A MINI PROJECT REPORT ON

"FASTEST FINGER FIRST IN BUZZER ROUNDS"

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

By
P.RISHITHA RAO (15281A04A5)
G. RAJESH REDDY (15281A04A1)
B.HEMANTH RAO (15281A0406)
V.KAVYA SRI (15281A0418)
M.ADITHYA PRASAD (15281A0411)
Under the Guidance of
Sri.N.KARTHIK (Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
Singapur, Huzurabad, Karimnagar - 505 468 (T.S.)
2018-2019
 KAMALA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

SINGAPUR, HUZRABAD.

(Approved by AICTE and Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this is a bonafide record of the project work entitled
"FASTEST FINGER FIRST IN BUZZER ROUNDS" is a work carried out by

P.RISHITHA RAO (15281A04A4), G.RAJESH REDDY (15281A04A1),

B.HEMANTH RAO (15281A0406), V.KAVYA SRI (15281A0418), and
M.ADITHYA PRASAD (15281A0411) In the partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the Bachelor of Technology degree in Electronics &

Communication Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad

during the academic year 2018-2019.

Project guide Head of the Department

Sri.N.KARTHIK Dr.V.SHARMILA
Assistant Professor Professor
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to express our profound gratitude and deep regards to all people
who extend their support with timely suggestions and indispensable help which made this
project feasible.

We extend our sincere thanks to Sri.N.KARTHIK, Assistant professor for assisting

and monitoring as project guide.

We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude and respect to our project
coordinator Mr.V.VIKRAM, Assistant professor without his constant encouragement it
would not have been possible to complete this work. We express unfeigned gratitude towards
our project coordinator for his valuable guidance in completion of mini project work.

Our special thanks to Dr.V.SHARMILA, Professor Head of the Department of

Electronics and Communication Engineering for their suggestions and whole hearted support.

We wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. K. SHANKER, principal, KITS

Singapur, who guided us in successfully completing of our mini project.

Finally, we thank all the faculty members, supporting staff of ECE Department for their
kind co-operation and valuable help for completing the project.

P.RISHITHA RAO (15281A04A5)

G.RAJESH REDDY (15281A04A1)
B.HEMANTH RAO (15281A0406)
V.KAVYA SRI (15281A0418)
M.ADITHYA PRASAD (15281A0411)
 CONTENTS

Page No

ABSTRACT VI

LIST OF FIGURES III

LIST OF TABLES V

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Characteristics of embedded system 2

CHAPTER-2 DESIGN OF THE PROJECT

2.1 Block diagram 3
2.2 Explanation of each block 4
2.2.1 Power supply design 4
2.2.2 Power supply 4
2.2.3 Transformer 5
2.2.4 Rectifier 6
2.2.5 Filter 8
2.2.6 Voltage regulator 8
2.3 AT89C51 Microcontroller
2.3.1 Microcontroller 9

2.3.2 Features of AT89C51 10

2.3.3 Pin diagram of 8051 11

2.4 Transistor BC548 14
2.4.1 Pin diagram 15
2.5 piezo buzzer 15
2.5.1 Pin diagram of piezo buzzer 16
2.6 Switches and Pushbuttons 16
2.7 Quartz crystal oscillator 17
2.7.1 Pin Diagram
18
I
 2.7.2 Working of Crystal oscillator 19
2.8 Capacitor 20
2.8.1 Pin Diagram 21
2.8.2 Capacitor characteristics 22
2.9 Resistor 25
2.9.1 Theory of operation 26

2.9.2 Power Dissipation 26

2.10 Printed circuit board (PCB) 27

2.10.1 Pin Diagram 28

2.11 Connecting wires 28

CHAPTER-3 SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Keil software 29

3.2 Proload 31

CHAPTER-4 WORKING
4.1 Working procedure 33

ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS 34

CONCLUSION 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

LIST OF FIGURES
II
 Name of the Figure Page no
Figure 1.1 Block diagram of embedded system 1

