FOOD FATS

AND OILS
___________________________

Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils

1750 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 120
Washington, DC 20006

Phone 202-783-7960
Fax 202-393-1367
www.iseo.org

Eighth Edition
 Prepared by the
Technical Committee of the Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils, Inc.

Ed Campbell, Chairman
Nick Baker
Maury Bandurraga
Maurice Belcher
Carl Heckel
Allan Hodgson
Jan Hughes
Tony Ingala
Dan Lampert
Earniie Louis
Don McCaskill
Gerald McNeill
Mark Nugent
Ed Paladini
Judy Price
Ram Reddy
Joe Sharp
Stan Smith
Dennis Strayer
Bob Wainwright
Laura Waldinger

First edition -- 1957

Second edition -- 1963
Third edition -- 1968
Fourth edition -- 1974
Fifth edition -- 1982
Sixth edition -- 1988
Seventh edition -- 1994
Eighth edition -- 1999

© 1999 by the Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils, Inc. Additional copies of
this publication may be obtained upon request from the Institute of Shortening
and Edible Oils, Inc., 1750 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20006.
 PREFACE
This publication has been prepared to provide useful information to the public
regarding the nutritive and functional values of fats in the diet, the composition of
fats and answers to the most frequently asked questions about fats and oils. It is
intended for use by consumers, nutritionists, dieticians, physicians, food
technologists, food industry representatives, students, teachers, and others having
an interest in dietary fats and oils. Additional detail may be found in the
references listed at the end of the publication which are arranged in the order of
topic discussion. A glossary is also provided.

The Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils, Inc. gratefully acknowledges the
assistance of Judith Putnam, Economic Research Service, Human Nutrition
Information Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture for providing data on the
availability (or disappearance) of fats and oils in foods and Ed Hunter, Ph.D.,
consultant, for his assistance in writing this publication.

i
 Table of Contents
Preface ................................................................................................... i

I. Importance of Fats .................................................................................1

II. What is a fat?..........................................................................................1

III. Chemical Composition of Fats...............................................................1

A. The Major Component – Triglycerides ...........................................1

B. The Minor Components ...................................................................2
1. Mono- and Diglycerides ..............................................................2
2. Free Fatty Acids...........................................................................2
3. Phosphatides ................................................................................2
4.Sterols ...........................................................................................2
5.Fatty Alcohols...............................................................................2
6.Tocopherols ..................................................................................2
7. Carotenoids and Chlorophyll.......................................................2
8.Vitamins .......................................................................................2

IV. Fatty Acids .............................................................................................3

A. General .............................................................................................3
B. Classification of Fatty Acids............................................................3
1. Saturated Fatty Acids ...................................................................3
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids...............................................................3
3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids ........................................................4
C. Isomerism of Unsaturated Fatty Acids.............................................4
I. Geometric Isomerism....................................................................4
2. Positional Isomerism....................................................................5

V. Nutritional Aspects of Fats and Oils ......................................................6

A. General .............................................................................................6
B. Metabolism of Fats and Oils ............................................................6
C. Essential Fatty Acids........................................................................6
D. Fat Level in the Diet.........................................................................7
E. Diet and Cardiovascular Disease .....................................................7
F. Diet and Cancer................................................................................9
G. Health Effects of Trans Fatty Acids from Hydrogenation .............11
H. Areas of Current Research Interest ................................................13
I. Nonallergenicity of Edible Oils .....................................................14
J. Biotechnology ................................................................................14
K. Fat Reduction in Foods ..................................................................15

VI. Factors Affecting Physical Characteristics of Fats and Oils ................16

A. Degree of Unsaturation of Fatty Acids ..........................................16

B. Length of carbon Chains in Fatty Acids.........................................17
C. Isomeric Forms of Fatty Acids.......................................................17
D. Molecular Configuration of Triglycerides .....................................17
E. Polymorphism of Fats ....................................................................18

ii
VII. Processing ...........................................................................................18

A. General...........................................................................................18
B. Degumming ...................................................................................18
C. Refining .........................................................................................18
D. Bleaching .......................................................................................19
E. Deodorization.................................................................................19
F. Fractionation (including Winterization).........................................19
G. Hydrogenation ...............................................................................19
H. Interesterification ...........................................................................20
I. Esterification ..................................................................................20
J. Emulsifiers .....................................................................................21
K. Additives and Processing Aids ......................................................21

VIII. Reactions of Fats and Oils....................................................................23

A. Hydrolysis of Fats ..........................................................................23

B. Oxidation of Fats............................................................................23
1. Autoxidation...............................................................................23
2. Oxidation at Higher Temperatures.............................................23
C. Polymerization of Fats ...................................................................23
D. Reactions during Heating and Cooking .........................................24

IX. Products Prepared from Fats and Oils..................................................25

A. General ...........................................................................................25
B. Salad and Cooking Oils..................................................................27
C. Shortenings (Baking and Frying Fats) ...........................................28
D. Hard Butters ...................................................................................28
E. Margarine and Spreads...................................................................29
F. Butter..............................................................................................29
G. Dressings for Food .........................................................................29
1. Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing ................................................29
2. Pourable-Type Dressings ...........................................................29
3. Reduced Calorie Dressings ........................................................29
4. Reduced Fat, Low Fat, and Fat Free Dressings..........................30
H. Toppings, Coffee Whiteners, Confectioners’ Coatings
and Other Formulated Foods..........................................................30
I. Lipids for Special Nutritional Applications ...................................30

X. Trends in Fat Consumption..................................................................30

XI. Conclusion ...........................................................................................32

References ............................................................................................33

Glossary ...............................................................................................36

Common Test Methods and Related Terms.........................................40

iii
 Food Fats and Oils
I. IMPORTANCE OF FATS
Fats and oils are recognized as essential
nutrients in both human and animal diets. They provide
the most concentrated source of energy of any foodstuff,
supply essential fatty acids (which are precursors for
important hormones, the prostaglandins), contribute
greatly to the feeling of satiety after eating, are carriers
for fat soluble vitamins, and serve to make foods more
palatable. Fats and oils are present in varying amounts in
many foods. The principal sources of fat in the diet are
meats, dairy products, poultry, fish, nuts, and vegetable
fats and oils. Most vegetables and fruits consumed as
such contain only small amounts of fat. Recent data from
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (1) suggests that
actual fat consumption currently is about 33% of total
calories. A knowledge of the chemical composition of
fats and oils and the sources from which they are
obtained is essential in understanding nutrition and
biochemistry.
II. WHAT IS A FAT?
Fats and oils are chemical units commonly
called “triglycerides” resulting from the combination of
one unit of glycerol with three units of fatty acids. They
are insoluble in water but soluble in most organic
solvents. They have lower densities than water, and at
normal room temperatures range in consistency from
liquids to solids. When solid appearing they are referred
to as “fats” and when liquid they are called “oils.”
The term “lipids” embraces a variety of
chemical substances. In addition to triglycerides, it also
includes mono- and diglycerides, phosphatides,
cerebrosides, sterols, terpenes, fatty alcohols, fatty acids,
fat-soluble vitamins, and other substances.
1
The oils and fats most frequently used in the
U.S. for salad and cooking oils, shortenings, margarines,
salad dressings and food ingredients include soybean,
corn, cottonseed, palm, peanut, olive, safflower,
sunflower, canola, coconut, palm kernel, lard, and beef
tallow. More detailed information on the use of some of
these oils in specific products is provided in Section IX.
Specialized vegetable oils of lesser availability in the
U.S. include rice bran, shea nut, illipe, and sal.
III. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FATS
Triglycerides are the predominant component of
most food fats and oils. The minor components include
mono- and diglycerides, free fatty acids, phosphatides,
sterols, fatty alcohols, fat-soluble vitamins, and other
substances.
A. The Major Component – Triglycerides
A triglyceride is composed of glycerol and three
fatty acids. When all of the fatty acids in a triglyceride
are identical, it is termed a “simple” triglyceride. The
more common forms, however, are the “mixed”
triglycerides in which two or three kinds of fatty acids
are present in the molecule. Illustrations of typical
simple and mixed triglyceride molecular structures are
shown below.
H 2 COO-C-R 1 (Fatty Acid 1 )

HCOO-C-R 1 (Fatty Acid 1 )

H 2 COO-C-R 1 (Fatty Acid 1 )
Simple Triglyceride
H 2 COO-C-R 1 (Fatty Acid 1 )

HCOO-C-R 2 (Fatty Acid 2 )

H 2 COO-C-R 3 (Fatty Acid 3 )
Mixed Triglyceride
 The fatty acids in a triglyceride define the
properties of the molecule and are discussed in greater
detail in Section IV.
B. The Minor Components
1. Mono- and Diglycerides
Mono- and diglycerides are mono- and diesters
of fatty acids and glycerol. They are used frequently in
foods as emulsifiers. They are prepared commercially by
the reaction of glycerol and triglycerides or by the
esterification of glycerol and fatty acids.
Mono- and diglycerides are formed in the
intestinal tract as a result of the normal digestion of
triglycerides. They also occur naturally in very minor
amounts in both animal fats and vegetable oils.
R 1 -COO-CH 2 HO-CH 2
 
HO-CH R 1 -COO-CH
 
nucleus plus an 8 to 10 carbon side chain and an alcohol
group. Although sterols are found in both animal fats
and vegetable oils, there is a substantial difference
biologically between those occurring in animal fats and
those present in vegetable oils. Cholesterol is the
primary animal fat sterol and is only found in vegetable
oils in trace amounts. Vegetable oil sterols collectively
are termed “phytosterols.” Sitosterol and stigmasterol
are the best-known vegetable oil sterols. The type and
amount of vegetable oils sterols vary with the source of
the oil.
5. Fatty Alcohols
Long chain alcohols are of little importance in
most edible fats. A small amount esterified with fatty
acids is present in waxes found in some vegetable oils.
Larger quantities are found in some marine oils.
6. Tocopherols

HO-CH 2 HO-CH 2 Tocopherols are important minor constituents of

1 (or α)-Monoglyceride 2 (or β)-Monoglyceride most vegetable fats. They serve as antioxidants to retard
rancidity and as sources of the essential nutrient vitamin
R 2 -COO-CH 2 R 2 -COO-CH 2 E. There are four types of tocopherols varying in
 

R 1 -COO-CH HO-CH antioxidation and vitamin E activity. Among

 
HO-CH 2 R 1 -COO-CH 2
1,2-Diglyceride 1,3-Diglyceride
2. Free Fatty Acids
As the name suggests, free fatty acids are the
unattached fatty acids present in a fat. Some unrefined
oils may contain as much as several percent free fatty
acids. The levels of free fatty acids are reduced in the
refining process discussed in Section VII. Refined fats
and oils ready for use as foods usually have a free fatty
acid content of only a few hundredths of one percent.
3. Phosphatides
Phosphatides consist of alcohols (usually
glycerol), combined with fatty acids, phosphoric acid,
and a nitrogen-containing compound. Lecithin and
cephalin are common phosphatides found in edible fats.
For all practical purposes, refining removes the
phosphatides from the fat or oil.
4. Sterols
Sterols, also referred to as steroid alcohols, are a
class of substances that contain the common steroid
2
tocopherols, alpha-tocopherol has the highest vitamin E
activity and the lowest antioxidant activity. Tocopherols,
naturally occurring in most vegetable fats, may be
partially removed by processing. They are not present in
appreciable amounts in animal fats. These or other
antioxidants may be added after processing to improve
oxidative stability in finished products.
7. Carotenoids and Chlorophyll
Carotenoids are color materials occurring
naturally in fats and oils. Most range in color from
yellow to deep red. Chlorophyll is the green coloring
matter of plants which plays an essential part in the
photosynthetic process. At times, the naturally occurring
level of chlorophyll in oils may be sufficient for the oils
to be tinged green. The levels of most of these color
bodies are reduced during the normal processing of oils
to give them acceptable color, flavor, and stability.
8. Vitamins
Generally speaking, most fats and oils are not
good sources of vitamins other than vitamin E. The fat-
soluble vitamins A and D sometimes are added to foods
which contain fat because they serve as good carriers
and are widely consumed. For example, vitamin A is
included in the federal standard for margarine, and the Saturated and unsaturated linkages are illustrated
vitamins A and D are included in the federal standard for below:
Grade A milk.

