo and Martin, 1999). Similar results with
respect to dietary fiber were also reported by Aastha and Dorcus, (2014).
4.10 Functional properties of orange peel and pomace powder
It is well known that the functional properties have greatest effect on their
functions in foods (Elrefai et al., 2006). The functional properties of plant fiber depend
on the soluble and insoluble dietary fiber ratios, particle size, extraction condition,
structure of the plant polysaccharide and vegetable source. Functional properties of
orange waste were determined and results are presented in Table 11.

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Table 11. Functional properties of orange peel and pomace powder
Oil
Water
True Bulk Dispers- Swelling Absorption
Orange Absorption
Density Density ability Capacity Capacity
waste Capacity
(kg/m3) g/ml (%) (g/g)
(g/g)

0.46 ± 0.33 ± 25.14 ± 20.14 ± 2.9 ± 0.50

Peel 3.9 ± 0.50
0.05 0.01 2.00 2.00

0.68 ± 0.54 ± 27.10 ± 19.78 ± 2.2 ± 0.50

Pomace 3.5 ± 0.50
0.05 0.01 2.00 2.00
*Each value is an average of three determinations
It is observed from the Table 11 that the true density and bulk density of peel
powder was 0.46 ± 0.05 and 0.33 ± 0.01 g/ml. The density and bulk density for pomace
powder were recorded as 0.68 ± 0.05 and 0.54 ± 0.01 g/ml respectively. Dispersability of
the orange peel is slightly lower than the pomace powder and found to be 25.14 ± 2 per
cent, while that of pomace powder was 27.10 ± 2 per cent. The water absorption capacity,
swelling capacity and oil absorption capacity of orange peel was found to be 3.9 ± 0.50,
20.14 ± 2 and 2.9 ±0.50 g/g and for pomace 3.5 ± 0.50, 19.78 ± 2 and 2.2 ± 0.50 g/g
respectively. The water holding capacity is the quantity of water that remains bound to
the hydrated fiber following the application of an external force (pressure and
centrifugation), also water holding capacity is the ability of a moist material to retain
water when subjected to an external centrifugal gravity force or compression. It consists
of the sum of bound water, hydro-dynamic water and mainly physically trapped water
(Raghavendra et al., 2006). It is an important property of dietary fiber from both a
physiological and technological point of view. The results of functional properties of
orange waste are found in comparable with findings reported by Nassar et al., (2008) and
Rwubaste et al., (2014).

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4.11 Standardization of process for extraction of orange peel oil
The essential oil were extracted from orange peel by using soxhlet apparatus with
varying time of heating (60, 100, 140, 180 and 240 min) while other parameters viz.
amount of orange peel powder (10 g) and quantity of solvent (150 ml) were kept
constant. The quality of essential oil depends on different factors; among them are chemo
type and biotype of the plant, climatic condition as well as extractive process (Gamarra et
al., 2006). Essential oil yield varied during ripening to reach maximum values during the
middle stage of maturity for mandarin and orange (Soumaya et al., 2012). Water supply
during ripening was reported to influence considerably the essential oil content with an
enhancement of tiled under the moderate water shortage condition (Des et al., 2005). The
results pertaining to yield of peel oil are presented in Table 12.
Table 12. Percent yield of orange peel oil
Extraction time (min) Volume of essential oil (ml)
60 0.37 ± 0.05
100 0.43 ± 0.05
140 0.48 ± 0.05
180 0.52 ± 0.05

240 0.55 ± 0.05

* Each value represents the average of three determinations
The data expressed in table 12 revealed the effect of different extraction periods
on the yield of orange peel oil. With the extraction period of 60, 100 and 140 minutes
quantity of oil extracted were 0.37 ± 0.05, 0.43 ± 0.05 and 0.48 ± 0.05 ml respectively. It
was observed after 180 minutes of extraction 0.52 ± 0.05 ml of oil was extracted from
peel. On the basis of obtained results, extraction period of 180 min could be considered
optimum for the extraction of maximum orange peel oil, as extraction of oil after 180
minutes was also carried out but yields of oil was slightly more than 0.52 ± 0.05. It could
be observed that with increase in extraction period there is increase in per cent yield of
orange peel oil. These observations are in agreement with the findings of Kamal et al.,
(2011) who reported the Citrus Sinesis exhibited the maximum oil yield (0.24-1.07 per

99
cent) followed by Citrus reticulata (0.30-0.50 per cent) and Citrus paradisii (0.20-0.40
per cent).
4.12 Physical parameters of orange peel oil
Essential oil extracted from orange peel have been recognized as safe due to their
various biological functions like antimicrobial activity, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory
activity also oil has economical importance due to their high content of nutraceutical
compounds. The extracted orange peel oil was tested for various physical properties. The
data describing physical parameters are presented in Table 13.
Table 13. Physical parameter of orange peel oil
Physical Parameters Mean Value
Odor Fresh citrus, intense
Specific gravity 0.850 ± 0.50
Stability Air/light sensitive
Refractive index 1.49 ± 0.50
Specific extinction
a) K232 1.29 ± 0.05
b) K 270 0.38 ± 0.05
Solubility
a) Water Insoluble
b) Ethanol Soluble
c) Propylene glycol Soluble
*Each value is the average of three determinations
It is observed from Table 13 that the odor of peel oil was found to be of fresh
citrus like. The specific gravity and refractive index of oils could be helpful in judging
the purity of oil. It was observed that specific gravity and refractive index of obtained
orange peel oil was 0.850 ± 0.50 and 1.49 ± 0.50 respectively. The values for odor,
refractive index and specific gravity of orange peel oil were found to be at par with
reported values Secodini, (2009). It is clear from the table that orange peel oil is sensitive
to light or air.
Specific extinction also plays a pivotal role in determining and differentiating
different oils. Specific extinction is calculated by measuring the absorbance of oil at

100
different wavelengths viz. 232 and 270 nm (Atta, 2003 and Cheikh-Rouhou et al., 2007).
Obtained specific extinction of orange peel oil at 232 and 270 nm was 1.29 ± 0.05 and
0.38 ± 0.05 respectively. Both values for specific extinctions of orange peel oil were
found to be at par with reported values Muhammad et al., (2009). It is clear from the
table that peel oil is insoluble in water while it is soluble in ethanol and propylene glycol.
The results of the solubility are similar to those reported by Secodini, (2009).
4.13 Colour characteristics of orange peel oil
All color data are expressed as Hunter L*, a* and b* values corresponding to
lightness, redness, and yellowness, respectively. Hunter-lab color values of orange peel
oil are given in Table 14.
Table 14. Colour characteristics of orange peel oil
Orange Colour Characteristics
waste L* a* b* c* value h* value
Peel oil 3.47 ± 0.50 -2.39 ± 0.05 0.82 ± 0.02 2.47 ± 0.02 161.69 ± 5.00
*Each value is average of three determinations
The data depicted in Table 14 revealed that L*, a* and b* value of the orange peel
oil are 3.47 ± 0.50, -2.39 ± 0.05 and 0.82 ± 0.02. The L* value indicates the lightness,
and it is clear that peel oil is dark in colour. a* value indicates the redness and greenness.
The decreasing trend of a* value was the indication of the increasing nature of greenness.
It could be observed that a* value is negative in peel oil which is an indication of
greenness. The b*value is an indication of yellowness and blueness. It could be observed
that b* value in peel oil is near to neutral. The chroma and hue value of the peel oil was
2.47 ± 0.02 and 161.69 ± 5 respectively. Findings of the color characteristics of orange
peel oil were found to be at par with reported values Muhammad et al., (2009).
4.14 Chemical properties of orange peel oil
Chemical properties are essential in judging the suitability of oils in preparation of
food products. The chemical properties are also responsible for storability of oils besides
quality of end product. The important chemical properties judging the suitability of
orange peel are determined. The data related to chemical properties of orange peel oil is
presented in Table 15.

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Table 15. Chemical properties of orange peel oil
Chemical properties Mean value
Iodine Value (g/100Kg) 120 ± 5.00
Peroxide Value (meq/Kg) <0.5 ± 0.001
Saponification Value [mg KOH/g oil] 7.61 ± 0.50
Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.28 ± 0.001
TBA (mg/kg of oil) 0.01 ± 0.0001
*Each value is the average of three determinations
It is seen from the Table 15 that the iodine value for peel oil was observed to be
120 ± 5 g/100kg. Iodine value indicates the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. Higher
iodine value indicates lower degree of saturation and vice versa. The peroxide value of
oil represents the degree of oxidative rancidity and it was found less than 0.5 ± 0.001
meq/Kg and may be attributed to presence of various minor bioactive components
preventing oxidative rancidity (Badary et al., 2003). The Saponification value of peel oil
was observed to be 7.61 ± 0.50 mg KOH/g. The high saponification value of the orange
peel oil indicates the presence of high percentage of fatty acids in the oil (Omolara and
Dosummu, 2009). The relatively high saponificaton value of orange peel oil is indicative
that it has potential for use in the industry (Akubugwo and Ugbogu, 2007). The acid
value of orange peel oil was 0.28 ± 0.001 mg KOH/g oil which is indicator of good
quality. All these parameters signify better quality characteristics of orange peel oil and
these results were found to be at par with those earlier reported by (El-Adawy et al.,
1999). The TBA values of orange peel oil were found to be 0.01 ± 0.0001 mg/kg. The
obtained results of chemical analysis of orange peel are in line with those of Afifi et al.,
(1994) and Mervat et al., (2015).
4.15 Phytonutrients content of orange peel oil
The presence of active ingredients in orange peel oil makes it useful in folk
medicine to treat many diseases. Various phytonutrients viz Alkaloid, Flavonoid, Tannin
and Saponin were determined and the results observed are presented in Table 16.

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Table 16. Phytonutrients content of orange peel oil
Phytonutrients (g/100g)
Orange peel oil Alkaloid Flavonoid Tannin Saponin
Peel oil 4.2 ± 0.50 1.20 ± 0.05 0.03 ± 0.001 0.85 ± 0.05

* Each value is average of three determinations

It is seen from the Table 16 that major phytonutrients present in peel oil was
alkaloid 4.2 ± 0.50 g/100g, flavonoid 1.20 ± 0.05 g/100g, while tannin and saponin
content of peel oil were 0.03 ± 0.001 and 0.85 ± 0.05 g/100g respectively.
Peel oil is an natural product and its safety has been evaluated. In fact peel oil has
been use in the treatment of cancer for many years with no adverse effect (Vigushin et
al., 1998). Much research has been focused on the potential use of flavonoids in citrus as
inhibitor of new plastic transformation and as free radical scavengers to prevent oxidative
skin damage (Garvey and Croteau, 1995). The results of phytonutrient content of orange
peel oil are similar to the results obtained by Najris et al., (2009).
4.16 Fatty acid profile of orange peel oil
The fatty acid profile viz. total fat, saturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty
acids, poly unsaturated fatty acids and trans fatty acid content of peel oil was determined
and results are given in the Table 17.
Table 17. Fatty acid profile of orange peel oil
Fatty acids Amount (g/100g)
Total fat
6.33 ± 0.50
(On dry basis)
Saturated fatty acids 4.23 ± 0.50
Monounsaturated fatty acids 0.58 ± 0.05
Polyunsaturated fatty acids 1.16 ± 0.05
Trans fatty acids <0.1g ± 0.001
*Each value is average of three determinations
It is seen from the Table 17 that peel oil contains 6.33 ± 0.50 g/100g of total fat.
The crude fat levels were reasonable enough and so orange waste could be said to be
average sources of dietary fat (Emmanuel and Adeolu, 2015). The ratio of