Figure 2.1 Block diagram 3

Figure 2.2.1.1 Transformer 4

Figure 2.2.2.1 Power supply 5

Figure 2.2.3.1 Transformer 5

Figure 2.2.4.1 Rectifier 6

Figure 2.2.4.2 Rectifier waveforms 7

Figure 2.2.6.1 Block diagram of voltage regulator 8

Figure 2.2.6.2 Pin diagram of voltage regulator 8

Figure 2.2.3.1 Micro controller 9

Figure 2.2.3.2 Block diagram of 8051 10

Figure 2.2.3.3 Pin diagram of Micro controller 11

Figure 2.2.4.1 Transistor 14

Figure 2.2.4.2 Pin diagram of Transistor 15

Figure 2.2.5.1 Piezo Buzzer 15

Figure 2.2.5.2 Pin diagram of piezo buzzer 16

Figure 2.2.6.1 Switches 16

Figure2.2.7.1
Figure 2.2.8.2Crystal
Capacitor characteristics
oscillator 22
18

Figure2.2.8.1
Figure 2.2.9.1Capacitor
Resistor 25
21

Figure 2.2.10.1 Printed circuit board 28

Figure 2.2.11.1 Connecting wires 28

III
IV
 LIST OF TABLES

Name Of The Table Page no

Table 1 Pin description of 8051 12

V
 ABSTRACT

The main goal of this project is to develop a fastest-finger-first quiz buzzer system
that can be used to recognize the participant who presses the buzzer fastest and first among
all in a group of people in a quiz competition by the quiz computation sensor (D-flip-flop).

This circuit includes 8 numbers of push buttons which are fed to a D-type flip-flop.
This flip-flop generates an O/P signal, which is fed to a transistor, making the corresponding
LED to switch ON and also generate a buzzer sound.

This project in future can be enhanced by using a display to indicate the order in
which the switches are pressed.

VI
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software, either

fixed in capability or programmable, that is designed for a specific function or for specific
functions within a larger system. Industrial machines, agricultural and process industry
devices, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras, household appliances, airplanes, vending
machines and toys as well as mobile devices are all possible locations for an embedded
system.

All general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they all computing

systems other than general purpose computer (with monitor, keyboard, etc.)are embedded
systems.

System is a way of working, organizing or performing one or many tasks according to

a fixed set of rules, program or plan. In other words, an arrangement in which all units
assemble and work together according to a program or plan. An embedded system is a system
that has software embedded into hardware, which makes a system dedicated for an
application (s) or specific part of an application or product or part of a larger system. It
processes a fixed set of pre-programmed instructions to control electromechanical equipment
which may be part of an even larger system (not a computer with keyboard, display etc).

A general proposed definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to
control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. “Embedded”
reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of embedded system

1
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

a) Embedded systems are application specific functioned; application known apriori, the
programs are executed repeatedly.
b) Efficiency is paramount importance for embedded systems. They are optimized for
energy, code size, execution time, weight & dimensions, and cost.
c) Embedded systems are typically designed to meet real time constrains; a real time
system reacts to stimuli from the controlled object operator within the time interval
dictated by the environment. For real time systems, right answers arriving too late (or
even too early) are wrong.
d) Embedded systems often interact (sense, manipulate & communicate) with external
world through sensors and actuators and hence are typically reactive systems
determined by that environment.
e) They generally have minimal or no user interface.

2
 CHAPTER 2

DESIGN OF THE PROJECT

2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 2.1 Block diagram

3
2.2 EXPLANATION OF EACH BLOCK

2.2.1 Power Supply Design

Figure 2.2.1.1 Transformer

2.2.2 POWER SUPPLY

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 5V and is fed to a rectifier.
The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c
voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components
present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a
pure constant dc voltage.

230V AC 4

50Hz
 D.C
Output

Step down Bridge

transformer Rectifier Regulator
filter

Figure 2.2.2.1 Power supply

2.2.3 Transformer

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these
voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input
available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level.
This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the
voltage to a required level.