IV. FATTY ACIDS

A. General

Triglycerides are comprised predominantly of

fatty acids present in the form of esters of glycerol. One Saturated Bond
hundred grams of fat or oil will yield approximately 95
grams of fatty acids. Both the physical and chemical
characteristics of fats are influenced greatly by the kinds
and proportions of the component fatty acids and the
way in which these are positioned on the glycerol
molecule. The predominant fatty acids are saturated and
unsaturated carbon chains with an even number of Unsaturated Bond
carbon atoms and a single carboxyl group as illustrated
in the general structural formula for a saturated fatty acid When the fatty acid contains one double bond it
given below: is called “monounsaturated.” If it contains more than one
double bond, it is called “polyunsaturated.”
In the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) system of nomenclature, the
CH 3 -(CH 2 ) x COOH
carbons in a fatty acid chain are numbered consecutively
Unsaturated carbon chain carboxyl group
from the end of the chain, the carbon of the carboxyl
group being considered as number 1. By convention, a
specific bond in a chain is identified by the lower
Edible oils also contain minor amounts of
number of the two carbons that it joins. In oleic acid
branched chain and cyclic acids. Also odd number
(cis-9-octadecenoic acid), for example, the double bond
straight chain acids are typically found in animal fats.
is between the ninth and tenth carbon atoms.
Another system of nomenclature in use for
B. Classification of Fatty Acids
unsaturated fatty acids is the “omega” or “n minus”
classification. This system is often used by biochemists
Fatty acids occurring in edible fats and oils are
to designate sites of enzyme reactivity or specificity. The
classified according to their degree of saturation.
terms “omega” or “n minus” refer to the position of the
double bond of the fatty acid closest to the methyl end of
1. Saturated Fatty Acids. Those containing
the molecule. Thus, oleic acid, which has its double
only single carbon-to-carbon bonds are termed
bond 9 carbons from the methyl end, is considered an
“saturated” and are the least reactive chemically.
omega-9 (or an n-9) fatty acid. Similarly, linoleic acid,
The saturated fatty acids of practical interest are
common in vegetable oils, is an omega-6 (n-6) fatty acid
listed in Table I by carbon chain length and common
because its second double bond is 6 carbons from the
name. All but acetic acid occur naturally in fats. The
methyl end of the molecule (i.e., between carbons 12 and
principal fat sources of the naturally occurring saturated
13 from the carboxyl end). Eicosapentaenoic acid, found
fatty acids are included in the table.
in many fish oils, is an omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid. Alpha-
The melting point of saturated fatty acids
linolenic acid, found in certain vegetable oils, is also an
increases with chain length. Decanoic and longer chain
omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid.
fatty acids are solids at normal room temperatures.
When two fatty acids are identical except for the
position of the double bond, they are referred to as
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids. Fatty acids
positional isomers. Fatty acid isomers are discussed at
containing one or more carbon-to-carbon double bonds
greater length in subparagraph C of this section.
are termed “unsaturated.” Some unsaturated fatty acids
Because of the presence of double bonds,
in food fats and oils are shown in Table II. Oleic acid
unsaturated fatty acids are more reactive chemically than
(cis-9-octadecenoic acid) is the fatty acid that occurs
most frequently in nature.
3
are saturated fatty acids. This reactivity increases as the
number of double bonds increases.
Although double bonds normally occur in a non-
conjugated position, they can occur in a conjugated
position (alternating with a single bond) as illustrated
below:
Conjugat ed
Non -co njugat ed
With the bonds in a conjugated position, there is
a further increase in certain types of chemical reactivity.
For example, fats are much more subject to oxidation
and polymerization when bonds are in the conjugated
position.
3. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. Of the
polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic, linolenic,
arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic
acids containing respectively two, three, four, five, and
six double bonds are of most interest. The nutritional
importance of these fatty acids is discussed in Section V,
Part C, “Essential Fatty Acids.”
Vegetable oils are the principal sources of
linoleic and linolenic acids. Arachidonic acid is found in
small amounts in lard, which also contains about 10% of
linoleic acid. Fish oils contain large quantities of a
variety of longer chain fatty acids having three or more
double bonds including eicosapentaenoic and
docosahexaenoic acids.

TABLE 1
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
Systematic Common No. of Melting Typical Fat Source
Name Name Carbon Atoms* Point °C
Ethanoic Acetic 2 -- --
Butanoic Butyric 4 -7.9 Butterfat
Hexanoic Caproic 6 -3.4 Butterfat
Octanoic Caprylic 8 16.7 Coconut oil
Decanoic Capric 10 31.6 Coconut oil
Dodecanoic Lauric 12 44.2 Coconut oil
Tetradecanoic Myristic 14 54.4 Butterfat, coconut oil
Hexadecanoic Palmitic 16 62.9 Most fats and oils
Octadecanoic Stearic 18 69.6 Most fats and oils
Eicosanoic Arachidic 20 75.4 Peanut oil
Docosanoic Behenic 22 80.0 Peanut oil
*A number of saturated odd and even chain acids are present in trace quantities in many fats and oils.

C. Isomerism of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Isomers are two or more substances composed
of the same elements combined in the same proportions
but differing in molecular structure. The two important
types of isomerism among fatty acids are (1) geometric
and (2) positional.
1. Geometric Isomerism. Unsaturated fatty
acids can exist in either the cis or trans form depending
on the configuration of the hydrogen atoms attached to
4
the carbon atoms joined by the double bonds. If the
hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the carbon
chain, the arrangement is called cis. If the hydrogen
atoms are on opposite sides of the carbon chain, the
arrangement is called trans, as shown by the following
diagrams. Conversion of cis isomers to corresponding
trans isomers result in an increase in melting points as
shown in Table II.
Diagram I. A comparison of cis and trans molecular arrangements.

cis

trans

TABLE II
SOME UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS IN FOOD FATS AND OILS
No. of No. of Melting
Systematic Name Common Double Carbon Point
Name Bonds Atoms °C Typical Fat Source
9-Decenoic Caproleic 1 10 - Butterfat
9-Dodecenoic Lauroleic 1 12 - Butterfat
9-Tetradecenoic Myristoleic 1 14 18.5 Butterfat
9-Hexadecenoic Palmitoleic 1 16 - Some fish oils, beef fat
9-Octadecenoic Oleic 1 18 16.3 Most fats and oils
9-Octadecenoic* Elaidic 1 18 43.7 Partially hydrogenated
oils
11-Octadecenoic* Vaccenic 1 18 44 Butterfat
9,12-Octadecadienoic Linoleic 2 18 -6.5 Most vegetable oils
9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic Linolenic 3 18 -12.8 Soybean oil, canola oil
9-Eicosenoic Gadoleic 1 20 - Some fish oils
5,8,11,14-Eicosatetraenoic Arachidonic 4 20 -49.5 Lard
5,8,11,14,17-Eicosapentaenoic - 5 20 - Some fish oils
13-Docosenoic Erucic 1 22 33.4 Rapeseed oil
4,7,10,13,16,19-Docosahexaenoic - 6 22 - Some fish oils
*All double bonds are in the cis configuration except for elaidic acid and vaccenic acid which are trans.