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polyunsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acid is important in determining the
detrimental effects of dietary fats. The higher the polyunsaturated fatty acid to saturated
fatty acid ratio the more nutritionally useful is the oil. This is because the severity of
atherosclerosis is closely associated with the proportion of the total energy supplied by
saturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid (Honatra, 1974).
The saturated fatty acids of peel oil were found to be 4.23 ± 0.50 g/100g, while
monounsaturated fatty acids of peel oil were found to be 0.58 ± 0.05 g/100g. Also, Table
17 showed that polyunsaturated fatty acids were 1.16 ± 0.05 g/100g of peel oil and trans
fatty acids were less than 0.1 ± 0.001 g/100g of peel oil. The fatty acid results obtained
were in agreement with those reported by Amran et al., (2009) and Farhat et al., (2013).
4.17 Vitamin content of orange peel oil
Vitamin content of orange peel oil was determined and the result pertaining to
vitamin content is summarized in Table 18.
Table 18. Vitamin content of orange peel oil
Vitamin content (mg/100g)
Vitamin A Vitamin E
(µg/100g)
191 ± 10 0.25 ± 0.02
*Each value is an average of three determinations
It is seen from Table that the orange peel oil is a very good source of fat soluble
vitamin like A, E. The vitamin A content of orange peel oil was 191 ± 10 µg/100g, and
vitamin E content was 0.25 ± 0.02mg/100g respectively. It could be concluded that the
high content vitamin A and E of orange peel oil justifies its pivotal role in development
of different innovative food products, and eliminations of vitamins deficiencies. The
herbal vitamins are dietary supplements and may be use safely as preventive health
measure for nutritional values. Herbal vitamins are manufactured from part of specific
plants such as seed, root, stem, bark, leaves, berries or flowers, peels and they are not
necessarily processed as capsules or pills (Okwu and Emenie, 2006). The results obtained
of vitamins content of peel oil during present investigations are more or less similar with
Almudena and Antonio, (2012) and Okwu and Emenike, (2006).

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4.18 Physical parameter of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet
In order to characterize grains used for weaning food, different physical
parameters viz. speherecity, geometric mean, 1000 kernel weight, density, porosity, bulk
density etc were observed and results are presented in Table 19.
Table 19. Physical parameter of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet
Grains Wt. of Density Bulk Porosity Angle of Spehere Geometric
1000 (g/ml) density (%) repose city mean
grain(g) (g/ml) (o) diameter
(mm)
Sorghum 32.86 ± 1.25 ± 0.81 ± 35.53 ± 26.31 ± 0.84 ± 3.39 ± 0.05
2.00 0.05 0.02 2.00 2.00 0.05
Rice 24.32 ± 1.52 ± 0.89 ± 59.2 ± 38 ± 0.81 ± 3.7 ± 0.05
2.00 0.05 0.02 2.00 2.00 0.05
Green 35.6 ± 1.3 ± 0.85 ± 40.8 ± 27.6 ± 0.82 ± 4.3 ± 0.05
gram 2.00 0.05 0.02 2.00 2.00 0.05
Foxtail 0.968 ± 0.98 ± 0.79 ± 0.95 ± 0.97 ± 0.69 ± 1.42 ± 0.05
millet 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05
* Each value represents the average of three determinations
Identifying the physical characteristics of cereal grains is very important to
optimize the design parameters of agriculture equipment used in their production,
handling and storage processes so it is essential to determine and recognized the data base
of physical properties of these agricultural products because there properties plays an
important role in designing and developing of specific machines and their operation such
as sorting separating and cleaning Fawal et al., (2009)
4.18.1 1000 Grain weight
The data from the Table 19 gives the results for 1000 kernel weight of the grains.
The data revealed that the value for 1000 grain weight was highest for green gram 35.6 ±
2 g and minimum for foxtail millets (0.96 ± 0.05 g). The 1000 grain weight for sorghum
and rice was 32.86 ± 2 and 24.32 ± 2 g respectively. The above results are in agreement
with the results obtained by Sunil et al., (2016) and Dahiya et al., (2015).

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4.18.2 Density
Table 19 revealed the result of density of major ingredients. The data shows that
the density was highest for rice 1.52 ± 0.05 g/ml and least for foxtail millet 0.98 ± 0.05
g/ml. Density for sorghum and green gram was recorded as 1.25 ± 0.05 g/ml and 1.3 ±
0.05 g/ml respectively. The results are in agreement with the findings of Ghadge et al.,
(2012).
4.18.3 Bulk Density
The data from the Table 19 gives the results for bulk density. The data revealed
that the value for bulk density was highest for rice 0.89 ± 0.02 g/ml and minimum for
foxtail millets 0.79 ± 0.02 g/ml. The bulk density for sorghum and green gram was 0.81 ±
0.02 g/ml and 0.85 ± 0.02 g/ml respectively. The above results are in agreement with the
results obtained by Ghasemi et al., (2008).
4.18.4 Porosity
The data from the Table 19 gives the results for porosity of the grains. The data
revealed that the value for porosity was highest for rice 59.2 ± 2 per cent and minimum
for foxtail millets 0.95 ± 0.02. The porosity for sorghum and green gram was 35.53 ± 2
and 40.8 ± 2 per cent respectively. The above results are in agreement with the results
obtained by Sunil et al., (2016) and Dahiya et al., (2015).
4.18.5 Angle of repose
The data from the Table 19 gives the results for angle of repose of the grains. The
data revealed that the value for angle of repose was highest for rice 380 and minimum for
foxtail millets (0.970). The angle of repose for sorghum and green gram was 26.31 and
27.60 respectively. The above results are in agreement with the results obtained by
Ghadge et al., (2012).
4.18.6 Speherecity
Table 19 showed that the result of speherecity determination of major ingredients.
The speherecity value for sorghum was calculated highest among all the ingredients and
was recorded 0.84 ± 0.02, followed by green gram, rice and foxtail millets whose values
were 0.82 ± 0.02, 0.81 ± 0.02 and 0.69 ± 0.02. Results of the speherecity calculation were
similar to the results obtained by Ghasemi et al., (2008).

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 4.18.7 Geometric Mean Diameter
The Table 19 revealed the results of geometric mean diameter sorghum, rice,
green gram and foxtail millets. The geometric mean value for green gram was high
compared to other ingredients and was recorded as 4.3 ± 0.05 mm followed by rice,
sorghum and foxtail millets whose values was recorded as 3.7 ± 0.05, 3.39 ± 0.05 and
1.42 ± 0.05 mm respectively. The above results of geometric mean diameter were at par
with the findings of Jambamma et al., (2011).
4.19 Proximate composition of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet
Proximate compositions of major ingredients were determined and result
pertaining the same is presented in table 20.
Table 20. Proximate composition of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet

Per cent chemical composition

Ingredients
Moisture Crude fat Crude Total Crude Ash
(flour) protein fibers
carbohy
drates
Sorghum 8.09 ± 2.00 2.77 ± 0.50 9.72 ± 0.50 78.14 ± 2.3 ± 0.05 1.26 ±
2.00 0.05

Rice flour 10.80 ± 2.00 1.10 ± 0.50 7.58 ± 0.50 80.11 ± 0.29 ± 0.05 0.38 ±
2.00 0.05

Green gram 11.78 ± 2.00 1.48 ± 0.50 22.05 ± 0.50 62.22 ± 4.9 ± 0.05 2.44 ±
2.00 0.05

Foxtail 10.76 ± 2.00 3.36 ± 0.50 13.74 ± 0.50 71.18 ± 10 ± 0.05 0.93 ±
millet 2.00 0.05

*Each value is the average of three determinations

It is observed from the Table 20 that moisture content of green gram flour was
found the highest than other ingredients (11.78 ± 2 per cent). The moisture content of rice
flour was found lower than of green gram flour but higher than sorghum and foxtail
millet flour (10.80 ± 2 per cent). The per cent moisture content of foxtail millet and
sorghum flour was found as 10.76 ± 2 and 8.09 ± 2 per cent respectively. Foxtail millet

107
contain higher amount of fat (3.36 ± 0.50 per cent) followed by sorghum (2.77 ± 0.50)
than other ingredients. Green gram flour contained the highest amount of protein (22.05 ±
0.50 per cent) followed by foxtail millet (13.74 ± 0.50 per cent). Whereas rice flour
contained the lowest amount of protein and fat and it was found as 7.58 ± 0.50 and 1.10 ±
0.50 per cent respectively. Similar results with respect to nutritive value of green gram
and foxtail millet were reported by Sajad and Pradyuman, (2014) and Iren, (2004). The
carbohydrate content of rice flour was found the highest (80.11%) whereas green gram
flour contained the lowest amount of carbohydrates (62.22%). Similar results with
respect to nutritive value of rice were reported by (Rosniyana at al., 1995). The total
carbohydrates content of sorghum flour and foxtail millet flour were found as 78.14 ± 2
and 71.18 ± 2 per cent per cent respectively. Crude fiber content of foxtail millet was
found as 10 per cent and it was higher than other ingredients. Green gram contained
crude fiber higher than sorghum flour and rice flour (4.9 ± 0.05 per cent). The crude fiber
contained of sorghum and rice flour is 2.3 ± 0.05 and 0.29 ± 0.05 per cent respectively.
Similar results were obtained by Iren, (2004) on nutritive value of foxtail millet flour.
The ash content of green gram flour was highest among other ingredients (2.44 ±
0.05 per cent) whereas the ash content of sorghum flour was found slightly higher than
foxtail millet and rice flour (1.26 ± 0.05 per cent). Similar results with respect to nutritive
value of green gram flour were reported by (Sajad and Pradyuman, 2014). The ash
content of foxtail millet and rice flour was found as 0.93 ± 0.05 and 0.38 ± 0.05 per cent
respectively.
4.20 Mineral content of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet
Mineral content of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet were determined
and results are presented in Table 21.