Figure 2.2.3.1 Transformer

5
2.2.4 Rectifier

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating
D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier
is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

Figure 2.2.4.1 Rectifier

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half
cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit
has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of
the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes
D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1
and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series

with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in
the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

6
 Figure 2.2.4.2 Rectifier waveforms

2.2.5 Filter
7
 Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains
voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage
received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

2.2.6 Voltage regulator

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an
electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this
project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels,
7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used.

Figure 2.2.6.1 Block diagram of voltage regulator

The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers 05, 12 represent the required
output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-terminal positive regulators is available in
TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK packages and several fixed output voltages,
making it useful in a wide range of applications. These regulators can provide local on-card
regulation, eliminating the distribution problems Associated with single point regulation.
Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection,
making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver
over 1 A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents

Figure 2.2.6.2 Pin diagram of voltage regulator

8
2.3 AT89C51 Microcontroller

Figure 2.2.3.1 Micro controller

2.3.1 MICROCONTROLLERS

Microcontrollers’ producers have been struggling for a long time for attracting more
and more choosy customers. Every couple of days a new chip with a higher operating
frequency, more memory and more high-quality A/D converters comes on the market.

Nevertheless, by analyzing their structure it is concluded that most of them have the same (or
at least very similar) architecture known in the product catalogs as “8051 compatible”. What
is all this about? The whole story began in the far 80s when Intel launched its series of the
microcontrollers labeled with MCS 051. Although, several circuits belonging to this Series
had quite modest features in comparison to the new ones; they took over the world very fast
and became a standard for what nowadays is meant by a word microcontroller.The reason for
success and such a big popularity is a skillfully chosen configuration which satisfies needs of
a great number of the users allowing at the same time stable expanding ( refers to the new
types of the microcontrollers ). Besides, since a great deal of software has been developed in
the meantime, it simply was not profitable to change anything in the microcontroller’s basic
core. That is the reason for having a great number of various microcontrollers which actually
are solely upgraded versions of the 8051 family.

9
 Figure 2.2.3.2 Block diagram of 8051

2.3.2 FEATURES OF AT89C51

 4K Bytes of Re-programmable Flash Memory.

 RAM is 128 bytes.

 2.7V to 6V Operating Range.

 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

 Two-level Program Memory Lock.

 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM.

 32 Programmable I/O Lines.

 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters.

 Six Interrupt Sources.

 Programmable Serial UART Channel.

 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

 4 Kb program memory is not much at all.

10
  128Kb RAM (including SFRs as well) satisfies basic needs, but it is not imposing
amount.

2.3.3 Pin Diagram

11
 Figure 2.2.3.3 Pin diagram of Micro controller

Pin Description

12
Pin No Function Name

1 P1.0

2 P1.1

3 P1.2

4 P1.3
8 bit input/output port (P1) pins
5 P1.4

6 P1.5

7 P1.6

8 P1.7

9 Reset pin; Active high Reset

10 Input (Rx) for serial communication RxD P3.0

11 Output (Tx) for serial communication TxD P3.1

8 bit
12 External interrupt 1 Int0 P3.2
input/o
13 External interrupt 2 Int1 utput P3.3

14 Timer1 external input T0 port P3.4

(P3)
15 Timer2 external input T1 P3.5
pins
16 Write to external data memory Write P3.6

17 Read from external data memory Read P3.7

18&19 Quartz crystal oscillator (up to 24 MHz) Crystal 2&1

20 Ground (0V) Ground

21 8 bit input/output port (P2) pins P2.0/ A8

22 / P2.1/ A9

23 P2.2/ A10
High-order address bits when interfacing with external memory
24 P2.3/ A11

25 P2.4/ A12

26 P2.5/ A13

27 P2.6/ A14

13
28 P2.7/ A15

29 Program store enable; Read from external program memory PSEN

Address Latch Enable ALE

30
Program pulse input during Flash programming Prog

External Access Enable; Vcc for internal program executions EA

31
Programming enable voltage; 12V (during Flash programming) Vpp

32 P0.7/AD7

33 P0.6/AD6

34 P0.5/AD5
8 bit input/output port (P0) pins
35 P0.4/AD4
Low-order address bits when interfacing with external memory
36 P0.3/AD3

37 P0.2/AD2

38 P0.1/AD1

39 P0.0/AD0

40 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 6.6V) Vcc

Table 2 Pin description of 8051

2.4 Transistor BC548

BC548 is general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor. It is used for
amplification and switching purposes. The current gain may vary between 110 and 800. The
maximum DC current gain is 800.