Elaidic and oleic acids are geometric isomers; in the
former, the double bond is in the trans configuration and
in the latter, in the cis configuration. Generally speaking,
cis isomers are those naturally occurring in food fats and
oils. Trans isomers occur naturally in ruminant animals
5
such as cows, sheep and goats and also result from the
partial hydrogenation of fats and oils.
2. Positional Isomerism. In this case, the
location of the double bond differs among the isomers.
Petroselinic acid, which is present in parsleyseed oil, is
cis-6-octadecenoic acid and a positional isomer of oleic
acid, cis-9-octadecenoic acid. Vaccenic acid, which is a
minor acid in tallow and butterfat, is trans-11-
octadecenoic acid and is both a positional and geometric
isomer of oleic acid.
The position of the double bonds affects the
melting point of the fatty acid to a limited extent. Shifts
in the location of double bonds in the fatty acid chains as
well as cis-trans isomerization may occur during
hydrogenation.
The number of positional and geometric isomers
increases with the number of double bonds. For
example, with two double bonds, the following four
geometric isomers are possible: cis-cis, cis-trans, trans-
cis, and trans-trans. Trans-trans dienes, however, are
present in only trace amounts in partially hydrogenated
fats and thus are insignificant in the human food supply.
V. NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS OF FATS AND OILS
A. General
Fats are a principal and essential constituent of
the human diet along with carbohydrates and proteins.
Fats are a major source of energy which supply about 9
calories per gram. Proteins and carbohydrates each
supply about 4 calories per gram.
In calorie deficient situations, fats together with
carbohydrates spare protein and improve growth rates.
Some fatty foods are sources of fat-soluble vitamins, and
the ingestion of fat improves the absorption of these
vitamins regardless of their source. Fats are vital to a
palatable and well-rounded diet and provide the essential
fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic.
B. Metabolism of Fats and Oils
In the intestinal tract, dietary triglycerides are
hydrolyzed to 2-monoglycerides and free fatty acids.
These digestion products, together with bile salts,
aggregate and move to the intestinal cell membrane.
There the fatty acids and the monoglycerides are
absorbed into the cell and the bile acid is retained in the
intestines. Most dietary fats are 95-100% absorbed. In
the intestinal wall, the monoglycerides and free fatty
acids are recombined to form triglycerides. If the fatty
acids have a chain length of ten or fewer carbon atoms,
these acids are transported via the portal vein to the liver
where they are metabolized rapidly. Triglycerides
containing fatty acids having a chain length of more than
ten carbon atoms are transported via the lymphatic
system. These triglycerides, whether coming from the
6
diet or from endogenous sources, are transported in the
blood as lipoproteins. The triglycerides are stored in the
adipose tissue until they are needed as a source of
calories. The amount of fat stored depends on the caloric
balance of the whole organism. Excess calories,
regardless of whether they are in the form of fat,
carbohydrate, or protein, are stored as fat. Consequently,
appreciable amounts of dietary carbohydrate and some
protein are converted to fat. The body can make
saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids by modifying
other fatty acids or by de novo synthesis from
carbohydrate and protein. However, certain
polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, cannot
be made by the body and must be supplied in the diet.
Fat is mobilized from adipose tissue into the
blood as free fatty acids. These form a complex with
blood proteins and are distributed throughout the
organism. The oxidation of free fatty acids is a major
source of energy for the body. The predominant dietary
fats (i.e., over 10 carbons long) are of relatively equal
caloric value. The establishment of the common pathway
for the metabolic oxidation and the energy derived,
regardless of whether a fatty acid is saturated,
monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated and whether the
double bonds are cis or trans, explains this equivalence
in caloric value.
C. Essential Fatty Acids
Experimental work in the 1930’s in animals and
humans demonstrated that certain long chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic and arachidonic, are
essential for growth and good skin and hair quality. Now
linoleic and linolenic acids are termed “essential”
because they cannot be synthesized by the body and
must be supplied in the diet. Arachidonic acid, however,
can be synthesized by the body from dietary linoleic
acid. Arachidonic acid is considered an essential fatty
acid because it is an essential component of membranes
and a precursor of a group of hormone-like compounds
called eicosanoids including prostaglandins,
thromboxanes, and prostacyclins which are important in
the regulation of widely diverse physiological processes.
Linolenic acid is also a precursor of a special group of
prostaglandins. The dietary fatty acids that can function
as essential fatty acids must have a particular chemical
structure, namely, double bonds in the cis configuration
and in specific positions (carbons 9 and 12 or 9, 12, and
15 from the carboxyl carbon atom or carbons 6 and 9 or
3, 6 and 9 from the methyl end of the molecule) on the
carbon chain.
The requirement for these essential fatty acids
has been demonstrated clearly in infants. While the
minimum requirement has not been determined for
adults, there is no doubt that they are essential nutrients.
The current American diet provides at least the
minimum essential fatty acid requirement. According to
the Food and Nutrition Board’s Recommended Dietary
Allowances (2), the amount of dietary linoleic acid
necessary to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency in
several animal species and also in humans is 1 to 2% of
dietary calories. However, for much of the general
population, 3% of calories as linoleic acid is considered
to be a more satisfactory minimum intake. In the case of
linolenic acid, the requirement for humans has been
estimated to be 0.5% of calories.
The Committee on Diet and Health of the Food
and Nutrition Board (3) has recommended that the
average population intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(primarily linoleic acid) remain at the current level of
about 7% of calories and that individual intakes not
exceed 10% of calories because of lack of information
about the long-term consequences of a higher intake. For
many reasons, especially because essential fatty acid
deficiency has been observed exclusively in patients
with medical problems affecting fat intake or absorption,
the Food and Nutrition Board has not established an
RDA for omega-3 or omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty
acids.
D. Fat Level in the Diet
Fats in the diet are often referred to as “visible”
or “invisible.” Visible fats are those added to the diet in
foods such as salad dressings, spreads and processed
foods, whereas invisible fats are those that are naturally
occurring in foods such as meats and dairy products.
According to the Economic Research Service of
USDA, between 1970 and 1997, Americans increased
their consumption of total visible fat from 52.6 to 65.6
pounds per person per year (see Table X). On the other
hand, if these data are expressed as a percentage of total
calories consumed, fat intake from visible and invisible
sources would appear to have decreased from about 43%
to about 33% of calories. This apparent paradox of
increasing amounts of fat consumed per day while
decreasing the percentage of fat calories is explained by
the fact that while daily fat consumption has been
increasing recently, total caloric intake has been
increasing at a greater rate (4). This increased level of
calorie intake will reduce the calculated percentage of
calories from fat even though actual fat consumption has
not gone down. The dietary trend of increased caloric
consumption is thought to be the result of increased
carbohydrate intake, larger food portions being
7
consumed, more eating occasions, and increased soft
drink and alcoholic beverage intake (4).
Fat intake is generally measured by two
methods: (1) surveys of individuals recalling the
amounts of foods consumed over a specific time period
and (2) “consumption” estimates from food
disappearance data as calculated from available sources.
The latter method may overstate actual consumption
estimates because food disappearance data do not
account for foods wasted or discarded and lost to
spoilage, trimming, or cooking. It has been estimated
that wastage of deep frying fats used in the food service
sector may be as high as 50% (5); therefore, food
component estimates from food “disappearance” data,
particularly fat, may be overestimated. The accuracy of
dietary recall data is also difficult to ensure due to errors
of memory in recalling foods eaten previously.
Dietary guidelines were first issued by the
American Heart Association in the early 1970s in an
attempt to educate Americans as to the importance of a
healthful diet. The U.S. Department of Agriculture in
conjunction with the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services later developed Dietary Guidelines for
Americans in 1980. In 1990 these guidelines first
included recommended limitations for fat consumption
which remained unchanged in a 1995 update (6) of the
guidelines. The guidelines for fat call for a total fat
intake of no more than 30% of calories with a saturated
fatty acid intake of no more than 10% of calories.
Although these dietary guidelines for fat have been
established for over 20 years, the relatively small
changes in fat intake during this time period reflect the
difficulty on a national scale in achieving dietary goals
such as reducing fat intake.
E. Diet and Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular diseases, which include heart
attack and stroke, are the leading causes of death in the
United States. The most predominant form of
cardiovascular disease is coronary heart disease or CHD
(commonly referred to as “heart attack”) which,
according to the American Heart Association (AHA), is
the single leading cause of death in America resulting in
481,287 deaths in 1995 (7). Atherosclerosis, the gradual
blocking of arteries with deposits of lipids, smooth
muscle cells, and connective tissue, contributes to most
deaths from cardiovascular disease.
Cardiovascular diseases are chronic
degenerative diseases of complex etiology that often are
associated with aging. A number of risk factors for
cardiovascular disease have been identified from
epidemiological studies. These include positive family
history of cardiovascular disease, cigarette smoking,
hypertension (high blood pressure), elevated serum
cholesterol, obesity, diabetes, physical inactivity, male
sex, age, and excessive stress. Although these risk
factors have been associated statistically with the
incidence and mortality of cardiovascular disease, no
cause and effect relationships have been established.
During the 1950s considerable interest began to
develop concerning a possible relationship between
dietary fat and the incidence of coronary heart disease.
This interest has continued to the present time. Since diet
can affect serum cholesterol and since heart attack risk
increases with increasing serum cholesterol levels, some
health advisory organizations (e.g., the American Heart
Association, Office of the Surgeon General, the National
Institutes of Health, and the National Academy of
Sciences) have recommended diet modification to
achieve lower serum cholesterol levels in the general
population. These diet modifications include reducing
consumption of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.
Researchers now recognize that total serum
cholesterol is distributed largely between two general
classes of lipoprotein carriers, low-density lipoprotein
(LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). The largest
portion of total cholesterol is in the LDL fraction, and
elevated levels of LDL cholesterol are associated with
increased coronary heart disease risk. On the other hand,
high levels of HDL cholesterol have been associated
with protection against coronary heart disease. One
factor that has been related to increased levels of HDL
cholesterol is regular exercise. However, it is uncertain
whether diet or exercise related modifications of LDL or
HDL levels will affect development of coronary heart
disease. Long-term studies are currently in progress to
address these questions.
The National Cholesterol Education Program
(NCEP) was established in the mid-1980s by the
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National
Institutes of Health, to increase public and health
professional awareness regarding the importance of
lowering elevated serum cholesterol levels. In 1987
guidelines were established by the Adult Treatment
Panel, which embodied two approaches for a
coordinated strategy for reducing coronary risk (8). The
first is a “population” approach, which attempts to lower
serum cholesterol levels of the entire U.S. population
through dietary change. The second approach attempts to
identify individuals at high risk of developing heart
disease and to provide them with diet and/or drug
therapy.
In 1993, a second Adult Treatment Panel
updated the earlier guidelines and recommendations for
cholesterol management (9). The panel’s
8
recommendations were very similar to previous
guidelines. The panel confirmed that low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol should continue to be the
primary target of cholesterol lowering efforts. The most
significant of the few additional recommendations
included adding age (>45 years in men and >55 years in
women) as a risk factor for CHD.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) in
concert with the NCEP guidelines endorses selective
cholesterol screening of children older than two years of
age whose parents have a history of CHD (10).
However, the AAP does not recommend restrictions in
fat intake in children younger than two years of age.
The levels of total cholesterol and the LDL and
HDL fractions in the blood are influenced by a
combination of factors, including age, sex, genetics, diet,
and physical activity. Diet and exercise are factors which
individuals can modify and thus have been a basis for
recommendations to reduce risk factors for chronic
diseases such as coronary heart disease. The three major
categories of dietary fatty acids (saturated,
monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated) appear to
influence total, LDL, and HDL cholesterol in different
ways. Predictive equations have been developed and
applied. In general, diets high in saturated fatty acids
increase total as well as LDL and HDL cholesterol levels
compared to diets low in saturated fatty acids. The
specific saturated fatty acids palmitic (the principal
saturated fatty acid in the U.S. diet), myristic and lauric
acids are considered to be cholesterol raising, whereas
stearic acid and medium-chain saturated fatty acids (6 to
10 carbon atoms) have been considered to be neutral
with respect to effects on blood lipids and lipoproteins.
Monounsaturated (e.g., olive, canola) and
polyunsaturated (e.g., sunflower, corn, soybean) fatty
acids are cholesterol lowering when they replace
