Atlas of World Religions Fortress Atlases

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ATLAS OF WORLD RELIGIONS
Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 1 22/05/2018 15:00

Also in this series
Atlas of Christian History: Tim Dowley, 2016

Atlas of the European Reformations: Tim Dowley, 2015

Atlas of World Religions
by Tim Dowley
Cartographer Nick Rowland FRGS
Fortress Press
Minneapolis

ATLAS OF WORLD RELIGIONS
Copyright © 2018 Fortress Press / ZipAddress Limited. All Photograph acknowledgements

rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical articles Dreamstime.com:
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p. 148 © Joserpizarro

Religion indeed enlightens, terrifies, subdues;
it gives faith, it inflicts remorse, it inspires resolutions,
it draws tears, it inflames devotion…
JOHN HENRY NEWMAN (1801–90)

List of Maps 8
Contents Foreword 11
A Chronology of World Religions 12
Part 1: The Ancient World 14

Megaliths 16
Babylonia and Sumeria 18
Religion in Ancient Egypt 20
The Early City Religions 22
The Religions of Ancient Greece 25
Roman Religion 28
Zoroastrianism 30
Part 2: Hinduism 32
The Origins of Hinduism 34
Hindu Temple Worship 36
Hinduism and the Sacred 38
Hinduism in the Modern World 40
Jainism 42
Part 3: Buddhism 44
The Origins of Buddhism 46
What is Buddhism? 48
Buddhism Spreads beyond India 50
Buddhism in the Modern World 52
Confucianism and Taoism 54
Part 4: Judaism 58
Origin of the Jewish People 60
The Kingdom of Israel 62
Jewish Dispersions 64
The Jewish Diaspora 67
Judaism and the Rise of Islam 68
Anti-Semitism and Messianism 70
Jewish Emancipation 72
Judaism in the USA 74
The Holocaust 76
6 AT L A S O F W O R L D R E L I G I O N S

Part 5: Christianity 80
Palestine under the Herods 82
Judaism and the Early Church 84
The Early Growth of Christianity 86
Christianity Becomes Official 88
Christendom in 1050 ce 92
The European Reformations 94
Christianity in the Americas c. 1750 96
An Age of Missions 98
The Mormons 102
Christianity Today 104
Part 6: Islam 108

Muhammad 110
The Early Growth of Islam 112
Islam in the Subcontinent 114
Islam in South-east Asia 116
Islam and Africa 120
Islam in Modern Asia 123
Islam in the Modern World 126
Sikhism 128
Part 7: World Religions Today 132

Japanese Religions 134
Religion in China Today 136
What are Indigenous Religions? 140
New Religious Movements 144
Modern Pilgrimage 148
Jerusalem: The Holy City 152
What is the Hajj? 154
Further reading 156

Gazetteer 157
Index 174
CO N T E N T S 7

1 The Megaliths of Western Europe 16
List of Maps 2
3
Religious sites of Ancient Mesopotamia 19
Ancient Egypt 21
4 Ancient Empires of the Middle East 22
5 Cult Centres of Ancient Greece 24
6 Sources of the Roman Cults 28
7 Zoroastrianism: Origins and Spread 31
8 Hindu Origins 35
9 Temple Hinduism 37
10 Hindu Sacred Places 39
11 Hinduism Today 40
12 Jainism in India 43
13 The Buddhist Heartland 47
14 Buddhism Expands in India 49
15 The Early Spread of Buddhism 51
16 Buddhism Today 53
17 Taoism 55
18 The Exodus 61
19 The Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Solomon 63
20 The Jewish Exiles 64
21 The Jewish Diaspora c. 400 ce 66
22 The Jews and Islam c. 750 ce 68
23 Judaism in 16th and 17th Century Europe 70
24 Jewish Emancipation 1789–1918 73
25 The Origins of Judaism in the USA 74
26 Judaism and the Third Reich 76
27 The Modern State of Israel 79
28 Palestine in the time of Christ 83
29 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Roman Empire 84
30 The Spread of Christianity by 325 ce 86
31 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Centuries 88
32 World Religions 600 bce–600 ce: An Overview 90
33 The Church in 1050 92
34 Reformation Europe c. 1570 94
35 Christianity in the Americas c. 1750 97

36 Worldwide Christian Missions in the early 20th Century 100
37 The Mormon Trail 102
38 Christianity Worldwide 104
39 The Journeys of Muhammad 111
40 The Spread of Islam by 750 ce 112
41 Islamic Expansion in India 115
42 The Spread of Islam in South-east Asia 116
43 World Religions: 1500 118
44 The Spread of Islam in Africa 121
45 Muslim Peoples of Modern Asia 122
46 Islam Worldwide Today 126
47 Sikh Origins 129
48 Sikhism in India today 130
49 Sikhism Worldwide Today 131
50 Japan: Places of Religious Importance 135
51 Major Religions of Modern China 136
52 World Religions in the 21st Century 138
53 Indigenous Religions Worldwide 142
54 New Religious Movements Worldwide 144
55 Some Modern Pilgrimage Sites 150
56 Jerusalem: Some Holy Sites 153
57 The Route of the Hajj 154
LIST OF MAPS 9

This atlas aims to survey the origins, historical development, and current
Foreword
strength, distribution, and nature of the major world religions and their
offshoots, and to look at some of the religions of the ancient world. To do
this within a relatively short book, it has been necessary to be selective
in the choice of topics and periods covered. For instance, there is no
treatment of Judaism in the medieval period, as this is fully covered in
the companion volume, Atlas of Christian History. Important aspects of
history of the church – such as the development of monasticism, the power
and size of the church and the papacy in the High Middle Ages, detailed
treatment of the Protestant and Catholic Reformations, and the religious
wars that followed – are also treated comprehensively in Atlas of Christian
History, and it was felt otiose to duplicate coverage in this book.
The text accompanying the maps is not intended to provide exhaustive
coverage of the history and development of world religions, but offers an
accessible commentary to aid understanding and interpretation of the
respective maps.
The various sections of the book are arranged broadly in chronological
order of the founding or origins of the religions. A timeline is also provided
to give useful chronological comparisons of their history and development.
Tim Dowley
Dulwich, January 2017
FOREWORD 11

A Chronology of
World Religions
Mesopotamia 372 Buddhism enters Korea from China
2800–2350 bce Sumerian city states c. 552 ce Buddhism enters Japan
2360–2180 Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamia c. 630 ce Buddhism enters Tibet
1450 bce Rise of Assyria c. 745 ce Buddhists persecuted in China
745–727 Tiglath-Pileser III 805 ce Saicho founds Tendai school
705–681 bce Sennacherib 806 ce Kukai founds Shingon school
845 ce Buddhists persecuted in China
Egypt
c. 1000 Theravada Buddhism revives in Sri Lanka and S. E. Asia
2700–2200 bce Egypt: Old Kingdom – Pyramid Age
1175 Honen founds Pure Land sect
r. 1545–1525 bce Amen-hotep I
1253 Nichiren founds Nichiren sect
r. 1515–1495 bce Thutmose I
c. 1200 Zen starts to grow in China, spreads to Japan
1290–24 bce Ramses II
c. 1617 Dalai Lamas become rulers of Tibet
Hinduism 1952 World Fellowship of Buddhists starts

1959 China takes over Tibet: suppresses Buddhism
c. 2700 bce Harappa Culture in Indus Valley
1989 Dalai Lama awarded Nobel Peace Prize
c. 800 bce Oral Vedas collected
c. 600 bce Upanishads collected
Jainism
c. 200 bce–200 ce Bhagavad Gita collected
c. 527, 510 or 425 bce Death of Mahaviri (by tradition)
c. 200 bce First contacts with South-east Asia
466 or 453 bce Council at Valabhi: Shvetamabara fixed
c . 50 ce Tantric tradition begins
c. 350 bce Split between Digambara and Shvetambara
1000–1150 Angkor Wat built in Cambodia
C17 Shvetambara Sthanakvasi sect begins
1948 ce Mohandas [Mahatma] Gandhi assassinated
C18 Shvetambara Terapanth sect begins
1998 Hindu nationalist party BJP wins Indian election
1949 Jain World Mission founded
Zoroastrianism
Sikhism
628–551 bce Zoroaster
1469–1539 ce Nanak, founder of Sikhism
205–276 ce Mani
1603–4 ce Adi Granth compiled
651 ce End of Persian Empire
1666–1708 Gobind Singh
Buddhism 1695 Khalsa formed

1799 Punjab united under Ramjit Singh
c. 563–483 bce Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha (traditional dates)
1984 Indian government expels militants from Golden Temple,
c. 395 bce First Buddhist Council, Vaisali
Amritsar, killing many Sikhs
c. 272–232 bce r. Ashoka, Indian king who spread Buddhism
c. 100 bce Indian Mahayana Buddhism emerges
c. 50 ce Buddhism enters China
220 ce First Buddhist mission to Vietnam

Taoism & Confucianism 431 Council of Ephesus condemns Nestorianism
c. 600–500 bce Legendary Lao Tsu 451 Council of Chalcedon
c. 551–479 bce Confucius 476 Fall of Roman Empire in West
c. 630 ce All Chinese provinces to honour Confucius 529 Benedict establishes his first monastery
1445 ce Taoist canon published 862 Cyril and Methodius’ mission to Moravia
1949 Communists take over mainland China 1054 Great Schism
1095 First Crusade called
Shinto
1123 First Lateran Council
c. 660 bce Legendary Emperor Jimmu
1176 Carthusian monastic order established
1868 ce Rule of Emperor Meiji begins
1517 Beginning of Protestant Reformation
1882 State Shinto begins
1549 Francis Xavier reaches Japan
1945 State Shinto ends
1563 Council of Trent ends
1946 Emperor Hirohito rejects divine title
1611 King James Version of Bible
Judaism 1738 John Wesley’s conversion experience

1795 London Missionary Society founded
c. 1800 bce Traditional date of patriarch Abraham
1799 Church Missionary Society founded
c. 1250 bce Traditional date of Exodus from Egypt
1804 British & Foreign Bible Society founded
1200–1020 bce ‘Judges’ rule Israel
1830 Book of Mormon
c. 1160 bce Philistines settle Palestine coast
1895 World Student Christian Federation founded
c. 1000–961 bce King David
1948 First assembly of World Council of Churches
c. 950 bce Solomon’s Temple built
1962–65 Second Vatican Council
922 bce Israel divides into Northern and Southern Kingdoms
(Israel and Judah)
722 bce Assyria conquers Northern Kingdom Islam
586–539 bce Solomon’s Temple destroyed; Exile to Babylonia 570–632 ce Prophet Muhammad
520–515 bce Second Temple built 622 ce Hijra: Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina
166–160 bce Maccabean Rebellion 630 Conquest of Mecca
r. 40–4 bce Herod the Great 634–35 Conquest of Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Persia
70 ce Herod’s Temple destroyed 641–43 Conquest of Egypt, Libya, Carthage, Nubia
c. 400 ce Palestinian Talmud completed 732 Battle of Poitiers stops Muslim expansion to France
c. 600 ce Babylonian Talmud completed 705–715 Conquest of Central Asia, Sind, Spain
1492 ce Jews expelled from Spain 1058–1111 Sufi scholar al-Ghazali
c. 1698–1759 Baal Shem Tov in Poland 1291 Muslims expel Crusaders from Palestine
c. 1800 ce Reform movement spreads in Western Europe 1492 Muslims expelled from Spain
1897 First Zionist Congress 1529 Otttoman Turks reach Vienna
1938–1945 Jewish Holocaust 1526–1857 Mughal Empire, India
1948 State of Israel founded 1947 Islamic state of Pakistan formed

1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran
Christianity 2001 Islamist terrorists attacks in USA
4 bce–30 ce Jesus of Nazareth
c. 65 ce Apostle Paul dies
312 ce Emperor Constantine recognizes Christianity
325 First Council of Nicaea
335 Constantine builds Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem
A C H R O N O LO G Y O F W O R L D R E L I G I O N S 13

Part 1
The Ancient World

Towards the end of the Neolithic era
Megaliths megaliths – structures composed of

large stones – were erected in Europe.
Most were dolmens – burial structures
THE MEGALITHS OF WESTERN EUROPE
Ring of Brodgar
consisting of a large, flat stone supported Callanish
on uprights, and passage graves –
located on islands and shores of the Loanhead of Daviot
Mediterranean and western Europe.
Balfarg N ORTH
Cairnpapple
However, as well as these megalithic tombs, Ballochroy SEA
there were menhirs – huge alignments of Long Meg & daughters
stones – such as those at Carnac, Brittany. Ballynoe
Castle Rigg
Their purpose is unknown; possibly they
B R I T
New Grange
I S H I S L E S
marked ritual procession routes.
Moel Ty Uchaf
Some large constructions, such as the Lios Parc y Rhos-y-beddau
Hal Tarxien stone buildings in Malta, were Meirw Saeth Maen
Mynydd-bach Rollright Stones
apparently temples: chalk sculptures found Cerrig Avebury
in them display realistic human features, Duon Stonehenge
Merrivale
and may represent gods and goddesses and
Merry Maidens
their priests.
Other megalithic structures possibly
had astronomical functions, perhaps Soumont-
Saint-Quentin
to help farmers determine the calendar La Madeleine St Just .
and agricultural seasons. For instance, Carnac ir eR
Lo
Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, England, has ATLANTIC
a circle of sarsen stones, some of which line
OCEAN
up with the sunrise at midsummer. Whatever
Rhône R.
its calendar purpose, Stonehenge was also Puy de
a place of worship; archaeologists have Pauliac
suggested that fertility-gods and goddesses PYR
EN Perarine
were worshipped there. EE
S
Eb
ro
R.
I B
E R I A
Tagus R.
M E D
A F R I C
AT L A S M T S

map 1
SCANDINAVIA Celtic influence at its greatest extent

Area of Megalithic tombs
Stone circle
Megalithic tomb
Stone alignment
H B A LT I C Miles
0 100 200
SEA 0 100 200 300
s Kilometers
Vis
tul
a R.
El b
eR de
O
. rR
.
R.
Da Dn
in e
nub ies
e R. ter
Rh
n R.
P S
A L
Rhône R.
Danube R
ne .
B LACK S EA
T
I
A
L
Y
A N A
T O
M E D I T
L I
E
R
A
R
A
N
E
A N
F R I C A S E A
MEGALITHS 17

Mesopotamia is the Greek name for the lands of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,
Babylonia and Sumeria currently occupied by Iraq and Syria. This region had no easily defensible frontiers,
and throughout historical times fierce hill-people raided from the east, while
herdsmen from the steppe overran the fertile lands from the west and south, as they
saw the potential of cultivating its rich soil and fishing its rivers. The northern part of
Mesopotamia has enough annual rainfall for farmers to grow grain and find pasture,
and people have lived in its hills and near its rivers since Neolithic times, about 12,000
years ago.
In ancient Babylonia to the south, agriculture great mother, goddess of fertility, love, and
depended on artificial irrigation, drawing war. The goddess Inanna was the principle
water from the rivers and carefully of life, depicted in paintings, carved into
controlling it. This skill was apparently stone, and modelled in clay in almost every
introduced there around 5000 bce, after prehistoric dwelling.
which settled life developed until the fourth The temples of Uruk employed large
millennium bce, when great cities flourished numbers of people and owned extensive
by the rivers and canals. From these cities, estates. Craftsmen made fine artefacts for
traders and colonists spread north up the use in temple services, weavers made clothes
Euphrates river into Syria, east into Persia, for the sacred statues and for the priests, and
and south down the Persian Gulf, carrying scribes recorded temple affairs. The priests
inventions and ideas from their culture – also played an important part in city life; the
foremost among them writing. The need to high priest was sometimes also king of the
organize and administer the large settlements city. Such seems to have been the regular
and their irrigation systems stimulated the structure of temple life in Babylonian cities
development of writing in Babylonia. for centuries.
Each major city in the south was the
The Sumerians centre for worship of a particular deity.
The dominant people of the south, the During the third millennium bce, besides
Sumerians, produced Babylonian cuneiform Anu and Inanna at Uruk, there were: Enlil,
writing – the most significant writing system lord of the atmosphere, who was worshipped
of the ancient Middle East – on clay tablets. at Nippur, and, next to Anu, chief of the gods;
Their religious beliefs are the earliest we can Enki, ruler of the fresh water from beneath
know about in Mesopotamia, although it the earth, who had his shrine at Eridu; the
is impossible to be sure that any particular sun-god, Utu, whose home was at Larsa; and
aspect is solely Sumerian because the land the moon-god, Nanna, who lived at Ur. Each
was always inhabited by a mixture of races. principal god had a family and servants, who
There is little that can be called distinctively were also honoured with temples and chapels.
‘Sumerian’ apart from their language. For example, Enlil’s son, Ninurta, was lord of
In Uruk (Erech), a city dating to Lagash. Lesser deities had shrines inside the
c. 3000 bce and best known from larger temples, but were also revered in small
archaeological excavations and from the shrines among the houses of the citizens.
earliest texts, there were two main temples. The temples dominated the cities. When a
One was for Anu, the supreme god, the temple grew old or was regarded as too small,
king of heaven; the other for Inanna, the a new one was built, often on the ruins of

RELIGIOUS SITES OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA map 2
Z A C ASPIAN
GUT G L. Urmia
SEA
IAN R
S O
Tell Brak S
Dur Sharrukin M
M E KA
Tell Irmah Calah SS
T
S IT
S
O ES
P
O Ashur Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta
T
SEA
A
M
Tigri
AN
Mari Eu
I
s R.
ANE
ph
ra
ERR
tes
Capital during dynasty Agade Tutub
R.
of Sargon 2241–2186 BCE
DIT
Sippar Sacred to sun god

AKKAD
ME
Temple
Babylon Kish to Enlil
Susa Capital of Elam
Borsippa Nippur
ELA M
Dilbat Adab
Shuruppak
S U M E R Lagash
Erech (Uruk) Larsa
5 dynasties ruled here before 2000 BCE
Earliest known writing dates pre 3000 BCE Ur
Eridu
Ur-nammu reigned
Tell el-‘Ubaid 2044–2027 BCE
Temple founded by Home of biblical Abraham
A-anni-paddo of 1st
Ur dynasty 2438–2399 BCE
Miles
0 50 100 150
Ziggurat site PERSIAN
Fertile areas 0 50 100 200 GULF
Kilometers
the previous one. Over the years, the temples

came to be erected on platforms covering
the earlier buildings, towering above the
surrounding houses. Most important in these
temples was the holy room, where the statue
of the particular god stood. In Solomon’s
Temple, the Jewish sanctuary in Jerusalem,
the holy room had no statue: solely the Ark
of the Covenant.
B A B Y LO N I A A N D S U M E R I A 19

‘Ancient Egypt’ is the civilization in the lower reaches of the Nile Valley from about
Religion in Ancient Egypt 3100 bce to 30 bce. This includes periods of strength such as the Old Kingdom
(c. 2700–2200 bce), when a line of powerful rulers left their pyramids as monuments;
the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000–1800 bce), another time of strong central government,
with influence on Egypt’s neighbours; and the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1225 bce),
when Egypt was among the dominant countries of the Near East.
It also includes periods when Egypt was are also references to ‘God’ or ‘The God’, who
divided internally and occupied by foreign seems to have been an unnamed universal
powers. These changes in political power divine power, controlling the universe and
and economic prosperity over 3,000 years upholding good against evil.
occasioned changes in philosophical and For a short time, from about 1375 to
religious attitudes; yet there are enough 1350 bce, there was an attempt to impose
consistent features to allow us to talk about a form of monotheism. The pharaoh
‘Egyptian religion’. Amenophis IV gradually developed worship
of the Aten, or the sun’s disk, until he was
Egyptian gods the only god whose worship was tolerated.
The gods of ancient Egypt – represented in The worship of Amun was attacked, while
the temples and tombs – are a bewildering the Aten was seen as the source of all life.
mix of strange forms, half-animal and This gift of life was passed to the king, who
half-human. We know little about actual changed his name to Akhenaten – ‘the one
Egyptian religious beliefs, since we have who is beneficial to the Aten’ – and to his
no records about Egyptian theology by family, and thence to the people.
ancient Egyptians. Many of the Egyptian As well as the ‘mainstream’ gods, the
gods represented powerful natural forces. Egyptians also adopted other deities. The king
Egypt’s prosperity depended on the daily or pharaoh was also seen as a god, although
reappearance of the sun and the annual this was a limited idea of divinity, because he
flooding of the Nile: these forces were was clearly mortal. Few rulers had a statue
regarded as gods needing to be coaxed and placed in the temple shrine as an object of
encouraged through sacrifice and worship. worship. Animals also feature in Egyptian
The gods were often originally linked religion. In some instances, all the animals of
with particular cities. As communities came one species were regarded as sacred, and were
together in larger political units, local deities mummified and buried in huge numbers.
gradually became important in the nation as The Egyptians seem always to have
a whole. For example, the god Amun, from believed in an afterlife. The earliest tombs
the city of Thebes, was a kind of national contain items of food and equipment, and
god, protecting and leading the whole nation later the decoration of tombs shows how
for a time during the New Kingdom, when the Egyptians thought such a life would be:
Thebes was home to the ruling family. There similar to this world – but better.

ANCIENT EGYPT map 3
MEDITERRANEAN SEA Capital of Hyksos kings

c. 1720–1570 BCE
Tanis/Avaris/Ramses
Sometimes capital after New Empire
DEAD
AN
c. 730–400 BCE
SEA
NA
Sais
CA
Pelusium EDOM
LI BYA LO W E R E G Y P T
Giza Onu/Heliopolis Centre of Re/Ra worship –
Capital of Old Kingdom Memphis major influence in Old Kingdom
Temples to Ptah Saqqara
Regional centre
UPPER
Hermopolis
EG
Ni
l
Y P.
eR
Abydos
First Dynasty tombs
Necropolis of Thebes Thebes/Nuwe

‘Valley of the Kings’
Capital of Egypt
during Middle Kingdom
and New Empire
Hierakonpolis Centre of worship of Amon
‘Door of South’ during Old Kingdom Elephantine/Yeb

Market for Nubian ivory
1st Cataract
RED
SEA
S. border of Old Kingdom
LO W E R N U B I A to c. 2100 BCE
Abu Simbel
2nd Cataract
S. border of Middle Kingdom to c. 1800 BCE
Miles
0 50 100 200
3rd Cataract U PPER NUBIA
0 50 100 200 300
Kilometers
N il e R
4th Cataract
Old Kingdom pyramid:
Napata 5th Cataract
.
mainly 4th Dynasty c. 2600–2500 BCE

Middle Kingdom pyramid: S. border of New Empire c. 1550–1100 BCE
c. 2100–1800 BCE
New Empire pyramid: Capital of Cushite Dynasty
ruling Upper Egypt c. 730–650 BCE
c. 1550–1100 BCE
Meroë
RELIGION IN ANCIENT EGYPT 21

The rise of city civilizations brought
The Early City Religions about important religious developments.

Cities developed around 3500 bce in
Mesopotamia, and slightly later in Egypt.
ANCIENT EMPIRES OF THE MIDDLE EAST
Urban civilization spread into the Indus

Valley and rose independently in China. Hattus
The invention of the plough and introduction Troy
of irrigation greatly improved agricultural Hal

ys
R.
productivity, while the development of sea
travel, rise of metallurgy, and invention
of writing opened up for city-dwellers
occupations other than farming. Increasing
land and maritime contact with other
societies facilitated the sharing of concepts,
knowledge, and trade. Specialists uninvolved
in agriculture – such as the Sumerian temple
communities – now began to appear.
The rise of cities led to specialization: Knossos
men began to adopt different trades and
professions. Religion reflected this, with
the arrival of distinct priesthoods, temples,
festivals, theologies and, later, scriptures.
Although the Neolithic inter-relationship M EDITERRANEAN S EA
between human beings, nature, and the
gods continued, more personal religious
questions – about suffering, meaning, and
life after death – became more immediate.
Religion was evolving into a separate,
personal concern as well as a group affair.
Forms of urban religious life differed
between Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus
Valley and China. Religion in ancient Miles
0 100 200
Egypt was characterized by the worship Nile R.
Memphis
of, and sacrifice to, local and state gods, 0 100 200 300
Kilometers
in some instances in elaborate temples.
In Mesopotamia there was a succession
of peoples and religions, including the and tales of myth-ritual state ceremonies.
Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hurrians, Out of this Egyptian and Middle Eastern
Hittites, and West Semitic groups. State setting, Jewish concerns for the land and
religions, with their temples, kings, and ethical monotheism were later to emerge.
annual festivals, were characterized by their
mythologies: epic creation accounts, stories of
ritual victories by god-kings such as Marduk,

map 4
Major trade routes

Settlements in existence before 3500 BCE
City-based civilizations
Hattushash
Hal
ys
R.
CASPIAN
SEA
Carchemish Haran
Nineveh
Sialk
Ugarit Ebla
Ashur
Hamath
Anatu
Tigr
Mari
is R.
Byblos
Eup
hra
sR
e t
Babylon
Hittite Empire Susa
Nippur
set up by Suppiluliuma I 1344–1322 BCE
Jericho Lagash
Mitanni after 1340 BCE
Assyrian Empire 1353-1318 BCE Erech
Assyrian Empire at maximum extent C7 BCE
Ur
Babylonian Empire under
Burnaburiash II 1347–1321 BCE Eridu
Elamite Empire under Tept-ahar 1353–1318 BCE
Egyptian Empire under
Amenophis IV & Tutankhamun 1352–1335 BCE
T H E E A R LY C I T Y R E L I G I O N S 23

CULT CENTRES OF ANCIENT GREECE
Mt Erymanthus
Mt Pangaeus
DIONYSUS
MACEDONIA POSEIDON
THASOS SAMOTHRACE
CABEIRI
HERMES
ZEUS, Olympian gods, muses LEMNOS
Mt Ossa
PALLAS ATHENE
Mt Id
ORACLE OF ZEUS Mt Pelion
LESBOS
ASCLEPIOS AEGEAN
SKYROS
MEDITERRANEAN Mt Oeta SEA
SEA Mt Parnassus LEBADAEA EUBOEA
POSEIDON, ARTEMIS M
Pythian Games for Apollo DIONYSOS
Delphi
BOETIACithaeron Mts
AMPHIAREION OF OROPOS CHIOS
POSEIDON, APHRODITE
Mt Helicon
Corinth
ACHAEA Isthmian Games
for Poseidon Eleusis Athens ANDROS
Cyllene Mts DEMETER PALLAS ATHENE,
Nemean Games SAMOS
ARES
for Zeus Nemea
Mycenae ATTICA ARTEMIS, DIONYSOS,
POSEIDON, HERMES HERA
Olympia ICARIA
PALLAS ATHENE
ZACYNTHUS Sunium
A R C A D I A Argos DIONYSOSEpidaurus POSEIDON DELOS
POS
HERA APOLLO
ASCLEPIOS
O
APOLLO OF AMYCLAE,
Mt Parthenius NAXOS
ARTEMIS ORTHIA,
PAROS
ATHENA CHALKIOIKOS, Sparta
DIOSCURI
LACONIA ASCL
COS
MELOS
APHRODITE THERA
CYTHERA
IONIAN SEA APHRODITE

from
Cyprus
Sacred mountain
Cult site
Site of games/arts competition Miles ZEUS
0 50 100 Mt Ida
Deity worshipped widely in area
Oracle 0 50 100 150 CRETE
Kilometers

The Greeks and Romans created a world
The Religions of Ancient Greece

map 5
of gods and demi-gods, heroes, nymphs,
and satyrs that linked heaven (‘Olympia’)
and earth.
Well-known gods of antiquity were

introduced, or taken over from previous
or related sanctuaries and tribes: Poseidon
(Roman Neptune), symbolic of the sea;
Aphrodite (Roman Venus), symbolic of love;
Ares (Roman Mars), of war; Hephaistos
Troy (Roman Vulcan), of fire. Zeus (Roman
MYSIA Jupiter), the god of thunder, became the
Mt Ida
father-god. Thus the Greeks created a
myth that lent order and meaning to the
complexities of life.
S
In early times, some of the gods were
Pergamum A S I A
ASCLEPIOS
LY D I A identified with, and worshipped in, particular
Magnesia
M I N O R places: Zeus in Crete; Hera in Argos; Apollo –
ARTEMIS the beardless youth, god variously of music,
Mt Sipylus
Sardes healing, sun, and light – in Asia Minor; and
S ARTEMIS
Mt Tmolus Dionysus (or Bacchus) – god of the grape
harvest, wine, fertility, and ritual frenzy – in
APOLLO
Mycenae. These gods gradually began to
Ephesus function more widely, and sometimes took on
SAMOS ARTEMIS
A
HERA
Mt Mycale
characteristics of other deities. For example
POSEIDON Mt Latmus the North African deities Baal and Tannit
Didyma became respectively Saturn and the Heavenly
ORACLE OF APOLLO CARIA Goddess (Roman Dea Caelestis); Apollo
travelled from Didyma, Asia Minor to Delphi,
Greece, and thence to Rome.
ASCLEPIOS
COS Mount Olympus became the meeting
place of quasi-aristocratic gods, governed
by Zeus and his jealous wife, Hera. Kronos
TELOS
(time) became the father of Zeus; Uranus
HELIOS
(sky, or heaven) the father of Kronos –
RHODES symbolically linking power, time, and heaven.
In The Odyssey and The Iliad, the ancient
Greek poet Homer portrays the gods in
human terms, although they are immortal.
They prompt dread, fear, shame, and
reverence in humans, who in response pray,
praise, take oaths, sacrifice victims, and pour
libations. The gods were consulted through
THE RELIGIONS OF ANCIENT GREECE 25

The Tholos of Delphi, birds (augury) or interpretation of dreams. daughter and was linked to grain. At festival
Greece, part of Other omens included lightning, thunder, time participants in ‘mystery’ initiation were
the Sanctuary of and falling stars. promised happiness and perhaps a vision of
Athena Pronaia, built
Greek religion dealt with some of the the god. The temple at Eleusis provided for
c. 370 bce.
great metaphysical problems: fate (the huge gatherings of up to 10,000 people.
Roman Parcae), death (Hades, a place where The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–
life continued, with neither reward nor 425 bce) claimed the most ancient oracle
punishment), and good and evil. Some of the site in Greece was Dodona, with its great oak
great mythic tales and characters came into tree. Questions to this oracle reveal particular
being – such as Medea, Antigone, Oedipus, concerns about health. Other oracles were
and Theseus – and were the subjects of the Amphiareion of Oropos and Trophonius
dramatic works by major authors. at Lebadaea.
The ritual complex at Eleusis, West The temple-cult of Asclepios, the god of
Attica, involved the goddess Demeter and her healing, was established in times of need,

especially by city-states threatened by disease. the king sat in Isis’ lap, creating a ‘madonna-
It became the most widespread of the newer and-child’ image. Isis and Serapis were
cults, with important centres at Pergamum, believed to be able to deliver from war,
Corinth, Epidaurus, and Kos. The cult used prison, pain, wandering, shipwreck, and
as remedies exercise, cold baths, rest, herbal even death.
prescriptions, and diet, along with dreams Greek religion seems to have been more
induced by suggestion. personal, individualistic, and pluralistic
Two syncretistic cults emerged from than the religion of the Romans, who
Egypt. The cult of Serapis fused the Greek emphasized the public, contractual aspects.
mysteries with the native Egyptian cult of Yet it is important not to impose a false
Osiris. In the cult of Isis – important in dichotomy between the religion of these
ancient myth as the king’s divine mother – two civilizations.
THE RELIGIONS OF ANCIENT GREECE 27

Roman religion was originally related to
Roman Religion the agricultural economy. Rome’s only

unique mythology related to her own
creation, with the city personified as the
SOURCES OF THE ROMAN CULTS
chief deity.
NORTH
SEA
The Romans adopted many foreign gods
– especially Greek – modifying them to fit
their own needs. Three of the oldest deities –
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (Greek Zeus, Hera, B R I TA N N I A
and Athena) – were worshipped in a temple
Rh
ine
on Rome’s Capitoline Hill. Other later deities Colonia
R.
Agrippina
included Aesculapius (Greek Asclepios) from
293–291 bce, and Cybele, the ‘Great Mother’,
Augusta
from 204 bce. The Pantheon of Agrippa and Durocortorum Treverorum
Hadrian in Rome, commissioned during
Augustodunum
the reign of Augustus (r. 27 bce–14 ce) and
ATLANTIC Agunt
completed by Hadrian (r. 117–138 ce), was
dedicated to the twelve planetary gods as an OCEAN Lugdunum
Mediola
R hô ne R.
expression of cosmic order. Burdigala (Milan
There does not seem to have been a priest
class in Greece comparable to the priests Massilia
I
(pontifices) of Rome. Augustus appropriated
the ancient office of pontifex maximus,
incorporating in his person the religious TA R R
ACO
NE
tradition of the city. Beginning with the NS
IS
Emperor Caligula (37 ce), the imperial oath Toletum
included the name ‘Augustus’ between ‘Zeus M Carales
E D
the Saviour’ and ‘the holy Virgin of our city’. I
T
Cordoba
This concept of emperor worship can be
Cartha
traced back to Hellenistic, Oriental, and pre-
Tipasa
Roman Western models of deified kingship. Tingitanum Cirta
Evidence from the excavated city of
Pompeii, Italy, shows that family cults
flourished. Almost every house and
workshop had a private shrine with busts of
ancestors and other traditional household
gods, the Lares and Penates. The preserved
ruins of Ostia include by the 3rd century ce
fifteen shrines devoted to the god Mithras,
whose mystery cult flourished from the 1st to
the 4th century ce.
Miles
0 100 200 300 400 500
A F R I C A
0 100 300 500 700
Kilometers

map 6
Roman Empire circa CE 117

Source of Roman cult/belief system
Rh
ine
a
R.
na
GERMANIA
gusta
erorum
Lauriacum Da
num nub
e R.
Aguntum
dunum Aquileia
Mediolanum
(Milan)
silia Salonae
I
B LACK S EA
T
L
A
I
A
Rome THRACE Sinope
Philippi Byzantium
Thessalonica
Rites SAMOTHRACE
Orphic Cabiri Troas PE
A
Orphic Rites Pergamum RS

GI
sus IA
Carales ACH AI A Diony
RY
LESBOS
E D Delphi Thebes Smyrna
PH
I Athens Ephesus
T Corinth Mi
th r
E Syracuse Apo
llo as
R Miletus Edessa
Carthage R on
eid Hierapolis
A Pos ne
he
ICIA
RHODES Antioch
N At
Cirta l la
s
Salamis
OEN
E Pa CRETE
A su
s Ado CYPRUS Aphrodit Palmyra
PH
ny e
N Dio
Gortyna nis
ea s
Ado
Rh lio
nis Byblos
He Damascus
S E
Leptis Magna A
Isis, O Caesarea
Cyrene siris
,S era
pis Jerusalem
LIBY
A Alexandria
Memphis ARABIA
EGYPT
R I C A
N il
. RED
eR
SEA
ROMAN RELIGION 29

Zoroaster is the westernized version of ‘Zarathushtra’, the prophet of ancient Persia,
Zoroastrianism who may have lived c. 1200 bce, when Persia was emerging from the Stone Age. From
the age of 30, Zoroaster had a series of visions that inspired him to preach a new
message, which became the recognized teaching of a small kingdom in north-east
Persia. In time it spread throughout Persia, where it became the official religion for
1,000 years.
Zoroastrians believe their prophet was chosen widespread. The Achaemenid dynasty
by God to receive his unique revelation, that ruled Persia after Cyrus the Great
contained in 17 hymns, the Gathas, central to (d. 530 bce) spread Zoroastrianism
a major act of worship, yasna. Zarathushtra throughout the realm, largely through a
emphasized personal religion: all men and priestly tribe of Medes called ‘Magi’. During
women have a personal responsibility to the ensuing Parthian Empire (247 bce–
choose between good and evil, and will be 224 ce), steps were taken to collect the
judged hereafter. He taught that God – Ahura ancient traditions and sacred literature in the
Mazda, the Wise Lord – was the wholly good Zoroastrian holy book, the Avesta.
creator of all things and is friend of all. Evil From earliest times, fire has been the
in the world comes from Angra Mainyu, the focus of Zoroastrian rites and devotions.
destructive spirit, who created demons, rules Temples were introduced into the religion
in hell, and from the beginning opposed by the Achaemenid monarch, Artaxerxes
God. The world is a battleground between II (404–359 bce). At the centre of their
the forces of good and evil: humankind was sacred buildings Zoroastrians placed the
created to aid God in this conflict. ‘icon’ of fire.
God also created a number of heavenly When the Islamic empire rose to power,
beings, foremost among them Amesha education, promotion, and equality before the
Spentas, the ‘Bounteous Immortals’, or sons law were denied to Zoroastrians, who were
and daughters of God: Vohu Manah, good forced to retreat to desert villages. Oppressed
mind; Asha, righteousness; Armaiti, devotion; and poor, they were frequently attacked by
Kshathra, dominion; Haurvatat, wholeness; Muslims. For almost 1,400 years of Muslim
and Ameretat, immortality. These are both rule, Zoroastrians endured persecution,
heavenly beings and ideals to which the oppression, poverty, injustice, and isolation.
righteous should aspire. In the 10th century ce, a small group
Zarathushtra taught that the world was of Zoroastrians left Persia to seek religious
essentially good, but spoilt by the attacks of freedom, settling in India, where they have
evil. He looked toward a day when the battle since lived in peace and security. Today
with evil would climax, the good triumph, Parsis and Iranian Zoroastrians are reckoned
and the world be restored to its perfect state. to number between 124,000 and 190,000
At the last, the dead will be raised and judged, worldwide, with the main base of their
the wicked will go to hell, and the righteous religion in India.
live with God in perfection for eternity.
We have no written sources for
Zoroastrianism’s first 700 years. By the
time the Persians came to power in the
6th century bce, the religion was already

ZOROASTRIANISM: ORIGINS AND SPREAD map 7
ARAL Jax
S EA ar
tes
B LACK S EA
C AS
CAUC
ASU
R.
MACEDONIA S M
PIA
TS
Byzantium
N
Gordium
ARMENIA
SEA
Ox
us
Sardis .
R
ANATOLIA Tig
Antioch Nineveh Bactra HIN
ris
ASSYRIA Arbela PARTHIA BACTRIA KUSDU
R.
Palmyra p MES H
Eu
hra
O P O Ecbatana Kabul
MEDITERRANEAN SEA TAM
IA
tes
IA
ENIC
Damascus Ghazni Taxila
ZA
R. ELAM
PHO
GR
Babylon PERSIA Kandahar
OS
Jerusalem Susa
MT
Pasargadae
Memphis
S
L I B YA SINAI Persepolis
PE
EGYPT GEDROSIA R.
RS
AN
Indus
I GU
LF
ARABIA
Nile R.
I N DI A
RED
A F R I C A
T
RA
JA
SEA
GU Broach
ARABIAN Surat
SEA Mumbai
Likely Zoroastrian heartland

Persian (Achaemenid) Empire c. 500 BCE Miles
0 200 400 600 800
Sassanian Empire at its height
C19–C20 diaspora of Parsis 0 400 800 1200
Kilometers
ZO R O A S T R I A N I S M 31

Part 2
Hinduism

The religion we know today as Hinduism may be almost as old as Indian civilization
The Origins of Hinduism itself. Archaeological evidence suggests continuities between the religion of the Indus
Valley society of 2500–1500 bce and modern Hinduism.
Archaeological excavations have revealed Brahmanism. Many Hindus regard the

evidence of what appears to be a highly Vedas as a timeless revelation, the repository
developed urban culture – sometimes also of all knowledge, and a marker of Hindu
known as the ‘Harappa Culture’ – with well- identity: the Vedas form the foundation for
developed systems of farming, grain-storage, most of the later developments in Hinduism.
and pottery. However little is known about The earliest Vedas were mainly liturgical
the religion of this civilization. The large texts, used primarily in rituals of sacrifice
number of terracotta figurines unearthed addressed to such early gods as Agni, the fire
suggests continuity with later Hindu deities, god, and Soma, the plant god.
such as Shiva and the mother goddess, In due course, Aryan culture became
but scholars are wary of making definitive well established in northern India.
connections. The Indus Valley civilization Brahmanic (or Vedic) ideology, central
seems to have declined suddenly between to social and political life, was concerned
1800 and 1700 bce. with the ritual status and duties of the
What followed is the subject of academic king, the maintenance of social order, and
controversy. Some scholars claim the Indus the regulation of individual behaviour in
Valley civilization was replaced by the culture accordance with the all-embracing ideology
of the Aryans, Indo-European invaders, or of duty or righteousness (dharma). Dharma
migrants from the Caucasus region, who involved ritual and moral behaviour, and
moved south and settled in the Indian defined good conduct according to such
subcontinent. However others believe this factors as class (varna) and stage in life
Aryan civilization developed from within the (ashrama). It operated simultaneously at
Indus Valley, or Harappa, culture. several levels: the transcendental and eternal
An Iron Age culture, known by the style (sanatana dharma), the everyday (sadharana
of its pottery, as The Painted Grey Ware dharma), and the individual and personal
culture, flourished from 1000 to 500 bce, (svadharma). Neglecting dharma was
and was succeeded by the Northern Black believed to lead to undesirable social and
Polished Ware culture from about 500 bce. personal consequences.
Whatever its origins, the history of Hinduism
is the story of the next 2,000 years of Aryan The later Vedic Period
culture, often interacting with, and always In later Vedic texts – the Aranyakas and
dominating, non-Aryan cultures in the area. Upanishads – ritual practice began to be
The language of the Aryans was Sanskrit, seen as secondary to the gaining of spiritual
and our knowledge of the early Aryans knowledge. Central to this was the karma-
derives mainly from ancient Sanskrit samsara-moksha doctrine: all beings are
compositions – the Vedas – compiled over reincarnated into the world (samsara)
centuries, and originating in oral traditions over and over again; the results of action
from thousands of years earlier. The religion (karma) are reaped in future lives. This
of this period is variously known as Vedism, process of endless rebirth is characterized by
ancient Hinduism, Brahmanism, and Vedic suffering (dukkha); liberation (moksha) from

HINDU ORIGINS map 8
High density of Painted Grey ware 1000–500 BCE

Spread of Northern Black Polished ware 500–100 BCE
Ind
sR Aryans arrive from Central Asia c. 1500 BCE
u
Yoni .
Taxila Early northern city

Hindu place of pilgrimage
s R. Asrama (ashram) mentioned in
Ramayana, since then pilgrimage site
Indu
City mentioned in Ramayana,

Kuruksetra Kailasa since then pilgrimage site
Harappa Prthadaka
R. Ganga Sangama
tlej
Su
Atranjikhera
Mathura Salagrama
Ya
Ga
mu Mithila
ng
Mohenjo-Daro na
Kusingara
es R
Puskara Kalika-sangama
R.
.
Ayodhya Vaisali
Pataliputra
.
Kausambi
us R
G a n g es R .
I nd
Atri-asrama Gaya
Pancavati
A R ABIAN
Omkara Lanka
S EA
Dvaravati ada R.
Narm
Miles Prabhasa Viraja
0 100 200
B AY O F
0 100 200 300 BENGAL
Kilometers
this suffering can be obtained by gaining of the world. Ascetic groups known as
spiritual knowledge. strivers (sramanas) were formed during
Gaining spiritual knowledge thus this period, seeking liberation through
came to assume central importance, and austerity. Buddhism and Jainism – both of
the self-discipline and ascetic methods which rejected the authority of the Vedas –
necessary to gain it were developed in the originated in these groups.
Hindu traditions of yoga and renunciation
THE ORIGINS OF HINDUISM 35

Sectarian worship of particular deities grew and flourished in India through much
Hindu Temple Worship of the first millennium ce. Increasingly, Vedic sacrifice was marginalized, giving
way to devotional worship, or puja – the ritual expression of love or devotion (bhakti)
to a deity.
Sanskrit narrative traditions also grew and Temple cults

flourished, most important of which were In early medieval India the worship of
the Hindu epics – the Ramayana and the Vishnu or one of his incarnations – normally
Mahabharata (the Puranas), devotional texts Krishna or Rama (Vaisnavism) – and worship
containing mythological stories about the of Shiva (Shaivism or Saivam) became
gods and goddesses and treatises on ritual widespread throughout the subcontinent,
worship – and devotional poetry in Indian promoting temple-cults and displacing
regional languages, particularly Tamil. Buddhism. Sectarian devotional groups
One of the most important developments emerged, dedicated to the worship of Vishnu
of this period was the composition of the (Vaishnavas), Shiva (Shaivas), and the
Bhagavad Gita, the ‘Song of the Lord’, goddess Devi (Shaktas).
contained in the Mahabharata. This work, From medieval times, many temples –
perhaps the most famous of the Hindu known as ‘Sakta’ temples – were also
scriptures, expresses in narrative form the devoted to goddesses. Such temples still
concerns of Hinduism: the importance of dot the countryside, a distinctive feature
dharma and the maintenance of social order of modern Hinduism.
and stability, together with the importance Within each temple stood a consecrated
of devotion to the transcendent as a icon, regarded as a partial embodiment of the
personal god. deity. Manuals known as Agamas, Tantras, and
Temple cities grew and flourished during Sarnhitas described the rituals to be performed
this period, serving not only as commercial during temple worship. In the temple, a
and administrative cores of kingdoms, but daily ritual known as puja involved waking,
as ritual centres. The temple was normally dressing, bathing, feeding, and entertaining
located at the heart of the town, and thus the god, as though he were a king. Such static
of the kingdom. Kings sought to derive images of the deity were hidden in a holy
legitimacy through their patronage of these place inside the temple, but often had movable
ritual sites, dedicated to one or the other of equivalents that were processed through the
the major deities of the Purana. village or city on festival days.