14
 Figure 2.3.4.1 Transistor

Its equivalent transistors are 2N3904 and 2SC1815. These equivalent transistors however
have different lead assignments. The variants of BC548 are 548A, 548B and 548C which
vary in range of current gain and other characteristics.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its
characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the
transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter. BC548 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In
the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.

2.4.1 Pin Diagram

Figure 2.2.4.2 Pin diagram of Transistor

15
2.5 Piezo Buzzer

The piezo buzzer produces sound based on reverse of the piezoelectric effect. The
generation of pressure variation or strain by the application of electric potential across a
piezoelectric material is the underlying principle. These buzzers can be used to alert a user of
an event corresponding to a switching action, counter signal or sensor input. They are also
used in alarm circuits.

Figure 2.2.5.1 Piezo Buzzer

The buzzer produces a same noisy sound irrespective of the voltage variation applied to it. It
consists of piezo crystals between two conductors. When a potential is applied across these
crystals, they push on one conductor and pull on the other. This, push and pull action, results
in a sound wave. Most buzzers produce sound in the range of 2 to 4 kHz.

The red lead is connected to the input and the black lead to the ground.

2.5.1 Pin Diagram

16
 Figure 2.2.5.2 Pin diagram of piezo buzzer

2.6 Switches and Pushbuttons

There is nothing simpler than this! This is the simplest way of controlling appearance
of some voltage on microcontroller’s input pin. There is also no need for additional
explanation of how these components operate.

Figure 2.2.6.1 Switches

Nevertheless, it is not so simple in practice... This is about something commonly

unnoticeable when using these components in everyday life. It is about contact bounce- a
common problem with mechanical switches. If contact switching does not happen so quickly,
several consecutive bounces can be noticed prior to maintain stable state. The reasons for this
are: vibrations, slight rough spots and dirt. Anyway, whole this process does not last long (a
few micro- or milliseconds), but long enough to be registered by the microcontroller.
Concerning pulse counter, error occurs in almost 100% of cases!

17
The simplest solution is to connect simple RC circuit which will “suppress” each quick
voltage change. Since the bouncing time is not defined, the values of elements are not strictly
determined. In the most cases, the values shown on figure are sufficient.

If complete safety is needed, radical measures should be taken! The circuit, shown on the
figure (RS flip-flop), changes logic state on its output with the first pulse triggered by contact
bounce. Even though this is more expensive solution (SPDT switch), the problem is
definitely resolved! Besides, since the condensator is not used, very short pulses can be also
registered in this way. In addition to these hardware solutions, a simple software solution is
commonly applied too: when a program tests the state of some input pin and finds changes,
the check should be done one more time after certain time delay. If the change is confirmed it
means that switch (or pushbutton) has changed its position. The advantages of such solution
are obvious: it is free of charge, effects of disturbances are eliminated too and it can be
adjusted to the worst-quality contacts.

2.7 Quartz crystal oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a
precise frequency. This frequency is often used to keep track of time, as in quartz wrist
watches, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric
resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known
as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are
used in similar circuits.

A crystal oscillator, particularly one made of quartz crystal, works by being distorted by
an electric field when voltage is applied to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is
known as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz -
which oscillates in a precise frequency - generates an electric field as it returns to its previous

18
shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC
circuit.

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of
megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for
consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz
crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.