significant levels of saturated fatty acids in the diet.
Clinical and epidemiological studies indicate that
polyunsaturates lower LDL and total cholesterol. Some
studies have found that diets high in monounsaturated
fatty acids compared with polyunsaturated fatty acids
decrease LDL cholesterol while maintaining HDL
cholesterol levels (11,12). Other work has suggested that
the effect of consuming polyunsaturated fat and
monounsaturated fat is similar and results in a decrease
in both LDL and HDL cholesterol (13). There is
currently disagreement among health authorities on
whether unsaturated fatty acids in the American diet
should be reduced in favor of complex carbohydrates.
Studies have shown that dietary components
other than fats and oils, including proteins,
carbohydrates, fiber and trace minerals, may also affect
blood lipid levels and the development of
atherosclerosis. Thus, a possible relationship between
diet (particularly fats) and coronary heart disease
remains uncertain, and the appropriateness of specific
dietary recommendations for the general population is
not agreed upon. Additional research will be necessary
to clarify the uncertainties. In the meantime, nutritionists
emphasize moderation in the consumption of fat as well
as other nutrients.
While atherosclerosis is the slow, progressive
narrowing of an artery that gradually reduces blood flow,
the actual precipitating event of a heart attack is
frequently thrombosis, the formation of a blood clot that
can lodge in an artery blocking blood flow. If the
blockage of the artery is complete, a heart attack or
stroke may result. There is current scientific interest in
whether atherosclerosis (including elevated serum
cholesterol levels) is related to thrombotic risk. With
regard to how specific dietary fatty acids might affect
thrombotic tendency, it has been demonstrated that
polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids (e.g., from fish oils)
have antithrombotic effects. The mechanisms of these
effects appear to involve the metabolism of compounds
related to eicosanoids. In contrast to the effects of
polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids, there appears to be
no direct evidence that dietary long-chain saturated fatty
acids, such as stearic acid, are thrombogenic to humans.
Although some epidemiological evidence suggests that
saturated fatty acids may play a role in thrombotic
events, more research is needed to establish whether
there is a relationship to thrombotic risk and to elucidate
the possible mechanism of action.
Lipoprotein(a), or Lp(a), a particle similar to low
density lipoprotein (LDL), has been suggested by some
researchers to be a risk factor for CHD due to its high
serum levels in many heart attack victims who otherwise
have no obvious risk factors. Lp(a) levels are thought to
be largely controlled by genetic factors, however, some
reports indicate that the diet also may influence Lp(a)
levels (14, 15).
Recent research has revealed that LDL particle
size may influence one’s susceptibility to CHD (16).
Specifically, an abundance of smaller size LDL particles
has been associated with increased CHD risk. It has been
determined that approximately 67% of men and 80% of
women in the U.S. have a high proportion of LDL
particles whose size is relatively large (approximately
270 angstroms in diameter). The remaining population
has LDL particles that are somewhat smaller
(approximately 250 angstroms in diameter). The larger
LDL is characterized as Phenotype A and the smaller
LDL as Phenotype B. Phenotype B has been shown to be
particularly atherogenic and is associated with lower
HDL levels, higher triglycerides, higher levels of
9
intermediate density lipoproteins, and an increased risk
of CHD. Although LDL Phenotypes A and B are thought
to be determined by genetics only, some recent work
suggests that substantial reductions in energy from fat
could be detrimental to certain individuals.
The American Heart Association (AHA) has
taken the position that dietary factors influence the risk
of CHD (17). The AHA believes the three most
important dietary risk factors for atherogenesis are
saturated fat, cholesterol, and obesity. The AHA has
established a two-step dietary guidance program
designed to reduce total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol,
which it believes could reduce average blood cholesterol
levels in the U.S. by 5-15%. The AHA encourages
carbohydrate intake be increased to replace those
calories lost through reductions in fat intake.
A trend of considerable interest to
epidemiologists and other health professionals is the
continuing decline in the death rate from cardiovascular
diseases. During the period 1984 to 1994, the U.S. age-
adjusted death rate from cardiovascular diseases
(considered as a whole) decreased about 22% (7). In
particular, the mortality from coronary heart disease
decreased 29% during this period (7). Specific reasons
for decreasing mortality due to cardiovascular disease
are not known. However, recognition and increased
public awareness of major risk factors (cigarette
smoking, hypertension, and elevated serum cholesterol)
and more effective treatment of heart disease have
probably played roles. The decline in heart disease
mortality in the U.S. has been observed in all decades of
life, in all races, and in both sexes.
F. Diet and Cancer
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in
the United States, exceeded only by heart disease. The
American Cancer Society predicted that about 564,800
Americans would die of cancer in 1998 (18). The three
most common sites of fatal cancer in men are lung,
prostate, and colo-rectal. In women, the three most
common sites are lung, breast, and colo-rectal. In men
and women, cancers at these top three sites account for
about half of all cancer fatalities.
Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by
uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells. If the
spread is not controlled, it can result in death. Cancer is
caused by both external factors (e.g., chemicals,
radiation, and viruses) and internal factors (e.g., immune
conditions and inherited mutations). Causal factors may
act together or sequentially to initiate or promote
carcinogenesis. Frequently the time period between
exposures or mutations and appearance of cancer is very
long, often 10 years or longer. Risk factors contributing
to cancer development include cigarette smoking, certain
dietary patterns, exposure to sunlight, exposure to
radioactive materials or specific chemicals, and family
history. All cancers caused by cigarette smoking and
heavy use of alcohol are considered preventable. Many
cancers related to dietary factors or to sunlight exposure
are also felt to be preventable. Unlike heart disease in
which blood cholesterol levels serve as an indictor of
risk, there are no similar types of markers to indicate a
cancer may be developing. Early detection of cancer, for
instance through regular screening examinations, greatly
increases the chances of successful treatment.
According to the American Cancer Society (18),
between 1991 and 1995, the national cancer death rate
fell 2.6%. Most of the decline was attributed to
decreases in mortality from cancers of the lung, colon-
rectum, and prostate in men, and breast, colon-rectum,
and gynecologic sites in women. The declines in
mortality were greater in men than in women, largely
because of changes in lung cancer rates; greater in young
patients than in older patients; and greater in African-
Americans that in Caucasians, although mortality rates
remain higher in African-Americans.
Some scientific studies have reported
associations between dietary factors, such as low intake
of dietary fiber or high intake of fat, and the appearance
of cancer at certain sites. Such studies are called
epidemiological studies. They assess the existence of
relationships between factors, such as diet and
development of diseases like cancer. These studies do
not prove cause and effect. For example, incidence of
breast and colon cancer have been correlated with
variations in diet, especially fat intake. However, a
causal role for dietary factors has not been firmly
established. A recent study of approximately 90,000
women in the U.S. found no significant association
between diets high in fat and breast cancer (19). Also in
developed countries, certain types of cancer may be
related more closely to excessive calorie intake than to
any specific nutrient. Overall, there is no evidence of a
causal relationship between macronutrients in the diet
and cancer.
Laboratory animal studies on diet and cancer
have dealt largely with the response of chemically-
induced or transplanted tumors to increased calories
from extra fat in the diet. Some of these studies have
suggested that dietary calories and type of fat consumed
may be related to cancer incidence, particularly with
breast and colon cancer. Other animal studies have
indicated that moderate caloric restriction may result in
lower cancer incidence and, for a given level of fat in the
diet, animals may develop a higher incidence of cancer
10
when the fat is unsaturated. Some studies suggest that a
high level of dietary fat may act as a promoter of
carcinogenesis rather than as an initiator of tumors. A
promoter is a compound that by itself is not carcinogenic
but which enhances the ability of a carcinogen to
produce cancer. The existence, however, of a direct
relationship between caloric content, fat unsaturation,
and carcinogenesis is still unclear.
In addition to interest in effects of the total
amount of fat in the diet, there is also interest in whether
individual types of fatty acids can affect cancer risk. A
recent assessment of currently available data suggests
that specific saturated, monounsaturated, or
polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect cancer risk (20).
Although animal studies have suggested that
polyunsaturated fatty acids may increase tumor growth,
no relationship has been found between polyunsaturated
fatty acids and cancer in humans (21). Similarly, studies
in animals have found that omega-3 fatty acids (e.g.,
from fish oils) suppress cancer formation, but at this
time there is no direct evidence for protective effects in
humans. Oleic acid and saturated fatty acids have not
been found to have any specific effects on
carcinogenesis. Available scientific evidence also does
not support a relationship between trans fatty acids and
risk of cancer at any of the major cancer sites. On a
positive note, recent studies have shown that conjugated
linoleic acid, found primarily in lipids from ruminant
animals, appears to be unique among fatty acids because
low levels in the diet produce significant cancer
protection. This effect seems to be independent of other
dietary fatty acids. (For further discussion of conjugated
linoleic acid, see section H, Areas of Current Research
Interest.)
Accumulating evidence suggests that diets rich
in antioxidant vitamins (in particular, vitamins A and C)
may help reduce the risk of some cancers. Vitamins A
and C are abundant in many fruits and vegetables.
Vitamin E is an antioxidant vitamin found principally in
vegetable oil products. There is less epidemiological
evidence regarding vitamin E, however, laboratory and
animal data support its anticarcinogenic activity. Further
research is needed to establish dietary levels of
antioxidants that are both safe and effective.
The American Cancer Society has suggested
(18) from existing scientific evidence that about one-
third of the cancer deaths that occur in the U.S. each year
are due to dietary factors. Another third is due to
cigarette smoking. Thus, for the majority of Americans
who do not use tobacco, dietary choices and physical
activity become important modifiable determinants of
cancer risk. Evidence also indicates that although
genetics are a factor in the development of cancer,
heredity does not explain all cancer occurrences.
Behavioral factors such as tobacco use, dietary choices,
and physical activity modify the risk of cancer at all
stages of its development. Adopting healthful diet and
exercise practices at any stage of life can promote health
and likely reduce cancer risk.
Many dietary factors can affect cancer risk:
types of foods, food preparation methods, portion sizes,
food variety, and overall caloric balance. The American
Cancer Society believes that cancer risk can be reduced
by an overall dietary pattern that includes a high
proportion of plant foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, and
beans), limited amounts of meat, dairy products, and
other high-fat foods, and a balance of caloric intake and
physical activity. Plant foods contain fiber, which is
believed to reduce the risk of cancers of the rectum and
colon. They also are rich in antioxidant vitamins,
minerals, and phytochemicals that may play a role in
reducing cancer risk.
Overall, in the area of diet and cancer, a
significant challenge is relating promising data from
animal and cell culture studies to the prevention of
cancer in humans.
G. Health Effects of Trans Fatty Acids from
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is the process of chemically
adding hydrogen gas to a liquid fat in the presence of a
catalyst. This process converts some of the double bonds
of unsaturated fatty acids in the fat molecules to single
bonds, thereby increasing the degree of saturation of the
fat. The degree of hydrogenation, that is, the total
number of double bonds which are converted,
determines the physical and chemical properties of the
hydrogenated oil or fat. An oil that has been “partially”
hydrogenated often retains a significant degree of
unsaturation (i.e., double bonds) in its fatty acids.
Hydrogenation also results in the conversion of some cis
double bonds to the trans configuration (see Part IV,
Section C, Isomerism of Unsaturated Fatty Acids) and in
the formation of cis or trans positional isomers in which
one or more double bonds has migrated to a new
position in the fatty acid chain. The levels and types of
these isomeric fatty acids formed depend on the type of
oil and conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure, catalyst,
and duration) of the hydrogenation processing.
Small amounts of trans fatty acids occur
naturally in foods such as milk, butter, cheese, beef, and
tallow as a result of biohydrogenation in ruminants.
USDA has estimated that up to 20% of the trans fatty
acids in the American diet are from ruminant sources
(22). Traces of trans isomers may also be formed when
11
nonhydrogenated oils are deodorized under certain
conditions (e.g., prolonged heating at high
temperatures).
The hydrogenation process is very important to
the food industry to achieve desired stability and
physical properties in such food products as margarines,
shortenings, frying fats, and specialty fats. Examples of
enhanced stability provided by hydrogenation include
increased shelf life of commercial snack foods and
prolonged frying stability of food service deep frying
fats. An example of a desired physical property is the
semi-solid consistency at refrigerator and room
temperatures of margarines and spreads.
Trans isomers were a principal objective in solid
shortening and margarine products of the 1950s and
1960s because of their ability to contribute higher
melting properties while maintaining an unsaturated
character. More recent concerns about trans isomers
acting physiologically like saturated fatty acids has
encouraged the industry to pursue reduced levels of
trans isomers in many food products. Current partially