TEMPLE HINDUISM map 9
Major Vaisnava temple

K Major Saiva temple
A du Major Sakta temple
R
In
Sarada Srinagari K s R.
O Site/centre linked with Sankara
T Main centre linked with Sankara
A
Site/centre linked with Ramanuja
S
Main centre linked with Ramanuja
PALAS Major dynasty
Badarika Kailasa
Kedara
Brahmaputra R.
Salagrama
R.
us A R A - P R A T I H A R A S
I nd G U R J Mathura Pasupatinath
amG A H
un A D A V
Y
aR ALAS
Puskara .
Prayaga
G ang
Khajuraho Kasi es R.
P A L A S
U LU K YA S
GU RJARA-CA K AL ACURIS
Dvaraka
Bhubanesar
Elapura
AS Konark
R A S T R A K U T A
S KY
LU
Godavari R.
CA
B AY O F
N
ER
ST
ARABIAN Aihole BENGAL

EA
Patadocol
SEA Vatapi Alampur
Mahakuteswar C A L U K Y A S
A S
A V
Srngeri Kanchipuram
L L
Yadavagiri Sriperumbudur
P A
Birthplace of Ramanuja
Srirangam
KU
Cidambaram
LAS
Tanjavur
EKH
Tiruppunduratti
ARAS
S
YA
ND
Ramesvaram
PA
Kanya Kumari
Miles
0 100 200
INDIAN OCEAN
0 100 200 300
Kilometers
HINDU TEMPLE WORSHIP 37

By tradition there are seven sites of particular religious significance for Hindus. These
Hinduism and the Sacred are Varanasi, associated with Shiva; Kanchipuram, the site of a temple devoted to
Shiva; Haridwar; Ujjain; Ayodhya; and Mathura and Dwarka, both linked to Krishna.
The land of India itself is worshipped as ‘Divine Mother’ (Bharat Mata) and is
sanctified by Shaktipithas, centres of goddess worship.
Particularly important to Hinduism are cleanse the river, but with little success. Part
sacred rivers, and the holy towns and cities of the problem is that the Ganges is regarded
situated along their banks, which are seen as by Hindus as so sacred as to be beyond harm.
crossing-places (tirtha) between the secular Its waters are believed to be pure – even
and the sacred, and between the world of the medicinal – and the responsibility of the gods,
living and the dead. not of humans.
Hinduism lists seven sacred rivers: the In Hinduism, the sacred is everywhere, not
Ganges, Saraswati (a legendary watercourse merely in temples and sacred images, but also
whose whereabouts is disputed), Yamuna, in nature – in stones, trees, mountains, and
Indus, Narmada, Godavari, and Kaveri rivers. From time to time the sacred reveals
(Cauvery). Of these, the Ganges (Ganga), itself in the form of an arcane rock, stream,
said to have come down from the stars, is the or spring, and the site of such a manifestation
most important. Thousands take a daily dip becomes a place of worship. Pilgrims flock
in its waters, fulfilling the ritual purification to these places during auspicious months in
that is vital in Hinduism. A single immersion the Hindu calendar, and mythological stories
in the river is believed to earn great spiritual spring up concerning the miraculous nature of
merit for the worshipper. Known as the ‘Great the pilgrimage site.
Mother’, the Ganges has today become heavily
polluted. In a single five-mile stretch of the
1,560 mile-long river, some 60,000 people Indian sadhu near the Ganges river at Haridwar,
ritually cleanse themselves every day. Yet parts Uttarakhand, India.
of the river are
so polluted
by untreated
sewage,
industrial waste,
and pesticides
that they are
not just filthy
but disease-
carrying,
toxic, and
carcinogenic.
Hundreds of
millions of
dollars have
been spent in
attempts to

HINDU SACRED PLACES map 10
Sites linked with Shiva

K ASHMIR Sites linked with Vishnu
Sarda du Sites linked with Sakta (Shakti)
In
s R.
Sacred bathing places
Amarnath Guru, Rishi or Holy Man
Katas
Kangra
T I B E T
Gangotri
Haridwar
Pehowa Kadarnath
PA K I S TA N Deoband Rishikesh Brahmaputra R.
Garmukhtesar Muktinath
R. Karni Devi
us N Anupshahr Soron
I nd J A S T H A Brindaban
Devi Patan
R A Khatu UT TAR P
Sadhubela Mathura a R ADESH
Gokul m Gorakhpur Hajo
Y
un Ayodhya
aR
.
Nathdwara Mahoba Chitrakut Sonpur Jahnu Ashram Kamakhya
Varanasi Gange Duarbasini
Chanderi Bindhyachal s R.
Khajuraho Khetrur
Sidhpur Shamlaji M A D H Y A B I Baidyanath
P R A D E S H H A R B ANG L AD E S H
Samudri Mata Vadnagar Ujjain Bhojpur Majholi Bishnupur Nabadwip
AT Tarakeswar Sitakund
Amarkantak
AR Dewas
Narm
ada R.
Dwarka Mandhata Kalighat Dakshineshwar
J
GU
Maheshwar Ramtek
Mangrol Broach Rajim O R I S S A
M A Kundalpur
H A R Jaipur
Nasik A S H T R A
Ellora Bhubaneswar
I N D I A Mahendragiri
Go
Rajnesh d a va ri R .
Tuljapur
A N D H R A Simhachalam
B AY O F
S H
Pandharpur P R A D E Annavaram BENGAL
Amaravati
ARABIAN Kolhapur ri s
h n a R.
K A R
Kotipalli
SEA Mangalagiri
N A T
A K A
Pattaparthy
Mangalore Kanchipuram
Kav Birthplace of Ramanuja
eri R. T A M I L Pondicherry
NADU
Srirangam
KER
Madurai
ALA
Trivandrum
SRI
Miles L ANK A
0 100 200
0 100 200 300

Kilometers
INDIAN OCEAN
HINDUISM AND THE SACRED 39

Hinduism has been regarded as a ‘world
Hinduism in the Modern World religion’ since only the 19th century.
Hindu reformers and Western orientalists
then began to refer to the variety of
HINDUISM TODAY
beliefs and practices characterizing

religious life in South Asia as ‘Hinduism’.
Yet Hinduism possesses many features

characteristic of ‘indigenous religions’. It
has no single historical founder, no central N
A
revelation, no creed or unified system of
belief, no single doctrine of salvation, and no
centralized authority. In this way, it differs
from the other world religions.
Huge diversity and variety of religious
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
movements, systems, beliefs, and practices
characterize Hinduism. There is no clear
P ACIFIC
division between the sacred and profane, the OCEAN
natural and supernatural: religion and social
life are inseparable. Yet most scholars agree
that unifying strands run through the diverse
traditions constituting Hinduism.
Hinduism has seen many changes during
its long history: for instance the rise and Hinduism by percentage
fall in prominence of some ancient gods, 5 – 9%
10 – 19%
such as Indra, king of the gods, and Varuna,
20 – 39%
god of the sea; the decline in importance of 40 – 59%
the fire sacrifice; and the rise in popularity over 60%
of the bhakti devotional tradition in the Hindu migrants C19 – early C20
6th century ce. Hindu migrants since 1947
Influenced by Western values, 19th and
early 20th century Hindu reformers such as
Vivekananda (1863–1902), Ram Mohan Roy gurus. Since Indian independence, Hinduism
(1772–1833), Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi has also become more politicized, with the
(1869–1948), and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan rise of Hindu nationalistic parties promoting
(1888–1975) advocated an ethical form of India as a Hindu state.
Hinduism that campaigned against social Hinduism has also transcended national
practices such as sati – the self-immolation boundaries. While it has long flourished
of widows on their husbands’ funeral pyres – beyond the Indian subcontinent, in such
and child marriage. Hinduism has since places as Java and Bali, in the 20th century
retreated somewhat from these reforms, the Hindu diaspora became widespread,
though sati is rare and strictly proscribed in establishing communities across the globe.
India. Some Hindus today uphold traditional Many Hindus migrated to the West,
Hindu practices, and consult astrologers and where their minority communities evolved

map 11
E
N ORTH O P
ATLANTIC R
OCEAN
U
E
A F R I C A P ACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIAN
OCEAN
SOUTH
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Miles
0 500 1000 1500
0 1000 2000
Kilometers
a distinctive form of Hinduism. Westernized and discrimination of the caste system.

Hindu ideas were imported back to India, Revisionist thinking now emphasizes the
increasing awareness of mystical traditions, positive side of castes. At the same time, some
sacred sites, and esoteric forms of spirituality. ‘untouchable’ and tribal groups have begun
Interest has grown in pilgrimage to sacred to abandon their traditional deities and
shrines, such as the Sabarimala temple practices to build temples and worship Hindu
in Kerala, and in festivals such as the deities such as Vishnu and Shiva.
Kumbh Mela. Apart from Hindu fundamentalism,
Modern Hinduism has also seen a Hinduism seems at ease with the modern
strengthening of the caste system. At the turn world. Yoga and the related spiritual
of the 20th century, Hindu reformers sought disciplines have been widely adopted and
to reform what they saw as the chauvinism Hindu spiritual teachers are active worldwide.
HINDUISM IN THE MODERN WORLD 41

Jainism – like Hinduism and Buddhism – emerged from the Vedic culture of northern
Jainism India in about the 5th century bce and is based around the teachings of Mahavira,
whom Jains venerate as the 24th jina (‘conquerer’) of the last cosmic cycle. Jain
tradition dates Mahavira to 599–527 bce.
Jains hold that all living beings have a violence, which forbids causing harm to any
soul, and that these souls – undergoing a creature. Jains often have to compromise on
continuous cycle of death and rebirth – can some of their stricter ethical rules in order
be liberated only if the individual adopts an to live in the modern world. For instance
extreme ascetic lifestyle in order to become although some ascetic Jains refuse to use
omniscient, following the example of electrical equipment, believing it may harm
Mahavira himself. tiny creatures, most accept scientific and
In the years after Mahavira’s death, Jains technological discoveries.
broke into two main sects, Digambara and In the centuries after Mahavira’s death,
Shvetambara, which are divided by their Jainism spread throughout India, which
views on scripture. Shvetambara Jains believe remains its primary home. Diaspora
that their canon descends directly from communities do exist, though these are small
The Twelve-limbed Basket, the collection of and restricted by the absence of ascetics,
Mahavira’s teachings, while Digambara Jains who are allowed to travel only on foot.
believe this has been lost. They also differ There are more than three million Jains in
over whether there have been female jinas. the world, the majority in India. Digambara
Monasticism is important in Jainism Jains live predominantly in the Deccan,
because of the value placed on asceticism. Delhi, East Rajasthan, and neighbouring
The co-dependence of ascetics and the laity Madhya Pradesh; Shvetambara Jains live
is central to the structure of traditional Jain predominantly in Mumbai, Delhi, Rajasthan,
society. Because they believe all living beings Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. There are also
have souls, Jains are bound by a strict code Jain communities in East Africa, Europe, and
of ethics centred on the principle of non- North America.
Part of the ornately

carved ceiling of
the ancient Jain Sun
Temple, Ranakpur,
Rajasthan, India.

JAINISM IN INDIA map 12
Jains make up 2-7% of population

Ancient Jain site (200 BCE–CE 100)
Important Jain holy site (= 7 wonders of Jainism)
I
Other Jain holy site
nd
us
R.
CHINA
H
PA K ISTAN I
M
A
Ind
us
R. Lal Mandir NEPL A Y A S
Delhi Gang
e
AL
R
T H A R T
sR
Yam Ghag R.
putra
.
E hra
D E S un R. Basarh hma
aR Bra
Ranakpur .
G ang
Ranapur Sonagiri e s R.
Hyderabad Jirawal Bamanavadji Pawapuri BANGLADESH
Mt Abu Rajgir
Dilwara Khajuraho
Rakhabh Dev
Parasnath Peak Dhaka
Patan
Ujjain
Kolkata
Narm ada R.
Palitana
Girnar
Satrunjaya Hill
INDIA Khandagiri
Tosali
Mumbai Go
d a va ri R. B AY O F
ARABIAN BENGAL
SEA Krish
na R Amaravati
.
Mosali
Andhapura
Gomateshwara Bangalore
Chennai
KavSravana Belgola
e ri R .
Cochin Madurai
Miles
0 100 200
SRI LANKA
0 100 200 300

Kilometers INDIAN OCEAN
JAINISM 43

Part 3
Buddhism

‘Buddhism’ is an English name for a religion often called by its adherents the Dharma,
The Origins of Buddhism meaning both ‘the teaching’ and ‘the way things are’. It is named after the Buddha, ‘the
one who has awakened’.
The traditional date for the birth of Buddha, is’ and this truth set him free. He was
who lived in north India for 80 years, is now the awakened one, the ‘Buddha’. He
563 bce. However most historians today gathered around him a group of disciples and
place him about a century later and his death wandered northern India, teaching all who
around 400 bce. The Buddha’s clan-name would listen. The Buddha died in old age,
was Gautama, but later tradition called though for him death was nothing.
him Siddhartha.
Buddhists tend to emphasize not Buddha What did he teach?
but his teaching, which – they say – leads The Buddha taught that ‘seeing things the
people to understand how things truly are, way they really are’ is the way to overcome
and then radically to reassess their lives. every sort of unpleasantness, imperfection,
The Buddha awakened to this truth and and frustration – dukkha, literally ‘pain’ or
taught it. ‘suffering’. He taught that, when we look
deeply, we can see our lives are at root
Who was the Buddha? simply dukkha.
Buddhism has always been more interested In the Buddhist tradition a creator-
in how the Buddha’s life story illustrates God does not exist. Suffering is the result
Buddhist teachings than in its historical truth. of our ignorance – not understanding
The legendary account of his life – a prince the way things really are. Central to this
who was protected from any knowledge of misunderstanding is failure to appreciate
the unpleasant aspects of life – developed that everything is by nature impermanent.
in the centuries after his death. According We need to learn to let go of attachments
to alternative Pali language sources, the and a deep-rooted fixed sense of selfhood,
Buddha was a high-born Shakyan who was since we have been confused and suffered for
protected from awareness of suffering as he infinite lifetimes.
grew up, but the shock of encountering old At death the body ceases, but the ever-
age, sickness, and death led to his renouncing flowing continuum of consciousness and its
worldly pursuits. He was already married mental accompaniments continues and ‘spins’
with a son, but now left his family and another body according to our good or bad
took up the life of a wandering seeker. He deeds (karma). Such ‘rebirth’ means that we
sought the truth that would lead to complete are yet again subject to suffering – old age,
freedom from suffering – a life of meditation, sickness, and death. This process ceases only
study, and asceticism – and obtained food by with letting go at the deepest level, attained
asking for alms. through meditation – a cessation Buddhists
Eventually, through deep meditation, call ‘enlightenment’ (in Sanskrit, ‘nirvana’).
Siddhartha came to ‘see it the way it really

THE BUDDHIST HEARTLAND map 13
Major event in life of Buddha
H
Early Buddhist religious centre
I
M
A Brahmaputra R.
L
P A N C A L A A Y
Ahichchhatra
A S
(Ramnagar)
Yamun a
Legendary location of Buddha’s

ng S A K YA S
Ga
es descent from heaven by gold ladder

R.
M A L L A Birthplace of Buddha c. 563 BCE
R.
Sankassa Buddha’s teaching centre

Lumbini
Mathura (Sankasya Nagar) Shravasti Buddha’s ‘Great Renunciation’ c. 592 BCE
Kapilavastu
KOSALA
H i ra n y a v a t i R
Kanyakubja Buddha’s place of death c. 483 BCE
i R.
Kusinara
Rap
Ko s
Saketa
(Ayodhya) Gha
ti R
gha
VRJJI
Ga
.
ra
nd
R.
aki
Vaisali (Basrah )
R.
KASI L I C C H AV I
Buddha’s teaching centre ANGA
VAT S A Sarnath M AGADHA .
Brahm aputra R.
G an
R
ges R.
jara
Kausambi Varanasi
(Kosambi) Rajaghra (Rajgir)
R. Nairan Bodh Gaya
Son Site of Buddha’s enlightenment
a R.
Narmad
A
VANG
Tamralipti
Miles
0 100 200
0 100 200 300

B AY OF BENGAL
Kilometers
THE ORIGINS OF BUDDHISM 47

Central to the Buddha’s vision of the way ahead was an order of monks and nuns –
What is Buddhism? known as the Sangha – living on alms and expressing their commitment to radical
transformation by renunciation. In time monasteries were established, together with a
monastic rule regulating the conduct of the Sangha.
The Buddha did not appoint a successor, writings distinguish between being free from
reportedly declaring that the teaching – the all suffering – ‘enlightened’ – and being a
Dharma – should be his successor. However Buddha. A Buddha is more than just liberated
after his death disagreements occurred, from his own suffering; a Buddha is also
initially over the monastic rules. Where such perfectly compassionate. A Buddha also
disputes could not be reconciled, monks in possesses miraculous abilities to help others.
the minority had to leave, resulting in the It takes many lifetimes of spiritual striving
formation of a number of different monastic to become a Buddha. Those who aim for the
traditions. The best known of these – the highest goal seek not just their own freedom
only early Indian Buddhist monastic from suffering and rebirth, but also vow to
tradition extant – is the ‘Way of the Elders’ follow the long path to Buddhahood over
(Theravada), found today in Sri Lanka, numerous rebirths.
Thailand, Cambodia, and Myanmar (Burma). The Mahayana is the way of those who
In time different doctrinal positions also aspire to become perfect Buddhas. Those
evolved, sometimes followed by identifiable who vow to do so are known as bodhisattvas.
schools. For example, the school known as Over time, the Mahayana elaborated how
Pudgalavada urged that, although the Buddha a Buddha is superior to someone who has
taught ‘not-self ’, there still exists the pudgala, simply put an end to their suffering. Even
something ‘in’ us. Other debates concerned his death was put on in order to present a
who or what the Buddha was. Some claimed ‘skilful teaching’ of impermanence. For the
a Buddha is more extraordinary than people Mahayana, the Buddha – indeed infinite
realize: he doesn’t need to sleep, defecate, Buddhas – are still around, living on higher
or even eat, but does so merely to meet planes – ‘Pure Lands’ – from which, through
human expectations. their compassion and with miraculous
powers, they help those in need. With
Mahayana Buddhism them are advanced bodhisattvas, also full of
The most significant development within compassion and able to help others.
Buddhism, the growth of the Mahayana – Particularly significant in the history of
the ‘Great Vehicle’ – appeared in texts Buddhism in India was the conversion of the
from around the 1st century ce. Mahayana great Emperor Ashoka (3rd century bce),
Buddhism is not a doctrinal school or which gave the religion important imperial
monastic tradition, and it makes no sense patronage – although scholars now reject the
to speak of two ‘schools’ of Buddhism, view that he attempted to make Buddhism
Theravada and Mahayana. Mahayana is the state religion.
essentially a vision of what Buddhism is
really all about.
Mahayana appears first in the Mahayana
sutras, which claim – controversially – to
be the words of the Buddha himself. These

BUDDHISM EXPANDS IN INDIA map 14
Ashokan edict
Buddhist centre before and during Mauryan period
IRA Haimavata Buddhist sub-school centres
KASM
Mauryan Empire at greatest extent c. 3 BCE – c.1 BCE
Ind
GAND Taxila sR
HARA Region evangelized by Buddhist mission
u
.
before and during reign of Ashoka
Buddhist Heartland
H
SELEUCID T I B E T
A N P L A T E A U
I
EMPIRE M
R.
A L
us A Y A
Ind S
Ghag h
Gan
Mathura ge
R HIMA
Yam VA N
T H A R T
sR
R. TA
ra
un
.
E aR
D E S . a R.
putr
Prayaga (Allahabad) Pataliputra (Patna) B r a h ma
I N D I A Rajaghra
ada i ka
Sthavirav sangh
Sam AVA N T I
Haimavata M a ha Bodh Gaya
m a ti y VA N G A
a Vidisha (Bhilsa)
Ujjain a R.
mad
Nar Tamralipti
Valabhi
A Mahismati
RANT
A P A M a h a s a s a ka
Ma
M A H A R AS H ham
TRA ad i R .
A
Go
d a va ri R. B AY O F
NG
LI
KA
ARABIAN BENGAL
SEA Krish
na R
.
a
M a h a s a n g hi k
VA N AVA S A
M
MA AHISA
NDA
LA
S I M H A L A D V I PA / L A N K A
Anuradhapura
SIMHALA
Miles
0 100 200 (SRI LANKA)
Mahagama
0 100 200 300
Kilometers
INDIAN OCEAN
W H AT I S B U D D H I S M ? 49

From the time of Ashoka, Buddhism began to travel further, according to tradition
Buddhism Spreads beyond India arriving in Sri Lanka. It later spread into South-East Asia, arriving in China via the
Central Asian trade routes during the early centuries ce, spreading to Korea and
other countries of East Asia, and reaching Japan in the 6th century ce. Buddhism
came to Tibet by various routes, including India and China, probably from about
the 7th century ce. A RAL
S EA
In India itself, for various reasons not yet only by completely letting go of self-reliance
fully understood – but possibly partly due and trusting in the Buddha’s power to save
to the rise of devotional theistic forms can the already-enlightened nature of the
of Hinduism and the impact of Islam – Buddha (a Buddha known here as Amida)
Buddhism declined, almost ceasing to exist shine forth. Humans must let go of the
from about the 14th century ce. egoism that encourages them to think they AF
It is common, but misleading, to speak can achieve anything spiritually worthwhile –

of the Buddhism of China, Japan, and Tibet, including enlightenment – through their
as Mahayana, as opposed to the Theravada own efforts. Being a monk or nun – or even
Buddhism of, for example, South-East meditating – is ultimately an irrelevant
Asia: but as stated earlier, they are not distraction and possible source of egoistic
comparable phenomena. Nevertheless, many attachment.
Mahayana scriptures were transmitted to, A
and usually given unquestioned authority in, Tantra and Vajrayana
China, Japan, and Tibet. Unlike in South- From the beginning Buddhists accepted
East Asia, Buddhists in these countries magic – bringing about desired results
could be expected to express adherence to through the manipulation of hidden forces,
the Mahayana vision as embracing their usually by ritual means such as sacred circles
highest aspirations. (mandalas), utterances of power (mantras),
and visualization. In addition to teaching,
Zen Buddhist monks and nuns might be asked by
Particularly characteristic of East Asian the lay communities that supported them to
Buddhism is the tradition known in perform magic rituals for crops, health, and
Japan as ‘Zen’. Zen – the word is related to children. From early times, Buddhist ritual
‘meditation’ – stresses direct, non-verbal, texts were produced, usually called tantras,
intuitive insight, expressed through arts such and sometimes controversially attributed
as painting, but sometimes it also employs to the Buddha himself. Gradually the more
humour and shock to bring about awakening. disputed aspects of Tantric Buddhism
Also important in Japanese Buddhism were diluted and absorbed into the wider
is the 13th-century tradition of Shinran. Mahayana context of compassion and
For Shinran, the awakening of a Buddha is wisdom. Such forms of tantra are found in
beyond the capability of the unenlightened; Tibetan Buddhism.

THE EARLY SPREAD OF BUDDHISM map 15
Miles
Urgu 0 250 500 750
L. Balkhash
M O N G O L I A 0 250 500 750
A RAL Kilometers
S EA
Turfan
Kashgar
.
Ho R
Wan-fu-xiu Beijing
AN
Wu-tai
ang
AN Yarkand Dunhuang R. KO R E A
JAP
ST ow
Hw
I Kyangui
AN Y E L LOW
ll
Kyoto
Ye
GH Luoyang S EA
AF Gandhara Ya
Chang’an Nara
T I B E T
ng
Taxila
H
tze
M Jiu hua
R.
Multan A Shan
L Lhasa O-mei
sR
. Ga NE A Y A S Shan Putuo Shan
du PA L
Kusinara Tiantai E AS T C H I N A
ng
In
Shan
es
Lumbini S EA
R.
Sarnath C H I N A
Re
Sanchi Bodh Guangzhou
dR
INDIA Gaya MYA N MAR

.
A R A BI A N Hanoi
Ellora Ajanta Pagan
S EA P ACIFIC
B AY
Karli Prome
Ratnagiri
OF
B ENGAL Pegu Sukhothai OCEAN
Me
Amaravati Yangon
PH
kong
T H AI L AND S OUTH C HINA

S EA
IL
R.
Kanchipuram Angkor
IP
V I E T NAM
PIN
Saigon
ES
Anuradhapura
SRI
Kandy LANKA
I N D I A N O C E A N
BORNEO MOLUCCAS
Spread of Theravada Buddhism
Spread of Mahayana Buddhism
SU
CELEBES
MA
Spread of Vajrayana Buddhism

TRA
Major Buddhist site

Buddhist Heartland
Area where Mahayana Buddhism started JAVA
Borobudur
Buddhism present by 500 CE
B U D D H I S M S P R E A D S B E YO N D I N D I A 51

During the European colonial period, Western visitors to South-East Asia started to
Buddhism in the Modern World study Buddhism, leading to a more text-based interpretation of the religion in the
West. Meanwhile Asian Buddhism underwent a revival, as it strove to resist Christian
missionary activity.
Sri Lanka, for instance, saw the development the Communist Party of Kampuchea –
of ‘Protestant Buddhism’ – a form of after which Buddhism was systematically
Buddhism that protested against Christianity dismantled. Buddhist temples were razed,
K
but also borrowed elements from it. monks killed, and libraries destroyed. After
Myanmar witnessed a similar revivalist 1979, the people of Cambodia attempted to
A RAL
development. At the beginning of the 20th reconstruct its Buddhist heritage, donating S EA
century, Chinese Buddhism also underwent money and rebuilding wats (temples).
revival, though its impact was lessened by the Buddhism was recognized as the state UZBE
K
growth of secular ideologies. religion in 1989.
Today most schools of Buddhism are
Secular ideologies and present in the West, and new Buddhist
authoritarianism organizations have emerged to meet the G
needs of Westerners. In Britain, for example, AF
In the mid-20th century, Buddhism in
Cambodia, China, Korea, Laos, Tibet, and Theravada Buddhism has a strong presence,
Vietnam was repressed by Communist with monasteries and educational centres
regimes. After the establishment of the catering both for Buddhists from Sri Lanka,
People’s Republic of China in 1949, Chinese Thailand, Myanmar, and for Western K
Communist leaders expected Buddhism converts. Japanese Mahayana schools such
would die away. When it did not, violent as Zen, Pure Land, and Tendai are also
attacks on Buddhist leaders and religious represented – as are newer lay movements
buildings were instigated, particularly during such as Soka Gakkai and Rissho Kosei-kai. ARA
the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). Reacting to the suffering of the Vietnam S
British withdrawal from India in 1947 War, the Zen Buddhist Thích Nhat Hanh (b.
gave Communist China the opportunity 1926) tried to apply Buddhist meditation
to invade Tibet, in 1950. In 1959 the practice and teaching to instances of political,
Buddhist leader, the Dalai Lama, fled the economic, and environmental injustice and
country and China imposed direct rule. suffering in a movement known as ‘Engaged
Systematic suppression of Tibet’s Buddhist Buddhism’. Engaged Buddhists believe
heritage followed, including the looting of meditation and social engagement should
monasteries, destruction of libraries and go hand in hand, and set up meditation
religious images, and execution of monks. centres for laypeople in Asia and the West.
Thousands of Tibetans fled the country, In traditional Asian Buddhism, meditation
mostly going to India, Nepal, and Bhutan, practices were linked with monastic life:
but some travelling as far as Europe and today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, the USA, and
North America, spreading Tibetan forms Europe meditation has become an important
of Buddhism. part of life for laypeople too.
Cambodia gained independence
from France in 1953. In 1975, the capital,
Phnom Penh, fell to the Khmer Rouge –

BUDDHISM TODAY map 16
Novosibirsk
R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N
KAZ AKHSTAN
Ulan Bator
M O N G O L I A
A RAL RT
S EA Almaty E SE
Urumchi I D
GOB
Tashkent Vladivostock
UZBE S TA N
KIS R GYZ NORTH
TA N KY Beijing
KOREA
TA J I K I S
TA N TAKLA MAK AN Pyongyang
Dushanbe DESERT
N
Seoul
PA
SOUTH
JA
AN
IST Y E L LOW KOREA Tokyo
H AN S EA
G Islamabad
A F Kabul T I B E T C H I N A
H
I
M Chengdu Wuhan Shanghai
A
IS TA N L Lhasa
AK NE A Y A S to Hawaii,
P Delhi PA L Chungking USA
B
E AS T C H I N A
Kathmandu HUTAN S EA
Karachi Taipei
I N D I A Dhaka TAIWAN
MYA N MA R Hanoi Hong

Kong
A R A BI A N Mumbai
B AY
LAOS
P ACIFIC
S E A to Europe, (Bombay)
to USA,
USA,
OF
B ENGAL Yangon T H AI L AND
Europe
OCEAN
Australia (Rangoon) Bangkok
PH
Manila
NAM
CAMBODIA
IL
Chennai
S OUTH C HINA
IP
VIET
(Madras)
Phnom S EA
PIN
to Europe Penh
Ho Chi Minh City
ES
(Saigon)
SRI
Colombo LANKA
to Europe
M A L A BRUNEI
Y S I
to UK, Kuala Lumpur A
Europe
to USA,
Australia
BORNEO
INDIAN OCEAN I
N
D
Theravada Buddhism O
Mahayana Buddhism Jakarta N E S I A
Tibetan Mahayana Buddhism Surabaya
Maharashtra Buddhism Miles
0 250 500
Buddhist emigration and teaching missions
% of Buddhists in population (blue) 0 250 500 750
Kilometers
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD 53

Confucianism Stone statue of
Confucianism and Taoism Confucianism is best known for its moral

philosophy, represented by the thinkers
Confucius (551–479 bce), Mencius (371–
Confucius from a
Chinese temple.
c. 289 bce), and Hsün-tzu (fl. 298–238 bce).

Although grounded in religion – the
ancient religion of the Lord-
on-high, or Heaven –
Confucianism gives
primary emphasis to
the ethical meaning of
human relationships.
Confucius
himself is
remembered
as a great
educator,
whose
teaching
centred on
the concept
of humanity
(jen). Yet he
made it clear
that Heaven protected him and gave him Neo-Confucianism
his message. Within a few hundred years of Confucian mysticism, and particularly
B
Confucius’ death, his principles had been the later Neo-Confucianism, tend toward
accepted as the basis for social and political pantheism, as in the thought of Chang Tsai
organization in China, and remained in place (1020–77), which is influenced by both
for more than two thousand years. Taoism and Buddhism. In his mystical vision,
What was an implicitly religious message the entire world is related to him as his
in Confucius becomes explicit in Mencius, own family. Other Neo-Confucian thinkers
who attempted to show how the Way of include Chu Hsi (1130–1200) and Wang
Heaven, the divine power of the cosmos, Yang-ming (1472–1529), whose schools were
could become human nature. If human called respectively ‘the teaching of principle’
nature is correctly cultivated and nurtured, (li-hsüeh) and ‘the teaching of mind’ (hsin-
even the ordinary person can become a sage. hsüeh). Both were concerned with achieving
The third founding father of sagehood: the debate between them
Confucianism, Hsün-tzu, is remembered for concerned how to do this. Chu Hsi believed
his doctrine of ritual action (li). He presents we have to go through an arduous process of
the practical side of Confucian religion, self-cultivation and ethical activity to reach
demonstrating the power of correct ritual jen. But for Wang, only an ‘enlightenment
action to transform the human heart – which experience’, uniting our minds with the mind
is prone to err – into the mind of a sage. of the Tao, can achieve sagehood.

TAOISM map 17
R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N
M O N G O L I A
Qian Shan
NORTH S EA OF
.
Beijing
Ho R
Heng Shan KOREA

Pyongyang J A PA N
ang
T’ai
Shan Seoul
Hw
R. Qufu SOUTH AN
ow Y E L LOW KOREA JAP
Confucius born 551 BCE S E A
ll
Hua Shan Osaka

Ye
Mencius born c. 371 BCE Tokyo

Taibai Shan Chung Nan Sung
Shan
T I B E T Shan Mao Shan
Wu Tang Huo Shan
Shan Shanghai
Lhasa C H I N A Lu Shan Longhu
K’uai Chi Shan E AS T
C HINA
R Tiantai Shan
Shan K’uo Ts’ang Shan S E A
tze
.
Ya n g Xi Shan
BHUTAN Heng Shan Wuyuan
Wuyi Shan Zhu Xi born 1130 CE
Tamsui Sanshia
Taichung
Xi Jiang R. TAIWAN
Tainan
Goulou Shan
MYANMAR Hanoi P ACIFIC
Irrawad
B AY LAOS OCEAN
OF
B ENGAL
dy R
S OUTH C HINA P HILIPPINE

S EA S EA
Me
.
T HA IL A N D
PH
kong
M A
Manila
VIETN
Bangkok
IL
R.
IP
CAMBODIA
PI
A N DA M A N
NE
Phnom
S EA Penh
S
Bandar Labuan Sandakan

Georgetown Brunei
M A L A Y S I Miri C E L E BE S
Kuala Lumpur A
Sibu S EA
Malacca Kapit Miles
Singapore 0 250 500
Kuching
Pontianak 0 250 500 750
SUM
I BORNEO Kilometers
AT R
N
A
D Taoism present
O Taoism influence historically
J AVA S E A N E S I A
Cao Dai present
Mountain with Taoist association
Major Taoist temple
CO N F U C I A N I S M A N D TA O I S M 55

The Neo-Confucians gave Confucianism But Taoism is not mere passive
a fresh lease of life, offering a new explanation contemplation. The texts of Lao-tzu and
of the Confucian vision that could compete Chuang-tzu were utilized by a later generation
with Taoism and Buddhism. Both Hsi and of religious-minded thinkers, whose ambition
Wang sought the moment when the human was to ‘steal the secret of Heaven and Earth’,
mind would be transformed into the Mind of wrestle from it the mystery of life, and fulfil
Heaven, the state of perfected excellence. their desire for immortality. The goal of the
Taoists was to become immortal (hsien). They
Taoism revived belief in personal deities, practised a
The Tao – a metaphysical absolute – seems to ritual of prayer, explored alchemy, and sought
have been a philosophical transformation of their goal through yoga and meditation.
an earlier personal God. The way it teaches This development in Taoism has been
leads to a union with itself – a way of passive called ‘Taoist religion’, distinguishing it
acceptance and mystical contemplation. Such from the classical philosophy of Lao-tzu and
is the teaching of the great Taoist thinkers, Chuang-tzu. This Taoist religion developed
Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, about whose lives its own mystical tradition, with stories
little is known – if indeed they ever existed. of amazing drugs and miracle-working
The Hall of Prayer in

the Taoist Temple
of Heaven, Beijing,
China.

immortals, levitations, and bodily ascents Syncretism
to heaven. Using early texts, the Taoist The great Chinese religions have always
religionists created long-lasting institutions. influenced each other’s development. Both
Some of these groups still exist, tracing Taoism and Confucianism borrowed a
their roots back to Taoist movements of great deal from Buddhism, with the Taoists
the late 2nd century ce. With their esoteric reforming their religious structures, founding
teachings, orthodox teachers, and social monasteries, and writing a canon of sacred
organizations, they resemble other great texts in imitation of Buddhist models.
religious traditions, seeking unity with the The heyday of religious cross-fertilization
Tao that cannot be named. in China came during the Ming dynasty
A major goal of all forms of Taoism was (1369–1644), when many religious thinkers,
the quest for freedom: freedom from political such as Lin Chao-en (1517–98), sought to
and social constraints; a profound search for harmonize the three great religions, declaring
immortality; and a search for oneness with that they are one. Lin sought to combine
the Tao – the principle of the universe, and the best features of Taoist and Buddhist
a pattern for human behaviour, but never a meditation with a Confucian sense of shared
conscious god. concern for fellow creatures, in a uniquely
Throughout its history, the masters of Chinese religious synthesis, still present in
Taoism have sought, in various ways, to China today. Most religious Chinese are a
become part of the ‘self-so-ness’ of reality. mixture of all three great religions: Chinese
Taoist religion recognizes that life is a syncretism has been so successful at blending
beautiful – and frightening – panorama of traditions that few in China today would
transformations. In their mountain retreats think it odd to be simultaneously Buddhist,
and lake pavilions, Taoists have been poets Taoist, and Confucian.
of nature.
CO N F U C I A N I S M A N D TA O I S M 57

Part 4
Judaism

According to the Old Testament account, Abraham’s grandson Jacob (or ‘Israel’) had
Origin of the Jewish People twelve sons – the original ‘children of Israel’. These forefathers of Israel’s twelve tribes
spent their last years and died not in Canaan – the Promised Land – but in Egypt,
driven there by famine.
Jacob’s son Joseph became a senior for almost a year. Here God gave Israel the
administrator in Egypt and died there. ‘A moral law, the Ten Commandments. God
new king, who did not know about Joseph, also gave instructions for the construction of
came to power in Egypt’ (Exodus 1:8) and the a ‘tabernacle,’ a sacred tent situated in a large
Egyptians now used Israelites as slave labour. courtyard, first erected on the anniversary
An Israelite named Moses – brought up of the Israelites’ escape from Egypt. Soon
in the Egyptian court – fled for his life to the after, the tabernacle was dismantled and the
Sinai Peninsula. Near Mount Sinai God spoke Israelites left Sinai.
to him from a burning bush, telling him he Forty years elapsed between the exodus
must rescue the people of Israel and bring from Egypt and the entry into Canaan, many
them to the promised land. Moses was to go spent at the oasis of Kadesh-Barnea in the
to pharaoh and demand his people’s release. Wilderness of Zin. But the children of Israel
Pharaoh refused his demands; only after also wandered south to Sinai again, then
ten terrible plagues did he finally consent north and east through the rugged Edomite
and let the Israelites go. The route taken is territory south of the Dead Sea. From here
debated. The traditional route runs from they could have followed the King’s Highway,
Ra’amses to Succoth, then north across the but the Edomites would not allow them
Red Sea, or ‘Sea of Reeds’, before turning across their territory, so they had to travel
south-east to Mount Sinai. The location around it. To the north the Amorites blocked
of some places visited by the Israelites are the King’s Highway but were defeated in
equally uncertain. The traditional site of battle. Attempts by the King of Moab to
Mount Sinai is Jebel Musa; however, some overthrow Israel were also thwarted.
scholars place it at Jebel Helal, north Sinai. Israel now camped on the plains of
In this case, the Israelites would have taken Moab, close to the River Jordan, and Moses
the Way to Shur, via Beersheba. addressed his people for the last time, before
It took the Hebrews about three months dying at Mount Nebo (or Pisgah).
to reach Mount Sinai, where they stayed

THE EXODUS map 18
Traditional route of the Exodus

Acco
Alternative route of the Israelites
Enemy fortress
N
Pyramid site
Mountain
A
Road
Jordan R.
MEDITERRANEAN
A
Miles
0 20 40
S EA AMMON
N
0 20 40 60
Kilometers Jericho
Heshbon
Ashdod Death
A
Mt Nebo of Moses
(Deuteronomy 34)
Hebron
Gaza DEAD Dibon
C
Arad SEA Arnon R.
NIL E D ELTA Beersheba
MOAB
( W ok
Zoan (Tanis) Pelusium
B ro
ad
a
Wa y o f t h e S e e
o f l-A Wilderness
i
Israelites leave Egypt
(Exodus 12) Eg ris h
yp ) of Zin
Ra’amses (Avaris) t
G o s h e n Succoth ur Punon
Sh
Pibeseth (Bubastis) Pithom y to Jebel Helal Kadesh-
Wa
Barnea
E G Y P T Wilderness Moses sends 12
spies to Canaan
Bitter
of Shur (Numbers 13)
ay
On (Heliopolis)
ighw
Lakes
g’s H
Wilderness
K in
Noph (Memphis)
Water too bitter
of Paran
to drink (Exodus 15)
Ezion-Geber
Marah ?
Elim ? Sinai
R.
Peninsula
Nile
GULF
Hazeroth ?
OF
Kibroth-
F A QAB
SUE
hattaavah ?
Alush ?
Z
M I D I A N
GULF O
Rephidim ? Taberah ?
Israelite conflict
with Amalekites Mt Sinai
(Exodus 17-18) (Jebel Musa,
Mt Horeb)
Moses receives
the Law
(Exodus 19-20)
RED S EA
ORIGIN OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE 61

For a period after the Israelites occupied Canaan, they were governed by a series of
The Kingdom of Israel military leaders known in the Old Testament as ‘judges’. The greatest of these was the
prophet Samuel.
However Samuel displayed little military The Ark of the Covenant was now moved to
prowess, and during his rule the this city.
neighbouring Philistines captured the David’s capture of Jerusalem finally
Israelites’ holy Ark of the Covenant – the completed the Israelite conquest of
chest from the wilderness tabernacle that Canaan. Having built a palace for himself
contained the sacred tablets of the Ten in Jerusalem, David was anxious to build a
Commandments. house – or temple – for God. But a prophet
When Samuel grew old and appointed his forbade it, telling David that his son would be
sons judges, they took bribes and perverted allowed to build this temple.
justice. Neighbouring states were already David now consolidated his kingdom:
kingdoms, and it was thought that Israel’s uniting his people, breaking the power of
military failures were due in part to her lack the Philistines, and expanding his frontiers
of leadership and unity. The elders of Israel with the Edomites, Ammonites, Moabites,
demanded that Samuel appoint a king to and Arameans. He extended his kingdom to
govern them. include lands from Dan in the north to the
Brook of Egypt in the south, and his empire
Saul stretched much further, to the Euphrates river
Israel’s first king began his reign full of in the north and to Ezion-geber on the Gulf
promise. Saul was rich, tall, young, and of Aqaba in the south. Edom, Moab, Ammon,
popular. He led Israel successfully against and Aram all became his vassal states, forced
the Ammonites. In a series of assaults on to pay tribute.
Philistine garrisons, he achieved several
victories over the old enemy. With the help Solomon
of his son Jonathan, King Saul recorded a At his death, c. 970 bce, David handed over
notable victory at Michmash. to his son Solomon an empire that 50 years
Successful campaigns in the south earlier would have been unimaginable, and
prepared the way for Saul’s successor, David, whose size would not be seen again under
to enlarge his realm. However, Saul’s jealousy Israelite rule. Solomon built a temple in his
of David – to the point of trying to kill capital city, Jerusalem, where a complex
him – marked a turn in his fortune. He and system of animal sacrifices was carried out.
Jonathan died when Israel was defeated by
the Philistines at the Battle of Gilboa.
David
David had been declared heir to the throne
during Saul’s lifetime, but spent the final years
of Saul’s reign in flight from him. He began
his own reign in the city of Hebron, but later
moved his capital to Jebus (captured from the
Jebusites), changing its name to Jerusalem.