2.7.1 Pin Diagram

Figure 2.2.7.1 Crystal oscillator

2.7.2 Working of Crystal oscillator

Crystal oscillator circuit usually works on the principle of the inverse piezoelectric
effect. The applied electric field will produce a mechanical deformation across some
materials. Thus, it utilizes the vibrating crystal’s mechanical resonance, that is made with a
piezoelectric material for generating an electrical signal of a particular frequency.

Usually quartz crystal oscillators are highly stable, consists of good quality factor(Q), they
are small in size, and are economically related. Hence, quartz crystal oscillator circuits are

19
more superior compared to other resonators like LC circuits, turning forks. Generally
in Microprocessors and Micro controllers we are using an 8MHz crystal oscillator.
The equivalent electrical circuit is also describes the crystal action of the crystal. Just look at
the equivalent electrical circuit diagram shown in the above. The basic components used in
the circuit, inductance L represents crystal mass, capacitance C2 represents compliance, and
C1 is used to represent the capacitance that is formed because of crystal’s mechanical
moulding, resistance R represents the crystal’s internal structure friction, The quartz crystal
oscillator circuit diagram consists of two resonances such as series and parallel resonance,
i.e., two resonant frequencies.

The series resonance occurs when the reactance produced by capacitance C1is equal and
opposite to the reactance produced by inductance L. The fr and fp represents series and
parallel resonant frequencies respectively, and the values of ‘fr’ and ‘fp’ can be determined by
using the following equations shown in the figure below.

The above diagram describes an equivalent circuit, plot graph for Resonant frequency,
Formulae for Resonant frequencies.

2.8 Capacitor

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores potential

energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some
capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor
is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known

20
as a condenser or condensator. The original name is still widely used in many languages, but
not in English.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many capacitor
types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in
the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be
a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The non conducting dielectric acts
to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics
include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used
as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal
capacitor does not dissipate energy.

When two conductors experience a potential difference, for example, when a capacitor is
attached across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net
positive charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate.
No current actually flows through the dielectric, however, there is a flow of charge through
the source circuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the
source circuit ceases. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging
cycles of the capacitor.

Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units (SI) is
the farad (F), defined as one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Capacitance values of typical
capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 picofarad (pF) (10−12 F) to about
1 mill farad (mF) (10−3 F).

The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the plates (conductors)
and inversely related to the gap between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. It has an electric field strength limit, known as
the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance
and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output
of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric

21
power transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy
storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers.

2.8.1 Pin Diagram

Figure 2.2.8.1 Capacitor

2.8.2 Capacitor characteristics

22
 Figure 2.2.8.2 Capacitor characteristics
The capacitor, as with any other electronic component, comes defined by a series of
characteristics. These Capacitor Characteristics can always be found in the data sheets that
the capacitor manufacturer provides to us so here are just a few of the more important ones.

1. Nominal Capacitance, ( C )

The nominal value of the Capacitance, C of a capacitor is the most important of all
capacitor characteristics. This value measured in Pico-Farads (pF), nano-Farads (nF) or
micro-Farads (μF) and is marked onto the body of the capacitor as numbers, letters or colored
bands.

The capacitance of a capacitor can change value with the circuit frequency (Hz) y with the
ambient temperature. Smaller ceramic capacitors can have a nominal value as low as one
pico-Farad, (1pF ) while larger electrolytic can have a nominal capacitance value of up to one
Farad, ( 1F ).

All capacitors have a tolerance rating that can range from -20% to as high as +80% for
aluminum electrolytic’s affecting its actual or real value. The choice of capacitance is
determined by the circuit configuration but the value read on the side of a capacitor may not
necessarily be its actual value.

2. Working Voltage, ( WV )

The Working Voltage is another important capacitor characteristic that defines the
maximum continuous voltage either DC or AC that can be applied to the capacitor without
failure during its working life. Generally, the working voltage printed onto the side of a
capacitors body refers to its DC working voltage, (WVDC).