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 Table 21. Mineral content of sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet
Mineral content (mg/100g)
Ingredients Potassium Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Iron

Sorghum flour 280 ± 5 21 ± 2 180 ± 5 152 ± 5 4.0 ± 0.50

Rice flour 134 ± 5 7.62 ± 2 76.9 ± 5 45 ± 5 2.34 ± 0.50

Green gram flour 1187 ± 5 52 ± 2 315 ± 5 178 ± 5 12.3 ± 0.50

Foxtail millet flour 209 ± 5 4.88± 0.50 215 ± 5 127 ± 5 3.8 V 0.50
*Each value is the average of three determinations
It is seen from the Table 21 that the green gram flour contained the highest
amount of potassium (1187 ± 5 mg/100g), whereas rice flour contained least amount of
potassium (134 ± 5 mg/100g). Sorghum and Foxtail millet flour potassium content was
280 ± 5 and 209 ± 5 mg/100g respectively. Similar observation with respect to potassium
content of green gram flour and foxtail millet flour was reported by (Tapash et al., 2011
and Iren, 2004). Calcium content of the green gram flour is highest among all the grain
flour (52 ± 2 mg/100g), while foxtail millet is having least amount of calcium content
(4.88 ± 0.50 mg/100g). Sorghum and rice flour is also a good source of calcium and their
content of calcium was 21 ± 2 and 7.62 ± 2 mg/100g respectively. Green gram flour
contained the highest amount of iron and phosphorus than other ingredients as 12.3 ±
0.50 and 315 ± 5 mg/100g respectively. Similar observation with slight difference in the
iron content of green gram was observed by (Tapash et al., 2011). The iron content of
rice was found least 2.34 ± 0.50 mg/100g while there is a little difference in the iron
content of sorghum and foxtail millet which is 4.0 ± 0.50 and 3.8 ± 0.50 mg/100g. These
observation with respect to iron content of sorghum and foxtail millet was reported by
Iren, (2004).
Green gram flour was found the richest content of magnesium than other
ingredients (178 ± 5 mg/100g). The magnesium content of sorghum flour was (152 ± 5
mg/100g). Similar observations with respect to magnesium content of green gram were
reported by Tapash et al., (2011). The magnesium content of foxtail millet and rice flour
was found as 127 ± 5 and 45 ± 5 mg/100g. These observation with respect to Calcium
content of sorghum and foxtail millet was reported by Iren, (2004). Phosphorus content

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of rice was 76.9 ± 5 mg, while foxtail millet and sorghum flour is 215 ± 5 and 180 ± 5
mg/100g of phosphorus respectively. Similar results were reported by Oko et al., (2013).
These ingredients are rich in protein, carbohydrates and minerals. Green gram flour is
high in protein and minerals. Foxtail millet and sorghum are rich source of protein,
carbohydrate and minerals and rice is high in carbohydrate content. These ingredient
proved their suitability for the preparation of nutrition rich weaning food especially in
protein, carbohydrate and minerals.
4.21 Standardization of recipe for formulation of weaning food with fortification of
orange peel and pomace powder
Cereals, legumes and millets have been found to be relatively high in protein
(both quality and quantity) because the legumes supply the lysine in which cereals lack.
Cereals provide cysteine and methionine which are low in legumes. Sorghum, green
gram, rice and foxtail millets have been used in making the roasted and malted weaning
food. However, research findings indicate that cereal-legume based food without
fortification with vitamin and mineral supplements can lead to deficiency of
micronutrients such as minerals and vitamins among infants because such foods are low
in vitamins and minerals. Also, vitamin and mineral supplements are not readily available
for use by families at households due to cost. Orange waste fortified weaning food blends
which could be processed industrially or at the household level are proposed.
This research was, conducted to determine proportions of orange waste that can
be acceptable in a cereal-legume blend of weaning food. Using orange waste as part of
the main ingredients in the formulation of weaning foods will make such infant formulas
nutritionally more complete and help to eradicate the vitamins and minerals deficiency
problem. Process optimization and standardization for effective value addition,
determination of phytochemicals and enhanced sensory attributes were the main focus in
the blend formulation efforts. An easy-to-adopt strategy by most households in India and
probably in low–income countries would be to replace some of the ingredients in the
cereal–legume food mix with orange waste.

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Table 22. Standardization of recipe for formulation of weaning food with
fortification of orange waste
Common ingredients (g) Orange waste (g)
Weaning Sorghum Rice Green Foxtail Skim Peel Pomace
food flour flour gram millet Milk powder powder
flour flour Powder
Control 30 20 20 20 10 - -
(C)
T1 30 20 20 20 10 5 5
T2 30 20 20 20 10 10 10
T3 30 20 20 20 10 15 15

It was hypothesized that incorporation of orange waste mainly peel powder and
pomace powder will improve the physico-chemical properties as well as nutritional,
mineral and vitamin content and sensory characteristics of the weaning food. However, it
is necessary to observe the effect of different incorporation levels 5, 10 and 15 per cents
of orange waste (peel and pomace powder) on physical parameters, chemical
composition, mineral and vitamin content, phytochemical content, functional properties
as well as sensorial quality characteristics of the weaning food. The sample codes C, T 1,
T2 and T3 contains 0, 5, 10 and 15 per cent of orange peel and pomace powder and the
quantity of sorghum, green gram, foxtail millet and rice were kept 30, 20, 20 and 20
percent.
4.22 Proximate composition of weaning food with fortification of orange waste (peel
and pomace powder)
Proximate composition viz moisture, protein, fat, ash, crude fibers and
carbohydrate of weaning food after addition of different levels of orange waste were
determined and results are presented in table 23.

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Table 23. Proximate composition of weaning food with fortification of orange peel
and pomace powder
Per cent composition
Weaning Moisture Crude fat Crude Total Crude Ash
Food protein carbohydrate fiber
Control 3.98 ± 0.50 3.91 ± 0.50 13.05 ± 70.01 ± 5.00 2.5 ± 2.22 ±
(C) 1.00 0.50 0.05
T1 3.58 ± 0.50 4.07 ± 0.50 13.71 ± 71.88 ± 5.00 3.89 ± 2.57 ±
1.00 0.50 0.05
T2 3.31 ± 0.50 4.41 ± 0.50 15.50 ± 73.52 ± 5.00 5.29 ± 3.28 ±
1.00 0.50 0.05
T3 3.08 ± 0.50 4.92 ± 0.50 17.07 ± 74.85 ± 5.00 6.69 ± 4.38 ±
1.00 0.50 0.05
SE+ 0.041 0.056 0.220 0.360 0.071 0.044
CD at 5 0.133 0.182 0.713 1.168 0.229 0.142
%
T 1- With addition of 10 per cent of orange peel and pomace
T2 - With addition of 20 per cent of orange peel and pomace
T3 - With addition of 30 per cent of orange peel and pomace
4.22.1 Moisture Content
It can be seen from Table 23 that the moisture content was found to be decreased
slightly in the weaning food after addition of orange peel and pomace powder. Among all
the treated product the moisture content was found to be in the range of 3.98 ± 0.50 to
3.08 ± 0.50 per cent and these are non significant to each other; whereas the moisture
content of control sample was more than other sample. The developed weaning food
fulfills the recommendation of Bureau of Indian standard (2006) that the moisture content
did not exceed the 5.0 per cent.
4.22.2 Crude Fat Content
Crude fat content ranged from 3.91 ± 0.50 to 4.92 ± 0.50 per cent. The fat content
of all weaning food sample was increasing with addition of orange waste. This is due to
the fat contain of the orange peel and pomace powder. However, it must be noted that
dietary fats increases the palatability of food by absorbing and retaining flavors
(Pomeranz and Meloan, 1987 and Lindsay, 1996). Therefore, it can be said that weaning
food made with orange waste was more palatable than the others.

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4.22.3 Crude Protein Content
The crude protein content of prepared weaning food was observed in the range
between 13.05 ± 1 to 17.07 ± 1 per cent. The protein content of weaning food was found
to be increased (17.07 percent) in the sample containing 30 per cent of orange waste and
also found to be statistically significant over other product; whereas the control sample
reported lowest protein content 13.05 ± 1 percent. It is also clear that prepared weaning
food is found to be rich in protein content which fulfilled the daily protein allowances as
suggested by Bureau of Indian standard for infants.
4.22.4 Carbohydrates Contents
It is clear from the table 23 that as the level of orange waste increased the
carbohydrate content of the product was also increases. This is because of high
carbohydrate content of the orange waste. The carbohydrates content of the control
sample was 70.01 ± 5 which reach to 74.85 ± 5 per cent in the sample containing 30 per
cent of the orange waste. The high carbohydrate content of the products makes them a
good source of energy for all infants.
4.22.5 Crude Fiber Content
It is evident from the result of crude fiber content, that it was significantly
increased in the entire prepared sample with addition of orange waste compared to
control. The significant increased of the crude fiber in treated samples over the control
was due to more fiber content in the orange waste. Hence, 30 per cent addition of orange
waste was found to be effective to enrich weaning food in the fiber content. Since fiber
content of foods help in digestion, prevention of constipation, and the prevention of colon
cancer (Saldanha, 1995 and WHO, 2005). Orange waste based weaning food is better
than the others in terms of fiber content and the prevention of these diseases.
4.22.6 Ash Content
The addition of 30 per cent of orange waste in the prepared weaning food results
in the significant increase in the ash content of product. The control sample is having ash
content of 2.22 ± 0.05 per cent which increases to 4.38 ± 0.05 per cent after addition of
the 30 per cent of orange waste. This is due to the high ash contain of the orange peel and
pomace powder. Ash content is reflective of the total mineral content of the products
(Pomeranz and Meloan, 1987 and Haard, 1996).

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4.23 Organoleptic evaluation of formulated weaning food
Organoleptic characteristics are pivotal in judging the suitability of product as
consumer point of view. In order to study the effect of orange waste fortification on
sensorial quality characteristics, different random trials with wide range of fortification
levels has been taken following the unorganized sensorial evaluation. It was observed
that weaning food containing more than 20 per cent of orange waste (10 per cent peel and
10 per cent pomace powder) fortification were not acceptable by panel members. Hence,
for further optimization of orange waste fortification level in weaning food, organized
trials were taken by incorporating different levels viz. 5, 10, and 15 per cent of orange
waste (mixture of orange peel powder and pomace powder in equal quantity). The data
pertaining to organoleptic quality evaluation of prepared weaning food is presented in
Table 24.
Table 24. Organoleptic attrbutes of formulated weaning food
Sensory attributes
Weaning
Colour and Flavor Texture Taste Overall
Food
Appearance acceptability
Control 8.1 ± 0.50 8.0 ± 0.50 8.0 ± 0.50 8.0 ± 0.50 8.0 ± 0.50
T1 8.3 ± 0.50 8.2 ± 0.50 8.2 ± 0.50 8.3 ± 0.50 8.2 ± 0.50
T2 8.4 ± 0.50 8.8 ± 0.50 8.4 ± 0.50 8.6 ± 0.50 8.5 ± 0.50
T3 8.0 ± 0.50 8.5 ± 0.50 7.0 ± 0.50 7.2 ± 0.50 7.8 ± 0.50
SE+ 0.070 0.066 0.073 0.069 0.084
CD at 5 % 0.226 0.213 0.236 0.224 0.273
Control- Without addition of orange peel and pomace
T 1- With addition of 10 per cent of orange peel and pomace
T2 - With addition of 20 per cent of orange peel and pomace
T3 - with addition of 30 per cent of orange peel and pomace
4.23.1 Effect of orange waste fortification on colour characteristics of weaning food
powder
Color is considered as one of the important consumer quality judging parameter in
selection of food products. Attractive colour of product is a must have in fast moving

114
consumer goods to appeal consumer for consumption. It could be observed from Table 24
that in case of weaning food fortified with orange waste, the sensorial score for colour
was found to increase linearly with increase in level of fortification up to 20 per cent but
beyond that level color characteristics decreased. Bright and light yellow weaning food
powder with increase in level of orange waste found to get contrast and dull, which
resulted in drastic reduction of color scores by consumer. At the level where
concentration of orange waste reached to 30 per cent, the color starts to become
unacceptable by the consumer. These sensorial scores for colour summarized that orange
waste incorporation has marked negative effect on coloring parameter of weaning food
powder beyond 20 per cent.
4.23.2 Effect of orange waste fortification on flavor profile of weaning food powder
Flavor being a combination of taste, smell and mouth feel. Incorporation of
orange waste resulted in increase in the flavor characteristics up to the level of 20 per
cent and the sample got the score of 8.8 compared to the control sample having 8.0 score.
While further increase in level of orange waste up to 30 per cent reduced the flavor score
to 8.5. This may be due to typical intense flavor of orange, which could be prominently
sensed in sample containing 30 per cent of orange waste.
4.23.3 Effect of orange waste fortification on textural characteristics on weaning
food powder
Textural characteristics play a pivotal role in judging its consumer acceptability. It
could be stated that textural characteristics of weaning powder are basically function of
moisture content. It could be observed from table that in samples containing 20 per cent
of orange waste, the textural properties are gradually increasing, but as the level of
incorporation reaches to 30 per cent there was a drastic reduction in the textural
characteristics and the textural qualities are reaching the scores of un-acceptability. On
the basis of observed results, it could be concluded that orange waste incorporation up to
the level of 20 per cent is acceptable.
4.23.4 Effect of orange waste fortification on taste characteristics of weaning food
powder
With respect to taste characteristics of orange waste fortified weaning food, 8.0
readings were observed for control sample while sample containing 10 per cent of orange