THE KINGDOMS OF SAUL, DAVID, AND SOLOMON map 19
Aleppo Eu
ph
ra t e s
R.
.
Orontes R
Tiphsah
H A M A T H
CYPRUS Hamath
Arvad
E A
Tadmor
S
R.
tes
Oron
Byblos
N
N
B
E A
HO
- R R.
ni
a
Lit
I D
ASCUS
DAM
N
TH
M-
BE
A
A R Abana R.
A
Sidon
Damascus
R
R
rpar R.
Tyre Dan Pha
E
Kedesh CAH
AA
T
Hazor
I
Acco
D
Kinnereth
E
Megiddo L
E
M
Beth-shan Ramoth-gilead
T
A
Sea
R
the
E
Jordan R.
f
Way o
Jabbok R. A M M O N
S
Shechem
Joppa
E
I
Rabbah
Gibeah
(Amman)
D
Ashdod Jerusalem
Gath Hebron
Gaza H D EAD
S EA
N
Raphia Gerar D A B
OA
R
U Beersheba M Kir-hareseth
E
J
( W ok
B ro
T
ad o
Zoar
f E -A ri
ie
S
l
gy sh) Tamar
pt
A
O M
Kadesh-barnea
E D
EGYPT
y
Highwa
g ’s
Kin
Miles Saul’s Kingdom

0 25 50 100
Ezion- Territory conquered by David
geber
Sinai 0 25 50 100 150 Solomon’s area of influence
G ULF OF Kilometers
A QABA
THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL 63

The story of the early development of
Jewish Dispersions Judaism is much debated. The narrative

based on the biblical books of Ezra
and Nehemiah has been important
THE JEWISH EXILES
for the development of Jewish self-

understanding, but is not necessarily
founded in historical reality.
In 586 bce Nebuchadnezzar II, king of the

neo-Babylonian Empire, destroyed Jerusalem
and took many its people as captives to
Babylon, along with much of the population
of Judea.
In Babylon there was now a community Ta
of people who considered themselves ICIA
Aspendos CIL
Judeans, or Jews. They believed there should Sele
be a single temple in Jerusalem where
religious sacrifice could be carried out. In
an attempt to maintain continuity with the
past, houses of assembly, ‘synagogues’ in
Greek, were set up in Babylon. Here prayer, CYPRUS
singing or chanting, teaching, and reading

and discussion of the Torah took place.
During this period, scribes also first appeared.
Based in the synagogue, their role was to M EDITERRANEAN S EA S
Ty
understand the Torah and interpret its rules
for the contemporary situation. This ‘guild of
scholars’ seems to have evolved into the rabbis Sama
of later rabbinic Judaism. Shec
In 539 the army of Cyrus II ‘the Great’ Jerusal
of Persia captured Babylon. According to
Alexandria
the book of Ezra, he permitted the Jews to
Daphne
return from exile and rebuild their temple
in Jerusalem. When Jewish religious leaders
returned to Jerusalem and rebuilt the Temple,
the city was apparently established as a temple E G Y P T
community led by the priests. S i n a i
Elephantine
Nile R.
Miles
0 50 100 150
Syene
RED
0 50 100
Kilometers
200 SEA

map 20
Caesarea
M T
S L. Van C ASPIAN
S SEA
R U
U
A
T
L. Urmia
Z Hyrcania
Tarsus S Y R I A Harran
A
G
R
ICIA Carchemish A O
CIL Arpad Pethor
Gozan S
S
S
Seleucia Y Nineveh M
Aleppo R T
Antioch I Arbela
A Resen
S
Orontes R.
Tiphsah Rezeph Calah M E D I A

M
E
Eu p
Hamath Ashur
YPRUS S P E R S I A
hra
Qatna O
P
tes
Tigris
Riblah
R.
Hara
O
Ava
R.
Byblos Nehavend
T
A
M
IA
Sidon Damascus Sippara Ecbatana

Tyre Mahoza
Hazor
Cutha
Babylon
Jordan R.
Samaria Nippur
Sura IA
Shechem
A B YLON Susiana
Jerusalem Rabbah B Sepharvaim
(Amman)
Pumbedita E L A M
Ellasar
Uruk
aphne
S i n a i City where Jews settled after dispersion

Probable area of settlement of Jewish exiles
ARABIAN PERSIAN
Exiles from Canaan to Assyrian captivity 701 BCE
DESERT GULF
Exiles from Canaan to Babylonian captivity 586 BCE
Return of exiles under Sheshbazar & Zerubbabel c. 538, 521 BCE
Return of exiles under Ezra & Nehemiah c. 458 BCE
RED Dispersal after revolt against Persia 359–328 BCE
SEA Jewish exiles after Assyrian and Babylonian conquests 701, 586 BCE
JEWISH DISPERSIONS 65

THE JEWISH DIASPORA c. 400 ce
N ORTH
SEA
BRI TA NN I A
Noviomagus
Bonna (Bonn)
D nie p
Durocortorum R.
er
G E R M A N
Lutetia I A Castra Regina SARMATIANS
R.
Cenabum Aureliani
Rhine
ATLANTIC N O R I C U M Danube R
Vesontio .
OCEAN GALLIA PA N N O N I A
Olbia
R A ET I A
Mediolanum
Lugdunum (Lyons) (Milan) Aquileia
Ravenna DACI A
Rhône R.
AQU I TA N I A Genoa
Tolosa (Toulouse) DA L MAT I A
Salonae
Elimberris Massilia T
I Oescus
Serdica MO ESI A
B LAC
(Marseilles)
Arelate Roma A IA Sin
(Rome) L E DON T H R ACI A
I C
Tarraco Neapolis (Naples) A Barium M AThessalonica Byzantium BITHYNIA
HISPANIA (Tarragona)
LUSI TANIA
Salernum Tarentum Larisa Nicomedia

Ancyra
Emerita Augusta Thebae Pergamum G A L A T I A Caesa
Panormus Corinth ASIA
E D Patrae
Corduba B A E TI C A M I T Ephesus C
Carthago Carthago E SICILIA Sparta A I AAthens
Nova R
Syracusae
A CH Miletus Tarsus
Gades Cirta
(Cadiz) R
Caesarea A
NUMIDIA Hadrumetum C R E TA
N
Volubilis M A U R E TA N I A E CYPRUS
A
N
Cyrene S E A
Oea C
Berenice
Alexandria Je
L I B YA
Pelusium
A F R I C A Memphis
City with Jewish community by 300 CE AEGYPTUS

City with large Jewish community by 300 CE
N il
City with Jewish community by 400 CE .

eR
RED
Area of Jewish settlement by 300 CE
Area of Jewish settlement by 400 CE Miles
0 100 200 300
Roman Empire by c. 300 CE
Jewish dispersion routes 0 200 400
Kilometers

Jewish dispersion (the ‘Diaspora’) started
The Jewish Diaspora

map 21
in the 6th century bce, when many Jews
opted to remain in Babylon, where they
had been taken as exiles. From this time
on, Jewish communities ‘of the Diaspora’
grew all around the Mediterranean Sea,
focussing their religious observance
around the local synagogue.
During the Roman period, Jewish hopes

rose for a messiah who would rescue his
people from the Roman occupiers and restore
Do the Judean state. In 66 ce the Jews rose in
nR
revolt against Rome. Rome retook Jerusalem
pe
R. .
r
TIANS and destroyed its temple in 70 ce in a

crushing defeat. No longer would Jerusalem
Tanais
Olbia be the destination of Jewish pilgrims or the
centre of Jewish cultural life.
Galilee now became a centre of Jewish
AL A N S life. Johanan ben Zakai (30–90 ce) founded
C A a school at Jamnia, or Yavneh, Galilee, where
B LACK S EA U C
A S ‘rabbi’ (master) became the formal title for
C AS
Sinope U
S teachers. The school at Jamnia began to
PIA
Amisus
BITHYNIA function as a Jewish council, discussing the
N
PONTU S Trapezus
meaning of the Jewish law. It is also held
SEA
Ancyra ARM E NI A
m G A L A T I A Caesarea to have founded Rabbinic Judaism: the
IA CAP PADOCIA belief that, on Mount Sinai, Moses – the
s C ILICIA first rabbi – received from God the written
Tarsus M Nisibis PA RT H I A NS
Antiochia ES
O
law (the ‘Torah’, or Pentateuch) and an oral
PO
SYRIA explanation (the ‘oral Torah’).
Tigris A
TA
Ecbatana
The Jewish community in Egypt
M
CYPRUS
Dura
I
Palmyra
R.
Hulwan
remained quite strong, but Greek culture –
Damascus Babylon Ctesiphon
A
Caesarea
and Hellenistic Judaism – was on the wane.
Euph
Sura
In Babylon, the ruler of the Jews of the
a Jerusalem
ra
es
Diaspora was known as the ‘exilarch’, or
t
R.
elusium A R A B I A
his
head of the exiles, a hereditary position
recognized by the state.
PTUS The conversion of the Roman Emperor
Constantine to Christianity in 313 ce was
N il
. inauspicious for Jews. Although Judaism

eR
RED
was never actually proscribed, life for Jews

SEA
became increasingly difficult.
THE JEWISH DIASPORA 67

In the 7th and 8th centuries ce Islam arose
Judaism and the Rise of Islam and spread with extraordinary rapidity.
Muslim Arabs conquered Syria and
Palestine in 634, defeated Persia in 637,
THE JEWS AND ISLAM c. 750 ce
FRANKISH Metz
.
eR
Paris EMPIRE
Rhin
and took Egypt soon after. In 711 they
invaded Spain and set up a Muslim state. A T L A N T IC
OCEAN
Within a single century, many Jews had
Rhône R.
come under Muslim rule.
BY
Z
T
I
For most Jews, living conditions improved. A
Rome L
They also shared in the intellectual ferment of Y
the Arab world. Arabs translated and studied Toledo SARDINIA
the learning of Greece, Persia, China, and
SICILY
India. Drawing on these resources, Muslim
and Jewish scholars made great advances Cadiz Kairouan
in mathematics, astronomy, philosophy,
chemistry, medicine, and philology. One of Tlemcen M E D I T E R
Fez
the greatest Jewish philosophers, Sa’adiah MAGHREB Tripoli Barca
ben Yosef Gaon (882–942), grappled with the
problem of faith and knowledge, discussing
proofs of God’s existence.
Babylon
In Babylon the authority and importance A F R I C A
of the Gaons – heads of the Babylonian
Jewish academies – grew immensely
after 600 ce. The Gaons ensured that the
Miles
Babylonian Talmud – religious documents 0 100 200 300 400 500
compiled in the Babylonian academies 0 100 300 600

Kilometers
between the 3rd and 5th centuries ce –
became more widely accepted.
Islamic conquests by 750 CE
In the 9th century a gaonate was Main areas of Jewish settlement
established in Palestine, and was recognized City in Islamic area with large Jewish community
as authoritative by Jews in Spain, Egypt, Other city
and Italy. Under the Gaons collections Khorasan road: main trade route between
Baghdad and Samarkand, and overland route
of Talmudic laws were made, synagogue to China
poetry written, prayer books drawn up, and
the text of the Bible fixed and annotated.
Most influential were the Responsa Variants from rabbinic Judaism arose.
(Hebrew, She’elot ve-Teshuvot – questions In 8th century ce Babylon, Anan ben David
and answers), questions on matters of (c. 715–c. 795) and the Karaite movement he
religious practice sent to the Gaons, possibly founded rejected the Talmud and
debated in the academies, and answered in all forms of oral law, such as the Mishnah,
their name. taking a stand on the Bible only. It seemed the

map 22
A R AL
BY
S EA
.
ZA
D anube R B L AC K S EA
NT
L E C AS P IA N
IN
Y Constantinople SEA
EM Khiva
PI Bukhara
RE Tabriz Samarkand
CILY Merv
xu
O
s R.
Haran Kazvin
Tus Balkh
Mosul Rayy
Antioch
Ti g r i s
Aleppo Nishapur Maimana

Hamadan
E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A Damascus Herat
R.
Nihawend
Eu
Tyre hr Ghazni
ate Baghdad
p
ipoli Barca s R.
Jerusalem
.
Indus R
Pumbedita Ahwas
Damietta Ramleh Kufa
Fustat Basra
Shiraz Kerman
EGYPT
PE
RS
Messene
IA
N Kis
Taima
Nil
GU
eR
LF
A
.
Khaibar Daybul
Aswan Medina
Muscat
R ED
S EA
Mecca ARABIA
I N D IA N
Zebid
OCEAN
Mocha
Karaites might divide the Jewish world, but

the movement rapidly dwindled into a sect,
which survives today in small numbers.
JUDAISM AND THE RISE OF ISLAM 69

From the 10th century onwards, anti-
Anti-Semitism and Messianism Jewish sentiment and violence became

increasingly frequent and bitter in
Christian Europe. Lies about the Jews

circulated, and the Jews were expelled

from England in 1290, from France in
1306, and from Spain in 1492.
N ORTH
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the SEA
Muslim Ottoman Empire was in the
ascendant, expanding into Europe until
halted at Vienna in 1683. Most Jews now
lived either in Christian Poland–Lithuania or ENGLAND A
NETHE
under the Ottoman Empire, where conditions RLA
London
were generally less difficult, but where they Colog
were still subject to arbitrary acts by rulers. In Se
ine
Christian Italy, severe penalties were imposed R.
on the Jews in this period. Paris
From the early 17th century, Jews began ATLANTIC
to move from Poland and the Ottoman OCEAN FRANCE
Empire into the cities of the West, where
there was growing recognition of the value of
Rhône R.
Jewish commercial activity.
The Protestant Reformers on the whole Toulouse
favoured Jews, but Martin Luther moved
Eb
from tolerance to anti-Jewish abuse. The rite ro
R. Barcelona
of non-Sephardic Jews in Europe, especially
S PA I N
PORTUGAL
Germany – known as ‘Ashkenazi’ – dates to
the 16th century, and has its own German- Toledo
M
Jewish dialect, Yiddish.
Anti-Jewish riots continued, but the
authorities now more often protected the Jews,
regarded as useful for their money-lending
and trading. In Ukraine and Poland many Jews
were killed in massacres in 1648 and 1649.
In the late 17th century a number of
Jewish messianic movements arose. The most
Western Ashenazi Jews
important centred on Shabbetai Zevi (1628–
Eastern Ashkenazi Jews
1716). The Jewish community regarded his Sephardic Jews
followers with suspicion and the episode Italian Jews (=Roman)
resulted in disillusion with messianism. Major Jewish migration
Yeshivah (Rabbinic school) Miles
Jews had been expelled from England Karaite centre
0 1
in 1290, but began to return in 1656 during Kabbalist or Sabbataean centre 0 100
Kilome
Cromwell’s protectorate.

JUDAISM IN 16th AND 17th CENTURY EUROPE map 23
RTH
B A LT I C Birzai
EA SEA Vilna
Königsberg
Hamburg PRUSSIA Grodno Trakal Minsk
P O L A N D Sluck R U S S I A
Poznan
ND Amsterdam Berlin Brest-Litovsk
Pinsk
NETHE
RLANDS
Warsaw
Dresden Lublin
Cologne Breslau Ludmir
Frankfurt Kiev
Rh
eR Prague Lvov Ostrog

in
Se . Luck Dn Don R.
ine Krakov iep
R. Dan Nickelsburg Derazne er R.
u
Paris Augsburg be R .
Strasburg Halicz
Munich Vienna
Budapest
ANCE AUSTRIA HUNGARY
Padua
Pavia Venice
Rhône R.
Cremona Mantua Bucharest

Belgrade
use Livorno B LACK S EA
IT Ulcini
Sofia
A O
Rome L T Edirne
rcelona Y T Constantinople
Salonica O
Naples M
A
N
M E M
E D P I R
I Smyrna (Izmir) E
T
E
R
R
A Euphr
N a
tes
E
A
R.
N
S E A Safed
Jerusalem
A F R I C A Cairo
E G Y P T
Miles
0 100 200 300 400 500
N il
0 100 .
RED
eR
300 500 700

Kilometers SEA
ANTI-SEMITISM AND MESSIANISM 71

The writings of Moses Mendelssohn (1729–86), a German Jewish philosopher, led
Jewish Emancipation to the development of a Jewish Enlightenment, the Haskalah, that attempted to
introduce the Jewish community to contemporary European thought and culture.
In 1781 the Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph equal rights were not granted until 1890.
II, issued an Edict of Toleration. In 1789 Emancipation was achieved in the Austro-
the revolutionary National Assembly of Hungarian Empire in 1867. But in Eastern
France declared that no religious opinion Europe Jewish life continued much as it had
should be persecuted. In 1806 the Emperor during previous centuries. In Russia it took
Napoleon even summoned an Assembly of the 1917 Revolution and World War I for the
Jewish Notables. Jews to attain full citizenship.
These progressive tendencies were largely Emancipation also aided the assimilation
suppressed after the Napoleonic wars, but of Jews – and sometimes their cultural
the rights of Jews continued to be asserted. disappearance, when they merged through
By 1871 all restrictions had been removed in marriage into the surrounding society.
Germany, and Jews were declared full citizens Counter-intuitively, with increased
of the newly unified Reich. The Scandinavian tolerance came anti-Semitism, based on
countries had only small Jewish populations, pseudo-scientific ideas of racial stereotypes. AT
but full emancipation was accomplished From the 1880s, anti-Semitic movements O
in 1848 in Denmark, 1851 in Norway, and were promoted in Germany and France
1865 in Sweden. by such as Wilhelm Marr (1819–1904), Mile
0
The Netherlands was traditionally tolerant who insisted on the racial distinction of 0
Kilo
and Jewish rights had been established there Germans and Jews, and invented the term
early. Great Britain also had a longer history ‘anti-Semitism’.
of tolerance; throughout the 19th century
the Jewish community enjoyed commercial Interior of the Old Portuguese Synagogue, Amsterdam, known
prosperity and civil respect. Yet full as the Esnoga or Snoge, opened in 1675. PO
Lisb

JEWISH EMANCIPATION 1789–1918 map 24
FRANCE State NORWAY 1851 St Petersburg

Stockholm
1791 Date of emancipation 600
104,000 Jewish population late C19
Jewish enlightenment centre
Jewish ghetto SWEDEN 1865
3,900
DENMARK 1848 B A LT I C
3,500
N ORTH Copenhagen SEA Mos
SEA Königsberg Vilna
NETHERLANDS
1796 E lb
104,000 e R. PRUSSIA 1850 RUSSIA 1917
GREAT BRITAIN 5,111,000
1890 Vist
Amsterdam ula R Warsaw
200,000 .
GERMANY 1871 Breslau
London Zamost’ye
587,000
Rh
BELGIUM 1830
15,000
ine
Zhitomir
R.
Frankfurt
Se Prague
ine Tarnopol
R. Mainz Prossnitz
Paris
ATLANTIC Vienna
Da
OCEAN Loir
e R. nub
e R. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 1867
1,951,000
SWITZERLAND 1874 Odessa
FRANCE 1791 13,000
Miles
0 100 200 300
104,000 ROMANIA
Venice 1918
Milan 266,700
R h ô n e R.
0 200 400
Kilometers Bordeaux
Bucharest
SERBIA 1878
ITALY 5,700 B LACK
1848-70
Marseilles 43,000 BULGARIA 1878 SEA
Eb
O 31,200
ro Rome T
R. T Constantinople
PORTUGAL SPAIN 1968 O
1910 Naples M
500 Madrid A
N
Tagus R. E
Lisbon GREECE M
P I
R E
M E D I T E R R SICILY
A
N
E
A N
Tangier S E A
J E W I S H E M A N C I PAT I O N 73

At the start of the 19th century many East
Judaism in the USA European Jews in rural areas lived in a

close-knit community known as a shtetl,
a stockaded, traditional culture shut off
THE ORIGINS OF JUDAISM IN THE USA
from the secular world. However, as large

numbers began to emigrate to the United
States, initially attracted by business and
Seattle
social opportunities, Orthodox leaders WASHINGTON
such as Rabbi Samson Hirsch (1808–88) MONTANA
encouraged them to involve themselves in

the culture of the Western world. Portland
Albany
IDAHO
Reform Judaism originated in Germany, OREGON
where the 18th century Enlightenment WYOMING
stressed reason and progress. Abraham

Geiger (1810–74) and others declared that
modern Jews could no longer accept the
Torah as revealed truth, and encouraged Denve
changes in ritual law and worship. Dietary NEVADA UTAH
COLORAD
R.
laws were abandoned, prayers were translated
do
ora
from Hebrew into the vernacular, and San Francisco
Col
synagogue worship was changed. Some Jews
CALIFORNIA
even began to worship on Sunday rather than
Shabbat (Saturday, the traditional Jewish
Sabbath). More than 660,000
Jews in 2015
ARIZONA NEW
MEXICO
In the USA, the Reform movement Los Angeles
Phoenix
was led by Isaac Wise (1819–1900), who in San Diego
1875 set up the Hebrew Union College in
Cincinnati, Ohio, the main seminary for
training Reform rabbis. P ACIFIC
OCEAN
Miles
0 100 200
0 100 200 300

Kilometers

map 25
State with more than 10% Jews in 1990

Jewish community, with date established
Cities with over 40,000 Jewish population in 2015
NORTH DAKOTA L. Superior
A MINNESOTA
Mi
ssi WISCONSIN MAINE
s
SOUTH DAKOTA Minneapolis- L. Huron
sip
St Paul MICHIGAN
pi
VT
L. Michigan
R.
L. Ontario NH
NEW YORK
OMING
2015 more than
Detroit 2 million Jews MS Boston 1852
Miss
L. Erie
NEBRASKA IOWA Chicago 1837 PENNSYLVANIA CT RI (Jews from Surinam and Curacao)
Newport 1680
ouri R.

(’Skokie Yeshiva’) founded 1922 Cleveland Newark New York Russian, Polish,
1839 Pittsburgh 1852 1654 Ukranian, Lithuanian
ILLINOIS immigrants 1880-1924
Denver OHIO
INDIANA Philadelphia 1747
Cincinnati 1824 NJ Romanian immigrants
MD
Hebrew Union College Baltimore 1842 1900-14
COLORADO KANSAS set up 1875: centre of DE Polish,
Reform Judaism Central European Hassidic
MISSOURI
Louisville VIRGINIA
KENTUCKY
1832 VIRGINIA
German and
Austro-Hungarian
Ark immigrants 1820-60
an NORTH
sa ARKANSAS CAROLINA
OKLAHOMA s R TENNESSEE
.
pi R
. US emigrants
to Israel
issip
NEW
MEXICO Atlanta SOUTH
Miss
CAROLINA
Dallas-Fort Worth MISSISSIPPI ALABAMA
GEORGIA Charleston 1750
(Spanish and Portuguese Jews)
TEXAS Savannah 1733

ATLANTIC
LOUISIANA
Houston New Orleans FLORIDA

OCEAN
1802
South African,
South American,
Israeli immigrants
1960-80
Fort Lauderdale
GULF OF M EXICO Miami
JUDAISM IN THE USA 75

In 1933, Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), leader
The Holocaust of the NSDAP – Nationalsozialistische

Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the Nazi Party –
was appointed German Chancellor
JUDAISM AND THE THIRD REICH
Germany in 1937
amid the economic disaster of the ‘Greater Germany’ in 1942
Territory occupied by Germany
Great Depression. Once in power, the
Axis power or occupied by Axis power
Nazi Party suspended the constitution, Jewish Ghetto
eliminated other political parties, Concentration camp or slave-labour camp
outlawed strikes, and staged book- Extermination camp
Site of mass murder
burnings. In 1934 the role of Hitler’s European borders in 1937
elite security force, the SS, was expanded
under Heinrich Himmler (1900–45), NORTH
taking over many police functions as well SEA
as running the concentration camps.
Jewish academics and professionals lost their NETHERLA

115,00
jobs, Jewish shops were boycotted, and Jews IRELAND
106,00
30,000
were prevented from participating in civic 5,000 UNITED KINGDOM
4,500 340,000
life. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws deprived 350,000
W
BELGIUM Amsterd
Jews of their citizenship and criminalized 44,000
London 24,000 Herzoge
sexual relationships between Jews and non- 30,000
Jews. In 1938 Jewish communal bodies were Mechele
Alderney LUX.
put under the control of the Gestapo secret Sei 3,000
ne Drancy 700
police. On 9 November 1938, ‘Kristallnacht’, R.
500
Paris
the Nazis organized an onslaught against
the Jewish population, killing, looting, and ATLANTIC
setting fire to homes, schools, shops, and OCEAN FRANCE
270,000
250 synagogues. 83,000
180,000
When the Nazis invaded Poland in 1939,
R h ôn e R.
at the start of World War II, Germans forced
Jews to hand over jewellery, clear rubble,
Gurs Les
carry heavy loads, and scrub floors and Noë
lavatories with their prayer shawls. After the Eb
ro
German invasion of Russia in 1941, the Nazis R.
began carrying out what they euphemistically

Madrid
termed ‘the final solution to the Jewish PORTUGAL
3,000
problem’: the extermination of European 4,000 SPAIN
5,000
Jews. Following Hitler’s orders, mobile task 3,500
forces called Einsatzgruppen – killing squads
under the command of Reinhard Heydrich
(1904–42) – began systematically to murder Miles
the Jews of Russia and Eastern Europe. Of 0 100 200 300
4,500,000 Jews who lived in Soviet territory, 0 100 200 400

Kilometers
more than half fled before the invasion;

map 26
GERMANY Country
FINLAND 365,000 Jews pre-war
2,000 125,000 Approx number of Jews killed
1,800 85,000 Numbers of Jews post war
NORWAY
2,000 SWEDEN
870 10,000
1,000 22,000 Klooga ESTONIA Vaivara
5,000
1,000
500
LATVIA
94,000 R U S S I A
TH 80,000 Riga
12,000
A DENMARK Kaiserwald
7,000 B A LT I C LITHUANIA
120 160,000
5,500 SEA 135,000 Kaunas
Moscow
20,000
Vilna
NETHERLANDS
115,000 Stutthof Ponary
106,000 Neuengamme POLAND Minsk
30,000 Ravensbrück 3,275,000
Bergen-Belsen 4,565,000 Bialystok Trostenets
Sachsenhausen
(with Lithuania) Treblinka
Westerbork Berlin 120,000 Warsaw
Niederhagen
BELGIUM Amsterdam Bernburg
Chelm
Lodz
44,000 Mittelbau Gross Rosen Sobibor
24,000 Herzogenbusch Dora Lublin
Buchenwald Majdanek
30,000 GERMANY Czestochawa Krakow- Belzek
Rh
Mechelen 365,000 Theresienstadt Sosnoviec Plaszow Brody Kiev

ine
LUX. 125,000 Prague Auschwitz Lvov Babi-Yar

R.
3,000 85,000 Strysnow

Drancy Flossenberg Brno
700 Natzweiler- CZECHOSLOVAKIA
. 500 Mauthausen Nitra 360,000 – 277,000 Bar
aris Struthof
Dachau an 55,000 Balanowka
D
AUSTRIA ub e
Edineti Bogdanovka
180,000 – 70,000 R. Budapest
SWITZERLAND 16,000 HUNGARY Odessa
CE 20,000 440,000 – 300,000 ROMANIA
00 35,000 200,000 800,000
0 264,000
00 Jasenovac 300,000
R h ôn e R.
Gospic
ITALY Zemun
50,000 Sajmiste YUGOSLAVIA
7,500 AD 75,000
Les Milles 52,000 B LACK SEA
Sofia BULGARIA
RI 60,000
oë AT
IC 50,000
10,500
SE 46,500
A
Rome
GREECE
75,000
65,000 TURKEY
10,500 75,000
M E 80,000
D
I
T
E
R
R
A
N
E
A
N
S E A
T H E H O LO C AU S T 77

those who remained were concentrated in began to campaign to bring such a Jewish
restricted areas of large cities (‘ghetttos’). state into existence.
Einsatzgruppen rounded them up, took Earlier in the 19th century, Jewish
them to the woods, and machine-gunned pioneers had already started to return to
them to death. In early 1942, senior Nazis Palestine, living mostly in four holy cities:
met at Wannsee, on the outskirts of Berlin, Hebron, Jerusalem, Safed, and Tiberias. Some
to coordinate plans for the murder of up to such ‘Zionists’ ignored the problem that there
11 million Jews. Central to their strategy was was already an indigenous Palestinian Arab
the network of death camps at Chelmno, population; others believed Jews and Arabs
Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, Sobibor, could co-exist and develop the land together.
Majdanek, and Belzec. At Auschwitz, the The need for a state where Jews
largest of these camps, the first gassing had could escape persecution was drastically
taken place in September 1941. demonstrated by the Holocaust. As the
By September 1942, Germany had enormity of Nazi crimes was revealed, the
conquered most of Europe. But as the Zionist cause gained new momentum. Since
murder of Jews continued, resistance grew. 1920, Palestine had been governed by the
In the Warsaw ghetto, the Jewish Fighting British, under a League of Nations mandate.
Organization retaliated. However 7,000 Jews In May 1947, the United Nations decided
lost their lives in the fighting, and 30,000 that Palestine should now be partitioned
more were deported to Treblinka. The into a Jewish state and an Arab state. On
murders continued across Europe. In the 14 May 1948, the independence of the
summer of 1944 the last deportations took Jewish State of Israel was declared by the
place, when more than 67,000 were sent from United Nations. Palestinian refugees fled
the Lodz ghetto to Birkenau. Most victims their homes in Israeli-held territory, many
were sent to the gas chamber, but some were sheltering in refugee camps. The Israeli War
chosen for inhuman medical experiments. of Independence continued throughout 1948,
By the end of the war, more than 6 million and conflict re-occurred in 1954, in 1967,
Jews had lost their lives in the most terrible and 1973.
circumstances imaginable. Following the Six Day War (1967),
In the years since, the Jewish community between neighbouring Arab states and Israel,
has struggled with the religious perplexity Israel took possession of territories previously
of the Holocaust: where was God at Jewry’s allotted to Arab countries by the United
time of dire need? These terrible events Nations. Since that time, these ‘occupied
are commemorated today on Holocaust territories’ have roused Jewish-Arab tensions,
Memorial Days and in Holocaust memorials with Israel seeing them as vital to their
and museums throughout the world, such as national security, and the Arabs striving to
Yad va-Shem in Israel. regain political dominance.
Zionism
Theodore Herzl (1860–1904), an Austro-
Hungarian Jewish journalist, came to
believe the Jews needed a homeland of
their own as a refuge from the growing
anti-Semitism in 19th century Europe, and

THE MODERN STATE OF ISRAEL map 27
Territory allocated to Israel by U.N. 1947 Sidon Damascus

Territory gained by Israel in 1948 War
and 1949 Armistice (Jerusalem divided)
LEBANON
Territory occupied by Israel after Yom Kippur War Tyre
(June 1967) Kiryat Shmona
Territory occupied by Israel after Yom Kippur War
but returned to Egypt by April 1982 GOLAN S Y R I A
H E I G H TS
Territory occupied by Israel June 1982 to June 1985
Syrian territory occupied by Israel in 1987 SEA OF
GALILEE
Egyptian territory occupied by Israel [Gaza] in 1967 Haifa
R.
uk
rm
Miles Ya
0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A E L
Kilometers Jenin
Netanya
J ordan R.
Nablus
I S R Jabbok R.
A
WEST
S E
Tel Aviv
BANK
Ramallah Amman
N
A
Jerusalem
E
N
A
R
R
I T E Hebron D EAD
M E D Gaza City S EA
A rno n R.
A
AZ
Beersheba
El Arish
Dimona
J O R D A N
E G Y P T Mitzpeh
Ramon
International border
Disputed border
1949 armistice border - ‘Green Line’
U.N. designated International Zone, 1947
SINAI Eilat Security wall built by Israel to divide West Bank
Aqaba (showing built portions c. 2012)
GULF OF AQABA
T H E H O LO C AU S T 79

Part 5
Christianity

In 40 bce Herod the Great, who had been military prefect of Galilee and joint tetrarch
Palestine under the Herods of Judea, was made ‘king of the Jews’ by the Roman senate. Soon after, the Parthians
invaded Syria and Palestine and installed their own king. However, Herod gradually
reconquered his kingdom, and in 37 bce captured Jerusalem, executing Antigonus,
the last of the Maccabean priest-rulers. Thereby he secured the throne for himself
until his death in 4 bce, when the kingdom was divided among his three sons.
Although a Jew by religion, Herod was very governor or ‘procurator’ then ruled Judea until
unpopular. He strongly supported Roman 41 ce. Herod Antipas ruled Galilee and part of
policy, even erecting shrines to pagan Transjordan from 4 bce to 39 ce, while Herod
gods. As well as building several cities and Philip ruled the northern regions until 34 ce.
fortresses outside Jerusalem, Herod made The Decapolis was a confederation of
major additions to the city, such as the ten cities formed after the Roman general
Temple Mount, the Antonia Fortress, and Pompey’s campaign (65–62 bce). It gave
the Upper Palace. In 19 bce reconstruction protection to its Gentile citizens, who were
of the temple commenced, work that mainly Greek-speaking Roman soldiers,
continued almost until 70 ce, when the against both militant Jews and Arabian tribes.
temple was again and finally destroyed, this
time by the Romans.
Upon the death of Herod, Palestine
became a province ruled by his sons as
‘tetrarchs’, provincial rulers subject to Rome.
Archelaus, ‘Herod the Ethnarch’, ruled Judea
from 4 bce to 6 ce, when he was exiled by Remains of the aqueduct built under Herod the
the Romans for misgovernment. A Roman Great at Caesarea Maritima.

PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST map 28
Ab
Sidon aR
an
Herod the Great’s Kingdom (till 4 BCE) I T U R E A .
Tetrarchy of Herod Philip Damascus
A
Tetrarchy of Herod Antipas
I
Tetrarchy of Herod Archelaus 4 BCE–CE 6; Mt Hermon
C
then under direct Roman administration
S Y R I A
I
Free cities Tyre Litani R.
N
Paneas
(Caesarea Philippi)
E
Site linked with Jesus A
G
U
in New Testament LA
P H
Other settlements in Jesus’ time NI TRACHONITIS
Main area of
Jesus’ ministry TI
City/fortress/palace constructed S
by Herod the Great
Ptolemais L E EChorazin Julias
A
City/fortress/palace constructed I Capernaum
NE
by son of Herod the Great Bethsaida
TA
Road Genessaret SEA OF
GA
BA
Magdala GALILEE Gergesa
Sepphoris
Miles Mt Carmel Tiberias AURAN
0 10 20 30
Nazareth k R. ITI S
r mu
0 10 20 30 40 Mt Tabor Ya
Kilometers
Nain
D E
Caesarea C
S E A
Maritima Scythopolis A
Pella P
SAM Salim O
AR L
IA Aenon
I
Home of Jewish
A N
sect: Samaritans
S
J ordan R.
Samaria Gerasa
N E
Neapolis Sychar
Jabbok R.
R A
Antipatris Mt Gerizim
E R
Joppa
A
Phasaelis
E
I T
Lydda Philadelphia
E
Archelais
E D
?Emmaus Jericho
Jamnia
M
Jerusalem Bethphage
Site of Jesus’ last week, Julias Livias
Azotus crucifixion and resurrection
Qumran
Bethany Centre of
Bethlehem
Ashkelon J U Essene sect
D E
Anthedon A Herodium
Agrippias Machaerus
Hebron
Gaza DEAD
SEA Arnon R.
Gerar
I D U M E A Masada
Besor
Areopolis E A S T E R N
A D E S E R T
E
Br
ok T
A
o
B
N A
PA L E S T I N E U N D E R T H E H E R O D S 83

The Christian faith began in Palestine,
Judaism and the Early Church regarded by the Jews as their ‘promised
land’. Jesus, the apostles, and the earliest
converts to Christianity were all Jews.