DC and AC voltage values are usually not the same for a capacitor as the AC voltage value
refers to the r.m.s. value and NOT the maximum or peak value which is 1.414 times greater.
Also, the specified DC working voltage is valid within a certain temperature range, normally
-30°C to +70°C.

Any DC voltage in excess of its working voltage or an excessive AC ripple current may cause
failure. It follows therefore, that a capacitor will have a longer working life if operated in a
cool environment and within its rated voltage. Common working DC voltages are 10V, 16V,

23
25V, 35V, 50V, 63V, 100V, 160V, 250V, 400V and 1000V and are printed onto the body of the
capacitor.

3. Tolerance, ( ±% )

As with resistors, capacitors also have a Tolerance rating expressed as a plus-or-minus

value either in picofarad’s (±pF) for low value capacitors generally less than 100pF or as a
percentage (±%) for higher value capacitors generally higher than 100pF.

The tolerance value is the extent to which the actual capacitance is allowed to vary from its
nominal value and can range anywhere from -20% to +80%. Thus a 100µF capacitor with a
±20% tolerance could legitimately vary from 80μF to 120μF and still remain within
tolerance.

Capacitors are rated according to how near to their actual values they are compared to the
rated nominal capacitance with colored bands or letters used to indicated their actual
tolerance. The most common tolerance variation for capacitors is 5% or 10% but some plastic
capacitors are rated as low as ±1%.

4. Leakage Current

The dielectric used inside the capacitor to separate the conductive plates is not a
perfect insulator resulting in a very small current flowing or “leaking” through the dielectric
due to the influence of the powerful electric fields built up by the charge on the plates when
applied to a constant supply voltage.

This small DC current flow in the region of nano-amps (nA) is called the capacitors Leakage
Current. Leakage current is a result of electrons physically making their way through the
dielectric medium, around its edges or across its leads and which will over time fully
discharging the capacitor if the supply voltage is removed. When the leakage is very low such
as in film or foil type capacitors it is generally referred to as “insulation resistance” ( Rp ) and
can be expressed as a high value resistance in parallel with the capacitor as shown. When the
leakage current is high as in electrolytic’s it is referred to as a “leakage current” as electrons
flow directly through the electrolyte.

Capacitor leakage current is an important parameter in amplifier coupling circuits or in power

supply circuits, with the best choices for coupling and/or storage applications being Teflon

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and the other plastic capacitor types (polypropylene, polystyrene, etc) because the lower the
dielectric constant, the higher the insulation resistance.

Electrolytic-type capacitors (tantalum and aluminum) on the other hand may have very high
capacitances, but they also have very high leakage currents (typically of the order of about 5-
20 μA per μF) due to their poor isolation resistance, and are therefore not suited for storage or
coupling applications. Also, the flow of leakage current for aluminum electrolytic’s increases
with temperature.

5. Working Temperature, ( T )

Changes in temperature around the capacitor affect the value of the capacitance
because of changes in the dielectric properties. If the air or surrounding temperature becomes
to hot or to cold the capacitance value of the capacitor may change so much as to affect the
correct operation of the circuit. The normal working range for most capacitors is
-30oC to +125oC with nominal voltage ratings given for a Working Temperature of no more
than +70oC especially for the plastic capacitor types.

Generally for electrolytic capacitors and especially aluminum electrolytic capacitor, at high
temperatures (over +85oC the liquids within the electrolyte can be lost to evaporation, and the
body of the capacitor (especially the small sizes) may become deformed due to the internal
pressure and leak outright. Also, electrolytic capacitors cannot be used at low temperatures,
below about -10oC, as the electrolyte jelly freezes.

2.9 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time
or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a
volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.

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Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

Figure 2.2.9.1 Resistor

2.9.1 THEORY OF OPERATION

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's

law (V=IR)

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is
attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 =
0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

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The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilo ohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and mega ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.

2.9.2 Power Dissipation

At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is

calculated as: P=I²R where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I(amps) is
the current flowing through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This
power is converted into heat which must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its
temperature rises excessively.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-
state electronic systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually absorb
much less than a watt of electrical power and require little attention to their power rating.

Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power

supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power
resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or
greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color
codes, and external packages described below.

If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the
resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible
change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power
dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit
board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail
(open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.

Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors
may be specified with higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service.

All resistors have a maximum voltage rating; this may limit the power dissipation for higher
resistance values.

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2.10 Printed circuit board (PCB)

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects

electronic components or electrical components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between sheet
layers of a non-conductive substrate.Components are generally soldered onto the PCB to both
electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to it.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They are also used
in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, both once popular
but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but
manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Specialized CAD software is available to do
much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than
with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one operation. Large
numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout only has to be done once.
PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits.

PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both sides
of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with
layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because
circuit traces on the inner layers would otherwise take up surface space between components.
The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially with more than
four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of surface mount technology. However,
multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of circuits much more difficult
and usually impractical

2.10.1 Pin Diagram

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 Figure 2.2.10.1 Printed circuit board

2.11 Connecting wires

Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire, consists of one piece of metal
wire. Solid wire is useful for wiring breadboards. Solid wire is cheaper to manufacture than
stranded wire and is used where there is little need for flexibility in the wire. Solid wire also
provides mechanical ruggedness; and, because it has relatively less surface area which is
exposed to attack by corrosives, protection against the environment.

Figure 2.2.11.1 Connecting wires

CHAPTER 3

SOFTWARE TOOLS

3.1 Keil Software

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 Keil compiler is a software used where the machine language code is written and
compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to
be dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler also supports C
language code.

STEPS TO WRITE AN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM IN KEIL AND

HOW TO COMPILE IT:

1. Install the Keil Software in the PC in any of the drives.

2. After installation, an icon will be created with the name “Keil uVision3”. Just drag
this icon onto the desktop so that it becomes easy whenever you try to write programs
in keil.
3. Double click on this icon to start the keil compiler.
4. A page opens with different options in it showing the project workspace at the
leftmost corner side, output window in the bottom and an ash coloured space for the
program to be written.
5. Now to start using the keil, click on the option “project”.
6. A small window opens showing the options like new project, import project, open
project etc. Click on “New project”.
7. A small window with the title bar “Create new project” opens. The window asks the
user to give the project name with which it should be created and the destination
location. The project can be created in any of the drives available. You can create a
new folder and then a new file or can create directly a new file.
8. After the file is saved in the given destination location, a window opens where a list
of vendors will be displayed and you have to select the device for the target you have
created.
9. The most widely used vendor is Atmel. So click on Atmel and now the family of
microcontrollers manufactured by Atmel opens. You can select any one of the
microcontrollers according to the requirement.
10. When you click on any one of the microcontrollers, the features of that particular
microcontroller will be displayed on the right side of the page. The most appropriate
microcontroller with which most of the projects can be implemented is the AT89C51.
Click on this microcontroller and have a look at its features. Now click on “OK” to
select this microcontroller.

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11. A small window opens asking whether to copy the startup code into the file you have
created just now. Just click on “No” to proceed further.
12. Now you can see the TARGET and SOURCE GROUP created in the project
workspace.
13. Now click on “File” and in that “New”. A new page opens and you can start writing
program in it.
14. After the program is completed, save it with any name but with the .asm extension.
Save the program in the file you have created earlier.
15. You can notice that after you save the program, the predefined keywords will be
highlighted in bold letters.
16. Now add this file to the target by giving a right click on the source group. A list of
options open and in that select “Add files to the source group”. Check for this file
where you have saved and add it.
17. Right click on the target and select the first option “Options for target”. A window
opens with different options like device, target, output etc. First click on “target”.
18. Since the set frequency of the microcontroller is 11.0592 MHz to interface with the
PC, just enter this frequency value in the Xtal (MHz) text area and put a tick on the
Use on-chip ROM. This is because the program what we write here in the keil will
later be dumped into the microcontroller and will be stored in the inbuilt ROM in the
microcontroller.
19. Now click the option “Output” and give any name to the hex file to be created in the
“Name of executable” text area and put a tick to the “Create HEX file” option present
in the same window. The hex file can be created in any of the drives. You can change
the folder by clicking on “Select folder for Objects”.
20. Now to check whether the program you have written is errorless or not, click on the
icon exactly below the “Open file” icon which is nothing but Build Target icon. You
can even use the shortcut key F7 to compile the program written.
21. To check for the output, there are several windows like serial window, memory
window, project window etc. Depending on the program you have written, select the
appropriate window to see the output by entering into debug mode.
22. The icon with the letter “d” indicates the debug mode.
23. Click on this icon and now click on the option “View” and select the appropriate
window to check for the output.
24. After this is done, click the icon “debug” again to come out of the debug mode.
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 25. The hex file created as shown earlier will be dumped into the microcontroller with the
help of another software called Proload.