hydrogenated restaurant and food service frying oils
typically contain about 10-35% trans isomers. Tub
margarines and spreads (on a product basis) typically
contain trans fatty acid levels up to 16%, whereas stick
margarines typically have trans fatty acid levels around
15-22%.
Widespread use of partially hydrogenated
vegetable oils in the U.S. during the past six or seven
decades has raised questions about possible adverse
consequences of consuming the isomeric fatty acids
present in these products. The principal isomeric fatty
acids of interest have been trans fatty acids rather than
positional isomers of cis fatty acids. Studies concerning
health effects of trans fatty acids have focused primarily
on their levels in the U.S. diet and their effects on
parameters related to coronary heart disease risk.
The Institute of Shortening and Edible Oils
(ISEO) has reported an estimate of trans fatty acids
available for consumption in the U.S. diet for 1989 to be
about 8 g/person/day (22). This estimate is considered to
be relevant to the present day because few changes have
occurred in the U.S. diet since around 1989 that would
have modified appreciably the estimate. The ISEO’s
estimate was based on a comprehensive analysis of
products made from partially hydrogenated fats and oils
that were available for consumption. Availability
estimates do not represent actual consumption but rather
indicate what could be consumed on average. Using data
from the USDA’s Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by
Individuals, Allison, et al (23) estimated the mean intake
of trans fatty acids by the U.S. population to be 5.3
g/day, which is substantially lower than the ISEO’s
availability estimate of 8 g/person/day. Estimates of
trans fatty acid levels in the U.S. diet by various
investigators have indicated that trans acids contribute
only about 2 to 4% of total energy. This is a small
percentage compared to saturated fatty acids, which
contribute 12-14% of energy intake (24, 25).
A major study involving 14 Western European
countries was conducted by the TNO Institute of the
Netherlands assessing trans fatty acid intake using
compositional data developed during the study and
available national food consumption data (26). Trans
fatty acid intake ranged from 1.2 g/d in Portugal to 6.7
g/d in Iceland. The overall mean of trans fatty acid
intake was 2.4 g/d, smaller than expected by the
investigators.
Prior to 1990, there were numerous reviews and
studies on the nutritional and biological effects of trans
fatty acids. Most of these studies focus on the
development of atherosclerosis and on the effects of
trans fatty acids on serum cholesterol levels. Generally
these studies indicated that trans fatty acids were not
uniquely atherogenic nor did they raise total cholesterol
compared to cis fatty acids. However, these findings
were challenged in 1990 by a Dutch study (27) which
indicated that a diet high in trans fatty acids (11.0%
energy) raised total and LDL cholesterol and lowered
HDL cholesterol in human subjects compared to a high
oleic acid diet. A follow-up study by these investigators
using a somewhat lower level of dietary trans fatty acids
(7.7% energy) reported that dietary trans acids raised
total and LDL cholesterol and lowered HDL cholesterol
compared to a high linoleic acid diet but not compared to
a high stearic acid diet.
The results of these studies stimulated a major
U.S. clinical trial which examined the health effects of
both high (6.6% energy) and moderate (3.8% energy)
levels of trans acids compared with high oleic acid
(16.7% energy) and high saturated fatty acid (16.2%
energy as lauric, myristic and palmitic acids) levels (28).
The results were that the high and moderate trans fatty
acid diets increased total and LDL cholesterol compared
to the oleic acid diet but reduced total and LDL
cholesterol compared to the high saturated fatty acid
diet. The high trans diet, but not the moderate trans diet
resulted in a minor reduction in HDL cholesterol. Lp(a)
levels were not affected by the trans diets compared to
the oleic diet when all subjects were considered
collectively (29).
Judd, et al, (30) have conducted a follow-up
study to address limitations noted in previous studies. A
high carbohydrate diet was included as a control to
assess if direct addition of trans fatty acids to the diet
has an independent cholesterol raising effect. Other
12
dietary treatments included high oleic acid, high stearic
acid, high trans, moderate trans, and high saturated fatty
acids. Compared to the control diet, the trans fatty acid
diets raised total and LDL cholesterol to about the same
extent as the high saturated diet but they had no effect on
HDL cholesterol. The stearic acid diet had no effect on
LDL cholesterol but lowered HDL cholesterol.
Most of the studies on health effects of trans
fatty acids conducted during the 1970s and 1980s found
no significant associations between trans fatty acid
intake and risk of coronary heart disease. On the other
hand, recent epidemiological studies have reported that
trans fatty acids have a positive association with CHD
risk (31). There are a number of limitations of these
studies including the difficulty of measuring trans fatty
acid intake through the use of food frequency intake
questionnaires, the lack of a dose response relationship
between trans fatty acid intake and heart attack risk and
the inconsistency of study results. Above all it must be
remembered that epidemiological studies do not show
cause and effect and are simply indicators of where
clinical studies may be needed. Furthermore, the
mortality from CHD in the U.S. has continued to
decrease during the past 25-30 years (32), a period in
which the availability for consumption of trans fatty
acids has remained relatively constant (22).
Scientists have also performed numerous studies
using animal models to investigate the health effects of
trans fatty acids. Available data from short-term studies
involving rabbits, hamsters, pigs, and monkeys have
demonstrated that trans fatty acids in the presence of
adequate essential fatty acids did not produce
atherosclerosis.
Four recent comprehensive reports have
addressed possible health effects of trans fatty acids. A
British Nutrition Foundation Task Force (33) concluded
that “the risk attributable to the current low intake of
trans fatty acids (4-6 g/person/day) which accounts for
2% of dietary energy in the UK appears to be small,
although extreme consumers may experience higher
risk.” A report by the International Life Sciences
Institute (ILSI) (24) emphasized that since trans fatty
acids are often substituted for unsaturated fatty acids in
experimental diets, it is unclear whether the responses
reported reflect the addition of trans fatty acids to the
diets or the reduction in dietary unsaturated (i.e.,
cholesterol-lowering) fatty acids. Another ILSI report
(34) addressed whether dietary trans fatty acids
compromise fetal and infant early development. The
report concluded that there is little evidence in animals
or humans that trans fatty acids influence growth,
reproduction, or gross aspects of fetal development. An
ASCN/AIN Task Force on Trans Fatty acids (25)
concluded that “compared to saturated fatty acids, the
issue of trans fatty acids is less significant because the
U.S. diet provides a smaller proportion of trans fatty
acids and the data on their biological effects are limited.”
The Task Force recommended that data be obtained on
the intake of trans fatty acids, their biological effects,
mechanism of action, and relation to disease that are
comparable to those for saturated fatty acids.
In contrast to the amount of literature on trans
fatty acids in relation to coronary heart disease,
relatively few investigators have studied trans fatty acids
with respect to cancer. Ip and Marshall (35) published a
comprehensive review of more than 30 reports
addressing this issue. With respect to breast cancer, Ip
and Marshall noted that epidemiologic evidence shows
only slight to negligible impact of fat intake in general
on breast cancer risk and no strong evidence that intake
of trans fatty acids is related to increased risk. In
addition, there is no evidence indicating that intake of
trans fatty acids is related to increased risk of either
colon cancer or prostate cancer. Overall, the available
scientific evidence does not support a relationship
between trans fatty acids and risk of cancer at any of the
major cancer sites.
In summary, recent comprehensive reviews of
the literature indicate that trans fatty acids at their
current level of intake are a safe component of the diet.
At relatively high levels of intake, trans fatty acids
appear to raise LDL and lower HDL cholesterol. When
substituted for unhydrogenated oils high in unsaturated
fatty acids, trans fats increase total and LDL cholesterol.
However, trans fats lower total and LDL cholesterol
when substituted for animal fats and vegetable oils high
in saturated fatty acids. Hydrogenated oils are used
mainly as a substitute for more highly saturated
vegetable oils and for animal fats containing both
saturated fatty acids and cholesterol. Since trans fatty
acids appear to raise total and LDL cholesterol levels to
about the same extent as saturates but are present in the
U.S. diet at a much lower level compared to saturates (2-
4% versus 12-14% of energy), they pose less of a health
concern than do saturated fatty acids. Consumers
lowering their fat intake to 30 percent of calories, as
recommended in the U.S. Dietary Guidelines for Healthy
Americans (6), will simultaneously reduce their intake of
saturated as well as trans fatty acids.
H. Areas of Current Research Interest
A group of isomers of the essential fatty acid
linoleic acid, collectively termed “conjugated linoleic
acid” (CLA), has received considerable attention in
recent years because these isomers appear to have both
13
anticarcinogenic and antiatherogenic properties and may
affect body composition. CLA differs from linoleic acid
by the position and geometric configuration of one of its
double bonds. CLA isomers are found primarily in lipids
originating from ruminant animals (beef, dairy, and
lamb) and are reported to range from about 3 to 11 mg/g
fat (36). Fats from nonruminants (pork and chicken) and
vegetable oils contain lower amounts of CLA ranging
from 0.6 to 0.9 mg/g fat (37). The availability for
consumption of CLA in the U.S. has been estimated to
be on the order of several hundred milligrams per day
(38).
Animal studies have indicated that CLA reduces
the incidence of tumors induced by carcinogens such as
dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and benzo[a]pyrene (39-45).
CLA appears to be a unique anticarcinogen because it is
a naturally occurring substance found primarily in food
products derived from animal sources. Most other
naturally occurring substances that have been
demonstrated to have anticarcinogenic activity are of
plant origin. CLA is also unique because it is a fatty acid
mixture and anticancer efficacy is expressed at
concentrations close to human consumption levels.
Inhibition of tumor development in animals has been
seen with CLA at concentrations as low as 0.1% in the
diet.
In addition to its anticarcinogenic properties,
CLA appears to be antiatherogenic as well. Recent
studies involving rabbits (46) or hamsters (47) indicated
that incorporation of CLA into the diets suppressed total
and LDL-cholesterol and also atherosclerosis.
Furthermore, dietary CLA is able to affect body
composition (48, 49). Diets supplemented with 0.5%
CLA have been found to decrease body fat content and
increase lean body mass in several species including
poultry, pigs, and rodents. Pigs fed CLA also showed
improved feed efficiency (weight gain per unit weight of
food consumed) and improved immune systems
compared to controls. Thus, in the future CLA could be
a useful additive for animal feeds. Further research is
needed to elucidate the mechanism of CLA to inhibit
cancer and atherosclerosis. Human studies on body
composition effects are underway at this time.
Another area of recent research interest is in the
possibility of using dietary intake of certain plant sterols,
such as sitosterol, to help reduce the risk of coronary
heart disease. Sitosterols were found to be serum
cholesterol lowering agents in the 1950s, and their mode
of action appeared to be due to the inhibition of
cholesterol absorption during the digestive process (50).
Recent studies with humans have examined the
serum cholesterol lowering ability of sterol esters
incorporated into margarines. A Finnish study utilized
sitostanol esters, a hydrogenated sitosterol obtained from
a wood pulp byproduct, fed in margarine to mildly
hypercholesterolemic subjects at levels ranging from
1.9-2.6 g sitostanol/day. A mean reduction in plasma
serum cholesterol of 10% was observed after one year
(51). A second study used esters of sitosterol that were
extracted from soybean oil and incorporated into
margarine, and compared their cholesterol lowering
effect directly with that of sitostanol esters. This study,
using normocholesterolemic and mildly
hypercholesterolemic subjects, found a reduction of 8-
13% of plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels, and
both the soybean sterols and the sitostanols were equally
effective compared to the control diet (52).
In 1995, a margarine containing sitostanol esters
from wood pulp was introduced commercially in
Finland. The product proved to be very popular and
initially demand outstripped supply. This success has
stimulated proposals to launch the product in the U.S. in
1999. At the same time, a commercial margarine
containing sitosterol esters obtained from soybean oil
has been developed for the U.S. and European markets.
Both the sitosterol based and sitostanol based margarines
are expected to be introduced in the U.S. in mid-1999,
pending regulatory approval.
I. Nonallergenicity of Edible Oils
Food allergies are caused by the protein
components of food. Edible oils in the U.S. undergo
extensive processing (sometimes referred to as “fully
refined”, discussed in section VII Processing) which
removes virtually all protein from the oil. Refined edible
oils therefore do not cause allergic reactions because
they do not contain allergenic protein. Food products
containing refined edible oils as ingredients are also non-
allergenic unless the food products contain other sources
of protein.
Some edible oils may be extracted and processed
by procedures that do not remove all protein present.
While the vast majority of oils found in the US are
refined by processes which remove virtually all protein,
mechanical or “cold press” extraction is occasionally
used, which may not remove all protein. These cold
pressed oils are rarely used domestically and are usually
found only in health food or gourmet food stores.
Studies using cold pressed soybean oil have shown it to
be safe; however, insufficient testing has been done to
ensure that all cold pressed oils can be safely consumed
by sensitive individuals.
Edible oils have been blamed for causing
allergic reactions in people, but there are conflicting
views and inadequate scientific evidence regarding their
14
allergenicity. Many reports alleging edible oil
allergenicity have been testimonial in nature. Of those
reports that have been scientifically recorded, most lack
evidence that edible oils were indeed the causative agent
or were even ingested. For example, many investigators
did not perform tests to confirm an allergic response