115
waste scored 8.3 per cent. On consumer point of view, not much change in taste was
observed at level of 10 per cent incorporation while slightly more pleasant change was
observed in sample containing 20 per cent of orange waste, yet the taste was not solely
detectable as that of typical orange waste. However, when the level of fortification was
further increase to 30 per cent there was drastic reduction in taste quality, sample got the
score of 7.2 and the sample were not liked by the panel members. These sensorial scores
for taste summarized that orange waste incorporation has marked negative effect on taste
parameter of weaning food powder beyond 20 per cent.
4.23.5 Effect of orange waste fortification on overall acceptability characteristics of
weaning food powder
Overall acceptability of product is depending on various factors including taste,
colour, texture and appearance. The data pertaining to overall acceptability of product is
described in Table 24. It could be observed from the table that overall acceptability of
samples containing 20 per cent of orange waste was superior to that of control sample.
4.24 Effect of pre-treatments on organoleptic evaluation of orange based weaning
food
The pre treatments such as malting and roasting are given to the above selected
weaning food (sample T2) for improving their organoleptic characteristics resulted into its
acceptability. Effect of pre treatments (malting and roasting) on organoleptic evaluation
of selected orange based weaning food were observed and results are presented in table
25.
Table 25. Effect of pre-treatments on organoleptic attributes of orange waste based
weaning food
Sensory attributes
Pre treatments
Colour Flavour Taste Texture Overall acceptability
Sample (T2) 8.0 6.5 7.9 8.0 8.0
Sample (MW1) 8.2 8.2 8.1 8.1 8.3
Sample (RW1) 7.9 8.5 8.0 7.9 7.8
SE ±
0.015 0.094 0.012 0.005 0.062

CD at 5 per cent 0.046 0.333 0.037 0.018 0.220

*Each value is the average of three determinations

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T2: recipe with 20 per cent orange waste combination powder based weaning food
MW1: malting of grains with 20 per cent orange waste based weaning food
RW1: roasting of grains with 20 per cent orange waste based weaning food
It is evident from table 25 that malting process of grains improved the
organoleptic characteristics of prepared weaning food. Malted weaning food (MW1) and
sample (T2) with (20 per cent) orange waste combination powder are found to be almost
similar in all the organoleptic characteristics as they did not differ significantly on the
basis of critical difference. The formulated weaning food (sample T 2) and roasted
weaning food (RW1) were rated lower score indicated their least acceptability. Malted
weaning food (MW1) was rated highest overall acceptability score (8.3) where as roasted
rated lowest (7.8). Sample T2, malted and roasted weaning foods had almost similar
texture and as were statically at par with each other. Malted and control sample were
comparable for the taste while roasting of grains improve the flavour of weaning food but
recorded least score in other remaining organoleptic characteristics. The malted weaning
food was rated highest and indicated that it was having good texture as compare to other
weaning foods. The casual reason would be the viscosity of the weaning food during
serving with the milk which had shown the drastic reduction due to the malting treatment
enhance it would be preferred by the judges. In all among the three developed weaning
foods, the malted food was superior yielding a good quality product. However on the
basis of critical difference there was not much difference observed in malted, roasted and
control sample in all organoleptic attributes except flavour.
A number of scientists reported the improvement in the organoleptic
characteristics of malted product. Desai et al., (2010) reported the increase in the
intensity of color in sample prepared from malted grains. Softing of texture in sample
was mainly due to the effect of germination of grain (Beal and Mottran, 1993).
Germination of grains which contains free amino acids and sugar which act as flavour
precursors (Heinieo et al., 2015).

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4.25 Proximate composition of weaning food
Nutritive values of organoleptically accepted orange waste based weaning foods
were determined and results are presented in Table 26. In previous study malted weaning
food and earlier sample T2 are selected for analysis of their nutritive quality.
Table 26. Proximate composition of organoleptically accepted weaning food

Weaning Per cent chemical compositions

Food Dietary
Crude Crude Total Fiber Ash
Moisture
fat protein carbohydrate
Sample
3.31 4.41 15.50 73.52 12.2 3.28
(T2)
Sample
4.10 4.02 15.00 71.11 16.5 2.9
(MW1)
SE ± 0.041 0.058 0.055 0.408 0.104 0.082

CD at 5 0.144 0.205 0.203 1.440 0.367 0.288

per cent

T2: recipe with 20 per cent orange waste based weaning food
MW1: malting of grains with 20 per cent orange waste based weaning food
The data expressed in Table 26 revealed that protein, fat, and ash were slightly
decreased in the malted weaning food than sample T2. The moisture content increased
significantly in malted weaning food (MW1) over sample T2. Which is a normal
indication of rapid water uptake by viable grain accepted during steeping. The fat content
in un malted and malted sample of weaning food analyzed was 4.41 and 4.02 per cent.
The germination process can decrease the fat content due to absorption of water after
enzyme is activated and then in to the endosperm and digest food reserve substance.
Lipase enzyme break down fats in glycerin and fatty acids and since these compounds are
water soluble, they can diffuse in to cell tissue as noted by Inyang and Zakari (2008).
During germination fatty acid is reduced as a result of reform in the cell. Glycerol

118
dissolved in water and transported by the kreb cycle to metabolism in cell whereas fatty
acid also dissolved in water (Kiranawati, 2002).
The reduction in the fat content of malted weaning foods was also reported by
Kumari and Srivastav, (2000). Hydrolysis of lipids and oxidation of fatty acids takes
place during germination. The hydrolysis products do not accumulated in the seed, but
glycerol becomes a part of carbohydrate pool and fatty acids are oxidized resulting in
decrease fat content in malting. Lipase activity increased during germination and the
proportion of lipid bodies during germination will decrease due to the synthesis of lipase.
The lipase activity increased during germination possibly by the synthesis of aleurone
and scutellum (Uvere and Orji, 2012). Germination process enhances the hydrolysis of
complex organic compounds which are insoluble and form more simple organic
compounds that are water soluble. In addition, fat will be degraded to produce energy and
will be used for respiration (Sukamto, 1992).
The protein content of sample T2 was 15.50 per cent and malted sample reported
15.0 per cent, this slight reduction could be because of the leaching out of the soluble
protein and removal of rootlets thereby reducing the total dry material during malting and
also another probable reasons is that storage nitrogen reserves may have been mobilized
during sprouting after hydrolysis by proteolytic enzymes (Ogbonna et al., 2012). The
decrease in the protein content during malting are fairly consistent with those of Taylor,
(1983) who observed significant decrease in the protein content in the sorghum during
malting.
The carbohydrate content in the malted sample shows a tendency of reduction
during malting. The most probable reason of its reduction was undoubtedly the increase
in endogenious alpha and beta amylase during malting which hydrolyze the starch.
Similar results were reported by Bau et al., (1997). The dietary fiber content was
significantly increased (16.5 per cent) in malted weaning food (MW1) as compared with
sample T2 (12.2 per cent). This increase in dietary fiber might be due to synthesis of
structural carbohydrates mainly of cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses, this increase
could be attributed to increased bran matter and building of dry matter during the
germination of grain. Similar results were reported by Chavan and Kadam, (1989). The

119
total ash content of the malted sample (2.9 per cent) decreased compare to the sample T2
(3.28 per cent).
These results of proximate compositions of weaning food prepared from orange
waste are in agreement with those reported by Pathirana et al., (1983), Elbeltagy, (1996)
and Eladawy, (2002). As far as statistical analysis concern there was not much difference
observed in both the samples on the basis of critical difference. Similar result are also
reported by Bhise et al., (1996) and Elkhier and Hamid, (2008).
4.26 Colour characteristics of orange waste based weaning food
The colour characteristics of the control and malted weaning food sample were
determined and results are presented in Table 27.
Table 27. Colour characteristics of orange waste based weaning food
Sr. No Orange Colour characteristics
waste L* a* b* c* value h* value
1 Sample (T2) 79.20 2.07 17.14 20.45 85.78
2 Sample 81.32 1.32 19.17 19.22 86.05
(MW1)
SE ± 0.408 0.035 0.293 0.145 0.016
CD at 5 per 1.440 0.124 1.033 0.510 0.052
cent
*Each value is average of three determinations
It is seen from table 27 that in control sample the L*, a* and b* values were
79.20, 2.07 and 17.14 respectively. While c* and h* value were 20.45 and 85.78
respectively. In malted weaning food sample L*, a* and b* values were 81.32, 1.32 and
19.17 respectively. While c* and h* value were 19.22 and 86.05 respectively. It could be
observed from the table that the lightness of both the samples is high, malted weaning
food sample is brighter than the control sample. The greenness of the malted weaning
food is more as compared to control sample. Malted weaning food sample is slightly
yellowish as compared to control sample. There was not much difference were recorded
in the c* and h* value of the control and malted weaning food sample. The results were
in agreement with previously reported results of Marie et al., (2011).

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4.27 Phytochemical constituents of organoleptically accepted weaning food
The results pertaining to the phytochemical content of control and malted
weaning food sample is presented in Table 28.
Table 28. Phytochemical constituents of organoleptically accepted weaning food
Phytochemical (g/100g)
Sr. Orange waste
No. based weaning Alkaloids Flavonoids Tannin Saponin
food
1 Control (T2) 2.22 8.79 0.36 2.51
2 Sample (MW1) 4.71 24.86 0.93 3.80
SE ± 0.141 0.290 0.123 0.065
CD at 5 per cent 0.544 1.023 0.374 0.228
*Each value is average of three determinations
It is clear from the table 28 that the malted weaning food is high in phytochemical
content as compared to control sample. The alkaloids content of control sample was 2.22
g/100g while the alkaloids content of malted weaning food sample was 4.71 g/100g.
Flavonoids and tannin content of the control sample was observed to be 8.79 and 0.36
g/100g respectively, while malted weaning food sample contained 24.86 and 0.93 g/100g.
The saponin content of control and malted weaning food sample were observed to be
2.51 and 3.80 g/100g respectively. The increase in phytochemical content of the malted
weaning food is due to the incorporation of orange waste, which is as mentioned in the
table 5 are rich source of the phytochemicals. Similar results with respect to
phytochemical content of biscuits with orange peel powder were observed by Rwubaste
et al., (2014).
4.28 Total polyphenol content of orange waste based weaning food
The result pertaining to the polyphenol content of the control and selected
weaning food sample is given in the Table 29.