Po R.
After his death, Jesus’ followers in
Jerusalem formed a community of
believers that soon spread, as their
message was carried by itinerant
preachers and missionaries. At first DA
DR LM
A
all believers were Jews, but they were IA AT
I TI
C IA
soon joined by Gentiles and were T SE
A A
called variously followers of ‘the Way’, Rome L
‘Christians’, and ‘Nazarenes’. I
Paul possibly A
travelled to Spain
In 62 ce the death of James, leader of the Puteoli

Jerusalem believers, led some to leave
the city, weakening its Jewish Christian
community. During the First Jewish-Roman
War (66–73 ce), Rome destroyed Herod’s
T YRRHENIAN
temple and sacked Jerusalem. The destruction SEA
of the temple ended the priesthood and
Rhegium
sacrifice system, and proved a lasting disaster M SICILIA
for Judaism. E Syracuse
The Christian community probably D
I
left Jerusalem just before the siege, taking T
refuge at Pella, beyond the Jordan, though E
some believers later returned. Christian R
R
communities founded by the apostles near the A
Mediterranean coast survived, as did those
at Capernaum and Rimmon in Galilee, and
Cochaba in Gaulanitis.
After the failure of the Jewish Bar Kokhba
Revolt (132–35 ce), the Sanhedrin council
moved to Jamnia in Galilee. Many Jews were
killed, expelled, or sold into slavery after the
rebellions against Rome. This, combined
with the conversion of pagans, Samaritans,
and Jews, gradually resulted in a Christian
Jewish diaspora C1 CE
majority in Palestine. By degrees, Christianity
Christian concentration C1 CE
separated from Judaism over several Paul’s 3rd missionary journey
generations and Christian missionaries Paul’s journey to Rome
directed themselves increasingly to Gentiles Borders of Roman Empire A F R I C A
in the Holy Land and abroad. Christian church/house-church C1 CE

JEWS AND CHRISTIANS IN THE 1st CENTURY ROMAN EMPIRE map 29
be R.
Danu
DA
LM B LACK S EA
AT
IA
A MOESIA
O N I
E D T H R A C E
A C
M Philippi IA
Thessalonica HYN
BIT PONTUS
Apollonia s R.
MYSIA Haly
Troas
Assos
Pergamum
A
Mitylene
TI
Thyatira Pisidian
AEGEAN
LA
Smyrna Philadelphia Antioch C A P PA D O C I A
SEA Ephesus G A
Corinth Athens Hierapolis Iconium
ium Zabdizene
I A Magnesia
Colossae Derbe
HA Aegina Miletus Tralles Lystra CILICIA
e P
Attalia A M P H Y Edessa
AC
Cos LIA Tarsus

Patara L Y C I A Perge
Myra Antioch
Seleucia Euphr
ate
s
R S YR IA
R.
R CRETA Salmone Salamis
A Lasea CYP RU S
N Paphos
E
A N Damascus
S E A Sidon
Tyre
Cyrene
Ptolemais
Caesarea Pella
Jaffa Samaria
Azotus Jerusalem
Alexandria
L I B YA
AEGYPTUS
.
Nile R
Miles
R I C A 0 100 200
0 100 200 300

Kilometers
J U D A I S M A N D T H E E A R LY C H U R C H 85

Christianity rapidly spread beyond
The Early Growth of Christianity Palestine into the entire Mediterranean

area. Within 15 years of the resurrection,
a Christian presence was established in
THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY BY 325 ce
Rome itself. Imperial trade routes made N ORTH

possible the rapid traffic of ideas as well SEA
as merchandise.
York
In the eastern Mediterranean, three centres Lincoln
of the Christian church rapidly emerged.
B R I TA N N I A
The church became a significant presence
in its original heartlands, with Jerusalem London
Colonia
BELGICA
emerging as a leading centre of thought and GERMANIA
activity. Asia Minor, modern-day Turkey, Augusta
was already an important area of Christian Rotomagnus
Rheims
R.
(Rouen)
Rhine
expansion and the destination of several of
the apostle Paul’s letters. Expansion in this ATLANTIC G A L L I A
region continued, with the great imperial OCEAN
Lugdunum
city of Constantinople, modern Istanbul, Medi
Vienne (M
a particularly influential centre. Growth Bordeaux Valence
also took place to the south, with the city A I
NI NS
I TA Arelate A R B ONE
of Alexandria emerging as a stronghold of U N
A Q Narbonne
Christian faith. Marseilles
CO RS
With this expansion, new debates opened
up. While the New Testament deals with the
ANIA
Barcelona
H I S P A N I A Tarragona
relationship of Christianity and Judaism, S
LUSIT
the expansion of Christianity into Greek- Toledo

speaking regions led to debates about how M E D
Christianity related to Greek philosophy. Carthago
Nova Carth
Christian growth and expansion was not ICA
ET
BA Hippo
without problems. The ‘imperial cult’, which NUMIDIA
regarded worship of the Roman emperor
as demonstrating loyalty to the empire, N I A
R E T A
M A U
was strong in the eastern Mediterranean,
and many Christians were penalized for
worshipping only Christ. The spread of
Christianity regularly triggered local
persecutions: for example the suppression
under the Emperor Decius (249–51), which A F
was particularly vicious in North Africa.
Christianity was not officially recognized Miles
as a legitimate religion by the Roman state 0 100 200 300 400 500
until 313 ce, when Constantine, a recent 0 100 300 500 700
Kilometers
convert, was joint emperor.

map 30
Metropolitan See C2 CE
Site of church by C2 CE
Site of church by C4 CE
Christian presence by 45 CE
Elb Christian presence by 325 CE
e R.
Border of Roman Empire c. 300 CE
Colonia Agrippina
GERMANIA
Augusta Treverorum (Trier) Dn
iep Don R.
Regensburg (Regina Castra) er R
heims Dn .
R.
ies
ter
Rhine
Da R.
nub
RAETIA e R.
NORICUM
PA
NN DACIA
ON
num Mediolanum Aquileia IA (LOST 270)
nne (Milan) Mursa
nce Singidunum
IS Ravenna D
S A
NEN L Tomi
late
NARB
O Pisa Florence M
A MOESIA
B LACK
Salone T
I A SEA
I
arseilles
T
L
A
CO RS I CA Rome I Sinope
Adrianopolis
A MACEDONIA Y N I A
elona Philippi T H R A CIA Constantinople B I T H Trebizond
a Naples Thessalonica PONT
S A R D IN IA U S
GALA ARMENIA
Larisa MYSIA A S I A TIA
LY
Ancyra
CA
Carales Nicopolis NI
M Smyrna Sardes
O
E D A CONTESTED
I Athens CAPPADOCIA
T Corinth Ephesus Laodicea WITH
Carthage E SIC ILI A AC HA I A
Iconium PARTHIA
R CILICIA
Syracuse Sparta Perge Edessa
Hippo R LYCIA
A Nisibis ADIABENE
MIDIA N RHODES
Hadrumetum Patara Antioch
E Salamis ME
A CRETA SO
N CYPRUS Palmyra PO
West of line TA
Latin-speaking SYRIA Dura-Europos MI
S E A
East of line A
Greek-speaking
Seleucia-
Barca Ctesiphon
LIB Jerusalem
YA Alexandria
Tanis
A F R I C A Memphis
AEGYPTUS ARABIA
RED
N il
.
eR
SEA
T H E E A R LY G R O W T H O F C H R I S T I A N I T Y 87

Christianity had become the official
Christianity Becomes Official religion of the Empire by the end of

the 4th century. This new relationship
between Christian church and Christian

emperor led to turbulent church–state N ORTH JUT ES

relations in the later Roman Empire and SEA
throughout the Middle Ages. P I CTS
F RI S
A NG
SA X
The 4th and 5th centuries were marked by
H I B ER N I A
a series of controversies over the identity of
Jesus Christ and the doctrine of God. A series B R I TA N N I A TH
of councils strove to resolve these differences
and to ensure the unity of the Christian F R A NKS
church throughout the Roman Empire. Most
ANNI
important of these councils was Chalcedon Rheims ALEM
R.
in e
(451), which set out the definitive Christian 496: Clovis converts from
Arianism to orthodoxy
Rh
B R ETO N S
interpretation of the identity of Jesus Christ
as ‘true God and true man’. ATLANTIC
The fall of the Roman Empire, OCEAN
N G D O M
R hô ne R.
Medio
traditionally dated to 476, led to widespread (M
insecurity in the Western church. In the Arelate
East the church continued to flourish, as the (Arles)
K I
Eastern Empire, based at Constantinople, SUEVIC B ASQ U ES
was largely unaffected by the attacks from KINGDOM
I C
431
northern European invaders that eventually
H
ended Roman power in the West.
T
O
The disruptions within the Roman Empire
G
Toletum M
S E
I
during the 5th century led to a growing rift (Toledo) I D I
V T
between the Western and Eastern churches. E
V A N D
Increasing tension over political as much as A L
Car
Hippo Regius K
theological issues led eventually to the ‘Great Augustine d. 430 I N
G
Schism’ between East and West in 1054.
The removal of Rome as a stabilizing
influence gave a significant new role to the
church in the West, and particularly to its
monasteries. The founding of Benedict of
Nursia’s first monastery at Monte Cassino
around 525 marked the beginning of the
monastic movement which was to become
so influential in medieval Europe. The pope’s
role as an increasingly powerful political force Miles
also began to emerge during this period. 0 100 200 300 400 500
0 100 300 500 700

Kilometers

CHRISTIANITY IN THE 4th AND 5th CENTURIES map 31
Border of Roman Empire in 481

Territory under Arian ruler
J UTES
Area with Monophysite churches
Area of Catholic Christianity
FR ISIANS Nestorian church
ANGLE S
SAXO NS Patriarchal seat
Elb Church Council or synod
eR
. City with church
TH Tribal movements
S L AVS
U
RI
NG
IA
ANNI
ALEM
NS
R.
Lauriacum LOM B ARDS

in e
s from
doxy (Enns)
Rh
Da
nub
e R.
H U N S A L A NS
Mediolanum Aquileia
(Milan) GE P IDS
Arelate
CA
(Arles) O S T R O G OT H I C B LACK S EA
SP
IA
K I N G D O M Sardica 451: 4th Ecumenical Council:
N
against Monophysites
SEA
Rome 381: 2nd Ecumenical Council
431: Alaric sacks city
Constantinople
Chalcedon
Nicaea Sebaste A RM E N I A N
325: 1st Ecumenical Council: Valarshapat
against Arians C HUR C H 491: Monophysite synod
E D Manzikert
I Ephesus
T 431: 3rd Ecumenical Council:
E against Nestorians JACO B I T E
R
A L R Perge Tarsus C HUR C H Edessa
Carthage A
egius K N Nisibis
I N Euph
e d. 430 E Antioch r P E R S I A N
G A
Tigris
at
D N E M P I R E
es
O
R.
M S
R.
E A Damascus
Seleucia
C Alexandria Jerusalem
O P
T IC
CHU
RC
H
Oxyrhyncus
A R A B S
N il e R.
Ptolemais RED
SEA
Ethiopian Church moves towards Monophysites
C H R I S T I A N I T Y B E CO M E S O F F I C I A L 89

WORLD RELIGIONS 600 bce–600 ce: AN OVERVIEW

York
BR ITA IN
ie p
. Vo
C A R PAT H lg
A TL ANTIC Marmoutier 372 R O M A N E M P I R E
IAN
MT
aR
S
.
O CEAN GAUL Vercelli 360 Modena D
Alba Iulia
Bologna an CAU
ube CA
R. B L AC K S E A SU
ITALY Serdica S
C AS
Massilia Rome M
T
(Marseilles) THRACE Constantinople
PIAN
SPAIN ARMENIA
S
415 Monte Nola 394 Chalcedon 400
Casino 529
S EA
Nicaea Caesarea 360 Mara
M E D I T Athens Gushnasp
E
Carthage R R Merv
A N Ephesus Bact
E A Antioch M E S Nisibis 325
OPO Rhagae
Thagaste 388 N TA M
S E A Salamis 335 IA
Cyrene Sidon Dura- Hamadan
Leptis Magna Europos Ctesiphon
Alexandria Jerusalem P ER S I A
Wadi Natrun 320 Bethlehem 386
Scetis 330
EGYPT Nil M
S a h a ra eR
R ED
.
D e s e r t
SEA
A R A B I A
Mainly Hindu 500 BCE–600 CE
Significantly Hindu 500 BCE–600 CE Eleph
Jewish centre 500 BCE ALWA
A R A BI A N
Jewish settlement by 600 CE AXUM SEA
Mainly Christian by 600 CE ETHIOPIA
Sassanians introduced Zoroastrianism after 226 CE
Mahayana Buddhist formative area 0–300 CE
Mainly Buddhist by 600 CE
Shinto area
Christian Patriarchal see in 600 CE
Hindu holy site in 600 CE
Zoroastrian fire temple Miles
0 200 400 600
Buddhist sacred site 300 BCE–600 CE
Kilometers

map 32
SH
AN Gobi Desert
EN
Qian
TI Yellow R
.
Tun-huang Jiuquan Yungang
Marakanda
Wu-tai Shan Kunlun Kaesong
Merv Khotan
Bactra Wangwu Kyongju JAPAN
LUN MOUNTAINS
KUN Kyoto
Chang’an Hua Gongxian LaoY E L LOW
Tibetan Nara
H
Taxila Song Yamato

Plateau Zhongnan SEA
I
Longmen
.
Indus R
Wu Tang Shan
L TIBET Huo
A
Pingdu Mao
A Lhasa R. Putuo Shan
Y t z e Lu Tiantai Shan
A Brahmaputra R.
Ga Lumbini
S
O-mei Shan
Ya n g CHINA
Mohenjo-Daro Kusinara Heng Xi Kuocang
ng
Pataliputra
es
R.
Sarnath Deoghar
Bodh Gaya Lingjiu Luofou
Sanchi
I N D I A Nanhai
Pagan
Ellora
Elephanta Karli Prome
PYU
R A BI A N Aihole Pegu P ACIFIC
Amaravati Rangoon Sukhothai
SEA B AY
OF Angkor CHAMPA OCEAN
BENGAL
FUNAN SOUTH CHINA
Funan SEA
Anuradhapura
Polonnaruwa
Kandy
SRI LANKA
INDIAN OCEAN BORNEO

SUM
AT R
A
Srivijaya
J AVA S E A
JAVA
Borobudur
C H R I S T I A N I T Y B E CO M E S O F F I C I A L 91

After Charlemagne (c. 742–814), the
Christendom in 1050 ce first Holy Roman Emperor, who had

controlled much of Western Europe, the
Western Empire gradually disintegrated into
THE CHURCH IN 1050
Roman Catholic
warring principalities. Orthodox Greek Rite
Orthodox Slavonic Rite
Between 970 and 1048, 48 famine years reduced Orthodox Georgian Rite
Patriarchate of Antioch
many in the West to subsistence. Trade declined,
Nestorian Christianity
communications collapsed, and travel became Monophysite Christianity
perilous. The church was the only institution Muslim rule
whose influence extended beyond local rulers,
Miles
and its leaders and monastic communities 0 100 200 300 N ORT H
strove to maintain a civilized way of life. S EA
0 200 400 Iona
Kilometers
Conflict increased between rulers and Lindisfarne
popes, particularly when a reforming pope Whithorn
Armagh
such as Leo IX (r. 1049–54) attempted to re- York
Kells
establish respect for his office and defend the Clonard
Bangor Brem
church’s conduct of its own affairs.
Patriarch Michael Cerularius (r. 1043–58) Canterbury Cologn
was spiritual head of an Eastern kingdom Glastonbury
Corbie
Rh
riven by intrigue and squeezed between the R. M
in
Rouen
e
empire of the Bulgars and the expanding Paris Rheims Trier L
Islamic empire of the Turks. After 1025, A T L A N T IC Luxeuil
OCEAN Fleury
Orthodox Christianity suffered serious Noirmoutier
Tours Basel
military setbacks in Asia Minor. Bourges
In 1054 a dispute over authority brought Lyons
Bordeaux Vienne B
differences between East and West to a head.
Moissac Arles
The papacy claimed direct succession from
Lugo Auch
Peter – and thus supreme church authority – Lérins
León Narbonne
claiming support from a document known as Eb
ro
R .
the ‘Donation of Constantine’ (later revealed
as a fake). Pope Leo IX excommunicated
Patriarch Michael Cerularius; in response, the Toledo
patriarch anathematized the pope, leading to Lisbon
M E D
what is known as the ‘Great Schism’ between Seville
East and West. Carth
Around 866 the first Christian bishop was
sent to Kiev from Constantinople by Patriarch
Photius I. Soon a Christian community arose
among the Kievan nobility. In 988 Prince
Vladimir I of Kiev (980–1015) instigated
the mass baptism of his people, marking the
founding of the Russian Orthodox Church.

map 33
Roman Catholic expansion

Eastern Orthodox expansion
Byzantine Empire
Church of Antioch
Church of Antioch expansion
Patriarchal Seat
Archbishopric (selected)
Major monastery (selected)
B ALTI C Novgorod
S EA
E
Bremen lbe R.
Magdeburg Gniezno
Cologne Corvey
Fulda
Rh
Mainz
in
R. Prague Dn
e
ie s
Rheims Trier Lorsch Da
nub ter R
. Dn
iep
e R. er R
Luxeuil Gran .
Reichenau Salzburg
Vo
Basel
l
St Gall
ga
Kalocsa
R.
ons
nne Bobbio
CA
Arles Split
SP
Ravenna
IAN
Lérins
Capua B LACK S EA
Preslav
Rome Benevento
SEA
Acerenza Constantinople
Monte Cassino Dyrrachium
Naples Bari Thessalonica
Brindisi Studion Neocaesarea
Amalfi
Salerno Otranto Sebastea Etchmiadzin
Cagliari Sta. Severina (Valarshapat)
Vivarium
M E D I Iconium Edessa
T
E Reggio Tarsus
R
Carthage R Hierapolis Arbela
A Antioch
N Salamis
E
Eup
A ra
h
N te s R.
S E A
Damascus Seleucia
Alexandria
Jerusalem
N il e R .
CHRISTENDOM IN 1050 CE 93

Between 1000 and 1500 in Western
The European Reformations Europe there was a renewal of church

life at every level. The pope’s authority to
intervene in political disputes reached
REFORMATION EUROPE c. 1570
unprecedented levels. A form of theology

ICEL AND
known as ‘scholasticism’ developed, with
13th century writers such as Thomas
Not to same scale as main map N ORTH
Aquinas and Duns Scotus achieving great
SEA
theological sophistication. SCOTL AND
Miles
0 100 200
The 16th century gave rise to a major 0 100 200 300 Edinburgh
Kilometers
upheaval within Western Christianity –
the Reformation – that had origins in the
Renaissance, with its demand for a return York
to the original sources of Christianity in IREL AND
the New Testament. Alarmed at what they Dublin ENGL AND
1555–6:
perceived to be the gap between apostolic and Protestant
bishops burnt
medieval visions of Christianity, individuals WAL E S Oxford
such as Martin Luther (1483–1546) and London
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) pressed for Brussels
reform. For Luther, how people enter into a
right relationship with God – the ‘doctrine of Rouen
1572–88:
St Bartholomew Paris
justification’ – needed radical revision in the Massacre of Huguenots Rheims
light of scripture. in
Se
e R.
Although the need for reform was widely Nantes Tours Loire
conceded within the church, such reforms ATLANTIC FR
R.
C
Marmoutier
proved hugely controversial. Luther and OCEAN F R A N C E
Zwingli found themselves creating reforming Ge
Lyon
communities outside the mainline church
R hône R.
Bordeaux
instead of reforming it from within, as they
had hoped. By the time of John Calvin Avig
(1509–64) and his reformation of Geneva, B ÉAR N Toulouse
Ma
Protestantism had emerged as a distinct type E
RR
VA
NA
of Christianity, posing a potent threat to the A R AGO N
Barcelona
Catholic Church. Zaragoza
Oporto
S P A I N
PORTUGAL
In the late 1540s, the Catholic Church

itself began a major process of reformation Tagus R.
and renewal, referred to as the Catholic
Reformation – previously the ‘Counter- Lisbon
Reformation’. Religious orders were reformed, C A S T I L E
M E D
and many of the beliefs and practices Seville
reformers had objected to were eliminated.
Yet significant differences remained between
Protestantism and Catholicism.

map 34
Christiania Helsinki Roman Catholic

Stockholm Orthodox
NORWAY
Lutheran
Calvinist/Reformed/Huguenot
H L I VO N I A
Anglican
SWEDEN Pskov Muslim
Riga Anabaptist
CO U R L A N D Hussite/Bohemian Brethren
B A LT I C Waldensian
DENMARK Copenhagen SEA Socinian
Königsberg
Vilna
PRUSSIA
Emden Minsk
Hamburg
R U S S I A
Elb
Berlin e R. L I T H UA N I A
Hanover
Münster Warsaw
1534:
Wittenberg O
de
Rh
Anabaptist rR
Leipzig .
ine R
uprising Dresden
SILESIA P O L A N D
Cologne SAXONY
.
Brussels
Frankfurt Prague Krakow
n PA L ATI N ATE BOHEMIA Lvov
MORAVIA
Dn
Paris Rheims Nuremberg iep
WÜ RT TEMBER G Da
nu b
HUNGARY Dni
er R.
in e R. est
Se
e R. Vienna er
R.
Loire Salzburg AUSTRIA
Buda
FRANCHE- MOLDAVIA
R.
COMTÉ SWISS Graz

CONFEDERATION TRANSYLVANIA
C E
Geneva Brescia VENETIAN Trieste Pécs
MILAN REPUBLIC
Lyon SAVOY
Milan
R hône R.
Turin Venice WALLACHIA

GENOA Belgrade
Ravenna Bucharest
Genoa
Avignon Florence Danube R
.
oulouse
Marseilles
TUSCANY Camerino
1528: Capuchin
Mostar B LACK S EA
PAPAL order founded O Sofia
STATES T
T
O
celona Rome NAPLES M
1540: Jesuit A
order approved
Naples Salonica N
E M
P I
Cagliari R E
D I T Palermo Athens
M E E Holy Roman Empire boundary
R S IC ILY
R 1566: Iconoclastic rioting
A
N 1572: Rioting after St Bartholomew Massacre
E A Catholic reform institution
N S E A
T H E E U R O P E A N R E F O R M AT I O N S 95

South America By the mid-18th century, Virginia
Christianity in the Americas c. 1750 In this period Spain remained a major

colonial power, whereas Portugal’s grip
on its colonies was weak. A ‘patronage
boasted around 100 Anglican churches.
Georgia, not founded till 1733, quickly
established the Anglican Church. At the time
system’ continued, giving the monarchs of the American Revolution, Anglicanism
of Spain and Portugal responsibility for dominated the South, especially the areas of
Christianizing the indigenous population, earliest settlement.
establishing dioceses, and appointing In the colonies of Massachusetts and
clergy in their colonies. Connecticut the Congregational Church
The major religious orders mobilized enjoyed legal favour. The Great Awakening
thousands of priests, leading to the almost of the 1740s intensified enthusiasm and led
total – but superficial – Christianization some to separate from the official church.
of Latin America. A minority opposed the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
political and economic oppression suffered by allowed religious variety and diversity, as
native populations. practised by the Baptists and Quakers, while
Between 1650 and 1720, in vast Pennsylvania was a haven for persecuted
uncolonized areas of Paraguay, Jesuit priests Quakers and other religious dissenters.
gathered Indians into villages called reductions The Dutch Reformed religion thrived
in an experiment to Christianize them. in New York and New Jersey, joining in
the Great Awakening of the 1740s, like the
North America Scottish and Irish Presbyterians of the Middle
Early 17th century immigrants from Colonies, who had begun to settle in this
Britain were soon joined by Lutherans from region early in the 18th century.
Scandinavia, Anabaptists from Germany,
Calvinists from Holland, and Catholics from The chapel of Nuestra Señora de la Evangelización, Lima
Ireland and Italy. Cathedral, Peru.

CHRISTIANITY IN THE AMERICAS c. 1750 map 35
RUPERT’S LAND
NEWFOUNDLAND
E
A NC
FR
W NOVA SCOTIA
Detroit NE
Boston
LOUISIA N A
. New York
oR St Louis ory
ad rit
Philadelphia
lor Baltimore
Monterey
r
Santa Fe
Te
Co
i R.
ian
Mississipp
Ind
R i o G ra n
San Diego San Charleston
Antonio
de St Augustine
New
ATLANTIC
F LO R
N E W SPA IN
Orleans
IDA
BAHAMAS
Durango
Havana OCEAN
Mexico CUBA
City HISPANIOLA
San Juan
M E X I CO Santa PUERTO
Domingo RICO
Guatemala
Caracas
CARACAS
NAMI
NNE
SUR
Bogotá
CAYE
NE W
G R ANADA
R.
Quito azon
Am
P ACIFIC
OCEAN
BRAZIL
Lima
Cuzco San Salvador
La Paz
Charcas
.
áR
PERU Rio de Janeiro

Paran
British possession Asunción

Sao Paulo
French possession RIO DE
L A PL ATA
Spanish possession
13 British colonies
Portuguese possession Santiago
Dutch possession Buenos Aires
Indian territory
A
ONI
Jesuit mission
PATAG
Franciscan mission
Dominican mission
Capuchin mission Miles
0 500 1000
Protestant churches
Roman Catholic Archbishopric 0 500 1000 1500
Kilometers
CHRISTIANIT Y IN THE AMERICAS C. 1750 97

Beginning in the 18th century, European and American Protestant churches started to
An Age of Missions send men, and later women, in increasing numbers, to take the Christian message to
unreached peoples.
Anglicanism spread outside the British Isles by Africa

emigration and missionary effort. The Society Islam predominated in North Africa, with
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign the exception of Coptic Christians in Egypt
Parts (1701) and the Society for the Promotion and the Ethiopian Church. The first modern
of Christian Knowledge (SPCK, 1698) were missionary activity to achieve success was in
both set up to take Anglican Christianity the 1830s and 1840s, especially in West Africa.
to the British colonies. In North America, The first missions to southern Africa
missionaries to the Native Americans included were launched in this period from the Cape
Jonathan Edwards (1703–58), the preacher of of Good Hope, where Europeans had long
the Great Awakening. settled. Dr David Livingstone (1813–73),
The pioneering Englishman William Scottish explorer and missionary, pioneered
Carey (1761–1834) set up the Baptist trails that others followed.
Missionary Society in 1792. In the Danish Roman Catholic missions were also active
trading centre of Serampore, near Calcutta, in this period, especially the Holy Ghost
he printed parts of the Bible in several Fathers (1848) and White Fathers (1868).
languages. By 1855, missionaries from Protestant–Catholic rivalry over mission
the Anglican Church Missionary Society areas intensified, mirroring the political
had reached Peshawar. Large numbers of rivalries of the European powers’ ‘scramble’
Protestant missionaries from Europe and for African colonies after 1880.
North America landed in south India, where
they encountered – and sometimes clashed Missions to China and South-East Asia
with – the Catholic Church founded by The first missionary to China in this
Francis Xavier (1506–52) and the Malabar period was the American Robert Morrison
Christian communities of Travancore, (1782–1834), who arrived in Canton in 1807.
believed to date from around the 6th century. However China was not officially open to
Other societies soon followed the foreigners until the Treaty of Nanking (1842).
example of Carey’s Baptist mission. In Five treaty ports were designated cities for
1795 came the London Missionary Society, foreign settlement, and British and American
and in 1797 Dutch Christians formed the missionaries used these as springboards to
Netherlands Missionary Society. In 1799 the evangelize China.
Church Missionary Society was founded by Older Roman Catholic missions continued
Evangelical Anglicans. In 1810 American to operate in China, despite persecution. After
Evangelicals started the American Board official toleration was agreed between China
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and France in 1860, Catholicism was able to
which became a major missionary-sending expand faster than Protestantism.
institution. European Pietists established After the Taiping Rebellion ended
a missionary training school in Basel, in China in 1864, the British Protestant
Switzerland in 1815. Often the cross followed missionary James Hudson Taylor (1832–
the flag: where European powers colonized, 1905) set up his China Inland Mission. His
missionary societies preached. mission was one of the few that had much

success in persuading Chinese people to to Tahiti, then moving on to the Melanesian
convert to Christianity. His example led to Islands. London Missionary Society
the formation of many other missions and missionaries were the first to reach the Society
to the setting up of the Student Volunteer Islands, before proceeding to Polynesia –
Movement. Thousands of volunteer Tonga, Western Samoa, and Fiji.
missionaries offered their service, and by 1882
Protestant missionaries were resident in all Australia and New Zealand
but three of the Chinese provinces. When Britain decided to set up a penal
Following 16th century massacres of colony in Australia, an Anglican chaplain,
Roman Catholic Christians, Japan remained Richard Johnson, went with the first convict
hostile to the West, while South Korea ship in 1788. Wesleyans, Presbyterians, and
received its first missionary only in 1865. Roman Catholics soon followed. In the 1820s
the Anglican church was established, though
Latin America Irish Catholics and Scots Presbyterians were
During the 19th century, Protestant already numerous.
missionaries to Latin America came largely The first European settlers went to New
from the United States. Protestant values Zealand in 1805, and the first missionaries
seemed attractive to the liberal middle nine years later. Anglicans came to form the
classes who had won independence for majority of the population, but with large
the South American republics. After the minorities of Scottish Presbyterians, Roman
ejection of earlier Roman Catholic missions, Catholics, and Methodists.
a shortage of priests had caused a decline in
Christian practice. Missions industry
By the outbreak of World War I, The 19th century was an age of heroic
Protestant missions were established in every missionary enterprise, with pioneers such as
Latin American republic. However there were the English Henry Martyn (1781–1812) in
only half a million Protestant converts in the India and Persia; the Americans Adoniram
entire region – very few compared with the and Ann Judson (1788–1850, 1789–1826)
Catholic population. in Burma (Myanmar); the German Johann
Krapf (1810–81) in India; the Belgian Father
Oceania Damien (1840–89) in Hawaii helping those
In the 17th century, Spanish Roman Catholics suffering from leprosy; and the Frenchman
had crossed from the Christianized Philippines Father Charles de Foucauld (1858–1916) in
to western Micronesia and converted the North Africa. This was also an age of great
Marianas Islands. The main Catholic missions mission organizers such as the Irishman H.
in this region were French: in Melanesia, the Grattan Guinness (1835–1910); innovative
Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and missionary organizations such as the China
Mary – the ‘Pipcus Fathers’; and in Polynesia Inland Mission and the Mission to Lepers;
the Marist Fathers. French Catholics also and great missionary conferences such as the
established themselves in New Caledonia and World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh,
southern New Guinea, Tahiti, the Marquesas Scotland (1910), presided over by the Student
Islands, Mangereva, and Easter Island. Volunteer Movement leader, the American
Protestant missionaries progressed John R. Mott (1865–1955).
generally from east to west, journeying first
AN AGE OF MISSIONS 99

WORLDWIDE CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN THE EARLY 20th CENTURY
Prince Albert
Vancouver
Allegheny
Kingston
Port-au-Prince
Georgetown Freetown Ibadan

Calabar
Abidjan
Sta
Montevideo
C
To
Miles
0 1000 2000
0 1000 2000
Kilometers

map 36
Roman Catholic mission active

Protestant mission active
Istanbul Sapporo
Peking
Seoul
Tehran Rawalpindi
Tokyo
Jerusalem Shanghai
Delhi
Karachi
Amoy
Calcutta Hong Kong
Bombay
Rangoon Manila
Madras
badan Jaffna
Calabar Addis Ababa
bidjan Malacca
Stanleyville
Djakarta
Dar es-Salaam
Blantyre
Durban
Sydney
Cape
Town
Melbourne
AN AGE OF MISSIONS 101

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
The Mormons Saints, or Mormonism as it is often known,

was founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith Jr
(1805-44) in New York State, USA, as the
THE MORMON TRAIL
Church of Christ. In 1834 it became the G REAT

Church of the Latter-Day Saints, and in
RO
1838 the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
CK
Day Saints. By 2015 it had some 15.5 Independence
Y
Rock
million members, more than half of them
MO
Fort Bridger
SOUTH
outside the United States. Brigham Young
moves on PASS Fort Lar
UNT
Great Pla
Salt Lake tte
Latter-Day Saints describe their church as Salt Lake City
AINS
Mormons settle 1847
a ‘restoration’ movement: God has restored Becomes Mormon
Denver
teachings, practices, and organization G R E AT headquarters
Sacramento Wasatch Oasis
BASIN
withdrawn from the earth shortly after 1500 settlers arrive by 1848
10,000 Mormon settlers in area by 1850
96 Mormon settlements by 1860
the time of Christ as a result of human San Francisco
disobedience. U N I T
In 1823, the teenage Joseph Smith Jr Santa Fe
Colo rad o R .
found previously hidden metallic records,
Los Angeles
often called ‘the golden plates’, that told the
history of peoples who migrated to North
America from the Holy Land at the time of
the Old Testament prophets. Smith translated
this text, using special objects found with P ACIFIC
the plates, and The Book of Mormon was O CEAN
published in 1830.
Smith was an inspiring leader and many Miles
0 200 400 M E X I C
joined his community, but while in prison
in 1844 he was killed by a mob opposed 0 200
Kilometers
400 600
to his religious views, an event Latter-Day

Saints viewed as martyrdom. After a brief
competition for leadership, Brigham Young have passed to Smith’s son. This group
(1801–77) triumphed. In 1845 his rival formed the Reorganized Church of Jesus
Sidney Rigdon (believed by some to be the Christ of Latter-Day Saints in 1860, with its
author of The Book of Mormon) formed his headquarters and temple at Independence,
own ‘Church of Christ’ – also known as the Missouri. This branch is closer to mainstream
‘Rigdonites’ – which survived into the 21st Christian belief, and in 2001 was renamed the
century with a few members as The Church of Community of Christ.
Jesus Christ (Bickertonite). In Utah, the original Church of Jesus
After local opposition, Young led the Christ of Latter-Day Saints prepared
Latter-Day Saints west until they finally for Christ’s second coming. Like many
arrived in the Great Salt Lake Valley, Protestants, Latter-Day Saints were
Utah, in July 1847. Not all followed him, Adventist, believing in the return of Jesus,
as some believed that leadership should and millenarian, believing he would rule for

map 37
erior
L. Sup
Mis
G R E AT PL AIN S
souri R
James Jesse Strang

sets up ‘City of James’ Beaver Golden plates found
.
L.
(1848)
Island at Hill Cumorah
Eri
Winter Quarters
e
L. Michigan
ndence
ck 1846-48
Palmyra Joseph Smith’s home
Manchester Fayette
Fort Laramie Fort Council Bluffs 1st Mormon church,1830
Kearney
Pla Mount Chicago
tte
R.
Pisgah Kirtland
Nauvoo 1839-44 1831-38 New York
Denver Independence 1833-36
Kansas City St Louis R.
Far West 1836-39 o
1850
i
Oh
60
I T E D S T A T E S
ATLANTIC
nta Fe OCEAN
.
iR
ipp
Mississ
Zodiac
Lyman Wight
sets up temple
New Orleans
Mormon Trail
E X I C O GULF OF M EXICO Mormon splinter group
Proposed Mormon
State of Deseret (1849)
1,000 years with his Saints. They thought Today many men and women serve as
Christ would appear in the USA. missionaries for two years before college
Smith developed some ideas not found in or marriage. In 2015 the Latter-Day Saints
the Book of Mormon and altered church life (LDS) church had 74,000 missionaries
in distinctive ways. Many early Saints were working worldwide. Since its inception,
alienated by these new doctrines and rituals. it claims to have sent more than 1 million
Some left, though others regarded these members on missions, including such
developments as Mormonism’s progressive notables as the US presidential candidate Mitt
revelation. About a decade after the church Romney (b. 1947).
was founded, Smith introduced polygamy,
which was abandoned at the end of the
19th century.
THE MORMONS 1 03

During the 18th century a period of
Christianity Today political uncertainty developed in the

West, with major implications for the
future of Christianity. In France, growing
CHRISTIANITY WORLDWIDE
hostility towards the wealth and power of

the church hierarchy was an important GRE
factor in the French Revolution (1789).

ALASKA
Although this revolution did not achieve
the permanent removal of Christianity
CANADA
from France, it created an unstable
atmosphere. Revolutionary movements
across Europe attempted to repeat the A
successes of their French counterparts, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
creating serious difficulties for the

Catholic Church in many parts of the
continent, especially Italy. MEXICO
CUBA
Christianity faced new intellectual challenges P ACIFIC

in the West. During the 1840s, the German OCEAN VENEZUELA
COLOMBIA
philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72)
ECUADOR
argued that the idea of God was merely a
projection of the human mind. Karl Marx
PERU BRAZIL
(1818–83) claimed religion was used by rulers
BOLIVIA
as an instrument of social control. Sigmund GU
AY
CHILE
A
Freud (1856–1939) argued it was simply
PAR
an illusion or ‘wish-fulfilment’. By around
1920, many had concluded Christianity was
0–10%
intellectually untenable. 11–50%
51–70% Miles
Russia 71–90%
0 1000 2000
By this time, other difficulties had arisen, over 91% 0 1000 2000
Kilometers
perhaps most importantly the Russian
Revolution (1917), which led to the
establishment of the world’s first avowedly met him, together with the formation of the
atheist state. The Soviet Union attempted to Solidarnosc (Solidarity) movement there,
eliminate religion from public and private life, helped pave the way for a peaceful transition
especially during the 1930s. The Allied defeat to democracy and religious freedom in
of Nazi Germany in World War II led to large Poland and elsewhere in Eastern Europe.
areas of Eastern Europe coming under Soviet With the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989,
influence, and the state adoption of anti- a new openness to religion developed in
religious policies. Russia and the former Soviet spheres of
The visit to Poland in 1979 of the Polish influence, with Christianity – especially
Pope John Paul II (r. 1978–2005), during Orthodoxy – and Islam experiencing a
which up to one third of the population major renaissance.

map 38
GREENLAND
SWEDEN R U S S I A
NORWAY
GERMANY
KAZAKHSTAN
N ORTH FRANCE MONGOLIA
ATLANTIC
PORTUGAL SPAIN TURKEY
OCEAN JAPAN
IRAQ AFGHANISTAN C H I N A
IRAN
TIBET
ALGERIA PAKISTAN
LIBYA EGYPT
INDIA
BURMA
MALI
CHAD
SUDAN (N) A RABIAN
THAILAND PHILIPPINES P ACIFIC
S EA VIETNAM
NIGERIA
OCEAN
VENEZUELA SUDAN ETHIOPIA
(S)
OMBIA
D.R.
I N
CONGO
INDIAN D O N
E S I A
BRAZIL
OCEAN
ERU
ZAMBIA
BOLIVIA MOZAMBIQUE
AY NAMIBIA ZIMBABWE
GU
CHILE BOTSWANA
A
PAR
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH
AFRICA
SOUTH
ATLANTIC NEW
OCEAN ZEALAND
In Russia, the contemporary Orthodox missionary movement, an important factor in

Church often aligns itself with the state and spreading Christianity globally has been the
follows a conservative line theologically large-scale emigration from Europe to North
and socially. America, beginning in the late 16th century.
Yet the epicentre of Christianity has Today Christianity is primarily a faith of
moved away from the West. the developing, rather than the developed,
world. Although European and American
Worldwide expansion missionaries played a significant role in
The 16th century saw the start of a process planting Christianity in regions such as
that has decisively impacted the shaping of Asia and Africa, these are now largely self-
Christianity. In addition to the burgeoning sufficient. The churches of Europe and North
C H R I S T I A N I T Y TO D AY 105

America face the challenges of secularization, Church remains strong numerically, and
while the faith grows rapidly in diverse acquired new influence internationally
cultural settings in the non-Western with the papacy of the Argentinian Pope
world. In the mid-20th century, as colonial Francis (b. 1936). But Latin America
empires were receding, indigenous forms of has also seen the extraordinarily rapid
Christianity displayed considerable growth, growth of indigenous forms of Pentecostal
demonstrating that the faith had put down Christianity, with the conversion of more
roots in local cultures and languages. than 40 million people.
The phenomenal growth of Christianity
across the southern continents in modern Africa
times is unprecedented. Embraced by During the 20th century, Africa offered
millions of non-Western believers, the faith remarkable evidence of Christian growth,
is being reshaped through its encounter and is displacing Europe and North America
with the cultures of Latin America, Africa, as the chief Christian heartland. Both
and Asia. While Western missions played the Roman Catholic Church and major
a crucial initial role in communicating the Protestant groups are being transformed by
gospel across cultural and linguistic barriers, these changes, as the number of adherents
the key players in the spread of the faith in Africa dwarfs the parent churches in
have been local Christians, expressing their Europe and North America. Africa has
new religion in surprising and dynamic also seen numerous Independent churches
ways. Examples include the evangelization of flourish – in the 1980s and 1990s especially –
West Africa by repatriated slaves; ordinary as well as many other charismatic and
Christians adept at sharing their faith and Pentecostal churches.
planting new churches; and the ministry of
prophetic preachers and evangelists who Asia
apply the faith to local situations, resulting in The picture is different in Asia. In many
mass conversions. countries Christians remain a small minority,
The centre of gravity of Christianity has in societies shaped by ancient non-Christian
shifted and its roots are now firmly planted in religious traditions. Exceptions include
non-Western cultures. This shift has revealed South Korea – where growing churches
contrasts of culture and theology between the display missionary enthusiasm – Singapore,
different traditions and cultures. For instance, and the Philippines.
Conservative Anglicans have opposed the The America-generated ‘Prosperity
ordination of women. Even more divisive Gospel’, offering believers worldly success,
between Anglicans in Western and non- has proved attractive in South Korea, where
Western cultures are attitudes towards gay another US model – the ‘mega church’ –
marriage, and the ministry of gay men and has also blossomed. The small Christian
women, both of which are anathema to many community in Japan has had some gifted
in non-Western cultures. Such issues threaten theologians and writers. The church in India
the unity of the Anglican Communion in the has initiated attempts to express the gospel in
early 21st century. the context of the Hindu-moulded culture.
But this shift is also marked by huge In China, following the expulsion of
church growth in non-Western areas. Western missions after the Communist
In South America, the Roman Catholic revolution, Christianity discarded its image as

a foreign import and is now clearly identified
as an indigenous religion. Estimates of the
number of Christians vary between 30 and
105 million, but there is clear evidence of
tenfold growth in the Chinese churches since
1949. This reflects partly the impact of the
Home Church Movement, the number of
whose congregations increased from around
50,000 in 1970 to 400,000 in 1995.
World Christianity
Until recently it was assumed that the
churches of Europe and North America
could be transplanted to other continents,
complete with their theology and practice.
This assumption rested on the belief that
Western Christianity was a culture-free Higher Vision Church, Valencia, California, U.S.A.
expression of the faith and possessed
absolute status. With the emergence of non- by more complex patterns, where mission
Western churches, such assumptions have is from everywhere to everywhere. Recent
had to be abandoned. Theology can take massive migrations from southern continents
unexpected directions in cultures relatively into Europe and North America are
unaffected by Western modernity. resulting in the appearance of ‘Southern’
The non-Western churches are mainly forms of Christianity, such as prophetic and
churches of the poor, in a world moulded charismatic shop front churches, in the great
by economic globalization. Old one-way urban centres of the Western world, where
Christian missionary approaches – from they often form the largest and most dynamic
the West to the rest – have been supplanted Christian communities.
C H R I S T I A N I T Y TO D AY 107

Part 6
Islam

Islam began, not among nomads, but among city-dwellers engaged in commercial
Muhammad enterprises. Towards the end of the 6th century ce, the merchants of Mecca gained a
monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean that passed
along the west coast of Arabia by camel caravan. Mecca had a sanctuary, the Ka‘ba,
which was an ancient pilgrimage centre, and the area around it was regarded as sacred.
However the wealth that came to Mecca led to social tensions, especially among the
younger males.
Muhammad was born in Mecca around the impossible for Muhammad to continue in
year 570 ce. In about 610 he came to believe Mecca. In 622 ce Muhammad and about 70
he was receiving messages from God which men emigrated with their families to nearby
he was to pass on to his fellow citizens. Medina, a fertile oasis. This migration, the
Revealed over 23 years, these messages Hijrah, marks the beginning of the Islamic
were later collected and form the Qur’an. era. The inhabitants of Medina divided into
They claimed that God was One (Allah), two opposing groups, with the majority
and that he was merciful and all-powerful. accepting Muhammad as prophet and
Allah expected people to use their wealth agreeing to form a federation with the
generously. On the Last Day, he would judge emigrants from Mecca.
people according to their acts and assign In Medina the religion of Islam took
them to heaven or hell. In these revelations, shape. The main ritual forms – modelled on
Muhammad himself was spoken of, Muhammad’s example – were: worship (or
sometimes simply as a warner, telling of God’s prayer), almsgiving, fasting for the month
punishment for sinners, and sometimes as a of Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca,
prophet, or messenger of God. Muhammad including ceremonies at sites nearby.
believed these revelations were the words of At first, Muhammad had no special
God, conveyed to him by an angel. political powers at Medina beyond being
Muhammad gained a number of leader of the emigrants from Mecca. However
followers, who met frequently and joined him after a year or two his followers – now called
in worshipping God. But Meccan merchants ‘Muslims’ – became involved in hostilities
were annoyed by criticism of their practices. with the pagan Meccans. By 630, Muhammad
The merchants spoke of old pagan gods; had become strong enough to capture Mecca.
Muhammad’s messages insisted there is only He treated his enemies generously, and won
one God. most of them over to become Muslims.
Many other tribes across Arabia now also
Emigration to Medina joined his federation and became Muslims.
Muhammad’s followers began to be Muhammad’s authority as head of state was
persecuted by opponents – often their unquestioned because of his success.
own relatives – and eventually it became