from the oil in question nor were analyses conducted to
determine if protein was present in the oil. Also many
reports do not indicate if the oils were cold pressed or
not. There is also a lack of scientific data to determine
the levels of proteins needed to cause an allergic
reaction; therefore such tolerance levels in humans have
not been established. Furthermore, the sensitivities of
food allergic individuals may vary widely, and not all
allergenic foods have the same tolerance level.
While some consumers are convinced they are
allergic to edible oils, there are usually alternate
explanations for these reactions. For example, foods
containing peanuts, a common allergenic food
ingredient, may be cooked in peanut oil. An allergic
reaction experienced as a result of eating this food may
be mistakenly blamed on the oil. Also foods containing
inherent allergens may be cooked in edible oils resulting
in traces of the allergenic protein being left behind in the
oil. Restaurants and food service facilities should
therefore exercise caution in cooking techniques and be
able to readily identify not only the oils used but also a
complete list of all foods cooked in the oil.
The vast preponderance of edible oils consumed
in the US are highly refined and processed to the extent
that allergenic proteins are not present in detectable
amounts. The majority of well-designed and performed
scientific studies indicate that refined oils are safe for the
food-allergic population to consume (53).
J. Biotechnology
Biotechnology has been defined broadly as the
commercial application of biological processes. It
includes both hybridization and genetic modification of
plants and animals. The goal of biotechnology is to
develop new or modified plants or animals with
desirable characteristics. The earliest applications of this
technology have been in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic
and agricultural sectors. Agricultural applications to
food crops have resulted in improved “input” agronomic
traits, which affect how the plants grow. Such traits
include higher production yields, altered maturation
periods, and resistance to disease, insects, stressful
weather conditions, and herbicides. Currently
researchers and seed developers are placing more
emphasis on improving “output” quality traits which
affect what the plant produces. An example of this
application is the custom designing of nutrient profiles
of food crops for improved nutrition and reduced
allergenic properties.
The more notable biotechnology applications
within the oilseed industry include herbicide tolerant
soybeans and canola, high and midoleic sunflower, low
linolenic/low saturate soybeans, high linoleic flaxseed
oil, low linolenic canola, high laurate canola, high oleic
canola, and high stearate canola. Exciting opportunities
for edible oil crop nutrient content and functionality
improvement include reduction in saturated fatty acid
content, improved oxidative stability resulting in a
reduced need for hydrogenation, reduced calories or
bioavailability, creation of specific fatty acid profiles for
particular food applications, and creative “functional”
foods for the population at large or for medical purposes.
Other applications may include increased oil yield,
improved extraction of oil from oilseeds through enzyme
technology, industrial production of fatty acids, and
improved processing methods.
Genetic engineering is a specific application of
biotechnology. This technique is also called recombinant
DNA technology, gene splicing, or genetic modification,
and involves removing, modifying, or adding genes to a
living organism. New plant varieties that result from
genetic engineering are referred to as transgenic plants.
The most recognized examples in the U.S. are herbicide
resistant soybeans, corn which is resistant to the
European corn borer, and cotton which is resistant to the
bollworm. The acceptance and utilization of these and
other transgenic food crops in the U.S. have been very
rapid. For example, transgenic herbicide resistant
soybeans after being first introduced commercially in
1996 on 1 million acres were planted on about 25
million acres in 1998. Genetically modified insect
resistant corn was also commercially introduced in 1996,
and it occupied about 16 million acres in 1998.
Transgenic soybeans and corn are expected to be about
50% of the U.S. total planted acreage for these crops in
1999.
Global plantings of transgenic crops are also
increasing at very rapid rates. While almost 7 million
acres were planted internationally to transgenic crops in
1996, about 31.5 million acres were planted in 1997
(54). All indications are that worldwide acreage will
continue to expand at a rapid pace for the next several
years. The most popular crops as a percent of total
global acreage planted to transgenic crops are the
following: soybeans (40%), corn (25%), tobacco (13%),
cotton (11%), and canola (10%). The United States is the
leader in agricultural applications of genetically
engineered crops representing 64% of the total global
acreage devoted to transgenic crops in 1997, followed by
15
China with 14%, Argentina with 11%, Canada with 10%
and Australia and Mexico with about 1% each (54).
In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration
has principal regulatory responsibility for approving the
introduction of foods and food additives from transgenic
plants into the marketplace. The agency has maintained a
biotechnology policy since 1992, which states that foods
derived from new genetically engineered plant varieties
will be regulated essentially the same as foods created by
conventional means. Labeling of such foods or food
additives is not required unless the nutrient composition
is significantly altered, allergenic proteins have been
introduced into the new food, or unique issues have been
posed which should be communicated to consumers.
While U.S. consumers appear to have accepted
biotechnology and recognize its potential benefits (e.g.,
foods, drugs), Europeans have been less willing to
embrace biotechnology due to concerns regarding the
safety of genetically modified foods. The European
Union requires foods containing genetically altered
components to be labeled as such and has been very
slow in approving new genetically modified plant
varieties as imports. This position has caused much
anxiety between Europe and the U.S. from an
agricultural trade standpoint. The prospects for
resolution of these differences between Europe and the
U.S. appear to be improving.
As new varieties of oilseeds are developed to
incorporate specific fatty acid components, historical
fatty acid profiles for source oil identification will
become less useful. A challenge for food manufacturers
will be how to identify these food components through
food labeling.
The age of biotechnology is here with a vast
array of improved plant varieties already commercially
available. The future looks bright particularly for the
emergence of new oilseed varieties that will have
improved agronomic characteristics, nutrient profiles,
and functionality in foods and food ingredients as well
as in industrial products. It is therefore important for
consumers to understand the many benefits of
biotechnology and that the application of genetic
engineering technology to foods will render them safe,
more functional, and nutritious.
K. Fat Reduction in Foods
Americans have been advised during the past
two decades by many health organizations, including the
Office of the Surgeon General, American Heart
Association, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and
Department of Health and Human Services, to reduce
total dietary fat intake to less than 30% of calories and
saturated fat intake to less than 10% of calories. High
intake of total and saturated fat has been associated with
increased risk of obesity and coronary heart disease.
Healthy People 2000, a program of the U.S.
Public Health Service to promote health and prevention
of disease, recommended food manufacturers double the
availability of lower fat food products from 1990 to the
year 2000. That goal was quickly met by 1995. One of
the primary methods employed by the food industry in
creating newer food products containing less fat has
been the use of fat replacers or fat substitutes. The
technology used in the development of these fat
replacers allows key sensory and physical attributes and
functional characteristics of affected foods to be
maintained.
Fat replacers are generally classified into three
basic categories: fat-based, protein-based and
carbohydrate-based. These categories and the most
important examples within them are discussed below:
• Fat-based substitutes. Sucrose fatty acid polyesters
(SPEs) are mixtures of compounds called esters
made by combining sucrose esters and fatty acids,
the most common example of which is olestra.
Because of its large molecular size, olestra is not
absorbed or metabolized by the body, thus it
contributes no calories to the diet. Olestra is
currently approved by FDA as a frying medium for
savory snacks but has the potential to be included in
frying oils and shortenings.
Sucrose fatty acid esters (SFEs) are similar to SPEs
however, their molecular size is smaller. As a result,
they are partially or fully absorbed thus providing up
to 9 calories per gram to the diet, the same as
provided by conventional fats. SFEs are used as
emulsifiers and stabilizers in a wide variety of foods
and as components of coatings used to retard
spoilage of fruits.
Structured lipids are triglycerides which may be
made from a variety of combinations of short,
medium and long chain fatty acids. They are
primarily used to reduce the amount of fat available
for absorption, thereby reducing caloric value.
Salatrim is an example of a structured lipid which is
partially metabolized thus providing only about 5
calories per gram energy.
• Protein-based fat replacers. These materials are
derived from a variety of protein sources including
16
eggs, milk, whey, soy and wheat gluten. Generally
these proteins undergo a process called
microparticulation in which they are sheared under
heat into very small particles to impart similar
mouthfeel and texture as conventional fats. They are
used in frozen dairy desserts, cheese baked goods,
sauces and salad dressings and may provide only 1-4
calories per gram depending on the water level
incorporated into them.
• Carbohydrate-based fat replacers. A number of
carbohydrates including gums, starches, pectins and
cellulose have been used for many years as
thickening agents to add bulk, moisture and textural
stability to a wide variety of foods including
puddings, sauces, soups, bakery goods, salad
dressings and frozen desserts. Digestible
carbohydrates such as modified starches and dextrins
provide 4 calories per gram, while nondigestible
complex carbohydrates provide virtually no calories.
In response to consumer demand of recent years,
food manufacturers have developed a wide variety of
reduced fat food products utilizing fat substitutes as a
primary method of fat reduction. Since 1990 an average
of over 1,000 new low fat foods have entered the
marketplace annually bearing nutrient content claims of
lowered fat (55). In 1996 the introduction of new low fat
foods reached a peak at 2,076 products. Since 1996,
however, introductions of new reduced or low fat
products have declined to 1,405 products in 1997 and
1,180 in 1998.
VI. FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF FATS AND OILS
The physical characteristics of a fat or oil are dependent
upon the degree of unsaturation, the length of the carbon
chains, the isomeric forms of the fatty acids, molecular
configuration, and the type and extent of processing.
A. Degree of Unsaturation of Fatty Acids
Food fats and oils are made up of triglyceride
molecules which may contain both saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids. Depending on the type of fatty
acids combined in the molecule, triglycerides can be
classified as mono-, di-, and triunsaturated as illustrated
below.
 Generally speaking, fats that are liquid at room
temperature tend to be more unsaturated than those that
appear to be solid. It is not necessarily true, however,
that all fats which are liquid at room temperature are
high in unsaturated fatty acids. For example, coconut oil
has a high level of saturates, but many are of low
molecular weight, hence this oil melts at or near room
temperature. Thus, the physical state of the fat does not
necessarily indicate the amount of unsaturation.
The degree of unsaturation of a fat, i.e., the
number of double bonds present, normally is expressed
in terms of the iodine value of the fat. Iodine value is the
number of grams of iodine which will react with the
double bonds in 100 grams of fat and may be calculated
from the fatty acid composition obtained by gas
chromatography. The average iodine value of
unhydrogenated soybean oil is generally in the 125-140
range. A typical food service salad and cooking oil made
from partially hydrogenated soybean oil may have an
iodine value of about 105-120. A typical semi-solid
household shortening made from partially hydrogenated
soybean oil may have an iodine value of about 90-95.
On the other hand, butterfat, which has a much lower
level of unsaturated fatty acids than most shortenings
made from partially hydrogenated soybean oil, typically
has an iodine value of about 30.
B. Length of Carbon Chains in Fatty Acids
As the chain length of the saturated fatty acid
increases, the melting point also increases (Table I).
Thus, a short chain saturated fatty acid such as butyric
acid has a lower melting point than saturated fatty acids
with longer chains. Some of the higher molecular weight
unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid also have
relatively low melting points (Table II). The melting
properties of triglycerides are related to those of their
fatty acids. This explains why coconut oil, which
contains almost 90% saturated fatty acids but with a high
proportion of relatively short chain low melting fatty
acids, is a clear liquid at 80°F in contrast to lard which
contains only about 37% saturates, most with longer
chains, is semi-solid at 80ºF.
17
C. Isomeric Forms of Fatty Acids
For a given fatty acid chain length, saturated
fatty acids will have higher melting points than those
that are unsaturated The melting points of unsaturated
fatty acids are profoundly affected by position and
conformation of the double bonds. For example, the
monounsaturated fatty acid oleic acid and its geometric
isomer elaidic acid have different melting points. Oleic
acid is liquid at temperatures considerably below room
temperature, whereas elaidic acid is solid even at
temperatures above room temperature. It is the presence
of isomeric fatty acids in many vegetable shortenings
and margarines that contributes substantially to the semi-
solid form of these products. Thus, the presence of
different geometric isomers of fatty acids influences the
physical characteristics of the fat.
D. Molecular Configuration of Triglycerides
The molecular configuration of triglycerides can
also affect the properties of a fat or oil. Melting points of
fats will vary in their sharpness depending on the
number of different chemical entities which are present.
A simple triglyceride will have a sharp melting point. A
mixture of triglycerides, as is typical of lard and most
vegetable shortenings, will have a broad melting range.
In the case of cocoa butter, the palmitic, stearic,
and oleic acids are combined in two predominant