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Table 29. Total polyphenol content of orange waste based weaning food
Sr. No. Orange waste based weaning food Total Polyphenol
(mg/g)
1 Sample (T2) 50.04 ± 5.00
2 Sample (MW1) 85.45 ± 5.00
*Each value is average of three determinations
The table 29 revealed that the prepared malted weaning food is a rich source of
polyphenol content. In control sample the polyphenol content was 50.04 ± 5 mg/g while
the selected weaning food sample contained 85.45 ± 5 mg/g of the polyphenol. Increase
in the polyphenol content of the prepared weaning food sample was due to addition of the
orange waste which is a rich source of the polyphenol as described in the table 6. Similar
results with respect to increase in polyphenol content after addition of citrus waste was
obtained by Syed et al., (2006) and Mattila et al., (2005).
4.28 Minerals composition of orange waste based weaning food
Mineral content of control sample, selected weaning food sample and market
sample were analyzed and results are presented in Table 30.
Table 30. Minerals composition of orange waste based weaning food
Orange waste Mineral content (mg/100g)
Sr. based weaning
Calcium Magnesium Phosphorous Iron Potassium
No. food
1 Sample (T2) 162 86.5 107 9.0 1062
2
Sample (MW1) 102 75.2 71 6.1 950
3 Market sample
420 45 300 7.0 410
(Nestle Cerelac)

SE ± 5.449 0.707 3.882 0.188 25.77

12.86
CD at 5 per cent 19.94 2.294 0.586 79.73
*Each value is average of three determinations
T2: recipe with 20 per cent orange waste based weaning food
MW1: malting of grains with 20 per cent orange waste based weaning food

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 The data expressed in table 30 revealed that the mineral content in the malted
weaning food (MW1) are decreased over sample T2. The calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, iron and potassium content of the sample T2 was 162, 86.5, 107, 9.0 and
1062 mg/100g. The calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, irons and potassium content of
malted sample was recorded as 102, 75.2, 71, 6.1 and 950 mg/100g, while that of market
sample the mineral content was 420, 45, 300, 7.0 and 410 mg/100g respectively.
The mineral content of all grains was decreased in malting. It may be due to
leaching and mobilization of mineral elements from storage tissues to the developing
seedling. Results were in conformity with findings of Waniska and Rooney, (2002). This
is because during various processing techniques the pericarp of some grain are removed
while the grain break open also aleurone layer of some of these cereals are lost thus
resulting in this massive decrease. This is also because almost minerals element are found
on either the pericarp or the aleurone layer of the grain (Gee and Harold, 2004).
The market sample contained minerals like calcium, phosphorus and iron in more
quanitity as compared to malted sample. While prepared malted sample contained
minerals like magnesium and potassium in more quantity as compared to market sample.
The increase in mineral content of market sample is due to the external fortification of
mineral source in the weaning food. While besides orange waste we did not done any
other fortification in the prepared weaning food, without any fortifications our prepared
weaning food sample contained some minerals in more quantity compared to market
sample.
The results pertaining to decrease in the mineral content of weaning food after
germination are in agreement with those reported by Hemlatha et al., (2007) and Yu et
al., (2013).
4.29 Vitamin content of orange waste based weaning food
Vitamin content of control, selected weaning food and market sample were
estimated and results pertaining to the same is presented in Table 31.

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Table 31. Vitamin content of orange waste based weaning food
Sr. Orange waste Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin E
No. based weaning food (µg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g)
1 Sample (T2) 170 148 0.11
2 Sample (MW1) 195 372 0.24
3 Market sample 350 25 2.50
(Nestle Cerelac)
SE+ 2.887 3.055 0.025
CD at 5 % 9.365 9.911 0.081
*Each value is average of three determinations
It is observed from the table 31 that the vitamin A content of market sample was
found to be highest 350 µg/100g, while the control sample content vitamin A was 170
µg/100g respectively. Vitamin A content of selected weaning food sample was found to
be 195 µg/100g. The vitamin C content was observed to be highest in selected weaning
food sample and was recorded 372 mg/100g, while the vitamin C content of market
sample was recorded to be lowest one with 25mg/100g. Vitamin C content of control
sample was 148 mg/100g. Vitamin E content of market sample was recorded to be
highest 2.50 mg/100g while the vitamin E content of control and selected weaning food
sample was observed to be 0.11 and 0.24 mg/100g respectively. Increased in vitamin A
and E in market sample is due to the further fortifications of the weaning food with added
vitamins and minerals.
4.29 Rheological characteristics (Viscosity profile) of orange waste based weaning
food
Rheological studies are one of the most convenient methods for measuring
indicators of quality and texture of final products. They are of importance in terms of
product formulation and optimization, quality control, machining properties of the dough;
scale up of the process and automation. Viscosity of food is one of the important
determinants of food acceptability to both mothers and young children (Ikujenlola, 2008).
Little hot diet viscosity is a desirable characteristic in weaning food known to facilitate
chewing and swallowing (Waterlow and Payne, 1975). In addition, weaning foods must
have an easy to swallow, semi-liquid consistency 1000 to 3000 Cp (Nout, 1990).

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Viscosity of developed orange waste based weaning food was measured on Brookfiled
viscometer (DV-III) model at different shear rate i.e spindle speed from 10 to 100 rpm. In
the present study 20 percent added orange waste based weaning food was added in milk
and this prepared slurry concentration was used for viscosity determination. The data
obtained regarding the cold paste viscosity of the developed weaning energy food are
depicted in Table 32.
Table 32. Effect of pretreatment on cold paste viscosity of orange waste based
weaning food
Sr. Orange waste Shear rate (Spindle speed in rpm)
No. based weaning food 10 20 30 50 60 100
1 Sample (T2) 770 480 250 180 150 98
2 Sample (MW1) 680 410 210 140 120 85
3 Sample (RW1) 800 500 278 185 165 110
SE+ 9.718 6.346 3.830 3.736 3.536 3.240
CD at 5 % 31.52 20.59 12.42 11.85 11.47 10.51
*Each value is average of three determinations
It is observe from the table 32 that the roasting treatment was the significant
increase in viscosity from 770 Cp in control sample to 800 Cp in roasted weaning food at
10 rpm shear rate. The extent of increased in cold slurry viscosity appeared to be related
to the extent of heat damage or heat gelatinization undergone by the starch in the various
selected raw materials. Viscosity of sample (T2) and roasted weaning food was gradually
decreased from 770 to 98 Cp and 800 to 110 Cp from 10 to 100 rpm respectively.
Roasted sample showed higher viscosity than the control and malted sample, may be due
to during heating starch granules may disintegrate becoming more susceptible to
hydration which is associated with high viscosity (Lai, 2001).
Raghavendra et al., (1983) studied the effect of heat processing on the paste
viscosity of cereal flours and reported that, the paste viscosity of cold slurry of heat
processed (toasting, puffing and flaking) rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, ragi and Bengal
gram was increases in many folds than those grains were not heat processed.
However in the malted weaning foods caused considerable reduction in the cold
paste viscosity. The viscosity values of malted energy foods at 10 rpm were 680 Cp. The

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treatment of malting was found to be most effective in reducing the viscosity of
developed weaning food and found better and significant as regards to cold paste
viscosity of the rest of the foods. Cold paste viscosity attained as the cooked paste is
cooled down to 30°C. The cooling can be ended either at 50 or 30°C. On the pasting
profile, after hot paste viscosity, the end of cooling is referred to as cold paste viscosity.
It indicates the retrogradation tendency of the soluble amylose after cooling or to the
ability of the starch paste to form a gel. When hot pastes are cooled, the extent of increase
in viscosity is governed by the re-association tendency of the starch. An increased
retrogradation property of the paste can be attributed to the association of the starch
molecules caused by the strong tendency for hydrogen bond formation between hydroxyl
groups on adjacent molecules (Afoakwa et al., 2002). Similar results of reduction in
viscosity of malted foods/ flours are reported by Almeida et al., (1993). Griffith et al.,
(1998) reported that blending of germinated flour with raw flour significantly (p<0.05)
reduced viscosity value of the formulated complementary foods.
Effect of pretreatment on hot paste viscosity of orange waste based weaning food
Effect of pretreatment on hot paste viscosity of weaning food was determined and
results obtained are presented in Table 33.
Table 33. Effect of pretreatment on hot paste viscosity of orange waste based
weaning food
Sr. Orange waste Shear rate (Spindle speed in rpm)
No based weaning food 10 20 30 50 60 100
1 Sample (T2) 910 625 435 290 254 170
2 Sample (MW1) 735 435 369 210 180 102
3 Sample (RW1) 840 687 510 340 270 190
SE+ 7.070 3.536 5.774 7.071 5.354 3.367
CD at 5% 22.94 11.47 18.73 22.94 17.37 10.92

*Each value is average of three determinations

Table 33 revealed that the hot paste viscosity of the developed weaning foods was
comparatively higher than the cold paste viscosity in almost all the foods and at all shear
rate. The highest increased in the hot paste viscosity was noted in roasted energy food

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(840 Cp) followed by control sample (910 Cp) at 10 rpm. In contrast to the above the
effect of processing on the hot paste viscosity was maximum in the malted weaning food
(435 Cp) at 20 rpm. The elaboration of amylases during the malting is responsible for the
considerable fall in the viscosity.
The result of hot paste viscosity of all these food formulations were also found
more or less in the same trend at different shear rate as were observed in the cold slurry
viscosity. The hot paste viscosity of roasted and control sample was observed
significantly higher at all shear rate than malt sample. The findings support the
observation of those of Raghuvendra et al., (1983).
It is evident from the table 32 and 33 that as the shear rate increased the viscosity
of the paste (cold and hot) was found to be decrease considerably indicating the non
Newtonian behavior of the food paste irrespective of type of treatment and kind of paste
viscosity. Similarly it can also be confirmed from the results that during cooling, the
viscosity found to increase abruption due to retrogradation of amylase. The drastic
reduction in the consistency of the malted flour paste may be due to apparent increased in
the amylolytic and proteolytic enzyme during malting. All the diets in the current study
had acquired relatively lower viscosity than the range of 538-2893 Cp in cold paste and
526-2876 Cp in hot paste reported by (Asma et al., 2006). Similar results obtained by
amankwah et al., (2009).
4.31 Functional properties of orange waste based weaning food
Various functional properties viz bulk density, density, water absorption capacity,
oil absorption capacity, swelling capacity and solubility index were determined and
results pertaining the same is presented in the Table 34.

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Table 34. Functional properties of weaning food
Sr. Weaning Bulk Water Oil Swelling Solubility
No. Food Density Absorption Absorption Capacity Index
(g/cm3) Capacity Capacity (per cent) (per cent)
(per cent) (per cent)
1 Sample 0.45 138.20 90.47 25 4.1
(T2)
2 Sample 0.41 124.18 98.12 18 4.6
(MW1)
3 Market 0.54 152.03 85.40 20 4.9
Sample
SE+ 0.010 1.155 0.707 0.624 0.076
CD @ 5% 0.032 3.746 2.24 2.023 0.223
*Each value is average of three determinations
4.31.1 Bulk density
The data presented in table 34 revealed that the formulated weaning food had
significantly lower bulk density than the market sample. The bulk density of malted
weaning food sample, sample T2 and market sample was 0.41, 0.45 and 0.54 g/cm3
respectively. This indicates that the malted weaning food sample will have a lower
dietary bulk. This is important in weaning foods because high bulk density limits, the
caloric and commercial diet intake per feed per child and infants are sometimes unable to
consume enough to satisfy their energy and commercial diet requirements (Omueti et al.,
2009). Apart from dietary bulk, bulk density (BD) is also important in the packaging
requirement and material handling of the weaning diet (Karuna et al., 1996). Similar
results were also reported by Adepeju et al., (2014) and Okoronkwo et al., (2014).
4.31.2 Water Absorption Capacitiy
The water absorption capacity of malted weaning food, sample T2 and market
sample were 124.18, 138.20 and 152.03 per cent respectively. The Water Absorption
Capacity (WAC) of malted weaning food was lower than that of the market sample and
T2 sample. The high WAC of market sample is related to proportion of hydrophilic and
hydrophobic amino acids in the protein and relative amount of carbohydrates. The more