THE JOURNEYS OF MUHAMMAD map 39
B
Y Z H aly s R.
A N CASPIAN
T I N SEA
E E M P I R E S A
S S
Ti g
M A
ris
E N
I A
R.
Eup S
S Y R I A hr O N
CYPRUS P
at
E
es
M
R.
O
MEDITERRANEAN P
T
I
A
SEA Damascus R
M
Ctesiphon E
IA
Busrah
Susa
Jerusalem
Mu’ta 629
Petra
Aila
E G Y P T
Tabuk 630 Fadak
Tayma’
PERSIAN
Masad’in Salih GULF
Al-’Ula
Khaybar 629: Muslims defeat and expel Jewish tribes
Uhud 625: Muslims defeat Meccan force
Yathrib (Medina) Jabal Uhud
Yanbu Badr 624: 1st Muslim victory over Meccan forces
Bi’r Ma’unah
Juhfa Qudayd
Amaj ‘Usfan Hudaybiyah 628: Muhammad allowed into Medina for Hajj
Muhammad makes Mecca 630: Muslims capture pilgrimage centre and Ka’aba
.
Al Raji 624
eR
legendary night journey

Ta’if
Nil
on white donkey: Jedda

ascends to heaven Hunayn
from Temple Mount 630 ARABIAN
DESERT
RED
SEA
Najran
Miles
0 100 200
San’a
0 100 250
Kilometers
Christian in 600 CE
Significant Jewish community Aden
Route of Hijrah
Route of Muhammad’s army
Major trade route
Battle (with date)
Battle between Muhammad’s
followers and Meccan forces ABYSSINIA
MUHAMMAD 1 11

Muhammad died in 632, leaving a
The Early Growth of Islam religion and a state. His first successor
was Abu Bakr (c. 573–634), the ‘caliph’
(khalifa) – ‘successor’ or ‘deputy’ of
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM BY 750 ce
FR ANCE
A T L A N T IC
Muhammad. Muhammad and the first Tours 732
OCEAN
caliphs organized successful raiding B
Y
expeditions towards Syria and Iraq to Z
Ebr A
oR
obtain booty.
ro R.
Due
.
Zaragoza
There was a temporary power vacuum in the Tagus R. Toledo
region because the two great powers – the SPAIN
Byzantine and Persian Empires – had been Cordova Carthage SICILY
almost constantly at war for 50 years and Granada

were exhausted. In a few decisive battles the Tangier
Muslims overcame any opposition that these Qabis

MAGHREB Tripoli M E D I T
empires presented. Instead of returning to
Medina, they then ventured further afield. B
Within 12 years of Muhammad’s death,
Muslim armies had occupied Egypt, Syria,
and Iraq, and were advancing westwards into LIBYA
Libya and eastwards into what is now Iran. The
Byzantine and Persian provincial governors
fled and the Muslims made treaties with local
inhabitants, calling them ‘protected minorities’.
These groups organized their own internal S A H A R A D E S E R T
affairs, but paid tribute or tax to the Muslim
governor. The status of protected minority was
open only to ‘people of the book’, who believed
in one God and possessed a written scripture,
such as Jews and Christians. Extent of Islam at death of Umar (644)
Extent of Islam at death of Uthman (656)
The expansion of Islam Extent of Islam in 750
Apart from some periods of internal strife, Battle (date)
Muslim expansion continued for a century.
To the west, Muslims occupied North Africa
as far as the Atlantic Ocean, crossed into central Asia and crossed the Indus river. Until
Spain, briefly holding the region around 750, this entire area remained a single state,
Narbonne, southern France. In 732, at the ruled by caliphs of the Ummayad dynasty.
Battle of Tours in central France, a Muslim Most of the inhabitants of these regions
raid was defeated by a French army. The were not immediately converted to Islam,
Muslims also raided as far as Constantinople but became protected minorities. The
(modern Istanbul), but failed to occupy any military expeditions, though described as
of Asia Minor (Turkey). After occupying ‘holy wars’ (jihads), were raids for booty,
Persia and Afghanistan, they penetrated not to make converts.

map 40
KHAZ AR EMPIRE
B A R AL
Y S EA
Z Danube R. B L AC K S EA CAUC
A ASU
N S C ASPIAN
T I Constantinople
673–77, 717–18 Tashkent
N E Tiflis S EA
E M
P I ARM ENIA
R E Amida Bukhara
Ox
Tigr
us
M i Samarkand
KHUR ASAN
R.
SICILY Merv
Edessa sR
E
Aleppo Eup .
S
hra Mosul
O
Rhodes 654 Qum Rey (Rages) Nishapur

Balkh
P
Antioch
tes
Siffin
O
Nehavend 642
CRETE CYPRUS SY R IA
R.
TA
Hamadhan Herat Kabul

Damascus
M S
M
ipoli E D I T E R R A N E A N E A Ghazni
Yarmuk 636 Kerbela KOHISTAN
I A
Ctesiphon Isfahan
P E
.
Barca
Indus R
Al Qadisiya 636 R S
Fustat Basra FA R S Kirman I A
Shiraz
LIBYA E G Y P T Tabuk
Jur
Juruft
PE
RS Hormuz
IA
Nil
N
GU MAKR AN
eR
HEJ
LF
.
AZ
Medina
Aswan Hijr Suhar
R ED
ARABIAN
R T
S EA
DESERT
NUBIAN
DESERT Mecca
A R A BIA N
SEA
YEM
EN
Miles
0 100 200 300 400 500
Aden
0 100 300 600
Kilometers
Protected minorities were on the whole decline, and conversion to Islam there was
well treated. However members of these rapid and extensive.
minorities felt themselves to be second-class In 750 the Ummayad dynasty of caliphs,
citizens, and over the centuries there was a based in Damascus, ended, and for the next
steady flow of converts to Islam. In this way 500 years, the ‘Abbasid dynasty ruled from
Islam became the dominant religion in lands Baghdad. While the Ummayad period was
that were previously the home of Christianity. one of growth, the first centuries of ‘Abbasid
By the 7th century, Zoroastrianism, the rule were marked by consolidation.
official religion of the Persian Empire, was in
T H E E A R LY G R O W T H O F I S L A M 1 13

Islam entered India via two main routes: from the south, where Arab traders
Islam in the Subcontinent had set up colonies along the south-west coast of India in pre-Islamic times, and
from the north, where Islam arrived via Central Asia through military conquest.
Sind in the north was crucial for the diffusion of Islam, which spread from there to
Punjab and Gujarat.
M
From the 11th century
onwards, Muslim penetration
was more sustained. A new
Turkish ‘Ghaznavid’ dynasty
under Sultan Mahmud H
(971–1030) started to expand
from Ghazni. Hindu rulers
from Delhi, Kalinjar, Ajmer,
and other cities formed a
confederacy to oppose him,
but were defeated at the
battle of Waihind (1008).
Mahmud carried out several
campaigns, culminating in
the capture of Somnath, but
annexed only Punjab.
After the Ghaznavids,
other dynasties took Islam into new areas. Masjid Sabz, or Green Mosque, Balkh, Afghanistan.
By 1212, the Ghurid dynasty controlled most
of the former Ghaznavid territories and when, as the British withdrew from India,
had expanded as far east as Bengal. Later the newly-created Muslim state of Pakistan
the Afghan Khaljis defended this territory re-affirmed its links with Persia and the
against repeated Mongol raids and, under the Middle East.
great sultan Alauddin Khilji (r. 1296–1316), Muslim rulers of India generally
reached as far south as Madurai. practised religious tolerance, since mass
The Turco-Indian Tughluqids expanded conversion of the huge population of Hindus
to the south and east, but the vast empire was impossible. Widespread conversions
began to disintegrate with the rise of took place only in the Punjab and Bengal.
independent Muslim principalities. Hindus and Muslims lived together,
The subcontinent was reunified during sometimes harmoniously, sometimes not.
the 17th century under the Mughal emperors. Although Islam was often strongly supported
However, by the 1770s the Mughal Empire by the state, the rapid spread of Islam was
(1526–1858) had shrunk to a small province mainly due to the missionary activity of
around Delhi. Its legacy re-emerged in 1947 Sufi orders.

ISLAMIC EXPANSION IN INDIA map 41
Bukhara
Umayyad Empire by 750
Samarkand
Abbasid Empire to 871
Merv Conquered by Mahmud by 1022
Ghurid territory to 1215
Balkh
Khalji and Tughluqid territory to 1335
Pre-1200 mosque
In 1201–1500 mosque
du
Kabul s R.
Herat
GE
Ghur Ghazni
RAN
Brahmapura
Qala Bist Lahore

AN
IM
H
Pakpattan Bhatinda I
LA
Gangadvara
M Brahmaputra R.
SU
. A
sR Uch
ndu Delhi L
I
A
Yam
Y A
un S
a R Kanauj
.
Ajmer
Jaunpur
Canderi
Benares Ganges R. Pandua
Kalinjar
Gaur
Nadia Vikramapura
Ahmadabad
a R.
Khambhat Mandu mad
Nar
Baruch
Mangrol Burhanpur
Somnath
G o d a v ri R.
a
B AY
WEST
ARABIAN Bidar Golconda

S OF
SEA Bijapuri AT
ERN
BENGAL
GH
K ri s
hn a R
.
GHA
Sandabur
ER
(Goa)
TS
EAST
Calicut
Tanjore
Madurai Miles
0 100 200
Quilon 0 100 200 300

Kilometers
I S L A M I N T H E S U B CO N T I N E N T 115

Pegu
In South-east Asia, the introduction
Islam in South-east Asia of Islam is linked to trade, which was

controlled by the Arabs from the 12th to
15th centuries. After this, the Portuguese

commenced global trading.

V
From the 14th century, local rulers in
South-East Asia converted to Islam. Within Angkor
Borai
two centuries almost the entire region had
been Islamized. By the mid-15th century
Malacca had become the chief trading-
centre for South-east Asia and main centre
for the spread of Islam, which came to
be identified with the state and its main Pattani
language, Malay. Samudra
Aceh Pasei
The embracing of Islam by the rulers of
Pase
Malacca encouraged the emergence of similar
Perlak
sultanates elsewhere on the Malay Peninsula
and farther afield in Jolo, Ternate, and Tidore. Melaka
However there is also evidence of Johore

conversions to Islam in Sumatra and
SU
elsewhere earlier than 1400 ce. A fragment
of inscription from the east coast of the
M
Malay Peninsula – the ‘Trengganu Stone’ –
AT
appears to show a ruler pronouncing the
R
A
primacy of Islamic law, and has been dated
to between 1302 and 1387. Palembang
I NDIAN
Mass conversion in this area was the JA
result of the missionary activities by Sufi O CEAN
orders; political opportunism and obedience Bantam
Dem
to the Muslim sultans; old and repeated J AV
contact with Muslim traders; and, after the
arrival of Christian missionaries with the Miles
0 250 500
Portuguese, a revival of Islamic proselytism.
Today, Islam is the most widely practised 0
Kilometers
250 500 750
religion in this region. It is the official religion

of Malaysia and Brunei, and its adherents
form a majority of the population in both
those countries as well as of Indonesia.

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA map 42
Muslim by C14
Muslim by C15
Muslim by C16
PH
Vijaya
Islamic expansion route
ILI
PPI
Cebu
SOUTH
NES
CHINA
SEA MINDANAO
Zamboanga
P ACIFIC
Brunei OCEAN
CELEBES
SEA
MOLUCCAS
BORNEO Ternate
CEL
Tanjungpura
E
BE
S
NEW
J AVA S E A Macassar GUINEA
am
Demak Madura
J AVA Tuban
BALI
LO M B O K
ISLAM IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA 1 17

WORLD RELIGIONS: 1500
ICELAND S C A N D I N A V I A
Nidaras
(Trondheim)
Uppsala
Novgorod
Glasgow LITHUANIA
Moscow
York Roskilde
IRELAND
Danzig
Lincoln
R.
a
lg
Canterbury Vo
Salisbury Amiens Prague
Dn
Kiev
Rouen Rheims iep
Regensburg e
Chartres Paris Ulm r R.
ATLANTIC Bourges Freiburg Vienna
Strasbourg Milan
OCEAN
Santiago de
ITALY
BY
Compostela León Mt Constantinople
ZA
Athos GEORGIA Barda
SPAIN Rome
TI Khiva
N
Toledo NE
Cordoba ME D I T EMP
Seville E R
R A IRE Arbela
Konya
Nisibis
N E Kirkuk Nish
Tlemcen A N Damascus Baghdad Rayy
Fez S E A Isfahan
Jerusalem Karbala
Kaskar P ERSIA
Tanta Seleucia
Cairo Basra
Shiraz
EGYPT
N il
R.
e Medina
Humaithira ARABIA
Mecca
Timbuktu MALI AIR

A
ALWA
Nig
GHANA Axum
er
TEKRUR
R.
Christian centre Lalibela

Hindu centre
Harer
Buddhist centre Debra Libanos
Muslim centre ETHIOPIA
Zoroastrian centre
Confucian centre
Lamaist monastery
Gothic Christian cathedral
Sufi shrine
Sikh centre Miles
0 200 400 600
Nestorian Christian centre
Dagon Pilgrimage centre 0 200 400 500 800 Kilwa
Kilometers

map 43
Buddhist in 750
Pagans converted to Buddhism 750–1450
Buddhists reverting to Hinduism
Jewish concentration
Christian 750
Pagans converted to Christianity 750–1450
Hindu in 750
Islamic in 750
Pagans converted to Islam 750–1450
Followers of other world religions converted to Islam
Lands of other world religions conquered by Islam
but not converted
China 750–1450: Buddhism, Confucian and Taoism
Korea 750–1450: Buddhism, Confucianism
Manichaeism
Pagan
Erdeni-dzu
Almalik
Yasi Hami Sudji
Liaoyang
Khiva Bukhara Datong Beijing
Samarkand Kashgar Tangut
Kumbum
KOREA
Merv Khotan JAPAN
Kyongiu Nara
Rayy Nishapur Tashi-gompa Xi’anLuoyang YELLOW
Heian
Mt Fuji
Isfahan Herat KASHMIR TIBET Kaifeng SEA
Gartok Chang’an Kumano
kar Gangotri Mt Kailas Bargo Nanjing Yangzhou
PERSI A Nankana Sahib Darge-gonchen
.
Thaneswar Hardwar Sakya eR Hangzhou
Lhasa
Shiraz R. Delhi n gtz C H I N A
a
Ayodhya Gompa Gyantse
Y
s
Indu
Ajmer N EPAL
Prayaga Varanasi
Khajuraho Nalanda
Bodh Guangzhou
IA I N D I A Gaya P ACIFIC
Somnath Bhubaneswar Pagan
Diu Sthanka OCEAN
Konark
Kalyan
A R A BI A N B AY Pegu Dagon
SEA Vijaynagara OF Indrapura
Ayutthaya
B ENGAL
Angkor
Mamallapuram
Cranganore S OUTH C HINA
S EA
Madurai
Polonnaruva
SRI LANKA Pasai
INDIAN
Malacca
OCEAN BORNEO
SUM
AT R
A
J AVA S EA
JAVA
Borobudur
Bali
ISLAM IN SOUTH-EAST ASIA 1 19

The Muslim penetration of Africa involved conquest, trade, migration, and
Islam and Africa missionary activities. During the 7th and 8th centuries ce, Arab military conquests of
Egypt and much of North Africa were gradually followed by the conversion of much of
the Berber population to Islam.
From the 11th to the 14th century, Islam From the 18th century some Sufi orders,
spread across the Sahara into West Africa and especially the Qadiriyah and the Tijaniyah,
up the Nile river into the Sudan, travelling led by militants who declared a jihad, seized
along the trade routes connecting West Africa local political control, aiming to set up ‘pure’
with North Africa. From an area between Islamic governments. Examples include the
Morocco and Senegal, new Berber converts – Sokoto state in Hausaland, founded in 1804
later known as the ‘Almoravids’ – conquered by Uthman Dan Fodio, and the Mahdist
Morocco, crossed to Spain, and fought the state of Eastern Sudan (1882–96), the result
Christian rulers, ruling Iberia for almost a of an Islamic renewal movement fighting
century (1086–1147). against colonists.
In East Africa, Islam was carried down In recent times there has been a revival
the coast by sea-going Arabs, some of of Islam in Africa, partly in response to
whom settled and built up coastal cities secularism. Islamic missionary activities,
such as Sofala and Kilwa, major ports in often using local missionaries, flourish. The
the gold trade. close relation of Islam with some African
Between the 16th and 18th centuries, beliefs, for example the belief in good and
Muslim scholars, Sufis, and Muslim traders bad spirits, associated with the Muslim
helped form states ruled by Muslim princes, belief in jinns, is another reason for Islam’s
such as the Sultanate of Funj and Kingdom of successful expansion.
Kanem-Bornu, which became a great trading Recent waves of immigration from South
and military power in the late 16th century. and South-east Asia to East Africa and, as a
The greatest state of Saharan Africa was the result of Ugandan ruler Idi Amin’s (1971–9)
Songhai Empire, Muslim since 1493, which persecution of Asians, from East Africa to
controlled the trans-Saharan gold trade until Southern Africa, have added to the variety
the early 17th century. of Islam in the continent. Among them are
During this period too, Muslim Malays Sunnis of the Shafi’i legal school, Shi’ites,
and Javanese emigrated from the Dutch East and Pakistani Ahmadis.
Indies to South Africa, especially the Cape
Town region, becoming the first Muslims to
settle in South Africa.

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM IN AFRICA map 44
M E D I
T E
R
Algiers Tunis R A
N E
Fez TUNISIA A N
Tlemcen S E A
Marrakesh CCO
RO Benghazi
MO Cairo
ALGERIA L I B YA EGYPT
WESTERN
Medina SAUDI
Nile R.
SAHARA
ARABIA
RED
MALI Mecca
SEA
SUDAN
Senega Walata Timbuktu NIGER (NORTH)
SONGHAI
Dakar CHAD Khartoum ERITREA YEMEN
l R.
SENEGAL
Jenne
Nig
GALAM-GIDI DENDI BORNU SENNAR

er
GAMBIA WADAI
MOSI DARFOR DANKALI
ADEN
R.
MALI OF
GUINEA-BISSAU Kano Kukawa BAGIRMI
G ULF
GUINEA BORGU ABYSSINIA
DAGOMBA NUPE NIGERIA Harar ADAL
BENIN
TOGO
SIERRA LEONE IVORY GHANA JUKUN HARAR

COAST
BENIN SUDAN
LIBERIA ADANSE KUMBU
Lagos C ENTR AL AF RIC AN
REP UB LIC (SOUTH) ETHIOPIA
Accra C AM ERO O N
GULF OF GUINEA SOMALIA
EQUATORIAL GUINEA UGANDA
CO NG O KE NYA Mogadishu
G AB O N DEM O C R ATIC Lake
.
oR
REPUB LIC RWANDA Victoria

Cong
O F THE CO NG O BURUNDI
KUBA
Lake TANZ ANI A INDIAN
CONGO Tanganyika
Luanda LUBA
OCEAN
LUNDA
ATLANTIC OCEAN
MALAWI
ANG O L A
Mozambique
Z AM B I A
HUMBA ezi R.
mb MOZAMBIQUE
Za
MONOMOTAPA
ZIMBABWE MADAGASCAR
Miles NAMIBIA Limpopo
0 500 1000 BOTSWANA
R.
0 500 1000 1500 Maputo

Kilometers
SWAZILAND
Orange R.
Muslim presence by 1000
LESOTHO
Muslim presence by 1200 SOUTH
Muslim presence by 1600 AFRICA
Muslim presence by 1800 Cape Town
Muslim presence by 2000
Traditional African kingdom Muslim presence by 1800
ISLAM AND AFRICA 1 21

MUSLIM PEOPLES OF MODERN ASIA
Moscow R U S S I A N F E D E R A
BELARUS
UKR A INE Volgograd

K A Z A K H S T A N Ulan Bator
MOLDOVA Astrakhan
ROMANIA M O N G O L I A
C AS
B L AC K S E A UZB
PIA
BULGARIA EKI
AN
Istanbul GEORGIA ST
AN
ZST
Xinjiang
SEA
TURK Be
GY
ARMENIA
AZERBAIJAN UIGHUR
YR
GREECE ME K
TURKEY NIS
TA
TA J I K I S TA
N AUTONOMOUS Yinchuan
Athens REGION
N
SYRIA Teheran
M EDITERRA Kabul
NEAN LEBANONDamascus Baghdad
S EA AFGHANISTAN
Islamabad
ISRAEL
Jerusalem I R A Q IRAN
JORDAN C H I N A
Cairo
KUWAIT
PAKISTAN Delhi NEPAL
E GY PT BHUTAN
BAHRAIN UNITED Karachi

ARAB BANGLA-
EMIRATES Muscat DESH
SAUDI OMAN I N D I A MYANMAR Gu
ARABIA
LAOS
Mumbai
B AY
SUDAN OF S OU
YEMEN A R A BI A N B ENGAL
(NORTH) ERITREA SEA THAILAND C HI
Sana SE
VIETNAM
Calicut
SUDAN ETHIOPIA SRI LANKA

Colombo
(SOUTH)
INDIAN OCEAN M A L A Y S I A
Since the Middle Ages the lands between the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, and China
have been linked by trade routes – the River Volga and the Silk Road to China. Islam
expanded along these routes, sometimes by conquest, but mainly through trade and
Sufi missionaries. In modern times, Muslims in this area have been linked politically,
as most countries were under Soviet or Chinese communist rule. Since the breakdown
of the Soviet Union in 1991, religious activities have revived and new Muslim
countries have emerged.
Between the 7th and the 9th centuries, Islam Caucasus, and later spread peacefully through
spread by conquest to Central Asia and the commerce. By the 12th century Islam stretched

imam Shamil (r. 1834–59) and Uzun Haji
Islam in Modern Asia

map 45
(d. 1920), rebelled against the Russians in the
northern Caucasus.
D E R A T I O N Muslim groups The Russian Revolution of 1917 resulted
Iranian peoples in an anti-religious policy, and overt Muslim
Tajiks religious rituals and practices were restricted,
Baluchis
mosques destroyed, and Muslim schools and
Afghans
Kurds colleges proscribed. Anti-religious campaigns
Persians intensified in the 1950s and 1960s. During
Bator
Turkic peoples the late 1980s, the Russian leader Mikhail
G O L I A Kazakhs Gorbachev’s (b. 1931) policy of glasnost
Bashkirs
(openness) aimed at permitting some
Tatars
Uighurs
freedom of thought and belief, and marked
Beijing NORTH
KOREA Kirghiz the beginning of Muslim political revival.
huan Uzbeks By 1991, the Muslim states of Kazakhstan,
SOUTH
KOREA
Turks Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
YELLOW Other Muslim groups
SEA Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan had emerged
Nilotic
as independent republics.
Kalmyks
H I N A Shanghai
Most Muslims in southern Russia,
Georgians
Armenians Central Asia, and the Caucasus are Sunnis,
Punjabis, Sindis, Bengalis following the Hanafi school of law. Most
and other South Asians
Daghestanis, Chechno-Ingush and some
Arabs
Guangzhou Hui Kurds follow the Shafi’i school. There are Shi’a
OS
Muslims among the Tajiks, the Uzbeks, the
Baluchis, the Azeris, and Tats. There are also
S OUTH P ACIFIC Isma’ilis, especially in the Pamirs in Central
AND C HINA
S EA OCEAN Asia, and some Baha’is in southern Russia,
VIETNAM Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan. Sufi orders
are particularly important in Central Asia
and the northern Caucasus.
Miles
0 200 400 600
A L A Y S I A 0 200 400 500 800 Islam in China

Kilometers
The exact number of Chinese Muslims is
unknown, partly because of the Communist
from the Urals to modern Kazakhstan, government’s repressive policy toward Islam.
Kyrgyzstan, and Xinjiang. By the 16th century The two most significant groups are the Hui,
it extended as far as the Russian steppes, north who speak languages such as Tibetan and
of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. Mongolian, and the Uighur who speak a
As the Russian Empire expanded, from Turkic language.
the 14th to the 19th century, it incorporated The first Muslim settlers in China
Muslim territories. Apart from Catherine were merchants who arrived from the
the Great (r. 1762–96), Russian rulers denied 7th century onward. Those coming by sea
Muslims religious rights. Sufi-inspired jihad settled in the south-eastern coastal region,
movements, such as those led by Naqshbandi around modern-day Guangzhou (Canton).
ISLAM IN MODERN ASIA 123

Decorated mihrab of
the Kalon mosque,
Bukhara, Uzbekistan.
Those arriving via the Silk Road reached assimilation. Sufism entered China as a major
Xinjiang; some headed to modern-day Xi’an force late in the 17th century, arriving from
(Chang’an), often stopping at Lanzhou. Central Asia along the main trade routes.
These early settlers included Arabs, Persians, When the Qing dynasty (1644–1911)
and Mongols. expanded into Central Asia, Muslims started
There were further migrations to China to rebel, asserting their identity and rejecting
during the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279– any compromises with local religions.
1368), when Muslims traded with Central The Qing quashed major 19th-century
Asia. The first Muslim community in Yunnan Muslim rebellions in Yunnan and north-
province can be dated to this period. The west China. Muslims of the north-west were
Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was generally granted autonomy only after the fall of the
tolerant towards Muslims and encouraged Qing dynasty.

The policy of the Chinese People’s Chinese military presence. This region has Uighur men outside
Republic towards Muslims has oscillated become commercially and strategically the Id Kah Mosque at
between tolerance and radicalism. During important for China because of its mineral the end of Ramadan.
Kashgar, Xinjiang
the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), Muslims resources and its trade links with Central
province, western
in Yunnan were persecuted under both anti- Asia, the Middle East, and the West. China.
ethnic and anti-religious policies.
Recent Islamic militancy, especially in
the north-west, has prompted an increased
ISLAM IN MODERN ASIA 125

By the end of World War I, the Muslim
Islam in the Modern World empires had been dismembered, and

European colonial powers occupied
or directly influenced the Muslim
ISLAM WORLDWIDE TODAY
world. ‘Modernity’ was regarded as a

transformation originating in Europe and
North America. Muslims experienced
Europe’s power not as secular, but as
Christian. While Muslims welcomed
the material benefits of science and
technology, they remained ambivalent C A N A D A
to modern values, such as democracy,
A
and hostile to missionary propaganda
that contradicted the core of their faith.
U N I T E D S TAT E S
In countries such as India, Algeria, and OF AMERICA
Palestine, the retreat from colonial rule
left much suffering and bitterness.
ME
XIC
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
O
Two major Sunni modernist reformers, the
P ACIFIC
Indian Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817–98) and OCEAN
the Egyptian Muhammad ‘Abduh (1845–
1905), held that every Muslim could search
scripture’s meaning for himself or herself. SOUTH
More radical reformers aimed AMERICA
to Islamicize modernity, rather than Percentage of Muslim population
modernize Islam. Two key radicals helped 90–100%
shape movements that are sometimes called 75–89%
‘fundamentalist’ or ‘Islamist’: the Indian/ 50–74%
Pakistani Abu al-Ala Maududi (1903–79) 30–49%
11–29%
and the Egyptian Sayyid Qutb (1906–66).
1–10%
Both men believed Muslims should conduct Less than 1%
their entire lives according to God’s law, Islamic migration since 1900
and provided an incisive critique of secular
Western societies. A similar impulse
moved Ayatollah Khomeini’s revolution in USA in 1910 by Inayat Khan (1882–1927),
Iran (1979). and made popular by the writings of Idries
In the USA, some of the Black Power Shah (1924–96). In the West, small numbers
movements drew on Islamic themes. The of white converts, particularly in areas of
Nation of Islam (NOI) was originally a black high Muslim immigration, have converted to
supremacist organization, established in the Islam, having found other various aspects of
1930s and later led by Elijah Muhammad the religion appealing.
(Elijah Poole, 1897–1975). The majority of Muslims in Western
White people’s interest in Islam tends to society live peacefully, often with workplace
focus on Sufism, originally introduced to the adaptations to meet their religious

map 46
R U S S I A
E
N ORTH O P
R
ATLANTIC U
OCEAN E
TURKEY
A S I A
C H I N A
N
STA
Jerusalem NI
IRAQ IRAN HA
AFG
N
KIS
TA
ALGERIA SAU D I
L I B YA AR ABI A PA
Medina I ND I A
SH
Mecca
A NO RTH A RABIAN ADE
NGL
F
BA
SU DAN S EA
R P ACIFIC
I C OCEAN
A M A L AYS I A
I N D O N E S I A
SOUTH
INDIAN
AMERICA OCEAN
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Miles
0 500 1000 1500
0 1000 2000
Kilometers
requirements at times such as the Ramadan such as the corruption and repression of
fast. However for some in the West, the Western-supported regimes, some of whose
destruction of the twin towers in New York policies are widely regarded as perpetrating
on 11 September 2001 confirmed warnings of injustices upon Muslim peoples in areas such
a ‘resurgent Islam’ and a ‘clash of civilizations’. as Palestine, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Algeria,
Muslim leaders have long been concerned Iraq, and Bosnia. In June 2014 the jihadist
about the rise of religious extremism within so-called ‘Islamic State’ (IS) group declared
their community. Radicals express in the establishment of a ‘caliphate’ and seized
religious terms socio-political problems that extensive territory in Syria and Iraq.
affect their own and other Muslim societies,
ISLAM IN THE MODERN WORLD 127

Sikhism is one of the youngest of the world’s major religions. Around 1500 ce, Nanak,
Sikhism the religion’s founder, is said to have been transformed by God while bathing. He
emerged with the words, ‘There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim’ – a simple creed that
became the basis of Sikhism.
The history of Sikhism has always been hymnal fills 1,430 pages in the modern
closely linked to the Punjab, the land of its edition, and is central to the ritual of Sikh
origins. Sikhism first emerged in a society temples (gurdwara – ‘gate of the Guru’).
that was religiously divided. It is not a mere
combination of Hindu and Muslim elements: Guru Gobind Singh and the Khalsa
from the outset it has defined itself as a new The Panth grew in numbers during the
and independent third way. Yet it is the time of the early Gurus, which overlapped
product of the relationship, in the Punjab and with the reign of the great Mughal emperor
beyond, of a vigorous minority community Akbar (1542–1605). However the strategic
with the two larger traditions of Hinduism location of the Punjab embroiled the Gurus in
and Islam. imperial politics, and Guru Arjan became the
Guru Nanak (1469–1539) was a capable first Sikh martyr, when Akbar’s less tolerant
organizer of his followers as well as an successor Jehangir executed him for allegedly
insightful and powerful teacher. He laid the supporting a rebellion. During the 17th
foundations for some of the defining practices century, continuing conflict with the Mughals
of Sikhism, particularly the daily offices of resulted in the execution of the 9th Guru,
prayer (nitnem) and congregational assembly Tegh Bahadur (r. 1664–75), in Delhi.
to hear the hymns of the Guru. Guru Nanak This led to a radical new formation of
went outside his family to select his successor the community, under the martyred leader’s
Angad (r. 1539–52) as second Guru of the son, Guru Gobind Singh (r. 1675–1708), the
Sikh community, or Panth (path, way). 10th and last Guru. Guru Gobind adopted
After Nanak’s death, the Sikhs were led by the role of ruler as well as Guru in his court
a line of living Gurus until the death of the at Anandpur, in the Punjab. He re-established
10th Guru in 1708. Although the third Guru, the Guru’s authority over the Panth by
Amar Das (r. 1552–74), symbolically rejected founding a new order called the Khalsa, the
the Hindu caste hierarchy by instituting the Guru’s elite. Since the time of the last Guru,
langar, the temple kitchen offering food to all baptized members of the Khalsa have led
regardless of caste, all the Gurus were from the Panth. Gobind Singh’s sons were killed
the same Khatri caste as Nanak. From the during his struggles with the Mughal emperor
fifth Guru onwards the succession became Aurangzeb (1618–1707), and he was himself
hereditary within a single family. killed by a Muslim assassin. With his death,
Initially the centre of the community the line of living Gurus came to an end;
shifted with each Guru, until Guru their authority was henceforth vested in the
Arjan (r. 1581–1606) founded the great scripture, revered as the Guru Granth Sahib.
temple at Amritsar – the Golden Temple During the 18th century, the Punjab was
(Harimandir) – which since its inauguration fought over between the declining Mughal
in 1604 has been the focal point of Sikhism. Empire and new Muslim invaders from
Guru Arjan also codified the Sikh scriptures, Afghanistan. This was the heroic age of the
the Adi Granth (‘original book’). This huge Sikh Panth, who mounted a spirited resistance

SIKH ORIGINS map 47
Mughal Empire in 1526

Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
Site important to Sikhism
AFGHANISTAN Modern political border
Kabul
K A S H M I R
KHYBER PASS
Islamabad 1539
Peshawar Guru Nanak dies
Kartarpur
Rawalpindi . .
mR b R Amritsar Golden Temple founded (1577) Delhi
Jhelu Chena Sultanpur
s R.
Dera Baba Nanak Jullundur

u
Ind
1469 Nankana Sahib Bhakra

Guru Nanak
born
P U N J A B Lahore Anandpur H
Tarn Taran Ludhiana I
R. Firozpur M
Ravi R. Muktsar Chandigarh A
b
na
L A
Che
Multan Talwandi Sirhind

PAK I S TA N .
Sutlej R U R
Bhatinda Y A
R. A LP N S
us
HA
W Delhi Ga E P
In d ng
A L
BA es
R.
R A J P U T A N A Mathura Yar
mu
na
R.
Jaipur
THAR
DESERT
I N D I A Miles
0 100 200
0 100 200 300

Kilometers
to both Muslim armies. Led by the Jat Sikhs, political dominance, with its Christian
who had become the dominant group in the emphasis. After the British conquered Ranjit
community, the Khalsa forces achieved success Singh’s kingdom, Sikh religious identity
with the capture of Lahore, the provincial seemed to be threatened by the dismantling
capital, which became the centre of a powerful of Sikh political institutions, and by a
Sikh kingdom under Maharaja Ranjit Singh resurgent Hinduism.
(1799–1839). However his weaker successors Sikh reformist associations (Singh
were unable to resist the British, who, after two Sabhas) formed in the main cities of the
hard-fought wars, incorporated the Punjab Punjab, formulating a redefined Sikhism
into their Indian Empire in 1849. with a distinctive Sikh identity that has
remained the orthodoxy till today. Meanwhile
Modern Sikhism cultural transformation was achieved in the
In the late 19th century, leaders of Indian community through reformers such as Bhai
society, including Sikhs, confronted British Vir Singh (1872–1957).
SIKHISM 129

SIKHISM IN INDIA TODAY map 48
Sikh population c. 2005

16 million approximately
1.25–1.5 million
JA M MU & 600,000–999,000
Peshawar K AS H M I R 150,000–250,000
50,000–100,000
Rawalpindi
1,000–49,999
Amritsar HIMMACHAL
PRADESH under 1,000
Lahore
PUNJAB Chandigarh
UTTARANCHAL
HARYANA
Delhi A RU N ACH A L
P R A D ESH
SIKKIM
Mathura
UTTAR
RAJASTHAN PRADESH ASSAM
Patna NAGALAND
Varanasi MEGHALAYA
BIHAR
MANIPUR
JHARKHAND TRIPURA
MADHYA PRADESH MIZORAM
GU J A R AT
CHHATTISGARH
ORISSA
MAHARASHTRA
Nanded B AY
OF
BENGAL
ANDHRA
PRADESH
GOA
KARNATAKA ANDAMAN
AND
NICOBAR
ISLANDS
TAMIL
KERALA NADU
LAKSHADWEEP
Miles
0 100 200
INDIAN OCEAN 0 100 200 300

Kilometers

SIKHISM WORLDWIDE TODAY map 49
N O RTH
A TL AN T I C
O CEAN
P AC I FI C
O C E AN
P AC IFIC
O CEAN
Sikh population I N DI AN
O C E AN
More than 19 million S OU T H
A T L AN T I C
More than 500,000 O C E AN
200,000–500,000
20,000–50,000
10,000–12,000
Less than 5,000
By the end of World War I, reformists Sikh activists fighting Indian security forces,
had given Sikhs confidence to engage with culminating with the Indian prime minister,
nationalist politics. The Akali movement Indira Gandhi (1917–84) ordering the army
transferred control of the major gurdwaras to storm the Golden Temple in 1984. Her
from hereditary guardians to an elected assassination by Sikh bodyguards provoked
committee of male Sikhs, the Shiromani anti-Sikh pogroms in many parts of India,
Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), and separatism eventually lost the support of
which became the most important voice most Sikhs in India.
in Sikhism.
With no real chance of achieving their The Sikh diaspora
own country, the Sikhs cast their lot with Increasingly confident and well-established
the Hindus in 1947, when partition of the diaspora communities have been settled for
Punjab between India and Pakistan was more than a generation in Britain, Canada,
effected. This uprooted half the community and the USA, and totals around 1 million.
from the Pakistan side to the Indian Punjab, The Sikh diaspora remains closely linked to
but for the first time consolidated the Sikh the Punjab through family ties, the rituals
population territorially. of the gurdwara, the great Sikh festivals
From this base, the Akali Dal launched (gurpurbs), and regular pilgrimages to the
the Punjabi State campaign, aiming to great shrines. But they are also directly
establish a linguistically-defined state with exposed to Western environments and
a Sikh majority. By the early 1980s, the relatively free of the constraints experienced
Punjab had become a battleground, with in an increasingly Hindu-dominated India.
SIKHISM 131

Part 7
World Religions Today

Religion in Japan is a rich tapestry of diverse traditions. Many people display
Japanese Religions allegiance to more than one religion: Shinto, Buddhist, and various new religions.
Japan has received much from Korea and household was central to Shinto, tracing its
China: the main imported religions are roots back to Ninigi, believed to have been
Buddhism, mainly in its Mahayana form, grandson of the sun-goddess Amaterasu.
and Confucianism. The influence of Taoism From 1868, when the monarchy was
has been largely indirect, partly through restored to a central position in Japan,
Zen Buddhism. Japan’s native Shinto faith until the end of the Pacific War in 1945, the
first emerged in reaction to Buddhism and Shinto religion was focused sharply on the
Confucianism, with their scholarly prestige emperor cult. After the war, the emperor’s
and political influence. semi-divine status was officially denied and
Japan consists of four main islands. The Shinto disestablished. Nevertheless, the
most famous Shinto shrines and Buddhist imperial family still enjoys high esteem, and
temples are in the main island, Honshu. Shinto shrines remain important symbols of
Important Shinto shrines are at Ise, where Japanese nationhood.
the sun-goddess Amaterasu is revered, and at Today Shinto is based on individual
Izumo, where all the gods, or kami, are said shrines, each of which has a particular reason
to return once a year. The former capitals, for its existence, whether it be a natural
Nara and Kyoto, have Shinto shrines, such phenomenon, such as a mountain, a historical
as the Kasuga Shrine at Nara, and many fine event, or an act of personal devotion or
Buddhist temples and images. The island political patronage.
of Shikoku has a famous pilgrim route
taking in 88 Buddhist temples. Kyushu, the Japanese Buddhism
southernmost island, has some of the oldest Japanese Buddhism can be traced back to the
sites because of its proximity to Korea. It was early 6th century ce, when images and sutras,
the main base for Roman Catholic missions or Buddhist scriptures, were sent from Korea.
in the 16th century, and for the Shinto- Prince Shotoku, regent from 593 to 622 ce,
inspired reassertion of imperial power in the established Buddhism as a national religion,
mid-19th century. linking it to Confucian ideals of morality
Japan’s mountainous terrain has also and statecraft.
influenced the forms of Japanese religious A later Buddhist centre drew its
life. Many mountains – most famously inspiration from the Chinese T’ien T’ai
Mount Fuji – have shrines that attract pilgrim school, which became known in Japan as
groups. Mount Koya became one of the Tendai Buddhism. This in turn was affected
centres of Shingon Buddhism. by an esoteric form of Buddhism – Shingon –
established by the famous monk Kukai (744–
Shinto 835), posthumously known as Kobo Daishi.
Shinto is the name for a collection of religious The Lotus Sutra had already been important
practices with roots in prehistoric Japan in Tendai Buddhism, but Nichiren (1222–82)
which were broadly animist, believing a gave it a new centrality. His writings provided
supernatural force resided in natural objects the basis for a number of sects, including
such as mountains, trees, and animals. From influential modern lay Buddhist movements.
the Yamato period onwards, the imperial

JAPAN: PLACES OF RELIGIOUS IMPORTANCE map 50
RUSSIA
HOKKAIDO
CHINA Sapporo
Osore-yama (Shinto)
AU STR ALI A Iwaki-san
SEA OF Haguro-san
J A PA N
Tosho-gu C17
HONSHU
Zenko-ji
Tale-yama Meiji-jingu C20 Shrine to war dead
Ontake-san Tokyo
Hiei-san (Buddhist)
Mt Fuji
Kuon-ji C13
Eihei-ji C13
Kyoto Fushima-Inari C9 Shrine to Inari, god of rice

Izumo-no-Oyashiro Kasuga shrine C8
Rebuilt C18 Ise C3 Shrine to Amaterasu, sun goddess
Shrine to goddess Kumano-jinja C14
of marriage Koya-san (Shingon)
Hiroshima Mt Miwa
KU Omime-yama (Shugendo)
IT
I KO
RA
SH
88 temple pilgrimage route
P ACIFIC
ST
Fukuoka
OCEAN
A
RE
KO KYUSHU Ama-no-Iwato-Jinja Shrine to Amaterasu Omikami, sun goddess

Aso-san
Kirishima-yama
Where Imperial ancestors
descended from heaven
Sacred mountain
Miles Shinto sacred mountain
0 50 100
Shinto shrine
0 50 100 150 Buddhist temple
Kilometers
J A PA N E S E R E L I G I O N S 1 35

China has always had its own distinctive
Religion in China Today religious traditions, in part due to their

having developed virtually in isolation
from those elsewhere, with none of
MAJOR RELIGIONS OF MODERN CHINA
the idea-sharing common in Western

religions. Chinese traditions have
tended to focus more on ethics than on
speculation about the existence of a deity.
While the ethical teachings of Confucius K A Z A K H S T A N

himself were to some extent amplified by
later prophets, especially Mencius and
Hsün-tzu, the Taoist religion emerged almost
in contrast to Confucianism’s emphasis on
service to society, concerned with seeking a
mystical unity with the Tao – a metaphysical
absolute – by the contemplation of nature.
Both traditions also changed through the
influence of Buddhism. The crossover
between these three traditions is such that XINJIANG UIGHUR
today many people see no problem in being
an adherent of all three. During the 20th
century, all three traditions struggled to
survive Maoist Communism and the Cultural
Revolution, while the re-emergence and rise Q
of Christianity was one result of the relaxation
of state proscription.
In the early 20th century, the Chinese
regarded Christianity as an imported ‘foreign’ TIBET
religion. Today, out of a total population of
1,330 billion in 2010, it has been estimated
that approximately 85 million are Protestants,
NE
and another 21 million Catholics. If these PA
L
B H U TA N
figures are accurate, China would contain
the third largest Christian population in the
world, after the USA and Brazil. Chinese I N D I A BANGLADESH
Christianity has undergone a process of
‘sinicization’, or indigenization, becoming
embedded in the Chinese culture. The core Roman Catholic
Protestant
of state policy towards Christianity in China
Buddhist
is the ‘Three Self Policy’ – self-support, Taoist
self-government, self-propagation – adopted Muslim
in the 1950s by all officially-sanctioned No dominant religion/no data
B AY O F B E N G A L
religious groups.