triglyceride forms. The presence of these forms give
cocoa butter its sharp melting point, just slightly below
body temperature. The way cocoa butter melts is one of
the reasons for the pleasant eating quality of chocolate.
A mixture of several triglycerides has a lower
melting point than would be predicted for the mixture
based on the melting points of the individual
components. The mixture will also have a broader
melting range than any of its components.
Monoglycerides and diglycerides have higher melting
points than triglycerides with a similar fatty acid
composition.
E. Polymorphism of Fats
Solidified fats exhibit polymorphism, i.e., they
can exist in several different crystalline forms,
depending on the manner in which the molecules orient
themselves in the solid state. The crystal forms of fats
can transform from lower melting to successively higher
melting modifications. The rate of transformation and
the extent to which it proceeds are governed by the
molecular composition and configuration of the fat,
crystallization conditions, and the temperature and
duration of storage. In general, fats containing diverse
assortments of molecules (such as rearranged lard) tend
to remain indefinitely in lower melting crystal forms,
whereas fats containing a relatively limited assortment
of molecules (such as soybean stearine) transform
readily to higher melting crystal forms. Mechanical and
thermal agitation during processing and storage at
elevated temperatures tend to accelerate the rate of
crystal transformation. The crystal form of the fat has a
marked effect on the melting point and the performance
of the fat in the various applications in which it is
utilized.
Food technologists apply controlled
polymorphic crystal formation in the preparation of
household shortenings and margarines. These products
are predominantly partially hydrogenated soybean oil. In
order to obtain desired product plasticity, functionality,
and stability, the shortening or margarine must be in a
crystalline form called “beta-prime” (a lower melting
polymorph). Partially hydrogenated soybean oil tends to
crystallize in the “beta” crystal form (a higher melting
polymorph). Beta-prime crystal formation is promoted in
a soybean oil product through inclusion of beta-prime
promoting fats such as hydrogenated cottonseed or palm
oils.
Beta-prime is a smooth, small, fine crystal
whereas beta is a large, coarse, grainy crystal.
Shortenings and margarines are smooth and creamy
because of the inclusion of beta-prime fats.
VII. PROCESSING
A. General
Food fats and oils are derived from oilseed and
animal sources. Animal fats are generally heat rendered
from animal tissues to separate them from protein and
other naturally occurring materials. Rendering may be
either with dry heat or with steam. Rendering and
processing of meat fats is conducted in USDA inspected
plants. Vegetable fats are obtained by the extraction or
the expression of the oil from the oilseed source.
18
Historically, cold or hot expression methods were used.
These methods have been replaced with solvent
extraction or pre-press/solvent extraction methods which
give a better oil yield. In this process the oil is extracted
from the oilseed by hexane (a light petroleum fraction)
and the hexane is then separated from the oil, recovered,
and reused. Because of its high volatility, no hexane
residue remains in the finished oil after processing.
The fats and oils obtained directly from
rendering or from the extraction of the oilseeds are
termed “crude” fats and oils. Crude fats and oils contain
varying but relatively small amounts of naturally
occurring non-glyceride materials that are removed
through a series of processing steps. For example, crude
soybean oil may contain small amounts of protein, free
fatty acids, and phosphatides which must be removed
through subsequent processing to produce the desired
shortening and oil products. Similarly, meat fats may
contain some free fatty acids, water, and protein which
must be removed.
It should be pointed out, however, that not all of
the nonglyceride materials are undesirable elements.
Tocopherols, for example, perform the important
function of protecting the oils from oxidation and
provide vitamin E. Processing is carried out in such a
way as to control retention of these substances.
Partial hydrogenation is employed frequently to
improve the stability of fats and oils and to provide
increased usefulness by imparting a semi-solid
consistency to the fat for many food applications. It is
agreed by most nutritionists and food technologists that
the modern processing of edible fats and oils is the
single factor most responsible for upgrading the quality
of the fat consumed in the U.S. diet today.
B. Degumming
Crude oils having relatively high levels of
phosphatides (e.g., soybean oil) may be degummed
prior to refining to remove the majority of those
phospholipid compounds. The process generally
involves treating the crude oil with a limited amount of
water to hydrate the phosphatides and make them
separable by centrifugation. Soybean oil is the most
common oil to be degummed; the phospholipids are
often recovered and further processed to yield a variety
of lecithin products.
C. Refining
The process of refining (sometimes referred to
as “alkali refining”) generally is performed on vegetable
oils to reduce the free fatty acid content and to remove
other gross impurities such as phosphatides,
proteinaceous, and mucilaginous substances. By far the
most important and widespread method of refining is the
treatment of the fat or oil with an alkali solution. This
results in a large reduction of free fatty acids through
their conversion into water-soluble soaps. Most
phosphatides and mucilaginous substances are soluble in
the oil only in an anhydrous form and upon hydration
with the caustic or other refining solution are readily
separated. Oils low in phosphatide content (palm and
coconut) may be physically refined (i.e., steam stripped)
to remove free fatty acids. After alkali refining, the fat or
oil is water-washed to remove residual soap.
D. Bleaching
The term “bleaching” refers to the process for
removing color producing substances and for further
purifying the fat or oil. Normally, bleaching is
accomplished after the oil has been refined.
The usual method of bleaching is by adsorption
of the color producing substances on an adsorbent
material. Acid-activated bleaching earth or clay,
sometimes called bentonite, is the adsorbent material
that has been used most extensively. This substance
consists primarily of hydrated aluminum silicate.
Anhydrous silica gel and activated carbon also are used
as bleaching adsorbents to a limited extent.
E. Deodorization
Deodorization is a vacuum steam distillation
process for the purpose of removing trace constituents
that give rise to undesirable flavors, colors and odors in
fats and oils. Normally this process is accomplished after
refining and bleaching.
The deodorization of fats and oils is simply a
removal of the relatively volatile components from the
fat or oil using steam. This is feasible because of the
great differences in volatility between the substances that
give flavors, colors and odors to fats and oils and the
triglycerides. Deodorization is carried out under vacuum
to facilitate the removal of the volatile substances, to
avoid undue hydrolysis of the fat, and to make the most
efficient use of the steam.
Deodorization does not have any significant
effect upon the fatty acid composition of most fats or
oils. In the case of vegetable oils, sufficient tocopherols
remain in the finished oils after deodorization to provide
stability.
19
F. Fractionation (Including Winterization)
Fractionation is the removal of solids by
controlled crystallization and separation techniques
involving the use of solvents or dry processing. Dry
fractionation encompasses both winterization and
pressing techniques and is the most widely practiced
form of fractionation. It relies upon the differences in
melting points and triglyceride solubility to separate the
oil fractions.
Winterization is a process whereby material is
crystallized and removed from the oil by filtration to
avoid clouding of the liquid fraction at cooler
temperatures. The term winterization was originally
applied decades ago when cottonseed oil was subjected
to winter temperatures to accomplish this process.
Winterization processes using temperature to control
crystallization are continued today on several oils. A
similar process called dewaxing is utilized to clarify oils
containing trace amounts of clouding constituents.
Pressing is a fractionation process sometimes
used to separate liquid oils from solid fat. This process
presses the liquid oil from the solid fraction by hydraulic
pressure or vacuum filtration. This process is used
commercially to produce hard butters and specialty fats
from oils such as palm and palm kernel.
Solvent fractionation is the term used to describe
a process for the crystallization of a desired fraction
from a mixture of triglycerides dissolved in a suitable
solvent. Fractions may be selectively crystallized at
different temperatures after which the fractions are
separated and the solvent removed. Solvent fractionation
is practiced commercially to produce hard butters,
specialty oils, and some salad oils from a wide array of
edible oils.
G. Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is the process by which hydrogen
is added directly to points of unsaturation in the fatty
acids. Hydrogenation of fats has developed as a result of
the need to (1) convert liquid oils to the semi-solid form
for greater utility in certain food uses and (2) increase
the oxidative and thermal stability of the fat or oil.
Hydrogenation is an extremely important
process as far as our food supply is concerned, because
this processing imparts the desired stability and other
properties to many edible oil products. The level of
unsaturated fatty acids present in some oils such as
soybean oil is reduced in order for the oils to have
functional properties in many food applications.
Hydrogenation is the only practical way to impart these
properties.
 In the process of hydrogenation, hydrogen gas is
reacted with oil at elevated temperature and pressure in
the presence of a catalyst. The catalyst most widely used
is nickel supported on an inert carrier which is removed
from the fat after the hydrogenation processing is
completed. Under these conditions, the gaseous
hydrogen reacts with the double bonds of the unsaturated
fatty acids as illustrated below:
The hydrogenation process is easily controlled
and can be stopped at any desired point. As
hydrogenation progresses, there is generally a gradual
increase in the melting point of the fat or oil. If the
hydrogenation of cottonseed or soybean oil, for example,
is stopped after only a small amount of hydrogenation
has taken place, the oils remain liquid. These partially
hydrogenated oils are typically used to produce
institutional cooking oils, liquid shortenings and liquid
margarines. Further hydrogenation can produce soft but
solid appearing fats which still contain appreciable
amounts of unsaturated fatty acids and are used in solid
shortenings and margarines. When oils are more fully
hydrogenated, many of the carbon to carbon double
bonds are converted to single bonds increasing the level
of saturation. This conversion also affects trans fatty
acids eliminating them from fully hydrogenated fats. If
an oil is hydrogenated completely, the carbon to carbon
double bonds are eliminated completely and the
resulting product is a hard brittle solid at room
temperature.
The hydrogenation conditions can be varied by
the manufacturer to meet certain physical and chemical
characteristics desired in the finished product. This is
achieved through selection of the proper temperature,
pressure, time, catalyst, and starting oils. Both positional
and geometric (trans) isomers are formed to some extent
during hydrogenation, the amounts depending on the
conditions employed.
Biological hydrogenation of polyunsaturated
fatty acids occurs in some animal organisms, particularly
in ruminants. This accounts for the presence of some
trans isomers that occur in the tissues and milk of
ruminants.
20
H. Interesterification
Another process used by oil processors permits a
rearrangement or a redistribution of the fatty acids on the
glycerol fragment of the molecule. This process, referred
to as interesterification, is accomplished by catalytic
methods at relatively low temperature. Under some
conditions the fatty acids are distributed in a more
random manner than they were present originally. Other
conditions permit the rearrangement process to direct the
fatty acid distribution to an extent that allows further
modification of shortening properties to be obtained. The
rearrangement process does not change the degree of
unsaturation or the isomeric state of the fatty acids as
they transfer in their entirety from one position to
another.
Lard in its natural state possesses a very narrow
temperature range over which it has good consistency
for practical use in the kitchen. At slightly above normal
room temperature, ordinary lard becomes somewhat
softer than desirable, and at temperatures slightly lower,
it becomes somewhat firmer than is desirable.
Molecularly rearranged lard shortenings have a
satisfactory consistency over a much wider temperature
range.
The predominant commercial application for
interesterification in the US is the production of
specialty fats for the confectionery and vegetable dairy
industries. This process permits further tailoring of
triglyceride properties to achieve the required steep
melting curves.
I. Esterification
For the most part, fatty acids are present in
nature in the form of esters and are consumed as such.
Triglycerides, the predominant constituents of fats and
oils, are examples of esters. When consumed and
digested, fats are hydrolyzed initially to diglycerides and
monoglycerides which are also esters. Carried to
completion, these esters are hydrolyzed to glycerol and
fatty acids. In the reverse process, esterification, an
alcohol such as glycerol is reacted with an acid such as a
fatty acid to form an ester such as mono-, di-, and
triglycerides. In an alternative esterification process,
called alcoholysis, an alcohol such as glycerol is reacted
with fat or oil to produce esters such as mono- and
diglycerides. Using the foregoing esterification
processes, edible acids, fats, and oils can be reacted with
edible alcohols to produce useful food ingredients that
include many of the emulsifiers listed in the following
section.
J. Emulsifiers
Many foods are processed and/or consumed as
emulsions, which are dispersions of immiscible liquids
such as water and oil, e.g., milk, mayonnaise, ice cream,
icings, and sausage. Emulsifiers, either present naturally
in one or more of the ingredients or added separately,
provide emulsion stability. Lack of stability results in
separation of the oil and water phases. Some emulsifiers
also provide valuable functional attributes in addition to
emulsification. These include aeration, starch and
protein complexing, hydration, crystal modification,
solubilization, and dispersion. Typical examples of
emulsifiers and the characteristics they impart to food
are listed in Table III.
Emulsifiers must be sanctioned for use by the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This agency
provides guidelines for industry usage as GRAS
(generally recognized as safe) or regulated food
additives.