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hydrophilic amino acids and the polysaccharide constituents, the more water make the
diet absorb and bind (Otegbayo et al., 2000). The significance of low WAC in the
weaning diets compared to market sample is that, it is desirable for making thinner gruels
with high caloric density per unit volume. Similar results were also reported by Ali et al.,
(2006).
4.31.3 Oil Absorption Capacity
The oil absorption capacity of sample malted weaning food (MW1), sample T2 and
market sample were 98.12, 90.47 and 85.40 respectively. The result of the Oil Absorption
Capacity (OAC) showed that malted weaning food sample had the highest Oil Absorption
Capacity over selected sample and market sample. According to Omueti et al., (2009) Oil
Absorption Capacity has been attributed to be due to physical entrapment of oil and the
binding of fat to the polar chains of proteins. This implies that the formulated diets will
be able to retain more flavor and probably have better month feel compared to
commercial market sample (Kinsella, 1976) Similar results were also reported by
Adepeju et al., (2014).
4.31.4 Swelling power
Swelling Power connotes the expansion accompanying spontaneous uptake of
solvent. The control sample had the highest swelling power followed by market sample
and prepared weaning food. Kinsella (1976) reported that swelling causes changes in
hydrodynamic properties of the food thus impacting characteristics such as body,
thickening and increase viscosity to foods. This implies that among the control sample
with the highest swelling power will produce a thick viscous gruel compared to market
sample and selected weaning food. This is probably due to higher carbohydrate content
than the others. Appropriate weaning diet is one which produce a gruel that is neither too
thick (when it is too thick, it will be difficult for the infant to ingest and digest because of
limited gastric capacity) for the infant to consume nor so thin that energy and commercial
diet density are reduced (WHO, 2003).
4.31.5 Solubility Index
Solubility index is the amount of water soluble solids per unit weight of the
sample. Market sample had the highest solubility index followed by malted weaning
sample and control. The solubility index of market sample, malted weaning sample and

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control sample were 4.9, 4.6 and 4.1 respectively. Solubility is an index of protein
functionality such as denaturation and its potential applications. The higher solubility
higher functionality of the protein in a food. The higher solubility of market sample
compared to the others may be due to the fact that they have higher protein content due to
inclusion of protein components such as soybeans and groundnut and also may indicate
that the protein component of these diets are still functional. Similar results with respect
to swelling power and solubility index were reported by Adepeju et al., (2014) and
Okoronkwo et al., (2014).
4.32 Microbial analysis of prepared weaning food
Microbial examination is the perfect quality assessment protocol performed in
food products quality analysis. The prepared weaning food with orange waste was
analyzed for microbial qualities during storage up to 90 days. The sample T2 and sample
MW1 was subjected to microbial studies for total plate count, yeast and mold count and
coliform count.
4.32.1 Microbial quality of sample (T2) during storage
The results recorded during the present investigation are presented in Table 35.
Table 35. Microbial quality of sample (T2) during storage
Storage Microbial quality (CFU/ml)
Sr. No. (in day) TPC Yeast and Mold Coliform

1 0 1.0x102 Nil Nil

2 30 5.4x102 Nil Nil
3 60 31.1×102 Nil Nil
4 90 62.27×102 Nil Nil
*Each value is the mean of three determinations
It is observed from table 35 that as the storage period increases the microbial
count of the control sample increases with respect to total plate, while yeast and mold
count; coliform count did not detected in all the storage period. The total plate count
ranged from 1.0x102 CFU/ml to 62.27x102 CFU/ml from 0 to 90 days of storage periods.
While after the storage period of 30 and 60 days the total plate count result observed was

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5.4x102 CFU/ml and 31.1x102 CFU/ml respectively. Similar results with respect to the
microbial quality were reported by Rashida et al., (2014).
4.32.2 Microbial quality of malted (MW1) weaning
The microbial quality viz total plate count, yeast and mold count, coliform count
were determined of selected weaning food and the results pertaining the same are
presented in Table 36.
Table 36. Microbial quality of malted (MW1) weaning
Sr. No. Storage Microbial quality (CFU/ml)
(in day) TPC Yeast and mold Coliform
1 0 0.8x102 Nil Nil
2 30 1.2×102 Nil Nil
3 60 3.2×102 Nil Nil
4 90 5.1×102 Nil Nil
*Each value is the mean of three determinations
The data expressed in table 36 revealed that as the storage period increases the
microbial count of the weaning sample also increases with respect to total plate, while
yeast and mold count and coliform count did not detected in all the storage period. The
total plate count ranged from 0.8x102 CFU/ml to 5.1x102 CFU/ml from 0 to 90 days of
storage periods. While after the storage period of 30 and 60 days the total plate count
result observed was 1.2x102 and 3.2x102 CFU/ml respectively. Food safety and standard
authority of India (FSSAI) has set the limits regarding the microbial qualities of the
weaning food. The microbial quality of the prepared weaning food in within the limit
with respect to total plate count, yeast and mold count and coliform count. The microbial
count of both control and selected weaning food did not show many differences. This
might be due to the fact that both samples contain orange waste in their recipe and orange
peel and powder is having antimicrobial activity (Salimurahman (2007). Our results are
comparable to those of Asma et al., (2006), who reported a lower plate count of weaning
diets. Being free from pathogenic bacteria these formulas are considered to be safe.
Similar results regarding the microbial qualities were also reported by Ibeanu et al.,
(2015).

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4.33 Energy values (kcal) of orange waste and weaning food
The theoretical energy value of orange waste, prepared weaning food of control
and experimental best formulation were studied.
The theoretical energy value was determined by using value of the crude protein,
crude fat and carbohydrate content and multiplying theses obtained values with 4, 9 and 4
Kcal respectively.
Table 37. Energy values (kcal) of orange waste and weaning food
Sr. Orange waste Protein Fat × 9 (%) Carbohydrate Energy values
No. and weaning × 4 (%) × 4 (%) ( kcal)
food

1 Peel 6.14 1.98 (17.82) 80.27 (321.08) 363.46

(24.56)
2 Pomace 7.34 1.53 (13.77) 78.62 (314.48) 357.61
(29.36)
3 Sample (T2) 15.5 4.41 (39.69) 73.52 (294.08) 395.77
(62.0)

4 Sample (MW1) 15.0 4.02 (36.18) 71.11 (284.44) 380.62

(60.0)

5 Cerelac 15 (60) 9.0 (81) 68 (272) 413

*Each value is the mean of three determinations
From the table 37 it is evident that orange waste are unique source of energy as
the total energy value obtained from orange peel and pomace were 363.46 and 357.61
kcal respectively. Carbohydrate is the main source of energy in the orange waste as it can
be seen from the table that the carbohydrate content of peel and pomace powder was
80.27 and 78.62 per cent and the energy obtained from peel and pomace were 321.08 and
314.48 kcal respectively. The energy obtained from protein and fat in orange peel were
24.56 and 17.82 kcal, while of pomace it was 29.36 and 13.77 kcal respectively. Total
energy obtained from the control sample, selected weaning food sample and market
sample were 395.77, 380.62 and 413 kcal. The energy value of the selected (Malted)

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weaning food is slightly less than control (un-malted) sample. This was due to malting
technique adopted.
The market sample is slightly high in total energy because it contains more fat in
the form of milk solids (33.8 per cent) and soybean oil. While the developed weaning
food is slightly higher in carbohydrate content than the market sample. The carbohydrate
serve as a major source of energy in the developed weaning food as compare to other
nutrients. Because of the adopted malting technique, low paste viscosity and bulk density
consumption of the developed weaning can be increased. As well as it is produced from
the locally available cereal grains and orange waste there is no use of any expensive raw
materials for the production. The simple preparation methods was followed which can be
adopted at household level. Also there is much difference in the cost of the market
sample and prepared weaning food, this prepared weaning food is affordable to the
common masses of the poor community who are not able to buy expensive weaned
products.
4.34 Cost of production of orange peel and pomace powder and its combination
4.34.1 Cost of production of orange peel powder
Techno-economical feasibility means the prepared product should be
technologically and economically affordable to the manufacture and also necessary to
judge it’s suitability for commercialization. In the present investigation orange waste are
used in the form of powders for their nutritional and phytochemical analysis and also
utilized in weaning food. It is very needful to prepare the powder from orange waste at an
affordable cost which will in turn results into economical feasibility of finished products.
The prepared orange peel powder cost was found to be comparability of lower than the
powder available in the market. The production cost of orange peel powder was estimated
on the basis of cost of procured fresh peel, energy consumption and yield of powder
including processing cost. Based on the various requirements total cost was estimated on
the basis of pilot plant trials. The detail workout for the cost of orange peel powder is
summarized in the Table 38.

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Table 38. Cost of production of orange peel powder
Sr. No. Ingredient Quantity Rate Cost
(kg) (Rs/kg) (Rs)
1 Orange fresh peel 1.66 10 16.60

2 Electricity charges
(cabinet drying 40 unit 10/ unit 400
8000 watt/ 5 hrs)

3 1 Labor 2hr Rs20/hr 40

Total cost 456.60

Total yield of orange peel powder = 1000g

Processing cost @ 15% of above total cost = {456.60x15/100}+456.60
= 68.48+456.60
= 525.09 Rs
Cost of production of orange peel powder = 525.09/ Kg
It is observed from table 38 that the cost of production of 1 kg of orange peel
powder was Rs 525.09 including 15 per cent processing cost.
4.34.2 Cost of production of orange pomace powder
The cost of production orange pomace powder was of Rs. 644 / kg considering 15
per cent processing cost. The cost of production of orange pomace powder was higher
compared to peel powder due to lower yield of pomace compared to peel. The estimated
cost of Rs 644 per kg of orange pomace powder was not so high on the basis of its
nutraceutical profile and medicinal importance. The required cost for production of
orange pomace powder was presented in Table 39.

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Table 39. Cost of production of orange pomace powder
Sr. No. Ingredient Quantity (kg) Rate Cost
(Rs/kg) (Rs)
1 Orange pomace 5 8 40
powder
2 Electricity
charges 48 unit 10/ unit 480
(cabinet drying
8000 watt/ 6 hrs)
3 1 Labor 2hr Rs20/hr 40
Total cost 560

Total yield of orange pomace powder = 1000g

Processing cost @ 15% of above total cost = {560x15/100} +560
= 84+ 560
= 644 Rs
Cost of production of orange pomace powder = 644/ Kg
It is observed from table 39 that the cost of production of 1 kg of orange pomace
powder was Rs 644 including 15 per cent processing cost.
4.33.3 Cost of production of orange waste combination powder
The cost of production of orange peel and pomace was determined per kilogram
individually on the basis of the individual cost of peel and pomace with their proportion.
1 Kg of orange waste powder cost of rupees 584.5 per kilogram, does not include any
additional cost.
Table 40. Cost of production of orange waste combination powder
Sr. No. Ingredient Quanti Rate Cost (Rs)
ty (g) (Rs/kg)
1 Peel powder 500 525 262.5
2 Pomace powder 500 644 322.0

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Yield of orange waste combination powder = 1kg
Cost of production of orange waste combination powder = 584.5/kg
4.34 Cost economics of orange waste based weaning food
The production cost of orange waste based weaning food was analyzed and its
cost analysis was presented in Table 41.
Table 41. Cost economics of orange waste based weaning food

Sr. Ingredients Quantity Rate Cost

No. (kg) (Rs/kg) (Rs)
1 Sorghum flour 30 25 750

2 Green gram 20 60 1200

3 Foxtail millet 20 70 1400
4 Rice flour 20 35 700

5 Skim milk powder 10 200 2000

6 Sugar 10 35 350
7 Orange peel : pomace 20 584.5 11690
combination powder
Total cost 130 18090

Total cost of raw material =18090

Processing cost rate of 20 % of raw material = 3618
Packaging cost = 900
Total yield of prepared weaning food = 115 kg
Cost of production of weaning food /Kg = 196.59 Rs/Kg
Cost of production of market sample = 566.66 Rs/Kg
It is observed from the Table 41 that the total cost of weaning food on the basis
of pilot plant trials per kilogram was Rs 196.59 and it do not include any marketing cost
and other duties by the government. The yield of orange waste based weaning food was
115 kg from 130 kg formulation. It is clear from the table that commercial market sample
is more costly than the prepared product. As this weaning food is developed for the lower

136
income group of community, so it can serve as an excellent source of nutrition for lower
income group of people who are unable to buy costly products which are available in the
market.