map 51
R U S S I A
MANCHURIA
HEILONJIANG
M O N G O L I A
INNER MONGOLIA
JILIN
LIAONING
Beijing
N O RT H
KO R E A SEA OF
SHANXI BEIZHILI J A PA N
SHANDONG SOUTH
KO R E A
QINGHAI GANSU Y E L LOW J A PA N
SEA
HENAN
SHAANXI JIANGSU
SICHUAN ANHUI
Shanghai
HUBEI
ZHEJIANG E AS T
CHINA
H U TA N HUNAN SEA
JIANGXI FUJIAN
GUIZHOU
Fuzhou
LADESH
YUNNAN
GUANGDONG P ACIFIC
GUANGXI FORMOSA
Hong Kong OCEAN
MYA N MA R V I E T N AM
( B U R MA)
SOUTH CHINA Miles
0 250 500
L AO S SEA
BENGAL HAINAN 0 250 500 750
Kilometers
R E L I G I O N I N C H I N A TO D AY 137

WORLD RELIGIONS IN THE 21st CENTURY
GREENLAND
ALASKA ICELAND SWEDE

NOR
W
AY
UNITED
KINGDOM
C A N A D A N ORTH IRELAND
NY POL
ATLANTIC
A
GERM
OCEAN FRANCE
ITALY
PORTUGAL
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA SPAIN
ALGERIA
LIBY
MEXICO
HAWAII (U.S.A.)
CUBA
MAURITANIA NIGER
AS MALI CH
DUR
ON
P ACIFIC
A
H
AL
TE M NICARAGUA
OCEAN G UA
A NI
GHANA
E IAN
A
VENEZUELA COTE
RIC
GU
SUR A
GER
TA AN
FREN M
D’IVOIRE
MA
COS ANA
INA
GUY
IA
CH
P
COLOMBIA
Hindu ECUADOR GABON

Jewish
Chinese religions
Theravada Buddhism BRAZIL
PERU ANGOL
Mahayana Buddhism
SOUTH
Orthodox Christian
ATLANTIC NAMIBIA
Mainly Protestant Christian PARAGUAY
OCEAN
Sunni Muslim CHILE
Shi-ite Muslim
Shinto ARGENTINA
URU
Tribal, Muslim, Christian AY

GU
Tribal, Christian
Traditional, tribal or
Jain Minority
Sikh minority
Jewish minority Miles
0 1000 2000
Muslim minority
Zoroastrian minority 0 1000 2000
Kilometers

map 52
SWEDEN
NOR
W FINLAND
R U S S I A
AY
NITED
NGDOM
BELARUS
NY POLAND
A
GERM
UKRAINE
KHAZAKHSTAN
MONGOLIA
FRANCE
ITALY UZBE
KIS
TURKM T
ENIS N. KOREA
AN
IN TURKEY TA
S. KOREA JAPAN
N
SYRIA
IRAQ AFGHANISTAN C H I N A
IRAN
TIBET
ALGERIA PAKISTAN
LIBYA
EGYPT
SAUDI
ARABIA
OMAN
INDIA
BURMA
NIGER LAOS
MALI CHAD SUDAN (N)
YEMEN A RABIAN
S EA THAILAND
VIETNAM
PHILIPPINE
IS.
P ACIFIC
OCEAN
NI
GHANA
SUDAN ETHIOPIA
GER
E (S) SRI LANKA

IA
SOMALIA MAL AYSIA
KENYA
GABON D.R.
CONGO INDIAN I N D O N E S I A PAPUA
TANZANIA OCEAN NEW
GUINEA
ANGOLA
ZAMBIA
MOZAMBIQUE
ZIMBABWE
NAMIBIA
BOTSWANA MADAGASCAR
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH
AFRICA
NEW
ZEALAND
R E L I G I O N I N C H I N A TO D AY 139

Indigenous religions make up the majority of the world’s religions. They are as diverse
What are Indigenous Religions? as the languages spoken, the music made, and the means of subsistence employed by
the many people who find them meaningful and satisfying.
Not all indigenous religions are the same. world. It is also unacceptable to speak of
There are hundreds of indigenous languages groups that may include millions of people
in, for example, North America and Papua as ‘tribes’, and of their religions as ‘tribal
New Guinea; there are also many different religions’. Indigenous religions are not stuck
ways of being religious. in the past, nor do they only make sense
Few indigenous languages have a word when practised in their original homelands.
like ‘religion’, and some scholars have Although indigenous religions have been
concluded that it is inappropriate to speak heavily affected by colonialism, they continue
of ‘religion’ when referring to indigenous to provide resources for people in the new,
cultures. But if we think of religions as globalized world.
particular ways of living in and seeing the Some indigenous religions feature
world, we can find religion in the ordinary, teaching about a God who created the
everyday lives of many people who do not world. Others hold that everything we see
use the word. results from the creative activities of many
As a result of the spread of global other persons. Perhaps a single creator, or a
religions – for example Buddhism, creative process, started it all – but life then
Christianity, and Islam – some indigenous developed as each living being, or person,
religions have been destroyed, rejected, played their part. Trees separated sky and
and abandoned. Some indigenous people land, mountains arose to shape the land,
have accepted the arriving religion on coyote or jaguar or a robin tamed fire, corn
their own terms, incorporating it into an taught planting cycles and ceremonies,
indigenous understanding. Many indigenous humans built towns: thus the world became
religions have adapted to the presence of the way it is. Similar processes continue
more powerful or dominant religions and to change the world, making it important
continued with vitality and creativity. Some that people learn to act responsibly and
people are returning to their ‘traditional ways’, respectfully. All this is common in a great
while others engage in both an indigenous variety of indigenous religions.
and another newer religion. Indigenous religions imply a great
Indigenous religions are not the variety of creative persons. Some might be
‘fossilized’ remains of the earliest, or first, recognized as similar to the God whom
religions. They are rarely simple or simplistic, monotheists acknowledge; others are more
and should not – as was common among polytheistic deities, encountered in the kind
Western scholars in the past – be taken as of intimate, everyday matters for which
the basic building blocks from which ‘more some scholars use the word ‘immanent’ –
advanced’ religions were built or evolved. the divine within the world and everyday
Chauvinistic terms such as ‘primitive experience. Many significant persons
religion’ or ‘primal religion’, commonly are humans: elders, priests, shamans,
used previously, detract from a respectful grandparents, rulers, and so on. Although
understanding of the ways in which different ancestors are important, among indigenous
people understand and engage with the people this word normally refers to those

from whom a particular person or family is Masai men outside traditional huts, Masai Mara, Kenya.
descended, rarely ‘all those who have died’.
Some indigenous people believe it careful, sometimes frightening, training for
is possible to cause harm by performing their role.
particular rituals, such as witchcraft and Indigenous religions, like other religions,
sorcery. Solutions might be found by recourse can be considered to be ways in which
to diviners or shamans. For the indigenous particular groups of people seek to improve
people, these specialists are adept at finding health, happiness, and even wealth for
knowledge unavailable to others, and require themselves, their families, and communities.
W H AT A R E I N D I G E N O U S R E L I G I O N S ? 1 41

INDIGENOUS RELIGIONS WORLDWIDE
GREENLAND
INUIT
INUIT
NETSILIK INUIT
TLINGIT
ALEUTS
KWAKIUTL
NORTH
R
CR E E N ORTH
O
A M E R I C A A LGONQU I N
U R
ATLANTIC
C K
OMA H A
OCEAN E
Y
CROW MA NDA N TS
M
SI OU X N
M T
CH E YE NNE
IA
I R OQU OI S
H
AC
HO PI
S
L
NAVA JO PUE BLO ZU NI
PA
IND I A NS
AP
CH E R OK E E
APACHE
YAQU I
S A H A R
HUICHOL
ZAPOTEC
TZOTZIL
A F R I C
HAUSA DOGON
P ACIFIC MENDE YORUBA TIV AZA

OCEAN Piaroa Yanomami ASHANTIIBO
TRIO
Jivaro Zo’e Pygm
A N D E S
MUNDURUKU
Kreen
SURUI Akrore
Kayapo
KORUBO
SHAVANTE
SOUTH Kalaha
ATLANTIC Bushpeo
OCEAN
TUPI KAL
DE
SOUTH
AMERICA
Miles
0 1000 2000
MAPUCHE
0 1000 2000
Kilometers
INUIT Indigenous group

Piaroa Isolated indigenous group
Indigenous beliefs widely held
Indigenous beliefs in smaller localities

map 53
EVENKI
SAMI Yakut CHUKCHI
KOMI
S I B E R I A KORYAK
URA
TUNGUS
L MT S
R O P E
U A S I A
E E RT
I DES
G OB
MARSH
ARABS HIM Apatani
ALA
YA S
HILL
Nagas TRIBES
A H A R A HILL
TRIBES
BEDOUIN
F R I C A A RABIAN CHENCHU
MEO
Ilongot
DOGON S EA
A NAYAR
SHILLUK TODA ANDAMANESE
YORUBA TIV AZANDE NUER
SOMALI
PASTORAL Tasady
P ACIFIC
VEDDAS
HANTI IBO DINKA NOMADS
Semai
TROBRIAND
ISLANDERS OCEAN
Iban
BANTU Sarawak
Pygmies MASAI
MANUS
INDIAN Dani
LELE HADZA Jale
OCEAN Fore
DOBUANS
TONGA MURNGIN
TULLY
RIVER PEOPLE
Kalahari
Bushpeople WALBIRI
JIGALONG ARANDA WANAMARA
KALAHARI SWAZI PINTUBI
DESERT
ZULU
AUSTRALIA
MAORI
MAORI
W H AT A R E I N D I G E N O U S R E L I G I O N S ? 1 43

The term ‘New Religious Movements’
New Religious Movements (NRMs) covers a variety of religious

organizations that have emerged and
which are often dismissively referred
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS WORLDWIDE
to by mainline religions, particularly

the Roman Catholic Church, as ‘cults’.
Some scholars define a new religion as an
organization that has arrived in the West
since World War II, while others regard
‘new’ as covering the last 150 years.
N ORT
NRMs are a global phenomenon: it is UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1830 Church of Jesus Christ of
ATLAN
CUBA
estimated that there are some 10,000 NRMs Latter Day Saints (Mormons) Palo OCEA
1848 Spiritualism Abakuá
in Africa, around 3,000 in the USA, and 1875 Theosophical Society
1879 Christian Science
HAITI
Santeria
1884 Jehovah’s Witnesses
500–600 in Britain. NRMs tend to fall outside 1894 Vedanta Society
Voodoo
(Vodun)
1950 Church of Scientology
mainstream religion, sometimes because of 1960s Human Potential Movement (HPM)
1960s Jesus People
doctrinal disputes or controversial practices. 1968 Children of God
1969 Healthy, Happy, Holy Org.
19th century NRMs in the West were 1971 Erhard Seminar Training (est) JAMAICA
1936 Rastafarianism
predominantly Christian. William Miller
(1782–1849) proclaimed that Christ’s second P ACIFIC
OCEAN
coming was imminent. He named 1843,
subsequently 1844, as the year of Christ’s
return; his followers’ disillusionment in 1844 BRAZIL
Umbanda
became known as the ‘Great Disappointment’. Quimbanda
Candomblé
Ellen G. White (1827–1915), who founded
the Seventh-day Adventists in 1861, taught
that Jesus had returned, but his presence
was invisible. Miles
0 1000 2000
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916),
who co-founded Zion’s Watch Tower Tract 0 1000 2000
Kilometers
Society in 1881, also taught Christ’s ‘invisible
presence’, although the Jehovah’s Witnesses,
as Russell’s successor Joseph Rutherford in 1887. Some of Hopkins’ students set up
(1869–1942) renamed them in 1931, now their own organizations, best known of which
date this event to 1914. is the Unity School of Christianity, or Unity
Another significant movement was Church, founded in Kansas City, Missouri,
New Thought, or Higher Thought, which in 1889.
taught that Infinite Intelligence – or God – Modern spiritualism can be traced
is everywhere, and emphasized health back to ‘rappings’ heard by the Fox sisters
improvement through mental ‘affirmations’. of Hydesville, New York, in 1848, though
These ideas influenced Mary Baker Eddy’s modern spiritualist churches emphasize
(1821–1910) Christian Science movement healing as much as contact with the
and the Hopkins Metaphysical Association, departed. Helena P. Blavatsky (1831–91),
set up by Emma Curtis Hopkins (1849–1925) one of the founders of the Theosophical

map 54
UNITED KINGDOM
1783 Swedenborgianism
1955 Aetherius Society
Neo-paganism
1965 Findhorn
AUSTRIA
1912 Anthroposophy
N ORTH JAPAN
1837 Tenrikyo
ATLANTIC 1859 Konkokyo
BA
o OCEAN I RAN
1844 Baha’i
CHINA
1992 Falun Gong
1925 Reiyu-Kai
1930 Seich No I.e.
akuá (Falun Dafa) 1930 Mahikari
HAITI 1935 Soka Gakkai, Nichiren Shoshu
anteria 1938 Rissho-Kosei-Kai
Voodoo
Vodun) SOUTH KOREA
1860 Chongdogyo
1954 Unification Church (‘Moonies’)
P ACIFIC
PAKISTAN
OCEAN
1889 Ahmadiyah INDONESIA
1937 Brahma Kumaris 1933 Subud
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
NIGERIA 1920 Cargo movements
1918 Aladura church
INDIA
1940 Sathya Sai Baba
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC 1955 Ananda
OF CONGO (ZAIRE) 1958 Transcendental Meditation (tm)
1921 Zimbangu Church 1965 International Society for
Krishna Consciousness
ZAMBIA
1953 Lumpa Church
INDIAN
OCEAN
SOUTH
ATLANTIC
OCEAN SOUTH AFRICA
1904 Zionist Church
Society, claimed contact with a number ‘Jesus Movement’, or ‘Jesus People’, gained
of ‘Ascended Masters’ – advanced momentum within the youth counter-
spiritual beings who once lived on earth. culture, sometimes involving communal
Ascended Masters – sometimes called living and sharing of possessions. Converts
the ‘Great White Brotherhood’ – also had often previously been on drugs, and
feature in the Rosicrucians, the Church the Love Family, or Church of Jesus Christ
Universal and Triumphant, and the New at Armageddon, founded in 1968 by Paul
Age ‘channelling’ movement. Erdman (1940–2007), encouraged their use.
Of the communal groups, the best
NRMs in the 1960s and 1970s known are The Family International (TFI),
A new wave of NRMs occurred in the previously known as the Children of God,
1960s. Bible-based and charismatic, the or COG, and The Holy Spirit Association
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 145

for the Unification of World Christianity, or moved to Oregon, USA, where he set up his
Unification Church (UC). Founded by David ‘enlightened city’, Rajneeshpuram. Following
Brandt Berg (‘Moses David’, 1919–94), COG conflict with locals, Osho was arrested in
was ostensibly Protestant fundamentalist, but 1985, and the community disbanded.
became controversial for its ‘flirty fishing’ –
or ‘FFing’ – offering sex to seekers, mainly Buddhist NRMs
by female members. The founder-leader of Arriving in the USA in 1897, D. T. Suzuki
the Unification Church, Sun Myung Moon (1870–1966) wrote prolifically on Zen. The
(1920–2012), claimed Jesus was unable to 1960s US youth counter-culture took the
accomplish his messianic mission, which was Zen notion of the ‘Buddha within’ to mean
to marry and beget sinless children. He and promiscuity, and their counter-cultural
his wife are regarded as the new messiahs. version of Zen is sometimes known as
‘Beat Zen’.
Indian-derived NRMs Buddhist NRMs derive from various
The first Hindu swami (world-renouncer) to traditions. The Vipassana movement
visit the West was Ramakrishna’s pupil Swami promotes a Theravada meditative practice.
Vivekananda (1863–1902), who founded Innovative forms of Tibetan Buddhism
the Vedanta Society in New York in 1894. include the New Kadampa Tradition (NKT),
Other gurus followed, notably Paramahansa founded by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso (b. 1931),
Yogananda (1893–1952), founder of the Self- which became controversial because of a
Realization Fellowship in 1920; Meher Baba practice known as Dorje Shugden, opposed
(1894–1969), who in 1954 declared he was by the Dalai Lama.
the Avatar of the age; the Maharishi Mahesh The Soka Gakkai International (SGI),
Yogi (1918–2008), who developed the founded in 1930, derives its teachings from
Transcendental Meditation (Transcendental the Japanese teacher Nichiren (1222–82) and
Meditation®) technique; Sri Chinmoy (1931– the Lotus Sutra. The Friends of the Western
2007), who promoted ‘inner peace’; Swami A. Buddhist Order (FWBO) seek to develop
C. Bhaktivedanta Praphupada (1896–1977), a new form of Buddhism for Westerners.
founder of the International Society for Founded by the Venerable Sangharakshita
Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), better (Dennis Lingwood, b. 1925), it emphasizes
known as the ‘Hare Krishna’ movement; and ‘right livelihood’ instead of the monastic
Prem Pal Singh Rawat (b. 1957, formerly practice of seeking alms from lay supporters.
known as Guru Maharaj Ji), leader of the Falun Gong, founded in 1992 in China by
Elan Vital movement and its predecessor, Li Hongzhi (b. 1951), offers a set of physical
the Divine Light Mission (DLM). Sathya Sai exercises similar to tai ch’i, with a path to
Baba (1926–2011) never visited the West, becoming a Buddha.
but was well known as a miracle-worker. He
claimed to be the reincarnation of Sai Baba of The Bahá’í
Shirdi (d. 1918), an avatar, spiritual saint, and Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, born in Shiraz,
miracle worker. Persia (modern Iran) in 1819, claimed to be
Bhagavan Shri Rajneesh (1931–90), later a Messenger of God, and called himself the
known as Osho, taught an idiosyncratic Báb, meaning ‘the gate’, but was executed
form of Zen Buddhism and celebrated sexual in 1850. Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri (1817–92)
freedom and materialism. In 1981 Rajneesh became a follower of the Báb, took the name

Bahá’u’lláh, and founded the Bahá’í faith. He Movement, founded in 1974 by Claude
claimed to be the bearer of a new message Vorihon (b. 1946) promotes human cloning
from God, built on the previous religions of as the key to personal immortality.
the world and destined to take humanity to its The science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard
next stage of development: world unity. His (1911–86) came to prominence in 1950
shrine, near Akko, Israel, is the holiest site for with his best-selling self-improvement
Bahá’ís, and the world centre of the Bahá’í faith book Dianetics, the sourcebook of the
is in the same area. By the early 21st century Church of Scientology. Scientology is one
more than 5 million Bahá’ís were living in of several groups forming the Human
more than 230 countries, with the largest Potential Movement (HPM), organizations
community in India. that claim to offer enhanced quality of
life, such as Erhard Seminar Training
Other NRMs (est – now Landmark Forum) founded by
Starting in Jamaica, the Rastafarians were Werner Erhard (b. 1935), and the School of
initially a Black Power movement supported Economic Science (SES), which is influenced
by the descendants of slaves. They interpreted by Advaita Vedanta.
the Bible’s teachings as pointing to Ethiopia, The Human Potential Movement merges
where they believed Emperor Haile Selassie into the nebulous New Age Movement
(1891–1975) was their messiah who would (NAM), which is characterized by
herald a return to Africa. Following his death, eclecticism, optimism about human nature,
a variety of expectations arose. and disenchantment with organized religion.
‘UFO religions’ hold that the gods are ‘New Age’ flourished after 1970, evolving
extra-terrestrials who communicate with key into a more mainstream series of spiritual
humans. The earliest UFO religion in the self-improvement disciplines and quests. Its
West was the Aetherius Society, established by roots include pagan, Jewish, and Christian
George King (1919–97) in 1955. The Raëlian Hermetic movements and the occult.
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 147

Pilgrimage is normally a journey to a holy place, undertaken as a commemoration of
Modern Pilgrimage a past event, as a celebration, or as an act of penance. The goal can be a natural feature
such as a sacred river or mountain, the location of a miracle, revelation, or theophany,
or the tomb of a hero or saint.
Hinduism has always promoted pilgrimage numbers nearly 3 million pilgrims, and the
to sacred sites. In recent times there has been Vatican City, Rome, and the healing shrine at
a growing interest in pilgrimage to shrines Lourdes in France attract similar numbers.
such as the Sabarimala Temple in Kerala, and There are also many new pilgrimages.
great festivals such as the Kumbh Mela. There A modern phenomenon is the link between
has also been an increase in pilgrims visiting pilgrimage in the traditional religious sense
gurus in search of miracles. and sightseeing tourism to religious sites, to
Similarly Buddhists today go on appreciate their art, architecture, and culture.
pilgrimage to holy sites such as Mount One popular modern Catholic pilgrimage
Shatrunjaya, in Gujarat, or Shravana Belagola, site is the Marian shrine at Knock, Eire,
in Karnataka. which started with an apparition of the Virgin
Although the Japanese island of Shikoku Mary, St Joseph, and St John in 1879. Knock
lacks major religious monuments, it boasts has attracted increasing numbers of pilgrims,
a famous pilgrimage route which takes in 88
Buddhist temples that are frequently visited
by tourists. There are other pilgrimage routes Pilgrims on the Camino de Santiago, Spain.
elsewhere in Japan, the most famous being
33 places in western Honshu where the
Bodhisattva Kannon-sama is revered.
Pilgrimage has for centuries been
important in Christianity, nourished by the
belief that a visit to a great shrine could bring
physical and spiritual healing. In the Middle
Ages pilgrimage to the Holy Land was hard
and dangerous, restricted to the very devout
and those obliged to do penance for serious
sins. Alternative popular shrines included
Rome, Canterbury – site of the murder of
Thomas Becket in 1170 – and Santiago de
Compostela, north-west Spain, by tradition
the burial place of St James. Pilgrims tended
to travel in groups, gossiping, singing, and
stopping at minor shrines along the way.
Modern pilgrimage
Many traditional pilgrimage destinations
are still active today, and the ease of long-
distance travel can enable mass movements of
people. The annual Muslim hajj to Mecca now

particularly since Pope John Paul II visited in Indonesians honour nine saints – known
1979 for its centenary. as Wali Songa – who, according to tradition,
A controversial site at Medjugorje, brought Islam to Java in the 15th century.
Herzegovina, attracts many Catholic pilgrims, Egyptian Muslims venerate many saints in
after six children claimed to have seen a village tombs as well as in major cities. The
vision of the Virgin Mary there in 1981 – shrine-tomb of Sidi Ahmed al-Badawi, in
though the Roman Catholic Church has the Nile delta city of Tanta, attracts millions
never officially recognized their claims. of Egyptian pilgrims to the saint’s annual
A modern Anglican Christian pilgrimage birthday celebration.
centre, also revered by Roman Catholics, is In South, South-east, and East Asia,
the restored medieval shrine of Our Lady of huge numbers of Hindus, Buddhists,
Walsingham, Norfolk, England. The shrine, Shintoists, Confucians, Taoists, and other
established in 1061, fell into neglect after religious followers continue to participate in
the Reformation, but was revived in 1897 pilgrimages. Among the most impressive are
by a procession of pilgrims from nearby the Hindu gathering of Kumbh Mela, which
King’s Lynn. Today, thousands of pilgrims, attracts around 70 million at its major festival
mostly from English parishes, journey to every 12 years, and the annual Chinese
Walsingham each year. Spring Festival, when around 32 million
The Taizé community in Burgundy, people travel across the country each year to
France, has become one of the world’s most celebrate the New Year in their family homes.
important sites of Christian pilgrimage. More
than 100,000 young people from around the New Pilgrimages
world make pilgrimages there every year to Towards the end of summer thousands of
pray, sing, study the Bible, and do communal people from around the world travel to the
work. Through the community’s ecumenical Black Rock Desert in Nevada, USA, to take
outlook, they are encouraged to live in a spirit part in the Burning Man Festival. This event
of kindness, simplicity, and reconciliation. has no specific religious meaning; it started
in 1986 on a San Francisco beach, when a
Muslim Pilgrimages human effigy was burned on the summer
Although the Muslim hajj (pilgrimage) to solstice accompanied by spontaneous
Mecca is required once in every Muslim’s life, music-making, dancing, and community
Muslims also visit shrines and cemeteries feeling. In 1990 the event moved to Black
where walis (saints) repose. Such a visit is Rock, where it is now held annually. One
known in Arabic as ziyara. Shi’ite and Sunni of the attractions is the demanding travel
Muslims make ziyaras to Medina, where the required to reach the festival site, located in
Prophet and many other early Muslim saints the hot desert. Burning Man is a new kind of
are buried. Shi’ites also visit Karbala’, in Iraq, secular, pilgrimage-passage rite, combining
where Husayn, the Prophet Muhammad’s spirituality, tourism, risk, separation, artistic
grandson, was martyred; Najaf, where the expression, entertainment, and renewal. In
fourth Imam Ali is buried; and shrines in Europe, many annual music festivals, notably
Iran. Sunni Muslims also make ziyaras to Glastonbury, display similar characteristics.
shrines throughout the Islamic world.
M O D E R N P I LG R I M A G E 1 49

SOME MODERN PILGRIMAGE SITES
Dokkum
Wittem
Walsingham
C A N A D A N ORTH IRELAND
UNITED
KINGDOM
ATLANTIC Knock
Ste Anne Glastonbury
de Beaupré OCEAN Taizé
Banneux
Rocamadour
Lourdes FRANCE Loreto
Santiago de Compostela
PORTUGAL ITALY
Black Rock Desert, Nevada Washington D.C. Fatima SPAIN Rome
Burning Man Festival UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Vietnam War Memorial Montserrat
Chimayo Bethl
Hebr
Mt S
Jebel
Guadalupe
MEXICO
P ACIFIC
OCEAN
Canindé
BRAZIL SOUTH
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Rio de Janeiro
Christian (mainly Roman Catholic)
Muslim
Hindu
Jewish
Chinese
NRM
Buddhist
Shinto
Sikh
Indigenous Miles
0 1000 2000
Size denotes major pilgrim site
Size denotes pilgrim site 0 1000 2000
Kilometers

map 55
okkum
ittem
ham R U S S I A
ITED
GDOM
nneux
our
FRANCE Loreto
Medjugorje
ITALY
Kedarnath Chinese Spring Festival
IN Rome GREECEMt Athos Mt Kailas
rrat Jerusalem Mashhad
Gangotri C H I N A JAPAN
Mt Fuji
Bethlehem Karbala’ I R A N Yamnotri Mt Nanda Devi Tai Shan
Hebron Qom Amritsar Lhasa Shikoku
Mt Sinai/ Tanta Najaf Rishikesh Wen Shu
Jebel Musa SAUDI ARABIA Haridwar Mt Kangchenjunga
EGYPT Badrinath Kathmandu
Luxor Medina
Sarnath IN D IA Bodh Gaya
Ziyarat Mecca
Varanasi
A RABIAN (Benares)
S EA
Sabarimala Tirupati
Kandy P ACIFIC
SRI LANKA
OCEAN
Sri Pada
INDIAN
OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
Ayers Rock
M O D E R N P I LG R I M A G E 1 51

Jerusalem is the city of kings David and Solomon, the See of Greek Orthodox,
Jerusalem: The Holy City Armenian, and Roman Catholic patriarchs and of an Anglican bishop, and a
holy city for Muslims. It boasts innumerable holy places sacred to the three great
monotheistic religions.
175 w
The Old City of Jerusalem is an area of only One of Herod the Great’s public works
220 acres (one square kilometre), bounded was to rebuild the temple more grandiosely.
by walls constructed by the Ottoman After the Roman general Vespasian subdued
Turks in the 16th century, but contains the Jewish Revolt of 66 ce, his son Titus took
numerous sacred sites — Christian, Jewish, Jerusalem and burned down the temple.
and Islamic. Following the defeat of the Bar Kokhba revolt
Dominating the Old City is the vast (132–35 ce), the Emperor Hadrian razed
Haram Al Sharif, or Noble Sanctuary, the Jerusalem to the ground and laid out a new
site of the Islamic Dome of the Rock and the city, Aelia Capitolina, from which all Jews
Al-Aqsa Mosque, but in biblical times the were banished. The grid-pattern of his city is
location of the Jewish Temple. Within the reflected in the layout of the present Old City.
Old City are remains of fortifications dating After Emperor Constantine declared
from Old Testament times, Hasmonean Christianity a legal religion, Jerusalem
relics, Herodian ruins, Roman arches and began to become the centre of the Christian
columns, Byzantine churches, sites revered world. Churches were constructed over the
for centuries by Christians as associated major sites of Christian significance, such as
with Jesus, early Christian sanctuaries, Golgotha, the Holy Sepulchre, Gethsemane,
Arab shrines, Crusader relics, and and the Mount of Olives.
Mameluk fortifications. In 638 Jerusalem was captured by the
Jerusalem is situated on twin ridges Muslim Arabs. Although the new ruler,
roughly 2,700 feet (830 metres) above sea Caliph Omar, did not to stop Christians Ma
mi
lla
level, divided by the Tyropoeon Valley. praying in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
To its east the Old City is bounded by the he set up a small mosque on the site of the
G
Kidron Valley, and to the west and south present Al-Aqsa. In 691 ce Caliph Abd al-
by the Hinnom Valley. On Mount Ophel, Malik ibn Marwan completed the Dome of
where the three valleys join, King David the Rock on the Temple Mount, and it has
captured the Jebusite city, making it his dominated the Jerusalem skyline ever since.
capital city. The Temple area, first enclosed In 1009 the Crusaders captured the
by David’s son Solomon, is visible today as city from the Arabs. They built several new
the Temple Mount, or Haram al-Sharif, the churches, notably the Church of St Anne.
great platform on which the Dome of the After a long struggle, the Crusaders were
Rock stands. Solomon’s Temple was destroyed expelled again in 1187, and the city was
when Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem in controlled by the Ayyubids and Mamluks.
586 bce. After the Babylonian exile, many In 1517 the Ottoman Sultan Selim
people of Judah returned to the city in captured the city. His son, Suleiman I,
538 bce to rebuild the temple, and, under ‘the Magnificent’ (r. 1520–66), rebuilt the
Nehemiah’s leadership, to strengthen the gates and walls, leaving them much as they
city’s defences. Some evidence of this period appear today.
can still be seen.

JERUSALEM: SOME HOLY SITES map 56
175 w x 190mm HIGH
MT.
SCOPUS
Sa
lad
M ou nt of O
liv es R oa d
in
Ro
KIDRON
She
ad
che
mR
oad
Gordon’s Calvary
Garden Tomb
VAL
Ha
et
Ne
e
hanim S tr
LE
HaZan
vi
im
St Crusader
re
Y
et Church of
St. Anne
Damascus Gate Pools of

Bethesda St. Stephen’s Gate
lorosa
Deir al Sultan Via Do
Ethiopian Tomb of the Virgin
monastery Ecce
Homo
Jericho R
Arch Garden of Gethsemane Church of the
eet Ascension
El Khanqa Str
Golden Gate Dominus Flevit
Dome of oa
Mosque of
Church of the the Rock Temple
the Ascension
d
Holy Sepulchre Al Burak Mount

Ja al-Sharif (Haram
M
ff a al-Sharif )
Ro Pater Noster Church
OU
ad
Ma Jaffa Gate
NT
Tomb of
mi
lla David’s Street hai n
the C Absalom
Ro
ad Street of
O
Western Wall El-Aksa Tomb of
F
Syrian ‘Wailing Wall’ Mosque Zechariah
Orthodox
O
GI
Armenian church of Silwan V
LI
HR
cathedral St. Mark Tombs ES

of St. James
ON
Synagogues Mount of Olives

cemetery
VALLE Y
E
Y
Bath of
Rabbi
L
Ishmael
AL
ON V
Dormition
Abbey House of Caiaphas
KIDR
Tomb of Coenaculum (Cenacle)

David
Tomb of St. Peter in
MOU NT David Gallicantu Pool of
ZION Siloam
Walls of Herodian Jerusalem
MOUNT OF Modern Walls
OFFENCE (built in 16th century by
Suleiman the Magnificent)
Miles Jewish holy place
He
HI 0 0.1 0.2
br
Aceldama
NN Christian holy place
on
(Field of Blood)
O M
Roa
VA L LE Y 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Muslim holy place

Kilometers
d
J E R U S A L E M : T H E H O LY C I T Y 153

One of the five fundamental duties of
What is the Hajj? Islamic worship – to be fulfilled once in

a lifetime if possible – is the Hajj, the
pilgrimage to Mecca and its vicinity,
THE ROUTE OF THE HAJJ
home of the holiest sites for Muslims. 8

1
Mecca has associations with Muhammad, Day one.
Set off t
and p
Put on the ihram,
who began his life in the city, and also and go from Mecca to
tawaf
before
Mina before noon
with his precursor, Abraham, who, Al Haram
according to the Qur’an, built the Ka‘ba,
helped by his son, Ishmael. Ka’ba
Large
6 Pillar
M
A visit to Mecca has religious significance for Cut or shave hair, P
remove ihram,
Muslims at any time of year. But in the 12th offer animal sacrifice
month of the Muslim calendar the season M E C C A and go to Mecca

to perform
tawaf-i-infadah,
of the Hajj, or Great Pilgrimage, arrives. circling Ka’ba 7 times
Pilgrims come to Mecca in their millions,

wearing simple pilgrimage clothing of white
cloth. They congregate in the Great Mosque
and perform the first rite of pilgrimage – the
tawaf, during which pilgrims circumambulate
the Ka’ba anti-clockwise seven times. They
next run seven times between two small
hills, recalling the plight of Hagar and her
son, Ishmael, who, in Islamic, Jewish, and
Christian tradition, were saved from death
by a spring of water that God revealed in the
desert sands. This well is named in the Islamic
tradition as zamzam.
Next pilgrims walk a few miles outside
Mecca to Mount Arafat, where the Hajj Miles
0 1 2
comes to its climax. Here pilgrims ‘stand’
in meditation before God from midday to 0 1 2 3
Kilometers
sunset. Then they begin the return journey
to Mecca, stopping overnight at Muizdalifah,
where each pilgrim gathers pebbles. The next The Qur’an says the boy was ransomed ‘with
day, they throw these pebbles ritually against a tremendous victim’. In recollection of this,
three stone pillars in the neighbouring village pilgrims offer the sacrifice of sheep or camels.
of Mina, recalling when Abraham resisted The final day, Eid al-Adha, the Festival of
Satan’s temptations to disobey after God the Sacrifice, commemorates Abraham’s
instructed him to prepare his son Ishmael for willingness to sacrifice his son.
sacrifice, as a test of his obedience (islam).

map 57
Tented area
8 7 Conurbation
Set off to Mecca Return to Mina and
and perform stay 2 or 3 days performing
tawaf-i-wida rami (’Stoning of Satan’)
to on all three Jamrah
before leaving
(smallest to largest)
Large
Pillar
Middle MINA
ve hair, Pillar
hram, Small
sacrifice Pillar
Mecca
orm
adah, 2
a 7 times Day three. 5 Day two.
Before or after Fajr, Go to Arafat by noon.
set off for Mina. Pray
Perform rami on the
largest Jamrah only
Muzdalifah
4
At Muzdalifah
pray and rest for the night.
Collect pebbles for rami
Mt Arafat
3 (Mount of Mercy)
Leave for Muzdalifah
at sundown.
W H AT I S T H E H A J J ? 155

Further Reading
Religious Studies Judaism
Chryssides, George D., The Study of Religion, 2nd Biale, David, ed., Cultures of the Jews: A New History.
revised ed. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. New York: Schocken Books, 2002.
Connolly, Peter (ed.), Approaches to the Study of Schama, Simon, The Story of the Jews and the Fate of
Religion. London: Continuum, 2001. the World. London: Bodley Head, 2013.
Fitzgerald, Timothy, The Ideology of Religious Studies.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Christianity
Pals, Daniel L. Eight Theories of Religion. New York: Dowley, Tim, ed., Introduction to the History of
Oxford University Press, 2006. Christianity. 2nd ed. Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
Partridge, Christopher ed., rev. Tim Dowley, 2014.
Introduction to World Religions, 4th ed. Hastings, Adrian, ed., A World History of Christianity.
Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999.
MacCulloch, Diarmaid: A History of Christianity: The
The Ancient World First Three Thousand Years. London: Penguin, 2009.
Beard, Mary, J. North, and S. Price, Religions of Rome,
2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Islam
1998. Aslan, Reza, No God but God: The Origins, Evolution,
Easterling, P. E. and J. V. Muir, Greek Religion and and Future of Islam. New York: Random House,
Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
1985. Esposito, John, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of
Hart, George: Egyptian Myths. Austin: University of the Modern Islamic World. New York: Oxford
Texas Press, 1997. University Press, 1995.
Rose, Jenny, Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. London:
I. B. Tauris, 2011. World Religions Today
Bowker, John, ed., Oxford Dictionary of World
Hinduism Religions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Lopez, Donald S. Jr., ed., Religions of India in Practice. Chryssides, George D., A Reader in New Religious
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995. Movements. London: Continuum, 2006.
Mittal, S., G. Thursby, eds., The Hindu World. New
York: Routledge, 2004.
Buddhism
Lopez, Donald S. Jr., The Story of Buddhism: A Concise
Guide to its History and Teachings. New York:
HarperCollins, 2002.
Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete
Introduction to the Indian Tradition. New York:
Routledge, 2000.