3.2 PROLOAD

Proload is a software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is
converted into hex code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller placed in
the programmer kit and this is done by the Proload. Programmer kit contains a
microcontroller on it other than the one which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has
a program in it written in such a way that it accepts the hex file from the keil compiler and
dumps this hex file into the microcontroller which is to be programmed. As this programmer
kit requires power supply to be operated, this power supply is given from the power supply
circuit designed above. It should be noted that this programmer kit contains a power supply
section in the board itself but in order to switch on that power supply, a source is required.
Thus this is accomplished from the power supply board with an output of 12volts or from an
adapter connected to 230 V AC.

1. Install the Proload Software in the PC.

2. Now connect the Programmer kit to the PC (CPU) through serial cable.

3. Power up the programmer kit from the ac supply through adapter.

4. Now place the microcontroller in the GIF socket provided in the programmer kit.

5. Click on the Proload icon in the PC. A window appears providing the information like
Hardware model, com port, device type, Flash size etc. Click on browse option to
select the hex file to be dumped into the microcontroller and then click on “Auto
program” to program the microcontroller with that particular hex file.

6. The status of the microcontroller can be seen in the small status window in the bottom
of the page.

7. After this process is completed, remove the microcontroller from the programmer kit
and place it in your system board. Now the system board behaves according to the
program written in the microcontroller
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WORKING PROCEDURE

This quiz buzzer system has eight input pins corresponding to four teams. The
output is observed on Led (interfaced with microcontroller), which switches on to
corresponding team which has pressed the button first. A buzzer is also sounded for a small
duration to give an acoustic alarm. The connections of the input pins and output pins is
shown in the circuit diagram.
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Eight pins of port P1 of the microcontroller are corresponding to eight inputs and one stop pin
for resetting the buzzer system. There is also a provision for sounding a buzzer for a small
duration.

When the system starts, the microcontroller keeps scanning the input pins. As soon as any
one of the inputs is pressed, the buzzer sounds for a small duration and the green Led is
glown corresponding to the input pressed. Now even if any other input pin is pressed, there
will be no effect on the system till the time the stop pin is pressed to reset the system.

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

Highly sensitive

Low cost and reliable circuit

Complete elimination of manpower

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APPLICATIONS

Widely used in school, colleges and TV programs

Used in quiz competitions

CONCLUSION

Hence by this project we can design an effective detecting system that can monitor
in quiz competitions in schools, colleges, TV programs etc; with eight different switches. The
uniqueness of this project is only alerting the quiz conductor who first know the answer.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY:

The 8051 Micro controller and Embedded Systems

Muhammad Ali Mazidi

Janice Gillispie Mazidi

The 8051 Micro controller Architecture, Programming & Applications

Kenneth J.Ayala

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Fundamentals of Micro processors and Micro computers

B.Ram

Micro processor Architecture, Programming & Applications

Ramesh S.Gaonkar

Electronic Components

D.V.Prasad

REFERENCES ON THE WEB:

www.national.com
www.atmel.com
www.microsoftsearch.com
www.geocities.com

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