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Malnutrition is one of the major problems for the infants and young children,
toddlers in India and other developing countries. Infancy is generally considered as
crucial period in which there are high chances of mortality and morbidity. There are
several reasons for malnutrition including insufficient diet to lactating mothers which in
turn result in low milk producing condition, prolong breast feeding to infants without an
appropriate and timely introduction of weaning/ complementary foods. There is a need
for adoption of supplementary feeding to maintain needs for the growth of infants and
bridge the gap of energy and protein requirements. Children belong to low income and
big families, rural areas, illiterate backgrounds, generally suffers from the malnutrition.
As available weaning food in the market is quite expensive one (Rs 220/300g) it is not
affordable to low income group people. So, this problem can be solved through the use of
inexpensive local foods available easily.
The present research work entitled, “Studies on Isolation, Characterization of
some Important Nutraceutical Components from Orange Byprodcuts and its Exploration
in Weaning Food” was undertaken as a thesis research work to develop nutritious, easy to
prepare and cost effective instant weaning foods from locally available agriculture
produce, with addition of orange peel and pomace which are phytonutrients rich and
considered as waste, generally discarded as waste from processing industries and is a
cause of environmental pollution also.
The results obtained during present investigation are summarized and concluded as under

 Physical properties and percent yield of juice, peel and pomace was determined
from oranges (Nagpur variety). Mean length of grade one (large), two (medium)
and three (small) of oranges were 90.08, 83.01 and 76.20 mm, and for the mean
width were 85.00, 77.3 and 69.78 mm respectively. The mean thickness values for
grade one, two and three oranges were 84.20, 75.25 and 68.10mm respectively.
Geometric mean diameter of grade one, two and three of oranges were recorded
as 85.11, 77.28 and 70.18 mm while surface area were 21.1x103, 18.4x103 and

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 15.2 x103 mm2 respectively. Orange density of grade one, two and three were
0.99, 1.07 and 1.09 g cm-3 respectively. Bulk density of grade one, two and three
were found to be 0.38, 0.44 and 0.43 g cm-3.
 Chemical properties of orange peel and pomace powder were studied and it was
found that moisture content of peel was 7.78 and protein, fat and ash contain of
peel was 6.14, 1.98 and 3.81 while the carbohydrate and dietary fiber contain of
peel was 80.27 and 29.5 respectively. The chemical properties of pomace powder
showed the moisture, protein, fat and ash content as 9.13, 7.34, 1.53 and 3.36 the
carbohydrate and dietary fiber content of pomace was 78.62 and 26.5. Although
peel and pomace is generally consider as waste but these results showed that both
are valuable source of nutrients.
 Colour characteristics of orange waste were determined with the help of lab color
flex meter with L*, a*, b*, h* and c* values.
 Mineral content of orange peel and pomace powder were determined and it was
found that in orange peel potassium was present in huge concentrations 1109
mg/100g followed by calcium, phosphorus and magnesium 501, 116 and 203
mg/100g. The iron was present in minimal amount 7.1 mg/100g. Potassium,
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and iron content of pomace powder were, 1191,
274, 273, 114 and 11.6 mg/100g respectively. Vitamins like A, C and E were
determined in orange peel and pomace. it was found that both are good source of
vitamins. Peel content of Vitamin A, C and E was 569 µg/100g, 647 and 0.81
mg/100g. While pomace contain 227 µg/100g of vitamin A, and 115.3 and 0.62
mg/100g of vitamin C and E.
 Nutraceutical components viz; Alkaloid, Flavonoids, Saponin, Tannin and
Polyphenols were also extracted from the orange peel and pomace powder. These
Nutraceutical component are vital in both health promotion and disease
prevention with particular biological activities. In orange waste these
nutraceutical components are present in huge amount particularly Flavonoids,
Saponin, while comparatively alkaloid and tannin are present in small amount.
Flavonoids content of orange peel and pomace was 29.8 and 45.4 g/100g, while

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 Saponin content was 4.9 and 11.0 g/100g. Tannin and alkaloid content were 1.02,
0.73 and 3.1 and 1.31 respectively.
 Dietary fibers play an important role in human gastrointestinal tract, total, both
soluble and insoluble dietary fibers were determined from the orange waste. Peel
powder showed total, insoluble and soluble dietary fiber 29.5, 17.41 and 12.0
g/100g respectively, while pomace powder showed 26.5, 18.08 and 8.42 dietary
fibers respectively.
 Functional properties viz density, bulk density, dispersability, water absorption
capacity, swelling capacity and oil absorption capacity were determined for
orange waste. Peel powder showed 0.46, 0.33, 25.14, 3.9, 20.14 and 2.9 results of
functional properties, while pomace powder showed 0.68, 0.54, 27.10, 3.5, 19.78
and 2.2 results of functional properties respectively.
 Orange peel oil was extracted from peels, at different time intervals to get
maximum yield. The maximum yield obtained was 0.52 per cent and optimum
extraction time was 180 minutes.
 Physical, chemical properties, fatty acid profile, nutraceutical content of orange
peel oil were also studied. In physical properties the specific gravity and
refractive index of oils was helpful in judging the purity of oil. Specific
extinction and solubility of peel oil in water and solvents were studied. Various
chemical parameters like Acid value, peroxide value Saponification value iodine
value, ester value and TBA of peel oil were determined, and was found 0.28,
<0.5, 7.6, 120, 18.5 and 0.01 respectively.
 Various phytochemicals in peel oil viz. alkaloid, Flavonoids, Saponin and tannin
which were found 1.20, 0.85, 0.03 and 4.25 per cent.
 Fatty acid profile of orange peel oil showed total fat 6.33 per cent, while
saturated fatty acid, mono, poly and trans fatty acids were present in oil and was
calculated as 4.23, 0.58, 1.16 and <0.1 per cent.
 The raw materials which were used for the preparation of weaning food were
sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millets. Physical properties of grains like
thousand kernel weight, density, bulk density, porosity, angle of repose,
speherecity and geometric mean were determined.

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 Chemical properties of grains like moisture, protein, fat, ash, crude fiber and
carbohydrate content were determined. Mineral compositon of grains particularly
Calcium, Potassium, Magnesium, Iron and Phosphorus were also determined.
Determination of all these parameters justifies use of these grains as raw
materials for weaning food preparation. Different types of formulations were
given to prepare the weaning food by incorporating different levels of orange
peel powder and orange pomace powder. Finally the recipe was formulated with
30 per cent sorghum flour, 20 per cent green gram flour, 20 per cent rice flour, 20
per cent foxtail millet flour, 10 per cent skim milk powder and to this further
there was addition of 10 per cent peel powder and 10 per cent pomace powder.
 The prepared weaning food was analyzed for chemical composition and
organoleptic evaluation. Experimental sample (T2) containing 20 per cent of equal
mixture orange peel powder and pomace powder were found to be the best based
on high organoleptic score. organoleptic evaluation was carried out by judging the
sample on their colour and appearance, flavor, texture, taste and overall
acceptability. More than 20 per cent use of orange waste was drastically
decreased taste of weaning food. After selection of 20 per cent level of orange
waste as optimum and organoleptically accepted, further the pre treatment
samples were prepared.
 The pretreatment of malting and roasting were given to raw materials used in
weaning food preparation. After getting higher overall acceptability by the panel
members malted sample was selected. Further analysis was carried out among the
malted sample, sample containing 20 per cent orange waste (T2), and market
sample. Sample with 20 per cent orange waste but without malting treatment was
consider as control (T2).
 Chemical composition of control and malted weaning food samples were
determined, and it was observed that as compare to control sample there was
slight reduction in chemical parameters like Protein, fat, carbohydrate and ash but
the content of dietary fibers was increased.
 Mineral content of control sample, selected weaning food sample and market
sample (Nestle Cerelac) were determined. Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Iron

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 and Potassium content of control, selected weaning food and market sample were
analyzed and results shows that control sample contains, 162, 86.5,107, 9.0and
1062 mg/100g of minerals. While the selected weaning food sample contains 102,
75.2, 71, 6.1 and 950 mg/100g of minerals. The market sample contains 420, 45,
300, 7.0 and 410 mg/100g of minerals. it was found that market sample contained
minerals like calcium, Phosphorus, and iron in more quantity as compared to
malted sample. While prepared malted sample contained minerals like magnesium
and potassium in more quantity as compared to market sample. The increase in
mineral content of market sample is due to the external fortification of mineral
source in to the weaning food. While besides orange waste we did not done any
other fortification in the prepared weaning food, without any fortifications our
prepared weaning food sample contained some minerals in more quantity
compared to market sample.
 Vitamins like A, C and E content of control sample, selected weaning food
sample and market sample (Nestle Cerelac) were determined. Vitamin A content
was 170, 195 and 350 µg/100g. Vitamin C was 148, 372 and 25 mg/100g while
vitamin E content was 0.11, 0.24 and 2.50 mg/100g. It was found that market
sample contains more vitamin A and E, while prepared weaning food contains
more vitamin C compared to market sample. As further fortification is carried out
in the form of vitamins in the market sample, so its vitamin A and E is higher than
prepared weaning food. The colour values of both the sample were not much
difference based on the results from color lab hunter meter.
 The phytonutrients content of malted sample was very high as compared to
control sample. Alkaloid, flavonoid, tannin, Saponin and content of malted
sample were observed as 4.71, 24.86, 0.93, 3.80 g/100g, while the phytonutrients
content of control sample were observed to be 2.22, 8.79, 0.36 and 2.51 g/100g.
polyphenol content of control and selected weaning food sample were observed to
be 6.3 and 85.45 mg.g respectively. As these phytochemicals are having very
significant biological activities and these are present in good quantity in the
prepared weaning food due to the incorporation of orange waste.

141
 Rheological studies are one of the most convenient methods for measuring
indicators of quality and texture of final products. The prepared weaning food and
the control sample were analyzed for both hot and cold paste viscosity as
viscosity of food is one of the important determinants of food acceptability to
both mothers and young children. Viscosity of developed orange waste based
weaning food was measured on Brookfiled viscometer (DV-III) model at different
shear rate i.e. spindle speed from 10 to 100 per cent (rpm). Cold paste viscosity of
roasted sample was found to be highest compare to control and malted weaning
food sample, may be due to during heating starch granules may disintegrate
becoming more susceptible to hydration which is associated with high viscosity.
Malted weaning foods caused considerable reduction in the cold paste viscosity.
The viscosity values of malted energy foods at 10 rpm were 680 centipoises. The
treatment of malting was found to be most effective in reducing the viscosity of
developed weaning food and found better and significant as regards to cold paste
viscosity of the rest of the foods.
 The result of hot paste viscosity of all these food formulations were also found
more or less in the same trend at different shear rate as were observed in the cold
slurry viscosity. The hot paste viscosity of roasted and control sample was
observed significantly higher at all shear rate than malt added energy food.
 Functional properties of Control sample, prepared weaning food, and market
sample viz density, bulk density, water absorption capacity, oil absorption
capacity, swelling capacity and solubility index were determined. The bulk
density of malted weaning food sample, Sample T2 and market sample was 0.41,
0.45 and 0.54 respectively. This indicates that the malted weaning food sample
will have a lower dietary bulk. The water absorption capacity of prepared
weaning food, sample T2 and market sample were 124.18, 138.20 and 152.03
respectively. Oil absorption capacity of Selected weaning food, control sample
and market sample were 98.12, 90.47 and 85.40 respectively. The control sample
had the highest swelling power followed by market sample and prepared weaning
food. The solubility index of market sample, selected weaning sample and control
sample were 4.9, 4.6 and 4.1 respectively.