Gazetteer
Note: numbers are map numbers, not page numbers
Abidjan Aila Amarnath Antipatris
worldwide Christian missions in the journeys of Muhammad 39 Hindu sacred places 10 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
early 20th century 36 Ajmer Amazon River Anupshahr
Abu (mount) Islamic expansion in India 41 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Hindu sacred places 10
Jainism in India 12 world religions 1500 43 Amida Anuradhapura
Abu Simbel Al Qudisiya spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Buddhism expands in India 14
Ancient Egypt 3 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Amiens early spread of Buddhism 15
Abydos Al Raji world religions 1500 43 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Ancient Egypt 3 journeys of Muhammad 39 Amisus Aparanta
Abyssinia Al-’Ula Jewish diaspora 21 Buddhism expands in India 14
journeys of Muhammad 39 journeys of Muhammad 39 Amman Apollonia
Acco Alampur Jewish exiles 20 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Exodus 18 Temple Hinduism 9 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and 29
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Alba Iulia Solomon 19 Aqaba
Solomon 19 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Ammon modern state of Israel 27
Aceh Albany Exodus 18 Aquileia
spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Acerenza Solomon 19 centuries 31
Alderney Jewish diaspora 21
church in 1050 33 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Amoy
worldwide Christian missions in the spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Achaia Aleppo
Jews and Christians in the 1st century early 20th century 36 Aquitania
Jewish exiles 20 Jewish diaspora 21
29 Jews and Islam 22 Amravati
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jainism in India 12 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Addis Ababa Solomon 19 Amritsar Arabia
worldwide Christian missions in the spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Jewish diaspora 21
early 20th century 36 Sikh origins 47 Jews and Islam 22
Alexandria world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Aden Christianity in the 4th and 5th Sikhism in India today 48
world religions 1500 43
journeys of Muhammad 39 centuries 31 Anandpur
Jewish diaspora 21 Sikh origins 47 Arabian desert
Adiabene journeys of Muhammad 39
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jewish exiles 20 Anatu
Jews and Christians in the 1st century ancient empire 4 Arad
Adrianopolis 29
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Ancyra Exodus 18
Roman religion 6
Aegean Sea spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jewish diaspora 21 Arafat (mount)
Jews and Christians in the 1st century world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 route of the Hajj 57
29 Allegheny Andhapura Aragon
Aegina worldwide Christian missions in the Jainism in India 12 Reformation Europe 34
Jews and Christians in the 1st century early 20th century 36 Angkor Aram-Damascus
29 Almalik early spread of Buddhism 15 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Aegyptus world religions 1500 43 world religions 1500 43 Solomon 19
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Almaty Angkor Borai Arbela
29 Buddhism today 16 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 church in 1050 33
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Annavaram Jewish exiles 20
Alush Zoroastrianism 7
Aenon Exodus 18 Hindu sacred places 10
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Anthedon Agrippias Arbuda
Alwa Hindu origins 8
Afghanistan world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 world religions 1500 43 Antioch Archelais
Africa Christianity in the 4th and 5th Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Ama-no-Iwato-Jinja
spread of Islam 44 Japan: places of religious importance centuries 31 Arelate
Agade 50 Jewish exiles 20 Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Mesopotamia 2 Jews and Christians in the 1st century centuries 31
Amaj 29 Jewish diaspora 21
Ahichchhatra journeys of Muhammad 39 Jews and Islam 22 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Buddhist heartland 13 Amalfi Roman religion 6 Areopolis
Ahmadabad church in 1050 33 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Islamic expansion in India 41 Amaravati spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Argos
Ahwas early spread of Buddhism 15 cult centre 5
Jews and Islam 22 Hindu sacred places 10 Zoroastrianism 7
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Antioch in Pisidia Arles
Aihole church in 1050 33
Temple Hinduism 9 Amarkantak Jews and Christians in the 1st century
29 see also Arelate
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Hindu sacred places 10
GAZET TEER 157

Armagh world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Baghdad spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
church in 1050 33 Augustodunum Jews and Islam 22 world religions 1500 43
Armenia Roman religion 6 world religions 1500 43 Basrah
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Auranitis Bahamas Buddhist heartland 13
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Batanea
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Baidyanath Palestine in the time of Christ 28
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Auschwitz
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Hindu sacred places 10 Béarn
Arnon River Balanowka Reformation Europe 34
Exodus 18 Austria
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Beaver Island
Arpad Europe 23 Balfarg Mormon trail 37
Jewish exiles 20 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 megaliths 1 Beersheba
Arvad New Religious Movements worldwide Bali Exodus 18
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and 54 world religions 1500 43 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Solomon 19 Reformation Europe 34 Solomon 19
Balkh
Ashdod Austria-Hungary Jews and Islam 22 modern state of Israel 27
Exodus 18 Jewish emancipation 24 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Beijing
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Ava Buddhism today 16
Solomon 19 Ballochroy
Jewish exiles 20 megaliths 1 early spread of Buddhism 15
Ashkelon Avanti Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Ballyhoe Taoism 17
Buddhism expands in India 14 megaliths 1
Ashur world religions 1500 43
Avaris Baltimore
ancient empire 4 Ancient Egypt 3 Belgica
Jewish exiles 20 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Exodus 18 origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Mesopotamia 2 Belgium
Avebury Bandar Labuan
Asia megaliths 1 Jewish emancipation 24
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Taoism 17 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Avignon Bangalore
Aslone Reformation Europe 34 Belgrade
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jainism in India 12 Reformation Europe 34
Axum Bangkok
Aspendos world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Belzek
Jewish exiles 20 Buddhism today 16 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
world religions 1500 43 Taoism 17
Assos Ayodhya Benares
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Bangladesh Islamic expansion in India 41
Buddhist heartland 13 Hindu sacred places 10
29 Hindu sacred places 10 modern pilgrimage sites 55
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Assyria world religions 1500 43 Benevento
ancient empire 4 Bangor church in 1050 33
Ayutthaya church in 1050 33
Jewish exiles 20 world religions 1500 43 Berenice
Asunción Banneux Jewish diaspora 21
Azerbaijan modern pilgrimage sites 55
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Bergen-Belsen
Aswan Bantam Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Azotus spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
Jews and Islam 22 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Berlin
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 29 Bar Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Athens Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Europe 23
cult centre 5 Barca Reformation Europe 34
Jewish diaspora 21 Jews and Islam 22 Bernburg
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Babi-Yar spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
29 Barcelona
Roman religion 6 Babylon Besor Brook
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Palestine in the time of Christ 28
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 ancient empire 4 Europe 23
Athos (mount) Jewish diaspora 21 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Beth-Rehob
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Jewish exiles 20 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Mesopotamia 2 Barda Solomon 19
world religions 1500 43 world religions 1500 43
Atlanta Babylonia Beth-shan
Jewish exiles 20 Bargo Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 world religions 1500 43
Bactra Solomon 19
Atranjikhera Bari
Hindu origins 8 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Bethany
Zoroastrianism 7 church in 1050 33 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Attalia Barium
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Badarika Bethlehem
Temple Hinduism 9 Jewish diaspora 21 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
29
Badr Baruch world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Auch Islamic expansion in India 41
church in 1050 33 journeys of Muhammad 39 Bethphage
Badrinath Basarh Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Augsburg Jainism in India 12
Jews and Islam 223 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Bethsaida
Baetica Basel Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Augusta Treverorum church in 1050 33
Jewish diaspora 21 Jewish diaspora 21 Bhakra
Roman religion 6 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Basra Sikh origins 47
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jews and Islam 22

Bhatinda Bordeaux Bucharest Calicut
Islamic expansion in India 41 church in 1050 33 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Islamic expansion in India 41
Sikh origins 47 Reformation Europe 34 Europe 23 California
Bhilsa Borneo Buchenwald origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Buddhism expands in India 14 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Callanish
Bhojpur Taoism 17 Buda megaliths 1
Hindu sacred places 10 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Reformation Europe 34
world religions 1500 43 Cambodia
Bhubanesar Budapest Buddhism today 16
Temple Hinduism 9 Borobudur Judaism in 16th and 17th century Taoism 17
early spread of Buddhism 15 Europe 23
Bhubaneswar world religions 1500 43 Camerino
Hindu sacred places 10 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Reformation Europe 34
world religions 1500 43 Borsippa Bukhara
Mesopotamia 2 Canaan
Bialystok Islamic expansion in India 41 Exodus 18
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Boston Jews and Islam 22
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Canderi
Bidar origins of Judaism in the USA 25 world religions 1500 43 Islamic expansion in India 41
Islamic expansion in India 41 Canindé
Bourges Bulgaria
Bijapuri church in 1050 33 Jewish emancipation 24 modern pilgrimage sites 55
Islamic expansion in India 41 world religions 1500 43 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Canterbury
Bindhyachal Brahmapura Burdigala church in 1050 33
Hindu sacred places 10 Islamic expansion in India 41 Roman religion 6 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Bi’r Ma’unah world religions 1500 43
Brazil Burhanpur
journeys of Muhammad 39 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Islamic expansion in India 41 Cape Town
Birzai New Religious Movements worldwide worldwide Christian missions in the
Busrah early 20th century 36
Judaism in 16th and 17th century 54 journeys of Muhammad 39
Europe 23 Bremen Capernaum
Byblos Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Bishnupur church in 1050 33 Jewish exiles 20
Hindu sacred places 10 Brescia Cappadocia
Byzantine empire Jewish diaspora 21
Bithynia Reformation Europe 34 journeys of Muhammad 39
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Breslau world religions 1500 43 29
29 Jewish emancipation 24
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Byzantium spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Jewish diaspora 21
Bitter Lakes Europe 23 Capua, church in 1050 33
Roman religion 6
Exodus 18 Brest-Litovsk Zoroastrianism 7 Caracas, Christianity in the Americas
Black Rock Desert Judaism in 16th and 17th century c.1750 35
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Europe 23 Carales
Cadiz Roman religion 6
Blantyre Brindaban Jewish diaspora 21
worldwide Christian missions in the Hindu sacred places 10 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jews and Islam 22
early 20th century 36 Brindisi Carchemish
Caesarea Jewish exiles 20
Bobbio church in 1050 33 Jewish diaspora 21
church in 1050 33 Britain Jewish exiles 20 Carmel (mount)
Bodh Gaya world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Buddhism expands in India 14 Britannia 29 Carnac
Buddhist heartland 13 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Roman religion 6 megaliths 1
early spread of Buddhism 15 centuries 31 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Carshemish
modern pilgrimage sites 55 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Caesarea (N. Africa) ancient empire 4
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jewish diaspora 21
world religions 1500 43 British Isles Carthage
megaliths 1 Caesarea Maritima Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Boetia Palestine in the time of Christ 28 centuries 31
cult centre 5 Brno
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Caesarea Philippi Roman religion 6
Bogdanovka Palestine in the time of Christ 28 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Broach spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Hindu sacred places 10 Cagliari world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Bogotá Zoroastrianism 7 church in 1050 33
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Carthago Nova
Brodgar (Ring of) Cairo Jewish diaspora 21
Bohemia megaliths 1 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Reformation Europe 34 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Brody Europe 23
Bologna world religions 1500 43 Castile
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Reformation Europe 34
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Calabar
Brunei Castle Rigg
Bombay spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 worldwide Christian missions in the
worldwide Christian missions in the early 20th century 36 megaliths 1
Taoism 17
early 20th century 36 Calah Castra Regina
see also Mumbai Brussels Jewish diaspora 21
Reformation Europe 34 Jewish exiles 20
Bonn Mesopotamia 2 Cayenne
Jewish diaspora 21 Bubastis Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Exodus 18 Calcutta
Bonna worldwide Christian missions in the Cebu
Jewish diaspora 21 early 20th century 36 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
GAZET TEER 159

Celebes spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Corvey Damascus
spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Cincinnati church in 1050 33 Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Cenabum Aureliani origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Cos centuries 31
Jewish diaspora 21 cult centre 5 church in 1050 33
Cirta Jewish diaspora 21
Cerrig Duon Jewish diaspora 21 Jews and Christians in the 1st
century 29 Jewish exiles 20
megaliths 1 Roman religion 6 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Chalcedon Citrakuta Council Bluffs 29
Christianity in the 4th and 5th Hindu origins 8 Mormon trail 37 Jews and Islam 22
centuries 31 Cleveland Courland journeys of Muhammad 39
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Reformation Europe 34 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Champa Cranganore Solomon 19
Clonard
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 1500 43 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
church in 1050 33
Roman religion 6
Chanderi world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Cremona spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Hindu sacred places 10 Cochin Judaism in 16th and 17th century world religions 1500 43
Chandigarh Jainism in India 12 Europe 23 Zoroastrianism 7
Sikh origins 47 Cologne Creta Damietta
Chang’an church in 1050 33 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jews and Islam 22
early spread of Buddhism 15 Jewish diaspora 21 29
Dan
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Crete Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
world religions 1500 43 Europe 23 Roman religion 6 Solomon 19
Charcas Reformation Europe 34 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Danube River
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Ctesiphon Jewish diaspora 21
Charleston Colombo Jewish diaspora 21 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Buddhism today 16 journeys of Muhammad 39 Europe 23
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Colonia Agrippina spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jewish diaspora 21 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Chartres Danzig
world religions 1500 43 Roman religion 6 Cuba world religions 1500 43
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Chelm world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 New Religious Movements worldwide Daphne
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 54 Jewish exiles 20
Colorado River
Chenab River Mormon trail 37 Cutha Dar-es-Salaam
Sikh origins 47 Jewish exiles 20 worldwide Christian missions in the
Colossae
Chengdu early 20th century 36
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Cuzco
Buddhism today 16 29 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Darge-gonshen
Chennai world religions 1500 43
Congo Cyllene Mountains
Buddhism today 16 Democratic Republic of, New cult centre 5 Datong
Chester Religious Movements worldwide 54 world religions 1500 43
Cyprus
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Connecticut Jews and Christians in the 1st century Daybul
Chicago origins of Judaism in the USA 25 29 Jews and Islam 22
Mormon trail 37 Constantinople journeys of Muhammad 39 Dead Sea
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Roman religion 6 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
China centuries 31 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Solomon 19
Buddhism today 16 Jews and Islam 22 Cyrene Debra Libanos
early spread of Buddhism 15 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Jewish diaspora 21 world religions 1500 43
major religions of modern China 51 Europe 23 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Decapolis
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 29 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Taoism 17 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Roman religion 6
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Delaware
Czechoslovakia origins of Judaism in the USA 25
world religions 1500 43 world religions 1500 43 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Chitrakut Corbie Delhi
Czestochawa Buddhism today 16
Hindu sacred places 10 church in 1050 33 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Islamic expansion in India 41
Chorazin Cordoba Jainism in India 12
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Roman religion 6
Dachau Sikh origins 47
Christiana world religions 1500 43 Sikhism in India today 48
Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Reformation Europe 34 Cordova world religions 1500 43
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Dacia worldwide Christian missions in the
Chung Nan Shan spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Taoism 17 Corduba early 20th century 36
Jewish diaspora 21 Dagon Delphi
Chungking world religions 1500 43
Buddhism today 16 Corinth cult centre 5
cult centre 5 Dakshineshwar Roman religion 6
Cidambaram Hindu sacred places 10
Temple Hinduism 9 Jewish diaspora 21 Demak
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Dallas-Fort Worth spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
Cilicia 29 origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Jewish diaspora 21 Denmark
Roman religion 6 Dalmatia Jewish emancipation 24
Jewish exiles 20 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jewish diaspora 21 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
29 Corsica spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Reformation Europe 34
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30

Denver Dur Sharrukin Eilat Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Mesopotamia 2 modern state of Israel 27 Solomon 19
Deoband Dura Elam Ezion-geber
Hindu sacred places 10 Jewish diaspora 21 ancient empire 4 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Deoghar Dura-Europos Jewish exiles 20 Solomon 19
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Mesopotamia 2
Dera Baba Nanak world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Elapura Fadak

Sikh origins 47 Durango Temple Hinduism 9 journeys of Muhammad 39
Derazne Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Elephanta Far West
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Durban world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Mormon trail 37
Europe 23 worldwide Christian missions in the Elephantine Fars
Derbe early 20th century 36 Ancient Egypt 3 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Durocortorum Jewish exiles 20
Fatima
29 Jewish diaspora 21 Elim modern pilgrimage sites 55
Deseret Roman religion 6 Exodus 18
Fayette
Mormon trail 37 Dushanbe Elimberris Mormon trail 37
Detroit Buddhism today 16 Jewish diaspora 21
Fez
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Dvaraka Ellasar Jews and Islam 22
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Temple Hinduism 9 Jewish exiles 20 world religions 1500 43
Deva Dvaravati Ellora Finland
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Hindu origins 8 early spread of Buddhism 15 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Devi Patan Dwarka Hindu sacred places 10
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Firozpur
Hindu sacred places 10 Hindu sacred places 10 Sikh origins 47
Dewas Dyrrachium Emden
Reformation Europe 34 Fleury
Hindu sacred places 10 church in 1050 33 church in 1050 33
Dhaka Emerita Augusta
Jewish diaspora 21 Florence
Buddhism today 16 Ebla Reformation Europe 34
Jainism in India 12 ancient empire 4 Emmaus spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Dibon Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Ecbatana Florida
Exodus 18 Jewish diaspora 21 England Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Dilbat Jewish exiles 20 Judaism in 16th and 17th century origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Mesopotamia 2 Zoroastrianism 7 Europe 23
Reformation Europe 34 Flossenberg
Dilwara Edessa Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Jainism in India 12 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Enns
Christianity in the 4th and 5th Fort Kearney
Dimona centuries 31 Mormon trail 37
church in 1050 33 centuries 31
modern state of Israel 27 Fort Laramie
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Ephesus
Diu 29 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Mormon trail 37
world religions 1500 43 Roman religion 6 centuries 31 Fort Lauderdale
Djakarta spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jewish diaspora 21 origins of Judaism in the USA 25
worldwide Christian missions in the spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Jews and Christians in the 1st century France
early 20th century 36 Edineti 29 Jewish emancipation 24
Dnieper River Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Roman religion 6 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
church in 1050 33 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Europe 23
Edom
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Erdeni-dzu Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Europe 23 Solomon 19 world religions 1500 43 megaliths 1
Dniester River Erech Reformation Europe 34
Egypt 3 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
church in 1050 33 ancient empire 4 Mesopotamia 2
Dodona Exodus 18 Eridu Franche-Comte
cult centre 5 Jews and Islam 22 ancient empire 4 Reformation Europe 34
Dokkum journeys of Muhammad 39 Mesopotamia 2 Frankfurt

modern pilgrimage sites 55 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Erymanthus (mount) Jewish emancipation 24
Europe 23 cult centre 5 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Drancy modern state of Israel 27 Europe 23
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Estonia
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Freetown
Dresden spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 worldwide Christian missions in the
Judaism in 16th and 17th century world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Etchmiadzin early 20th century 36
Europe 23 world religions 1500 43 church in 1050 33
Zoroastrianism 7 Freiburg
Duarbasini Ethiopia world religions 1500 43
Hindu sacred places 10 Egypt, Brook of world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Exodus 18 world religions 1500 43 Fuji (mount)
Dublin modern pilgrimage sites 55
Reformation Europe 34 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Euboea
Solomon 19 world religions 1500 43
Duero River cult centre 5
Eihei-ji Fulda
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Euphrates River church in 1050 33
Japan: places of religious importance Jewish exiles 20
Dunhuang Funan
50 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
early spread of Buddhism 15 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
29
GAZET TEER 161

Fushima-Imari Georgetown Goshen Hamath
Japan: places of religious importance Taoism 17 Exodus 18 ancient empire 4
50 worldwide Christian missions in the Gospic Jewish exiles 20
Fustate early 20th century 36 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Jews and Islam 22 Georgia Solomon 19
Goulou Shan
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Taoism 17 Hamburg
world religions 1500 43 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Gozan Europe 23
Galacia Gerar Jewish exiles 20
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Reformation Europe 34
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Gran
Gergesa Hami
Galatia church in 1050 33 world religions 1500 43
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Graz Hangzhou
29 Gerizim (mount) Reformation Europe 34
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 world religions 1500 43
Galilee Great Basin
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Germania Hanoi
Mormon trail 37 early spread of Buddhism 15
Gallia Jewish diaspora 21
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Great Britain Taoism 17
Jewish diaspora 21 Jewish emancipation 24
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Germany Hanover
Jewish emancipation 24 Greece Reformation Europe 34
Gandhara Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Buddhism expands in India 14 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Hara
early spread of Buddhism 15 Ghaghra River Grodno Jewish exiles 20
Buddhism expands in India 14 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Haran
Ganga Sangama Europe 23
Hindu origins 8 Ghana ancient empire 4
world religions 1500 43 Gross Rosen Jews and Islam 22
Gangadvara Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Islamic expansion in India 41 Ghazni Harappa
Islamic expansion in India 41 Guadalupe Hindu origins 8
Ganges River modern pilgrimage sites 55
Buddhism expands in India 14 Jews and Islam 22 Harer
Buddhist heartland 13 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Guangzhou world religions 1500 43
early spread of Buddhism 15 Zoroastrianism 7 early spread of Buddhism 15 Haridwar
Hindu origins 8 Ghor Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Hindu sacred places 10
Hindu sacred places 10 Islamic expansion in India 41 world religions 1500 43 modern pilgrimage sites 55
Islamic expansion in India 41 Gibeah Guatemala world religions 1500 43
Sikh origins 47 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Harran
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Solomon 19 Gujarat Jewish exiles 20
Gangotri Gimar Zoroastrianism 7 Haryana
Hindu sacred places 10 Jainism in India 12 Gurs Sikhism in India today 48
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
world religions 1500 43 Giza Hattushash
Ancient Egypt 3 Gushnasap ancient empire 4
Gartok world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
world religions 1500 43 Glasgow Havana
world religions 1500 43 Gyantse Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Gath world religions 1500 43
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Glastonbury Hazeroth
Solomon 19 church in 1050 33 Exodus 18
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Hadrumetum Hazor
Gaul
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Gniezno Jewish diaspora 21 Jewish exiles 20
church in 1050 33 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Gaulanitis Solomon 19
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Goa Haguro-san
Islamic expansion in India 41 Japan: places of religious importance Hebron
Gaur 50 Exodus 18
Islamic expansion in India 41 Gokul
Hindu sacred places 10 Haifa Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Gaza modern state of Israel 27 Solomon 19
Exodus 18 Golan Heights modern state of Israel 27
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and modern state of Israel 27 Haiti Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Solomon 19 Golconda New Religious Movements worldwide
54 Heian
modern state of Israel 27 Islamic expansion in India 41 world religions 1500 43
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Gomateshwara Hajo
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Hindu sacred places 10 Hejaz
Jainism in India 12 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Gedes Gompa Halicz
Jewish diaspora 21 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Helal, Jebel
world religions 1500 43 Exodus 18
Gedrosia Europe 23
Gongxian Helicon (mount)
Zoroastrianism 7 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Halys River
Jews and Christians in the 1st century cult centre 5
Genessaret Gorakhpur
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 29 Heliopolis
Hindu sacred places 10 Ancient Egypt 3
Geneva Hamadan
Gordium Jews and Islam 22 Exodus 18
Reformation Europe 34 Zoroastrianism 7
Hamadhan Heng
Genoa Gortyna world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Jewish diaspora 21 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Roman religion 6
Reformation Europe 34

Heng Shan Humaithira Indus River Jaffna
Taoism 17 world religions 1500 43 Buddhism expands in India 14 worldwide Christian missions in the
Herat Hunayn early spread of Buddhism 15 early 20th century 36
Jews and Islam 22 journeys of Muhammad 39 Hindu sacred places 10 Jahnu Ashram
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Jews and Islam 22 Hindu sacred places 10
Hungary Sikh origins 47
world religions 1500 43 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Jaipur
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Hermon (mount) Europe 23 Temple Hinduism 9 Hindu sacred places 10
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jakarta
Hermopolis Reformation Europe 34 Buddhism today 16
Iona
Ancient Egypt 3 Huo church in 1050 33 Jammu
Herodium world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Sikhism in India today 48
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Huo Shan Iran Jamnia
Herzogenbusch Taoism 17 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Hwang Ho River New Religious Movements worldwide Japan
Heshbon Taoism 17 54 early spread of Buddhism 15
Exodus 18 Hyderabad Iraq Japan: places of religious importance
Hiei-san Jainism in India 12 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 50
Japan: places of religious importance Hyrcania Ireland New Religious Movements worldwide
50 Jewish exiles 20 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 54
Reformation Europe 34 Taoism 17
Hierakonpolis world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Ancient Egypt 3 Ibadan Isafahan world religions 1500 43
Hierapolis worldwide Christian missions in the spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Jasaenovac
church in 1050 33 early 20th century 36 Ise Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Iberia Japan: places of religious importance
29 50 Jaunpur
megaliths 1 Islamic expansion in India 41
Roman religion 6 Isfahan
Iceland Java
Hijr Reformation Europe 34 world religions 1500 43
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 early spread of Buddhism 15
Iconium Islamabad spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
Himalayas church in 1050 33 Buddhism today 16 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Buddhism today 16 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Sikh origins 47 world religions 1500 43
Himavanta 29 Israel Jebel Helal
Buddhism expands in India 14 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Exodus 18
Hippo (Hippo Regius) Ida (mount) Solomon 19
modern state of Israel 27 Jebel Musa
Christianity in the 4th and 5th cult centre 5 Exodus 18
centuries 31 Idumea Istanbul modern pilgrimage sites 55
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 worldwide Christian missions in the
early 20th century 36 Jedda
Hiranyavati River Illinois journeys of Muhammad 39
Buddhist heartland 13 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Italia
Jewish diaspora 21 Jenin
Hispania Inchuan modern state of Israel 27
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 29 Jericho
Hispaniola Independence Rock ancient empire 4
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Mormon trail 37 Exodus 18
Italy
Hittites India Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Jewish emancipation 24
ancient empire 4 Buddhism expands in India 14 Jerusalem
Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Hong Kong Buddhism today 16 Europe 23 Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Buddhism today 16 Buddhist heartland 13 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 centuries 31
worldwide Christian missions in the early spread of Buddhism 15 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jerusalem: holy sites 56
early 20th century 36 Hindu origins 8 Jewish diaspora 21
Iwaki-san
Horeb (mount) Hindu sacred places 10 Japan: places of religious importance Jewish exiles 20
Exodus 18 Hinduism today 11 50 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Islamic expansion in India 41 29
Hormuz Jainism in India 12 Izmir journeys of Muhammad 39
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Housesteads New Religious Movements worldwide Europe 23 Europe 23
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 54 Izumo-no-Oyashiro Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Houston Sikhism in India today 48 Japan: places of religious importance Solomon 19
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Temple Hinduism 9 50 modern pilgrimage sites 55
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 modern state of Israel 27
Hua world religions 1500 43 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Zoroastrianism 7 Jabal Uhud Roman religion 6
Hua Shan journeys of Muhammad 39 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Indonesia
Taoism 17 Buddhism today 16 Jabbok River world religions 1500 43
Hudaybiyah New Religious Movements worldwide Kingdoms of Saul, David, and worldwide Christian missions in the
journeys of Muhammad 39 54 Solomon 19 early 20th century 36
Taoism 17 Jaffa Zoroastrianism 7
Hulwan
Jewish diaspora 21 Indrapura Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jhelum River
world religions 1500 43 29 Sikh origins 47
GAZET TEER 163

Jirawal Kalinjar Kasuga Kingston
Jainism in India 12 Islamic expansion in India 41 Japan: places of religious importance worldwide Christian missions in the
Jiu hua Shan Kalocsa 50 early 20th century 36
early spread of Buddhism 15 church in 1050 33 Katas Kinnereth
Jiuquan Kalyan Hindu sacred places 10 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 1500 43 Kathmandu Solomon 19
Johore Kamakhya Buddhism today 16 Kir-hareseth

spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Hindu sacred places 10 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Kaunas Solomon 19
Joppa Kanauj
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Islamic expansion in India 41 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Kirkuk
Solomon 19 Kausambi world religions 1500 43
Kanchipuram
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 early spread of Buddhism 15 Buddhist heartland 13 Kirman
Jordan River Temple Hinduism 9 Hindu origins 8 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Jewish exiles 20 Kanchpuram Kaveri River Kirtland
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Hindu sacred places 10 Hindu sacred places 10 Mormon trail 37
Solomon 19 Kazakhstan Kiryat Shmona
modern state of Israel 27 Kandahar
Zoroastrianism 7 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 modern state of Israel 27
Judah Kazvin Kis
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Kandy
early spread of Buddhism 15 Jews and Islam 22 Jews and Islam 22
Solomon 19
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Kedara Kish
Judea world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Temple Hinduism 9 Mesopotamia 2
Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Kangchenjunga Kedarnath Klooga
Juhfa modern pilgrimage sites 55 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
journeys of Muhammad 39
Kangra Kedesh Knock
Julias Hindu sacred places 10 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and modern pilgrimage sites 55
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Solomon 19
Kansas City Kolhapur
Julias Livias Mormon trail 37 Kells Hindu sacred places 10
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 church in 1050 33
Kanya Kumari Kolkata
Jullundur Temple Hinduism 9 Kerbela Jainism in India 12
Sikh origins 47 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Kanyakubja Konark
Juruft Buddhist heartland 13 Kerman Temple Hinduism 9
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Jews and Islam 22 world religions 1500 43
Kapilavastu
Buddhist heartland 13 Khaibar Königsberg
Kabul Kapit Jews and Islam 22 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Buddhism today 16 Taoism 17 Khajuraho Europe 23
Islamic expansion in India 41 Jainism in India 12 Konya, world religions 1500 43
Sikh origins 47 Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta
Mesopotamia 2 Temple Hinduism 9 Korea
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 world religions 1500 43
Zoroastrianism 7 Karachi early spread of Buddhism 15
worldwide Christian missions in the Khambhat world religions 1500 43
Kadarnath Islamic expansion in India 41
Hindu sacred places 10 early 20th century 36 Kosambi
Karbala’ Khandagiri Buddhist heartland 13
Kaedsh-barnea Jainism in India 12
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and modern pilgrimage sites 55 Kotipalli
Solomon 19 Karbala Khatu Hindu sacred places 10
world religions 1500 43 Hindu sacred places 10 Koya-san
Kaesong
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Karkotas Khaybar Japan: places of religious importance
Temple Hinduism 9 journeys of Muhammad 39 50
Kaifeng
world religions 1500 43 Karli Khetrur Krakov
early spread of Buddhism 15 Hindu sacred places 10 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Kailas (mount) Europe 23
modern pilgrimage sites 55 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Khiva
world religions 1500 43 Karni Devi Jews and Islam 22 Krakow
Hindu sacred places 10 world religions 1500 43 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Kailasa Reformation Europe 34
Hindu origins 8 Kartarpur Khotan
Temple Hinduism 9 Sikh origins 47 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Krishna River
Khyber Pass Hindu sacred places 10
Kairouan Kashgar Jainism in India 12
Jews and Islam 22 early spread of Buddhism 15 Sikh origins 47
world religions 1500 43 Kibroth-hattaavah K’uai Chi Shan
Kaiserwald Taoism 17
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Kashmir Exodus 18
Sikhism in India today 48 Kiev Kuala Lumpur
Kalighat Buddhism today 16
Hindu sacred places 10 Kasi Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Europe 23 Taoism 17
Kalika-sangama Temple Hinduism 9
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Kuching
Hindu origins 8 Kaskar world religions 1500 43 Taoism 17
Kalinga world religions 1500 43
King’s Highway Kufa
Buddhism expands in India 14 Kasmira Exodus 18 Jews and Islam 22
Buddhism expands in India 14 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40

Kumano Latvia Longhu Shan Lyon
world religions 1500 43 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Taoism 17 Reformation Europe 34
Kumano-jinja Lauriacum Longmen Lyons
Japan: places of religious importance Christianity in the 4th and 5th world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 church in 1050 33
50 centuries 31 Loreto Jewish diaspora 21
Kumbum Lebanon modern pilgrimage sites 55 Lystra
world religions 1500 43 modern state of Israel 27 Lorsch Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Kundalpur Leipzig church in 1050 33 29
Hindu sacred places 10 Reformation Europe 34 Los Angeles
Kunlun Leon Mormon trail 37 Maacah
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 church in 1050 33 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
K’uo Ts’ang Shan León Louisiana Solomon 19
Taoism 17 world religions 1500 43 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Macassar
Kuocang Leptis Magna Louisville spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Macedonia
Kuon-ji Lérins Lourdes Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Japan: places of religious importance church in 1050 33 modern pilgrimage sites 55 29
50 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Lhasa Lu
Kuruksetra Buddhism today 16 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Machaerus
Hindu origins 8 early spread of Buddhism 15 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Lu Shan
Kusinara modern pilgrimage sites 55 Taoism 17 Madedonia
Buddhist heartland 13 Taoism 17 Jewish diaspora 21
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Lublin
early spread of Buddhism 15 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Madras
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 1500 43 Buddhism today 16
Europe 23
Kyangui Liaoyang Judaism and the Third Reich 26 worldwide Christian missions in the
early spread of Buddhism 15 world religions 1500 43 early 20th century 36
Luck
Kyongju Libya Judaism in 16th and 17th century Madura
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jewish diaspora 21 Europe 23 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
world religions 1500 43 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Madurai
29 Ludhiana
Kyoto Sikh origins 47 Hindu sacred places 10
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Islamic expansion in India 41
early spread of Buddhism 15 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Ludmir
Japan: places of religious importance world religions 1500 43
Lima Judaism in 16th and 17th century
50 Europe 23 Magdala
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Lincoln Lugdunum
Kyrgyzstan Jewish diaspora 21 Magdeburg
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 church in 1050 33
world religions 1500 43 Roman religion 6
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Maghreb
Lindisfarne Jews and Islam 22
Lagash church in 1050 33 Lugo
Mesopotamia 2 church in 1050 33 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Lingjiu Magnesia
Lahore world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Lumbini
Islamic expansion in India 41 Buddhist heartland 13 cult centre 5
Sikh origins 47 Lios early spread of Buddhism 15 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
megaliths 1 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 29
Lal Mandir
Jainism in India 12 Litani River Luofou Mahagama
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Buddhism expands in India 14
Lalibela Solomon 19
world religions 1500 43 Luoyang Mahakuteswar
Lithuania early spread of Buddhism 15 Temple Hinduism 9
La Madeleine Judaism and the Third Reich 26
megaliths 1 world religions 1500 43 Mahamadi River
Reformation Europe 34 Buddhism expands in India 14
Lanka world religions 1500 43 Lusitania
Hindu origins 8 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Maharashtra
Livonia Buddhism expands in India 14
Lao Reformation Europe 34 Lutetia
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jewish diaspora 21 Mahendragiri
Livorno Hindu sacred places 10
Laodicea Judaism in 16th and 17th century Luxembourg
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Europe 23 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Maheshwar
Lvov Hindu sacred places 10
Laos Lodz
Buddhism today 16 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Mahisa Mandala
Europe 23 Buddhism expands in India 14
La Paz Lombok Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Mahismati
Lycia Buddhism expands in India 14
Larisa London Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Jewish diaspora 21 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Mahoba
29 Hindu sacred places 10
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Europe 23
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Lydda Mahoza
Larsa Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Mesopotamia 2 Long Meg & daughters Jewish exiles 20
megaliths 1 Lydia Maimana
cult centre 5 Jews and Islam 22
GAZET TEER 165

Mainz Masad’in Salih Merrivale Modena
church in 1050 33 journeys of Muhammad 39 megaliths 1 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Jewish emancipation 24 Mashhad Merry Maidens Moel Ty Uchaf
Majdanek modern pilgrimage sites 55 megaliths 1 megaliths 1
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Massachusetts Merv Moesia
Majholi origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Jews and Islam 22 Jewish diaspora 21
Hindu sacred places 10 Massilia spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Makran Jewish diaspora 21 Mesopotamia 2 29
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Roman religion 6 Jewish exiles 20 Mohenjo-Daro
Malacca world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 journeys of Muhammad 39 Hindu origins 8
Taoism 17 Mathura spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
world religions 1500 43 Buddhism expands in India 14 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Moissac
worldwide Christian missions in the Buddhist heartland 13 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 church in 1050 33
early 20th century 36 Hindu origins 8 Messene Moldavia
Malaysia Hindu sacred places 10 Jews and Islam 22 Reformation Europe 34
Buddhism today 16 Temple Hinduism 9 Metz Moluccas
Mali Mauretania Jews and Islam 22 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
world religions 1500 43 Jewish diaspora 21 Mexico
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Mongolia
Mamallapuram Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Buddhism today 16
world religions 1500 43 Mauthausen Miami early spread of Buddhism 15
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Manchester Monte Cassino
Mormon trail 37 Mecca Milan church in 1050 33
Jews and Islam 22 Christianity in the 4th and 5th world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Mandhata journeys of Muhammad 39
Hindu sacred places 10 centuries 31 Monterey
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Jewish diaspora 21
Mandu route of the Hajj 57 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Islamic expansion in India 41 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Roman religion 6 Montevideo
Mangalagiri world religions 1500 43 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 worldwide Christian missions in the
Hindu sacred places 10 Mechelen world religions 1500 43 early 20th century 36
Mangalore Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Miletus Montserrat

Hindu sacred places 10 Media Jews and Christians in the 1st century modern pilgrimage sites 55
Mangrol Jewish exiles 20 29 Moravia

Hindu sacred places 10 Medina Mina Reformation Europe 34
Islamic expansion in India 41 Jews and Islam 22 route of the Hajj 57 Mosali
Manila modern pilgrimage sites 55 Mindanao Jainism in India 12
Buddhism today 16 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Moschylus (mount)
worldwide Christian missions in the world religions 1500 43 cult centre 5
Minneapolis-St Paul
early 20th century 36 Mediolanum origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Moscow
Mantua Christianity in the 4th and 5th world religions 1500 43
centuries 31 Minsk
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Judaism in 16th and 17th century Mostar
Europe 23 Jewish diaspora 21
Roman religion 6 Europe 23 Reformation Europe 34
Manzikert spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Mosul
Christianity in the 4th and 5th Mississippi River Jews and Islam 22
centuries 31 Medjugorje
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Mao origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Mount Pisgah
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Megiddo
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Mitanni Mormon trail 37
Mao Shan Solomon 19 ancient empire 4 Muktsar
Taoism 17 Mithila Sikh origins 47
Meiji-jingu
Marah Japan: places of religious importance Hindu origins 8 Multan
Exodus 18 50 Mittelbau Dora early spread of Buddhism 15
Marakandra Melaka Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Mumbai
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Mitylene Buddhism today 16
Mari Melbourne Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jainism in India 12
ancient empire 4 worldwide Christian missions in the 29 Zoroastrianism 7
Mesopotamia 2 early 20th century 36 Miwa (mount) Munich
Marmoutier Memphis Japan: places of religious importance Judaism in 16th and 17th century
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Ancient Egypt 3 50 Europe 23
Reformation Europe 34 ancient empire 4 Moab Münster
Marseilles Exodus 18 Exodus 18 Reformation Europe 34
Jewish diaspora 21 Jewish diaspora 21 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Mursa
Reformation Europe 34 Roman religion 6 Solomon 19 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Moanhead of Daviot Musa, Jebel
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Zoroastrianism 7 megaliths 1 Exodus 18
Maryland Meroë Mocha Muscat
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Ancient Egypt 3 Jews and Islam 22 Jews and Islam 22

Mu’ta spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Nicopolis Numidia
journeys of Muhammad 39 Narmada River spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jewish diaspora 21
Muzdalifah Buddhism expands in India 14 Nidaras spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
route of the Hajj 57 Nasik world religions 1500 43 Nuremberg
Myanmar Hindu sacred places 10 Niederhagen Reformation Europe 34
Buddhism today 16 Nathdwara Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Nuwe
early spread of Buddhism 15 Hindu sacred places 10 Nigeria Ancient Egypt 3
Mycale (mount) Nauvoo New Religious Movements worldwide
cult centre 5 Mormon trail 37 54 O-mei Shan
Mycenae Navarre Nihawend early spread of Buddhism 15
cult centre 5 Reformation Europe 34 Jews and Islam 22 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Mynydd-bach Nazareth Nile River Odessa
megaliths 1 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Ancient Egypt 3 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Myra Christianity in the 4th and 5th Oea
Nazweiler-Struthof centuries 31
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Jewish diaspora 21
29 Exodus 18
Neapolis Jewish diaspora 21 Oescus
Mysia Jewish diaspora 21 Jewish exiles 20 Jewish diaspora 21
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Oeta (mount)
29 29 cult centre 5
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Nebo (mount)
Exodus 18 journeys of Muhammad 39 Olbia
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jewish diaspora 21
Nehavend world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Nabadwip Jewish exiles 20 Olives (mount of)
Hindu sacred places 10 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Nineveh Jerusalem: holy sites 56
Nabatea ancient empire 4
Neocaesarea Jewish exiles 20 Olympus (mount)
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 church in 1050 33 cult centre 5
Zoroastrianism 7
Nablus Nepalearly spread of Buddhism 15 Oman
modern state of Israel 27 Nippur
Netherlands ancient empire 4 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Nadia Judaism in 16th and 17th century Jewish exiles 20 Omime-yama
Islamic expansion in India 41 Europe 23 Mesopotamia 2 Japan: places of religious importance
Nain Judaism and the Third Reich 26 50
Nishapur
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Neuengamme Jews and Islam 22 Omkara
Nairanjara River Judaism and the Third Reich 26 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Hindu origins 8
Buddhist heartland 13 New France world religions 1500 43 On
Najran Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Nisibis Exodus 18
journeys of Muhammad 39 New Granada Christianity in the 4th and 5th Ontake-san
Nalanda Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 centuries 31 Japan: places of religious importance
world religions 1500 43 New Grange Jewish diaspora 21 50
megaliths 1 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Nanda Devi (mount) Onu
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
modern pilgrimage sites 55 New Jersey Ancient Egypt 3
Nanded origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Orontes River
Noë
Sikhism in India today 48 New Orleans Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Nanhai Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Solomon 19
Mormon trail 37 Noirmoutier
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Osaka
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 church in 1050 33
Nanjing Taoism 17
New Spain Nola
world religions 1500 43 Osore-yama
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Nankana Sahib Japan: places of religious importance
New York Noph 50
Sikh origins 47
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Exodus 18
world religions 1500 43 Ossa (mount)
Mormon trail 37 Noricum cult centre 5
Nantes origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Jewish diaspora 21
Reformation Europe 34 Ostrog
Newark North Korea Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Napata origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Buddhism today 16 Europe 23
Ancient Egypt 3
Newfoundland Taoism 17
Naples Ostrogothic kingdom
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Norway Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Jewish diaspora 21
Newport Jewish emancipation 24 centuries 31
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Europe 23 Otranto
Reformation Europe 34 Nicaea church in 1050 33
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Nova Scotia
Ottoman empire
centuries 31 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Nara Judaism in 16th and 17th century
early spread of Buddhism 15 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Novgorod Europe 23
world religions 1500 43 Nickelsburg world religions 1500 43 Reformation Europe 34
Narbonensis Judaism in 16th and 17th century Noviomagus Oxford
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Europe 23 Jewish diaspora 21 Reformation Europe 34
Narbonne Nicomedia Novosibirsk Oxus River
church in 1050 33 Jewish diaspora 21 Buddhism today 16 Jews and Islam 22
GAZET TEER 167

Oxyrhyncus Reformation Europe 34 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Plaszow
Christianity in the 4th and 5th world religions 1500 43 29 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
centuries 31 Parnassus (mount) Roman religion 6 Platte River
cult centre 5 Perge Mormon trail 37
Padua Pasai Christianity in the 4th and 5th Poland
Judaism in 16th and 17th century world religions 1500 43 centuries 31 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Europe 23 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Europe 23
Pasargadae 29
Pagan Zoroastrianism 7 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
early spread of Buddhism 15 Pase Polonnaruva
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Persepolis world religions 1500 43
spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Zoroastrianism 7
world religions 1500 43 Ponary
Pasupatinath Persia
Pakistan Temple Hinduism 9 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Jewish exiles 20
Patagonia spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Pondicherry
New Religious Movements worldwide Hindu sacred places 10
54 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Pataliputra world religions 1500 43 Pontianak
Pakpattan Zoroastrianism 7 Taoism 17
Islamic expansion in India 41 Buddhism expands in India 14
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Persian empire Pontus
Palembang Christianity in the 4th and 5th Jews and Christians in the 1st century
spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Patan
Jainism in India 12 centuries 31 29
Palitana Peshawar spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jainism in India 12 Patara
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Sikh origins 47 Ponuts
Palmyra 29 Sikhism in India today 48 Jewish diaspora 21
Jewish diaspora 21 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Pethor Port-au-Prince
Mormon trail 37 Jewish exiles 20 worldwide Christian missions in the
Roman religion 6 Patna
Buddhism expands in India 14 Petra early 20th century 36
Zoroastrianism 7 Sikhism in India today 48 journeys of Muhammad 39 Portland
Pattanai Phasaelis origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Pamphylia
Jews and Christians in the 1st century spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Portugal
29 Pattaparthy Philadelphia Jewish emancipation 24
Hindu sacred places 10 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Pancavati Reformation Europe 34
Hindu origins 8 Pavia Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Judaism in 16th and 17th century 29 Poseidon
Pandharpur origins of Judaism in the USA 25 cult centre 5
Hindu sacred places 10 Europe 232
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Poznan
Pandua Pawapuri
Jainism in India 12 Philippi Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Islamic expansion in India 41 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Europe 23
Paneas Pécs 29
Reformation Europe 34 Prabhasa
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Roman religion 6 Hindu origins 8
Pangaeus (mount) Pegu spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
early spread of Buddhism 15 Prague
cult centre 5 Philippines church in 1050 33
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
Pannonia world religions 1500 43 Jewish emancipation 24
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Phnom Penh Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Pehowa Buddhism today 16 Europe 23
Panorums Hindu sacred places 10
Jewish diaspora 21 Taoism 17 Reformation Europe 34
Peking Phoenix world religions 1500 43
Papal states worldwide Christian missions in the
Reformation Europe 34 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Pravaga
early 20th century 36 Temple Hinduism 9
Paphos Phrygia
Pella Roman religion 6 Prayaga
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jews and Christians in the 1st century
29 Pibeseth world religions 1500 43
29
Papua New Guinea Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Exodus 18 Preslav
New Religious Movements worldwide Pingdu church in 1050 33
Pelusiuim
54 Jewish diaspora 21 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Prince Albert
Paradocol Pinsk worldwide Christian missions in the
Pelusium early 20th century 36
Temple Hinduism 9 Ancient Egypt 3 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Paran, Wilderness of Exodus 18 Europe 23 Prome
Exodus 18 Pisa early spread of Buddhism 15
Pennsylvania world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Parasnath Peak origins of Judaism in the USA 25 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jainism in India 12 Pisidian Antioch Prossnitz
Perarine Jewish emancipation 24
Parc y Meirw megaliths 1 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
megaliths 1 29 Prthadaka
Perea Hindu origins 8
Paris Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Pithom
church in 1050 33 Exodus 18 Prussia
Pergamum Jewish emancipation 24
Jews and Islam 22 cult centre 5 Pittsburgh
Judaism in 16th and 17th century origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Jewish diaspora 21 Europe 23
Europe 23