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 Microbial analysis of control sample and prepared weaning food was carried out
for, Total plate count, yeast and mold count and Coliform count. The results of
microbial analysis for both the sample was under limit given by FSSAI (Food
Safety and Standard Authority of India). Theoretical energy value of peel,
pomace, control sample, selected weaning food sample and market sample was
carried out. Market sample provided slightly more energy than prepared weaning
food due to high content of fat. Prepared weaning food provides 380.62 kcal,
while market sample provides 413 kcal respectively.
 Cost of production of orange peel, pomace and their combination powder, and
prepared weaning food was determined. Orange peel powder cost was 525/kg,
while pomace powder cost was 644/kg. Cost of combination of peel and pomace
powder was 584.5/kg. The cost of production of orange waste based weaning food
was 196/kg, while the market sample (Nestle Cerelac) cost is 566/kg. The
weaning food was prepared by keeping the low income sect of the society which
is unable to buy such expensive weaning food from the market. From the total
cost it is clear that market sample is 3 times expensive than the prepared weaning
food. Such low cost, nutrient dense, provided with phytonutrients, minerals etc
weaning food which is prepared from the local available raw materials and waste
which is generally discarded as waste could be the best alternative for the poor
people of the society and can be very helpful to eradicate the malnutrition
condition in India and other developing countries.

CONCLUSION
The present investigation aimed in exploration and quality evaluation of Orange
(Citrus Sinensis) waste (peel and pomace) as a nutraceuticals in weaning food. Weaning
blend formulate from Sorghum, green gram, foxtail millets and rice flour. In the light of
scientific results of the present investigation, it can be concluded that orange waste which
are discarded as waste from processing industries, is having excellent phytochemical
profile and is a mine of nutraceutical components. Various phytonutrients viz alkaloids,
flavonoids, Saponin and tannin and minerals are present in abundant quantity. The grains
selected in this study are locally available at all time and are excellent source of protein

143
and carbohydrate. Further to improve taste and nutritional profile of the weaning food
pretreatment were given to the grains like roasting and malting. Based on sensory
evaluation malted sample was selected. The process of preparation of weaning food was
standardized by varying different levels of orange waste combination powder. The
addition of 20 per cent orange waste combination powder enriched weaning food with
malting process yielded a nutritious, low dense and high calorie product with good
sensory attributes.
Hence, it is finally concluded that developed processing technology for
preparation of orange waste based weaning food, is having the nutraceutical and
therapeutic values and therefore can be commercially exploited to address the problem of
malnutrition in the developing countries. The storage stability of the developed product,
feasibility of incorporation of orange waste in to the formulation, cost economics and its
nutritional quality of the prepared weaning food makes it ideal alternative to unreachable
expensive weaning food of the market to the low income group of society. The developed
technology could be an avenue for the utilization of orange waste and local cereal grains
as ready to use cereal based weaning food that will bring the orange waste to the main
stream food basket. Natural products have been and will be important sources of new
pharmaceutical compounds. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in natural
product research due to the failure of alternative drug discovery methods to deliver many
lead compounds in key therapeutic areas. In this sense, considering the health benefits of
orange waste, it presents excellent options for improving/maintaining health due to its
bioactive compounds that show important activities or for developing new products, there
is the need for public enlightenment on the importance of orange waste and finding and
discovering new and effective phytochemical compounds.
Areas for future research
During the process of undergoing this research project, there had been some constraints
and results. Based on this, the following recommendations are made.
 Further study should be conducted on nutritive values by animal (in vivo protein
digestibility test) to further check and compare the quality of weaning blends with
the results of this thesis work.

144
 There should be awareness creation on how to use the cheap cereals and legumes
such as Sorghum, green gram, foxtail millets, rice accompanied with simple
processing methods deep in the society by demonstrating developed products like
weaning foods. Traditional weaning foods generally in developing countries are
commonly accustomed. Therefore, it is recommended to use simple technologies
so that it is possible to attain the need of those lower class families especially in
rural areas.
 Methods to further improve acceptability qualities of the foods should be
evaluated packaging material required need to be studied in detail.
 The foods should be subjected to a controlled clinical trial to determine their
efficacy in maintenance of good nutrition

145
 APPENDIX - A
VASANTRAO NAIK MARATHWADA KRISHI VIDYAPEETH
COLLEGE OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY, PARBHANI

Organoleptic Evaluation Score Card

Name of the evaluator: ----------------------------- Date :-----------------------------

You are requested to evaluate the given samples and score the qualities of the
given samples. Express the acceptability numerically given score point.

Score Point
9- Like extremely 8 - Like very much
7 - Like moderately 6 - Like slightly
5 - Neither like nor dislike 4- Dislike slightly
3- Dislike moderately 2 - Dislike very much
1 - Dislike extremely

Sample Overall
Appearance Colour Flavour Taste Texture
code Acceptability
A
B
C
D

Sign of the Evaluator

146
 ABSTRACT
Childhood malnutrition is a common problem in India and other developing
countries. India is home to 40 percent of the world’s malnourished children and 35
percent of the developing world’s low-birth-weight infants; every year 2.5 million
children die in India, accounting for one in five deaths in the world. According to the
National Family Health Survey of India, 48 per cent of children in India are
malnourished. In the present investigation weaning food was prepared from locally
available cereals and millets viz sorghum, rice, green gram and foxtail millet. Orange by-
products (peel and pomace) were incorporated in prepared weaning food. Different
properties of orange waste viz physiochemical, per cent yield of waste, phytonutrients
content, total phenol, colour characteristics, mineral content, vitamin and dietary fiber
content were analysed. The results revealed that orange waste (peel and pomace) are
excellent source of protein (6.14 and 7.34 per cent), carbohydrate (80.27 and 78.62 per
cent), ash (3.81 and 3.36 per cent). Phytonutrients detected in orange waste like
alkaloids (3.1 and 1.31), flavonoid (29.8 and 45.4), tannin (1.02 and 0.73) and Saponin
(4.9 and 11.0 per cent), total phenol (106 and 98.01), mineral content like potassium
(1109 and 1191 mg/100g), calcium (501 and 274 mg/100g), phosphorus (203 and 273
mg/100g), magnesium (116 and 114 mg/100g) and iron (7.1 and 11.6 mg/100g), vitamin
A (569 and 227 µg/100g), vitamin C (647 and 115.3 mg/100g) and vitamin E (0.81 and
0.62 mg/100g), total dietary fiber (29.5 and 26.5). Physicochemical and mineral content
of cereals grain used were also analyzed. Results revealed that the used grains are
excellent source of protein, carbohydrate etc. The recipe was formulated as 30 per cent
sorghum flour, 20 per cent each rice, green gram and foxtail millet and 10 per cent skim
milk powder. To this different levels of orange waste was incorporated and based on
sensory evaluation sample containing 20 per cent of orange waste was selected. Roasting
and malting treatments were given to grains used, and malted sample was further
analysed with market and control sample.
The prepared weaning food was analysed for proximate composition, mineral
content, vitamins, phytonutrients, and results revealed that it is rich in protein (15.0 per
cent), carbohydrate (71.11 per cent), dietary fibers (16.5 per cent), fat (4.02 per cent) and
ash (2.9 per cent). Prepared weaning food was phytonutrients dense with alkaloids (4.71

147
per cent), flavonoids (24.86 per cent), tannin (0.93 per cent), saponin (3.80 per cent),
polyphenol (85.45 mg/g). Mineral and vitamin content of prepared weaning food was
potassium (950mg/100g), calcium (102mg/100g), phosphorus (71mg/100g), magnesium
(75.2mg/100g) and iron (6.1mg/100g), vitamin A (195 µg/100g), vitamin C (372
mg/100g) and vitamin E (0.24 mg/100g), total dietary fiber (16.5). Hot and cold paste
viscosity was analyzed for the developed weaning food and results showed that roasted
sample is having higher viscosity than the malted sample. various functional properties
viz density, bul density (0.41g/cm3), water absorption capacity (124.18 per cent), oil
absorption capacity (98.12 per cent), swelling capacity (18 per cent) etc were
determined. The microbial analysis with respect to total plate count, yeast and mould
count and Coliform count were performed for the storage period of 90 days and the
results revealed that TPC was under the limit given by FSSAI, while yeast and mould,
Coliform were absent. Total cost of production was determined and it was found that the
formulated weaning food is quite cheap (243/kg), as compared to market sample
(Cerelac) which is having price (706/kg). Thus it can be finally concluded that the
formulated weaning food is nutrient dense, made from locally available raw materials, is
affordable to low income group of people and thus can be helpful in eradication of
serious problem of malnutrition.
Key words: Orange waste Weaning food, Phytonutrients, Malnutrition, FSSAI, Total
Plate Count, Functional properties

148
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 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Moisture Fat Protein Carbohydrate Crude fiber Ash

Control (C) T1 T2 T3

Figure 1: Proximate composition of weaning food with fortification of orange

waste

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Colour and Flavor Texture Taste Overall
Appearance acceptability

Control T1 T2 T3

Figure 2: Organoleptic evaluation of weaning food with fortification of orange

waste
 9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Colour Flavour Taste Texture Overall
acceptability

Sample (T2) Sample (MW1) Sample (RW1)

Figure 3: Effect of pre-treatments on organoleptic evaluation of orange waste

based weaning food

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Moisture Fat Protein Carbohydrate Dietary Fiber Ash

Sample (T2) Sample (MW1)

Figure 4: Proximate composition of weaning food with addition of orange

waste
 Color values of weaning food

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
L* a* b* c* value h* value

Sample (T2) Sample (MW1)

Figure 5: Colour characteristics of orange waste based weaning food

 Phytochemical content of weaning food (g/100g)

25
20
15
10
5
0
Sample T2 Sample MW1

Alkaloids Flavonoids Tannin Saponin

Figure 6: Phytochemical constituents of orange waste based weaning food

Mineral Content (mg/100g)

Sample (T2) Sample (MW1) Market sample

1062
950

420 410
300
162 102 75.2
86.5 45 107 71 6.1
9 7

Calcium Magnesium Phosphorous Iron Potassium

Mineral content (mg/100g)

Figure 7: Minerals composition of weaning food

 Vitamin content
Sample (T2) Sample (MW1) Market sample

350 372

195

170 148

25 0.24
0.11 2.5

Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin E

(µg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g)

Figure 8: Vitamin content of weaning food

 800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
10 20 30 50 60 100

Sample (T2) Sample (MW1) Sample (RW1)

Figure 9: Effect of pretreatment on cold paste viscosity of orange waste based

weaning food

1000

800

600

400

200

0
10 20 30 50 60 100

Sample (T2) Sample (MW1) Sample (RW1)

Figure 10: Effect of pretreatment on hot paste viscosity of orange waste

based weaning food
350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
Peel Pomace Sample Sample Cerelac
(T2) (MW1)

Protein Fat Carbohydrate

Figure 11: Energy values (kcal) of orange waste and weaning food