Pskov Rabbah Rayy Roman empire
Reformation Europe 34 Jewish exiles 20 Jews and Islam 22 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Ptolemais Kingdoms of Saul, David, and world religions 1500 43 Romania
Christianity in the 4th and 5th Solomon 19 Red Sea Jewish emancipation 24
centuries 31 Raetia journeys of Muhammad 39 Rome
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jewish diaspora 21 Regensburg Christianity in the 4th and 5th
29 Raetia Noricum spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 centuries 31
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 world religions 1500 43 church in 1050 33
Puerto Rico Rages Reggio Jewish diaspora 21
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 church in 1050 33 Jewish emancipation 24
Pumbedita Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Rajaghra Regina Castra 29
Jewish exiles 20 Buddhism expands in India 14 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jews and Islam 22 Jews and Islam 22
Buddhist heartland 13 Reichenau Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Punjab Rajasthan church in 1050 33 Europe 23
Sikh origins 47 Sikhism in India today 48 modern pilgrimage sites 55
Sikhism in India today 48 Rephidim
Rajgir Reformation Europe 34
Punon Exodus 18 Roman religion 6
Buddhist heartland 13
Exodus 18 Jainism in India 12 Resen spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Puskara Jewish exiles 20 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Rajim
Hindu origins 8 Rey world religions 1500 43
Hindu sacred places 10
Temple Hinduism 9 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Roskilde
Rajnesh
Puteoli Rezeph world religions 1500 43
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jewish exiles 20 Rotomagnus
29 Rakhabh Dev
Rhagae spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jainism in India 12
Putuo Shan world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Rouen
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Ramallah
Rhegium church in 1050 33
modern state of Israel 27
Puy de Pauliac Jews and Christians in the 1st century Reformation Europe 34
megaliths 1 Ramesvaram 29 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Temple Hinduism 9
Pyongyang Rheims Rupert’s Land
Buddhism today 16 Ramleh spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Reformation Europe 34
Taoism 17 Jews and Islam 22 church in 1050 33 Russia
Pyu Ramnagar Reformation Europe 34 Jewish emancipation 24
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Buddhist heartland 13 world religions: 1500 43 Russian federation
Ramoth-gilead Rhine River Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Qabis Solomon 19 centuries 31
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Judaism in 16th and 17th century Sabarimala
Ramses
Qala Bist Europe 23 modern pilgrimage sites 55
Ancient Egypt 3
Islamic expansion in India 41 Rhode Island Sachsenhausen
Ramtek
Qatna origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Jewish exiles 20 Rhodes Sacramento
Ranakpur
Qian cult centre 5 Mormon trail 37
Jainism in India 12
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Sadhubela
Ranapur
Qian Shan Rhone River Hindu sacred places 10
Jainism in India 12
Taoism 17 Jewish diaspora 21 Saeth Maen
Rangoon
Qir Riblah megaliths 1
Buddhism today 16
world religions 1500 43 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jewish exiles 20 Safed
Qom worldwide Christian missions in the Riga Judaism in 16th and 17th century
modern pilgrimage sites 55 early 20th century 36 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Europe 23
Qudayd Raphia Ring of Brodgar Sahib

journeys of Muhammad 39 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and megaliths 1 world religions 1500 43
Qufu Solomon 19 Rio de Janeiro Saigon

Taoism 17 Rapti River Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 early spread of Buddhism 15
Quilon Buddhist heartland 13 modern pilgrimage sites 55 St Augustine, Christianity in the

Islamic expansion in India 41 Ratnagiri Rio de la Plata Americas c.1750 35
Quito early spread of Buddhism 15 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 St Gall

Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Ravenna Rishikesh church in 1050 33
Qum Jewish diaspora 21 Hindu sacred places 10 St Just

spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 modern pilgrimage sites 55 megaliths 1
Qumran Ravensbrück Rocamadour St Louis

Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35
Rawalpindi Rocky Mountains Mormon trail 37
Sikh origins 47 Mormon trail 37 Ste Anne de Beaupré, modern
Ra’amses Sikhism in India today 48 Rollright Stones pilgrimage sites 55
Exodus 18 worldwide Christian missions in the megaliths 1 Sais
early 20th century 36
Ancient Egypt 3
GAZET TEER 169

Sajmiste Sandakan Scetis Shugendo
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Taoism 17 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Japan: places of religious importance
Saketa Sankassa Scilia 50
Buddhist heartland 13 Buddhist heartland 13 Jewish diaspora 21 Shur, Wilderness of
Sakya Sankasya Nagar Scotland Exodus 18
world religions 1500 43 Buddhist heartland 13 Reformation Europe 34 Shuruppak
Salagrama San’a Scythopolis Mesopotamia 2
Hindu origins 8 journeys of Muhammad 39 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Sibu
Temple Hinduism 9 Sanshia Seattle Taoism 17
Salamis Taoism 17 origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Sicilia
church in 1050 33 Santa Domingo Sebaste Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Roman religion 6 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Christianity in the 4th and 5th 29
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 centuries 31 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Santa Fe
Salerno Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Sebastea Sicily
church in 1050 33 Mormon trail 37 church in 1050 33 Jews and Islam 22
Salernum Reformation Europe 34
Sta Severina Seleucia
Jewish diaspora 21 church in 1050 33 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Sidhpur
Salim centuries 31 Hindu sacred places 10
Santiago
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 church in 1050 33 Sidon
Salisbury Jewish exiles 20 Jewish exiles 20
Santiago de Compostela Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jews and Christians in the 1st century
world religions 1500 43 modern pilgrimage sites 55 29 29
Salmone Sao Paolo world religions 1500 43 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Solomon 19
29 Seleucia-Ctesiphon
Sapporo spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 modern state of Israel 27
Salonae worldwide Christian missions in the Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Roman religion 6 Seoul
early 20th century 36 Buddhism today 16 Siffin
Salonica Saqqara Taoism 17 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Ancient Egypt 3 worldwide Christian missions in the Silesia
Europe 23 early 20th century 36 Reformation Europe 34
Sarada
Salt Lake City Temple Hinduism 9 Sepharvaim Simhachalam
Mormon trail 37 Jewish exiles 20 Hindu sacred places 10
Sarda
Salzburg Hindu sacred places 10 Sepphoris Simhala
church in 1050 33 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Buddhism expands in India 14
Sardes
Samaria cult centre 5 Serbia Sinai
Jewish exiles 20 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Jewish emancipation 24 Jewish exiles 20
Jews and Christians in the 1st century
29 Sardica Serdica Sinai (mount)
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Christianity in the 4th and 5th Jewish diaspora 21 Exodus 18
centuries 31 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 modern pilgrimage sites 55
Samarkand
Jews and Islam 22 Sardinia Seville Sinai Peninsula
world religions 1500 43 Jews and Islam 22 Reformation Europe 34 Exodus 18
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 world religions 1500 43 Singapore
Samothrace
cult centre 5 Sardis Shamlaji Taoism 17
Zoroastrianism 7 Hindu sacred places 10 Sinope
Samarkand
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Sarnath Shanghai Jewish diaspora 21
Buddhist heartland 13 Buddhism today 16 Roman religion 6
Samudri Mata early spread of Buddhism 15 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Hindu sacred places 10 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Taoism 17 Sippar
San Antonio world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 worldwide Christian missions in the Mesopotamia 2
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Sassanian empire early 20th century 36
Sippara
San Diego journeys of Muhammad 39 Shechem Jewish exiles 20
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Satrunjaya Hill Jewish exiles 20
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Sipylus (mount)
Jainism in India 12 cult centre 5
San Francisco Solomon 19
Saudi Arabia Sirhind
Mormon trail 37 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Shikoku
origins of Judaism in the USA 25 Japan: places of religious importance Sikh origins 47
Savannah 50 Sitakund
San Juan origins of Judaism in the USA 25
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Hindu sacred places 10
Savoy Shiraz Sluck
San Salvador Reformation Europe 34
Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Jews and Islam 22 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Saxony spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Europe 23
Sanchi Reformation Europe 34 world religions 1500 43 Smyrna
early spread of Buddhism 15
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Scandinavia Shravasti Jews and Christians in the 1st century
megaliths 1 Buddhist heartland 13 29
Sandabur world religions 1500 43 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Islamic expansion in India 41 Europe 23

Roman religion 6 Stanleyville Sutlej River Tajikistan
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 worldwide Christian missions in the Hindu origins 8 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Sobibor early 20th century 36 Sikh origins 47
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Sthanka Sweden Tale-yama
Sofia world religions 1500 43 Jewish emancipation 24 Japan: places of religious importance
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Stonehenge Judaism and the Third Reich 26 50
Europe 23 megaliths 1 Reformation Europe 34
Talwandi
Somnath Strasbourg Swiss Confederation, Reformation Sikh origins 47
Islamic expansion in India 41 world religions 1500 43 Europe 34
Tamar
world religions 1500 43 Strasburg Switzerland Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Sonagiri Judaism in 16th and 17th century Jewish emancipation 24 Solomon 19
Jainism in India 12 Europe 23 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Tamralipti
Song Strysnow Sychar Buddhism expands in India 14
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Tamsui
Sonpur Studion Sydney Taoism 17
Hindu sacred places 10 church in 1050 33 worldwide Christian missions in the
early 20th century 36 Tanais
Soron Stutthof Jewish diaspora 21
Hindu sacred places 10 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Syene
Jewish exiles 20 Tangier
Sosnoviec Succoth spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Exodus 18 Syracuse
Jewish diaspora 21 Tangut
Soumont-St Quentin Sudan world religions 1500 43
Roman religion 6
megaliths 1 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Tanis
South Africa Sudji Ancient Egypt 3
Syria
New Religious Movements worldwide world religions 1500 43 Exodus 18
Jewish diaspora 21
54 Suevic kingdom spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Jewish exiles 20
South Korea Christianity in the 4th and 5th Jews and Christians in the 1st century Tanjavur
Buddhism today 16 centuries 31 29 Temple Hinduism 9
New Religious Movements worldwide Suhar journeys of Muhammad 39 Tanjore
54 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Islamic expansion in India 41
Taoism 17 Palestine in the time of Christ 28
Sukothai Tanjungpura
Spain spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
early spread of Buddhism 15 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
Jewish emancipation 24 spread of Islam by 750 CE 40
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Tanta
Europe 23 Sultanpur modern pilgrimage sites 55
Sikh origins 47 Taberah world religions 1500 43
Exodus 18
Reformation Europe 34 Sumatra Tarentum
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 early spread of Buddhism 15 Tabor Jewish diaspora 21
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Mount, Palestine in the time of
Tarn Taran
world religions 1500 43 Taoism 17 Christ 28
Sikh origins 47
Sparta world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Tabriz
world religions 1500 43 Tarnopol
cult centre 5 Jews and Islam 22
Jewish emancipation 24
Jewish diaspora 21 Sumer Tabuk
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Mesopotamia 2 Tarraco
journeys of Muhammad 39
Jewish diaspora 21
Split Sung Shan spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
church in 1050 33 Taoism 17 Tarragona
Tadmor
Jewish diaspora 21
Sravana Belgola Sunium Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Jainism in India 12 cult centre 5 Solomon 19
Tarsus
Sri Lanka Sura Tai Shan
Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Buddhism expands in India 14 Jewish exiles 20 modern pilgrimage sites 55
centuries 31
Buddhism today 16 Surabaya Taibai Shan church in 1050 33
early spread of Buddhism 15 Buddhism today 16 Taoism 17 Jewish diaspora 21
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Taichung Jewish exiles 20
world religions 1500 43 Suracuse
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Taoism 17 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Sri Pada 29 Ta’if 29
modern pilgrimage sites 55 journeys of Muhammad 39 Tashi-gompa
Surat
Srinagari Zoroastrianism 7 Taima world religions 1500 43
Temple Hinduism 9 Jews and Islam 22 Tashkent
Surinam
Sringeri Christianity in the Americas c.1750 35 Tainan Buddhism today 16
Temple Hinduism 9 Taoism 17 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Sus
Sriperumbudur Zoroastrianism 7 Taipei Taxila
Temple Hinduism 9 Buddhism today 16 Buddhism expands in India 14
Susa early spread of Buddhism 15
Srirangam ancient empire 4 Taiwan
Hindu sacred places 10 Hindu origins 8
journeys of Muhammad 39 Buddhism today 16 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Srivijaya Mesopotamia 2 Taoism 17 Zoroastrianism 7
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Taizé
modern pilgrimage sites 55
GAZET TEER 171

Tehran Timbuktu Trebizond Buddhism expands in India 14
worldwide Christian missions in the world religions 1500 43 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Ulan Bator
early 20th century 36 Timolus (mount) Treblinka Buddhism today 16
Tekrur cult centre 5 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Ulcini
world religions 1500 43 Tingitanum Trier Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Tel Aviv Roman religion 6 church in 1050 33 Europe 23
modern state of Israel 27 Tipasa Jewish diaspora 21 Ulm
Tell Brak Roman religion 6 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 world religions 1500 43
Mesopotamia 2 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Tiphsah United Kingdom
Tell el-Ubaid Jewish exiles 20 Trieste Judaism and the Third Reich 26
Mesopotamia 2 Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Reformation Europe 34 New Religious Movements worldwide
Tell Irmah Solomon 19 Tripoli 54
Mesopotamia 2 Tirupati Jews and Islam 22 United States
modern pilgrimage sites 55 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Mormon trail 37
Ternate
spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 Tiruppunduratti Trivandrum New Religious Movements worldwide
Temple Hinduism 9 Hindu sacred places 10 54
Thagaste origins of Judaism in the USA 25
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Tlemcen Troas
Jews and Islam 22 Jews and Christians in the 1st century Uppsala
Thailand 29 world religions 1500 43
Buddhism today 16 world religions 1500 43
Roman religion 6 Ur
early spread of Buddhism 15 Tokyo
Buddhism today 16 Trondheim Mesopotamia 2
Thaneswar world religions 1500 43
world religions 1500 43 Taoism 17 Urgu
worldwide Christian missions in the Trostenets early spread of Buddhism 15
Thasos early 20th century 36 Judaism and the Third Reich 26
cult centre 5 Uruk
Toledo Tuljapur Jewish exiles 20
Thebase Christianity in the 4th and 5th Hindu sacred places 10 Mesopotamia 2
Jewish diaspora 21 centuries 31 Tun-huang Urumchi
Thebes Jews and Islam 22 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Buddhism today 16
Ancient Egypt 3 Judaism in 16th and 17th century
Roman religion 6 Europe 23 Turfan ’Usfan
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 early spread of Buddhism 15 journeys of Muhammad 39
Theresienstadt
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Turin Uttar Pradesh
world religions 1500 43 Reformation Europe 34 Sikhism in India today 48
Thessalonica
church in 1050 33 Toletum Turkey Uzbekistan
Jewish diaspora 21 Roman religion 6 Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Tolosa Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
29 Jewish diaspora 21 Turkmenistan Vadnagar
Roman religion 6 Tomi Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Hindu sacred places 10
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 Tus Vaisali
Thrace Tosali Jews and Islam 22 Buddhist heartland 13
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Jainism in India 12 Tutub
29 Valabhi
Tosho-gu Mesopotamia 2 Buddhism expands in India 14
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Japan: places of religious importance Tyre Valarshapat
Thracia 50 Jewish exiles 20
Jewish diaspora 21 Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Toulouse Jews and Christians in the 1st century centuries 31
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 29
Jewish diaspora 21 church in 1050 33
Thyatira Reformation Europe 34 Jews and Islam 22
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Kingdoms of Saul, David, and Valence
29 Tours Solomon 19 spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
church in 1050 33 modern state of Israel 27 Valley of the Kings
Tiantai Shan Reformation Europe 34
early spread of Buddhism 15 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Ancient Egypt 3
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Taoism 17 Tyrrhenian Sea Vanavasa
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Trachonitis Jews and Christians in the 1st century Buddhism expands in India 14
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 29
Tiberias Vancouver
Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Trakal worldwide Christian missions in the
Judaism in 16th and 17th century early 20th century 36
Tibet Europe 23 Uch
Buddhism today 16 Islamic expansion in India 41 Vandal kingdom
early spread of Buddhism 15 Tralles Christianity in the 4th and 5th
Jews and Christians in the 1st century Ugarit
Taoism 17 ancient empire 4 centuries 31
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 29
Ughur Autonomous Region Vanga
world religions 1500 43 Transylvania Buddhism expands in India 14
Reformation Europe 34 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45
Tiflis Varanasi
spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Trapezus Uhud
journeys of Muhammad 39 Buddhist heartland 13
Tigris River Jewish diaspora 21 Hindu sacred places 10
Jewish diaspora 21 Ujjain modern pilgrimage sites 55
Jewish exiles 20 Hindu sacred places 10 Sikhism in India today 48
Jews and Islam 22 Jainism in India 12 world religions 1500 43

Vatapi Wallachia Xi York
Temple Hinduism 9 Reformation Europe 34 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 church in 1050 33
Venetian republic Walsingham Xi Jiang River spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30
Reformation Europe 34 modern pilgrimage sites 55 Taoism 17 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Venice Wan-fu-xiu Xi Shan
Reformation Europe 34 early spread of Buddhism 15 Taoism 17 Yugoslavia
Vercelli Wangwu Xi’an
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 1500 43
Vercovicium Warsaw Zabdizene
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Jewish emancipation 24 Jews and Christians in the 1st century
Yadavagiri 29
Vesontio Judaism in 16th and 17th century Temple Hinduism 9
Jewish diaspora 21 Europe 23 Zacynthus
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Yamato cult centre 5
Vidisha Reformation Europe 34 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Buddhism expands in India 14 Zaire
Wasatch Oasis Yamnotri New Religious Movements worldwide
Vienna Mormon trail 37 modern pilgrimage sites 55 54
Jewish emancipation 24 Yamuna River
world religions 1500 43 Washington D.C. Zambia
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Buddhism expands in India 14 New Religious Movements worldwide
Vienne Hindu sacred places 10 54
church in 1050 33 Way of the Sea
Exodus 18 Yanbu Zamboanga
spread of Christianity by 325 ce 30 journeys of Muhammad 39
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42
Vietnam Solomon 19 Yangon
early spread of Buddhism 15 Zamost’ye
Wen Shu early spread of Buddhism 15 Jewish emancipation 24
Taoism 17
modern pilgrimage sites 55 Yangoon Zaragoza
Vijaya Buddhism today 16
spread of Islam in South-east Asia 42 West Bank spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
modern state of Israel 27 Yangtze River Zebid
Vijaynagara Taoism 17
world religions 1500 43 Westerbork Jews and Islam 22
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Yangzhou Zemun
Vikramapura world religions 1500 43
Islamic expansion in India 41 Whithorn Judaism and the Third Reich 26
church in 1050 33 Yara Zenko-ji
Vilna world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Jewish emancipation 24 Japan: places of religious importance
Judaism in 16th and 17th century Wilderness of Paran Yarkand 50
Europe 23 Exodus 18 early spread of Buddhism 15 Zhitomir
Judaism and the Third Reich 26 Wilderness of Shur Yarmuk Jewish emancipation 24
Viraja Exodus 18 spread of Islam by 750 ce 40 Zhongnan
Hindu origins 8 Wilderness of Zin Yarmuk River world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32
Visigothic kingdom Exodus 18 Palestine in the time of Christ 28 Zin, Wilderness of
Christianity in the 4th and 5th Winter Quarters Yarmuna River Exodus 18
centuries 31 Mormon trail 37 Sikh origins 47 Zion (mount)
Vivarium Wittem Yasi Jerusalem: holy sites 56
church in 1050 33 modern pilgrimage sites 55 world religions 1500 43 Ziyarat
Vladivostock Wittenberg Yathrib modern pilgrimage sites 55
Buddhism today 16 Reformation Europe 34 journeys of Muhammad 39 Zoan
Volubilis Wu Tang Shan Yeb Exodus 18
Jewish diaspora 21 Taoism 17 Ancient Egypt 3 Zoar
Wu-tai Yellow River Kingdoms of Saul, David, and
Wadi el-Arish early spread of Buddhism 15 Taoism 17 Solomon 19
Exodus 18 Wu-tai Shan Yemen Zodiac
Kingdoms of Saul, David, and world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Muslim peoples of modern Asia 45 Mormon trail 37
Solomon 19 Wuhan spread of Islam by 750 ce 40
Wadi Natrun Buddhism today 16 Yoni
world religions 600 bce–600 ce 32 Hindu origins 8
Wuyi Shan
Wales Taoism 17
Wuyuan
Taoism 17
GAZET TEER 173

Index
Numbers are page numbers; numbers in italics are for pages with illustrations
‘Abbasid dynasty 113 Balkh 114 Dalai Lama 52 Ghazni 114
‘Abduh, Muhammad 126 Benedict of Nursia 88 Damascus 113 ghettos 78
Abraham 154 Bengal 114 Damien, Father 99 Geiger, Abraham 74
Adventists 102 Berg, David Brandt 146 David (king of Israel) 62 Gobind Singh (guru) 128
Aesculapius (god) 28 Bhagavad Gita 36 death 26 Godavari river 38
Aetherius Society 147 Bhaktivedanta Praphupada, A. C. Delphi 25, 26 Golden Temple 128, 131
Afghanistan 114 (swami) 146 Demeter (goddess) 26 good and evil 30
Africa Black Power movement 126 Devi (goddess) 36 Great Awakening 96, 98
Christian growth in 106 Black Rock 41 dharma 34, 36, 48 Great Schism 92
Christian missions to 98 Blavatasky, Helena P. 144–5
Islam in 120 Diaspora Judaism 67 Greece, ancient 25–7
bodhisattvas 48 Didyma 25 Guinness, H. Grattan 99
afterlife 20, 26
Brunei 116 Dionysus 25 gurdwaras 128, 131
Agni (fire god) 34
Buddhahood 48 Divine Light Mission 146 gurus 128–9
agriculture 22
Buddhism 35, 46–53 Dodona 26 Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang 146
Ahmadis 120 Japanese 134
Akali movement 131 Donation of Constantine 92
Akhenaten 20 dreams 26 Hades 26
Bukhara 124
Alexandria, as Christian centre 86 Dwarka 38 Hadrian 28
Burma, Christian missions to 99
Allah 110 Hagar 154
Amaterasu (sun-goddess) 134 Eddy, Mary Baker 144 Hajj 148, 154
Caesarea Maritima 82
Amenophis IV (pharaoh) 20 Edwards, Jonathan 98 Hal Tarxien 16
Caligula 28
Amida 50 egoism 50 Harappa Culture 34
caliphs 112
Amritsar 128, 131 Egypt Hare Krishna 146
Calvin, John 94
ancient 20 Haridwar 38
Amun (god) 20 Cambodia 52 conquered by Muslims 68, 112
Anandpur 128 pilgrimage 149 Haskalah 72
Capernaum 84
anti-Semitism 70, 72, 76–8 Elan Vital movement 146 Hawaii 99
Carey, William 98
Anu (god) 18 Eleusis 26 healing 26–7
Carnac 16
Aphrodite 25 emperor worship 28 Hebrew Union College 74
caste system 41
Apollo 25 Enki (god) 18 Hephaistos 25
Catholic Reformation 94
Arafat (mount) 154 enlightenment 46, 50, 54 Hera (god) 25, 28
Chalcedon 88
Ares 25 Enlil (god) 18 Herod the Great 82
Chang Tsai 54
Argos 25 Epidaurus 27 Herodotus 26
Children of God 145–6
Aryans 34 Erdman, Paul 145 Herzl, Theodore 78
China
asceticism 34–5, 42 ancient 22 Erech 18 Heydrich, Reinhard 76
Buddhism in 50, 52 Hijrah 110
Asclepios (god) 26–7, 28 Erhard Seminar Training 147
Christianity in 98–9, 106–7
Ashkenazi Jews 70 Eridu 18 Himmler, Heinrich 76
Islam in 123–5
Ashoka 48, 50 under Communism 52, 106–7, 136 Euphrates river 18 Hinduism 34–41
Aten (sun god) 20 Chinmoy, Sri 146 Exodus 60 pilgrimage 148
Athena (goddess) 28 Christian Science 144
Hirsch, Samson 74
augury 26 Christianity 82–107 Falun Gong 146 Hitler, Adolf 76
in modern China 136
Augustus 28 fate 26 Holocaust 76–8
pilgrimage 148–9
Australia 99 festivals 41 Homer 25
Chu Hsi 54
Avesta 30 Feuerbach, Ludwig 104 Honshu 134
Chuang-tzu 56
Ayodhya 38 Foucauld, Charles de 99 Hopkins, Emma Curtis 144
city religions 22
Azerbaijan 123 France 104 Hsün-tzu 54
compassion 50
Freud, Sigmund 104 Hubbard, L. Ron 147
Confucianism 54–7
Baal 25 Human Potential Movement 147
Constantinople 86, 88
Babylon 64 Galilee 67
Corinth 27
Jewish academies 68 Gandhi, Mohandas 40
Crete 25 immortality 56, 57
Babylonia 18 Ganges river 38
Cybele (mother goddess) 28 Inanna (god) 18
Bacchus 25 Gaon, Sa’adiah ben Yosef 68 Independence (Missouri) 102
Bahá’í 146–7 Gaons 68

India 40 karma 34, 46 megaliths 16 Oceania, Christian missions to 99
Christian missions to 98, 99 Kashgar 125 Mencius 54 Olympia 25
Islam in 114
Kaveri river 38 Mendelssohn, Moses 72 oracles 26
indigenous religions 139–40
Kazakhstan 123 Mesopotamia 18 Osiris 27
Indonesia 116
Kerala 41 messiah 67 Ostia 28
Indra (god) 40
Khan, Inayat 126 messianic movements 70 Ottoman empire 70
Indus river 38
Khan, Sayyid Ahmad 126 Michael Cerularius 92
inner peace 146
Khomeini (Ayatollah) 126 millenarianism 102–3 Pakistan 114
Iran 126
Muslim invasion of 112 Kiev 92 Miller, William 144 Palestine 78
Iraq King, George 147 mind 54–6 Paraguay, Jesuits in 96

ancient 18 Knock 148–9 Minerva (god) 28 Parsis 30
conquered by Muslims 112 Kos 27 missionary societies 98 Pella 84
irrigation 18, 22 Krapf, Johann 99 missions Pentecostalism 106
Ishmael 154 Kronos (god of time) 25 Christian 96–9, 106–7 Pergamum 27
Isis 27 Portuguese 116
Kukai 134 Sufi 116 persecution
Islam 110–31 Kumbh Mela 20, 41 of Christians 28
and Judaism 68–9 Mithraism 28 of Jews 70, 76–8, 84
pilgrimage 148, 149, 154 Kyrgyzstan 123 Moab 60 Persia 30
in Russia 123 monasticism 42, 48 Christian missions to 99
scholarship 68 Lagash 18 conquered by Muslims 68
monotheism 22
Islamism 126, 127 Lahore 129 Photius I (patriarch) 92
Monte Cassino 88
Israel Lao-tzu 56 pilgrimage 38, 41, 110, 148–9, 154
Moon, Sun Myung 146
children of 60 Japan 134
Lares & Penates 28 Mormons 102–3
kingdom of 62
Larsa 18 Poland 104
modern state of 78 Morocco 120 massacre of Jews 70
Izumo 134 Latin America, Christian missions to 99 Morrison, Robert 98 Pompeii 28
Latter-Day Saints 102–3 Moses 60 Poole, Elijah 126
Jainism 35, 42 Leo IX (pope) 92 Mott, John R. 99 popes 88, 92
Jamnia 67, 84 Li Hongzhi 146 Mughal empire 114 Portugal
Japan 99, 134 Libya, Muslim invasion of 112 Muhammad 110 as colonial power 96
Buddhism in 50 Lima 96 global trading 116
Muhammad, Elijah 126
Christianity in 106
Lin Chao-en 57 Myanmar, Christian missions to 99 Poseidon 25
Java 149
Lingwood, Dennis 146 Mycenae 25 priests 28, 30
Jebel Helal 60
Love Family 145 mysticism 54, 56–7 Protestantism 94
Jebel Musa 60
Luther, Martin 70, 94 Pudgalavada Buddhism 48
Jehovah’s Witnesses 144
Najaf 149 Punjab
Jerusalem 152 Islam in 114
Magi 30 Nanak (Guru) 128
David’s capital 62 Sikhism 128–31
early Christian centre 86 Mahabharata 36 Nanna (moon god) 18
temple community 64 Mahavira 42 Narbonne 112 Quakers 96
under Herod the Great 82
Mahayana Buddhism 48 Narmada river 38
Jesuits, reductions 96 Qutb, Sayyid 126
Mahesh Yohi (Maharishi) 146 Nation of Islam 126
Jesus Movement 145
Malabar 98 nature 38, 40
Jews rabbis 67
Malacca 116 Neo-Confucianism 54–6
emancipation 72 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli 40
persecution 70, 76–8, 84 Malaysia 116 Neptune 25 Raëlian Movement 147
see also Judaism Marianas Islands 99 New Age Movement 147 Rajneesh, Bhagavan Shri 146
Judaism 60–79 Marr, Wilhelm 72 New Kadampa Tradition 146 Ramayana 36
anti-Semitism 70
Mars (god) 25 New Religious Movements 144–7
and the early Church 94 Ranjit Singh (maharajah) 129
Reform 74 Martyn, Henry 99 New Thought 144 Rastafarianism 147
scholarship 68 Marx, Karl 104 New Zealand 99 Rawat, Prem 146
judges 62 Masai Mara 141 Nhat Hahn, Thich 52 Reformation 94
Judson, Adoniram and Ann 99 Mathura 38 Nichiren 134, 146 reincarnation 34, 42, 46
Juno (god) 28 Maududi, Abu al-Ala 126 Nile river 20 Rigdon, Sidney 102
Jupiter (god) 25, 28 Mecca 110, 148, 154 Ninurta (god) 18 Rimmon 84
Medes 30 Nippur 18 rivers 38
Kanchipuram 38 Medina 110, 149 non-violence 42
Karaites 68–9 meditation 46, 50, 52 North America, Christianity in 96
Karbala’ 149 Medjugorje 149
INDEX 1 75

Rome Shiva (god) 36 Tanta 149 Varanasi 38
ancient 27, 28 shop front churches 107 tantras 50 Varuna (sea god) 40
Capitoline Hill 28
as centre of Christianity 86, 88 Sikhism 128–31 Taoism 56–7, 136 Vedanta Society 146
imperial cult 86 Sinai 60 Taylor, James Hudson 98–9 Vedas 34
Pantheon 28 Sinai, Mount 60 temples 36, 41 Vikvekananda (Swami) 40
Romney, Mitt 103 Smith, Joseph 102–3 ancient Sumeria 18 Vipassana movement 146
Rosicrucians 145 Beijing 56
Soka Gakkai 146 Cambodia 52 Vishnu (god) 36
Roy, Ram Mohan 40 Solomon 62 Eleusis 26 Vivekananda (swami) 146
Russell, Charles Taze 144 Soma (plant god) 34 Hinduism 36 Vorihon, Claude 147
Russia 104–5 Jerusalem 19, 62, 64, 152
South America 96 Sikhism 128 Vulcan (god of war) 25
Russian empire 123 South Korea 99, 106 Tendai Buddhism 134
Russian Orthodox Church 92, 105 Soviet Union 104–5 Waihind 114
Thebes 20
Rutherford, Joseph 144 Spain Walsingham 149
Theravada Buddhism 48
as colonial power 96 Wang Yang-ming 54
conquered by Muslims 68, 112, 120 Tibet 50, 52
Sabarimala temple 41 White, Ellen G. 144
Sri Lanka 52 Tigris river 18
sacrifice 34, 36 Wise, Isaac 74
Stonehenge 16 Tours 112
Samuel 62 writing 18
Student Volunteer Movement 99 Transcendental Meditation® 146
Sangharakshita 146
suffering 34, 46 Travancore 98
Sanskrit 34, 36 Xavier, Francis 98
Saraswati river 38 Sufism 116, 120, 123, 124, 126
Sumatra 116 UFO religions 147
Sathya Sai Baba 146 Yamuna river 38
Sumerians 18 Ujjain 38
Saturn (god) 25 Yavneh 67
sun gods 20 Ukraine, massacre of Jews 70
Saul 62 Yiddish 70
Suzuki, D. T. 146 Ummayad dynasty 112, 113
scholasticism 94 yoga 35
swamis 146 Unification Church 146
School of Economic Science 147 Yogananda, Paramahansa 146
synagogues 64, 72 United States of America
Scientology 147 Islam 126–7 Young, Brigham 102–3
Self-Realization Fellowship 146 syncretism 57 Judaism 74
Serapis 27 Syria Unity Church 144
ancient 18 Zen 50, 146
Seventh-Day Adventists 144 conquered by Muslims 68, 112 Uranus (sky god) 25 Zeus 25, 28
Shah, Idries 126 urban civilizations 22 Zevi, Shabbetai 70
Shi’ites 120 Taizé 149 Uruk 18 Zionism 78
Shikoku 134, 148 Tajikistan 123 Utah, Mormons in 102–3 Zoroastrianism 30, 113
Shinran 50 Talmud 68 Utu (sun god) 18 Zwingli, Huldrych 94
Shinto 134 Tannit 25 Uzbekistan 123

HERMES
Featuring more than fifty-seven brand new maps, ZEUS, Olympian gods, muses LEMNOS
Dowley
Mt Ossa
PALLAS ATHENE
Mt Ida MYSIA
photographs, diagrams and charts, the Atlas of World
GREENLAND
York
Religions is an essential companion to any study of the
ALASKA
B R I TAI N ORACLE OF ZEUS Mt Pelion
ICELAND SWEDEN
NOR
W FINLAND
R Canterbury
U S 596 S I A
AY
Dn
key religions of the world.

UNITED ie p
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ATLANTIC
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C A R PAT H lg
A TL ANTIC
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UKRAINE
Pergamum
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KHAZAKHSTAN
MT
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aR
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S
ASCLEPIOS
FRANCE
.
ITALY
O CEAN UZBE
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G AU L Vercelli 360 Modena Alba Iulia ASCLEPIOS
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The concise, helpful text guides the readers’ experience
PORTUGAL TURKM T
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ENIS D N. KOREA
AN
TURKEY
an
SKYROS
M I N O R
SPAIN TA
Bologna
JAPAN ube CAU
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
S. KOREA
CA
Mt OetaS H A N
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C H I N A R. Gobi Desert
SYRIA
IRAQ IRAN AFGHANISTAN
I TALY B L AC K S E A SU
S
Serdica
C AS
TIBET Massilia Rome M Qian
EN Magnesia
and helps interpretation of the visuals. This atlas surveys
T
THRACE Constantinople TI
ALGERIA PAKISTAN
(Marseilles)
PIAN
SPAIN
LIBYA
ARMENIA Yellow R
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EGYPT
Monte Nola 394 Chalcedon 400
SEA
MEXICO .
SAUDI
IND IA 415 ARTEMIS
Jiuquan
EUBOEA
HAWAII (U.S.A.) ARABIA
OMAN
Casino 529 Tun-huang Yungang
S EA
CUBA BURMA
MAURITANIA NIGER LAOS
Nicaea Caesarea 360 Marakanda Mt Parnassus LEBADAEA
the origins, historical development, and current strength, Sardes
CHAD SUDAN (N)
THAILAND M E D I PHILIPPINE Kaesong
AS MALI
DUR A RABIAN
Athens Gushnasp Wu-tai Shan Kunlun
High density of Painted Grey ware 1000–
ON
POSEIDON, ARTEMIS
YEMEN
P ACIFIC T IS.E P ACIFIC
S EA
Merv Mt Sipylus
A
VIETNAM
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Carthage R R
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TE M NICARAGUA
OCEAN Ephesus Pythian
Bactra Games for Apollo
Khotan DIONYSOS ARTEMIS
NI A N M E S Nisibis 325 LUN MOUNTAINS
Delphi Wangwu Kyongju JA PA N Mt Tmolus
BOETIA
A
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GHANA
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Antioch
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VENEZUELA
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distribution, and nature of the major world religions and
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Kyoto
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SOMALIA
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Hindu ECUADOR GABON
Sidon Hamadan POSEIDON, Zhongnan SEA
Cyrene MtTang
Helicon s R APOLLO
D.R.
I
INDIAN Longmen
CONGO
Europos Ctesiphon Corinth Wu
their offshoots, and explores some of the religions of the
Jewish
Aryans arrive from Central Asia c. 1500 BC
.
I N D Leptis O N E Magna
ACHAEA
S I A
Indus R
PAPUA
u
OCEAN Isthmian
TIB ET Games
Shan
Alexandria PE RS IA Yoni .
Chinese religions TANZANIA NEW
Jerusalem
GUINEA
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Theravada Buddhism
PERU BRAZIL for Poseidon Pingdu Mao ANDROS
ANGOLA
A R. Putuo Shan
Mahayana Buddhism ZAMBIA
Wadi Natrun 320 Bethlehem 386 Cyllene Mts Y Lhasa
DEMETER tze CHINA Lu Ephesus
ancient world.
SOUTH A B ra h m a p O-mei Shan g Tiantai Shan
PALLAS ATHENE,
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Nemean Games a R. Ya n ARTEMIS
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Orthodox Christian
ATLANTIC NAMIBIA S Nemea ARTEMIS, DIONYSOS,
EGYPT Mohenjo-Daro Kusinara
for Zeus Heng Xi Kuocang
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AFRICA
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Written specifically for students of all levels, this volume A R C A D I A Argos
Shinto ARGENTINA
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SEA
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POSEIDON Luofou
Tribal, Muslim, Christian
DELOS
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Sanchi
Tribal, Christian
Traditional, tribal or NEW I N D I A
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A R A B I A HERA Didyma
is perfect for individual or course-based study. PaganASCLEPIOS
ZEALAND
CARIA
Asrama (ashram) mentione

Jain Minority
Mainly Hindu 500 BCE–600 CE Ellora ORACLE OF APOLLO
s R.
Sikh minority
Jewish minority Significantly Hindu 500 BCE–600 CE Elephanta Karli Mt Parthenius Prome NAXOS
APOLLO OF AMYCLAE, PYU
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0 1000 2000
ALWA PAROS
Indu
P ACIFIC
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Jewish centre 500 BCE ARTEMIS ORTHIA,
Aihole Pegu
Zoroastrian minority 0 1000
Kilometers
2000 A R A BI A N ATHENA CHALKIOIKOS, Sparta Sukhothai
Jewish settlement by 600 CE AXUM Amaravati Rangoon
SEA DIOSCURI B AY
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ASCLEPIOS Kuruksetra since then pilgrimage site
ETHIOPIA
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Kailasa
SOUTH CHINA
SIKHISM WORLDWIDE TODAY Sassanians introduced Zoroastrianism after 226 CE
Anuradhapura
Funan SEA
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Mahayana Buddhist formative area 0–300 CE Polonnaruwa
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Atlas of
Su
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Atlas of
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Confucian and Daoist from 300 BCE APHRODITE THERA
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World
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World Religions
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Kilometers Borobudur
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More than 19 million S O U TH Prabhasa
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TIM DOWLEY is a historian and ais prolific
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ouri R.

A R A B I A I N D I A Nanhai
New York (’Skokie Yeshiva’) founded 1922 Russian, Polish, Pagan
1839 Pittsburgh Newark
1852 1654 Mainly Hindu 500 BCE–600 CE Ukranian, Lithuanian Ellora
lives with his wife and Denver

three children in Dulwich, Cincinnati 1824 Philadelphia 1747 ILLINOIS immigrants 1880-1924 Prome
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NJ Romanian immigrants ALWA Aihole Pegu P ACIFIC
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Baltimore 1842 Hebrew Union College Sukhothai
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HERMES

Mt Olympus Mt Mosychlus Troy

key religions of the world.

Cithaeron Mts Nara

Asrama (ashram) mentione

VT Scetis 330 A Brahmaputra R.

L. Ontario NH EGYPT Mohenjo-Daro a Kusinara Heng Xi Kuocang

L. Erie Sanchi Bodh Gaya Luofou

Hebrew Theological College

lives with his wife and Denver

OKLAHOMA Toledo Kandy

Mainly Buddhist by 300 BCE R E Bukhara

More than 660,000 NEW Mainly Buddhist by 600 CE

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 1 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of Christian History: Tim Dowley, 2016

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 2 22/05/2018 15:00

Cartographer Nick Rowland FRGS

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 3 22/05/2018 15:00

Copyright © 2018 Fortress Press / ZipAddress Limited. All Photograph acknowledgements

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 4 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 5 22/05/2018 15:00

Part 1: The Ancient World 14

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 6 22/05/2018 15:00

Part 6: Islam 108

Part 7: World Religions Today 132

Further reading 156

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 7 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 8 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 9 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 11 22/05/2018 15:00

Hinduism 1952 World Fellowship of Buddhists starts

Buddhism 1695 Khalsa formed

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 12 22/05/2018 15:00

Judaism 1738 John Wesley’s conversion experience

166–160 bce Maccabean Rebellion 630 Conquest of Mecca

70 ce Herod’s Temple destroyed 641–43 Conquest of Egypt, Libya, Carthage, Nubia

1492 ce Jews expelled from Spain 1058–1111 Sufi scholar al-Ghazali

1897 First Zionist Congress 1529 Otttoman Turks reach Vienna

1938–1945 Jewish Holocaust 1526–1857 Mughal Empire, India

1948 State of Israel founded 1947 Islamic state of Pakistan formed

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 13 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 14 22/05/2018 15:00

Megaliths megaliths – structures composed of

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 16 22/05/2018 15:00

SCANDINAVIA Celtic influence at its greatest extent

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 17 22/05/2018 15:00

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 18 22/05/2018 15:00

Sippar Sacred to sun god

the previous one. Over the years, the temples

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 19 22/05/2018 15:00

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MEDITERRANEAN SEA Capital of Hyksos kings

Necropolis of Thebes Thebes/Nuwe

‘Door of South’ during Old Kingdom Elephantine/Yeb

S. border of Middle Kingdom to c. 1800 BCE

mainly 4th Dynasty c. 2600–2500 BCE

RELIGION IN ANCIENT EGYPT 21

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 21 22/05/2018 15:00

The Early City Religions about important religious developments.

Urban civilization spread into the Indus

The invention of the plough and introduction Troy

of irrigation greatly improved agricultural Hal

Atlas of World Religions_INS_Fortress.indd 22 22/05/2018 15:00

Major trade routes