TABLE III
EMULSIFIERS AND THEIR FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
IN PROCESSED FOODS
Emulsifier Characteristic Processed Food
Mono-diglycerides Emulsification of water in oil Margarine
Anti-staling or softening Bread and rolls
Prevention of oil separation Peanut butter

Lecithin Viscosity control and wetting Chocolate

Anti-spattering and anti-sticking Margarine

Lactylated mono-diglycerides Aeration Batters (cake)

Gloss enhancement Confectionery coating

Polyglycerol esters Crystallization promoter Sugar syrup

Aeration Icings and cake batters
Emulsification

Sucrose fatty acid esters Emulsification Bakery products

Sodium steroyl lactylate (SSL) Aeration, dough conditioner, Bread and rolls
Calcium steroyl lactylate (CSL) stabilizer

K. Additives and Processing Aids production to time of consumption. When addition

Manufacturers may add low levels of approved
food additives to fats and oils to protect their quality in
processing, storage, handling, and shipping of finished
products. This insures quality maintenance from time of
provides a technical effect in the end-use product, the
material added is considered a direct additive. Such
usage must comply with FDA regulations governing
levels, mode of addition, and product labeling. Typical
examples of industry practice are listed in Table IV.

21
 Table IV
SOME DIRECT FOOD ADDITIVES USED IN FATS AND OILS
Additive Effect Provided
Tocopherols Antioxidant, retards oxidative rancidity
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
Tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)

Carotene (pro-vitamin A) Color additive, enhances color of finished foods

Methyl silicone (dimethylpolysiloxane) Inhibits oxidation tendency and foaming of fats and oils
during frying

Diacetyl Provides buttery odor and flavor to fats and oils

Lecithin Water scavenger to prevent lipolytic rancidity

Citric acid Metal chelating agents, inhibit metal-catalyzed oxidative

Phosphoric acid breakdown

When addition is made to achieve a technical
effect during processing, shipping, or storage and
followed by removal or reduction to an insignificant
level, the material added is considered to be a processing
aid. Typical examples of processing aids and provided
effects are listed in Table V. Use of processing aids also
must comply with federal regulations which specify
good manufacturing practices and acceptable residual
levels.

TABLE V
SOME PROCESSING AIDS USED IN MANUFACTURING EDIBLE FATS AND OILS
Aid Effect Mode of Removal
Sodium hydroxide Refining aid Acid neutralization

Carbon/clay (diatomaceous Bleaching aid Filtration

earth)
Nickel Hydrogenation catalyst Filtration

Sodium methoxide Rearrangement catalyst Water or acid neutralization,

filtration, and deodorization

Phosphoric acid Refining acids, metal chelators Neutralization with base,

Citric acid filtration, or water washing

Acetone Crystallization media for Solvent stripping and

Hexane fractionation of fats and oils deodorization
Isopropanol
Nitrogen Oxygen replacement Diffusion

Polyglycerol esters Crystallization modification None

Silica hydrogel Adsorbent Filtration

Sodium lauryl sulfate Fractionation aid, wetting agent Washing and centrifugation
22
VIII. REACTIONS OF FATS AND OILS
A. Hydrolysis of Fats
Like other esters, glycerides can be hydrolyzed
readily. Partial hydrolysis of triglycerides will yield
mono- and diglycerides and fatty acids. When the
hydrolysis is carried to completion with water in the
presence of an acid catalyst, the mono-, di-, and
triglycerides will hydrolyze to yield glycerol and fatty
acids. With aqueous sodium hydroxide, glycerol and the
sodium salts of the component fatty acids (soaps) are
obtained. In the digestive tracts of humans and animals
and in bacteria, fats are hydrolyzed by enzymes
(lipases). Lypolytic enzymes are present in some edible
oil sources (i.e., palm fruit, coconut). Any residues of
these lipolytic enzymes present in some crude fats and
oils are deactivated by the temperatures used in oil
processing, so enzymatic hydrolysis is unlikely in
refined fats and oils.
B. Oxidation of Fats
1. Autoxidation. Of particular interest in
the food field is the process of oxidation induced by air
at room temperature referred to as “autoxidation.”
Ordinarily, this is a slow process which occurs only to a
limited degree. In autoxidation, oxygen reacts with
unsaturated fatty acids. Initially, peroxides are formed
which in turn break down to hydrocarbons, ketones,
aldehydes, and smaller amounts of epoxides and
alcohols. Heavy metals present at low levels in fats and
oils can promote autoxidation. Fats and oils often are
treated with chelating agents such as citric acid (see
Tables IV and V) to inactivate heavy metals.
The result of the autoxidation of fats and oils is
the development of objectionable flavors and odors
characteristic of the condition known as “oxidative
rancidity.” Some fats resist this change to a remarkable
extent while others are more susceptible depending on
the degree of unsaturation, the presence of antioxidants,
and other factors. The presence of light, for example,
increases the rate of oxidation. It is a common practice in
the industry to protect fats and oils from oxidation to
preserve their acceptable flavor and shelf life.
When rancidity has progressed significantly, it is
apparent from the flavor and odor of the oil. Expert
tasters are able to detect the development of rancidity in
its early stages. The peroxide value determination, if
used judiciously, may be helpful in measuring the degree
of oxidative rancidity in the fat.
It has been found that oxidatively abused fats
can complicate nutritional and biochemical studies in
23
animals because they can affect food consumption under
ad libitum feeding conditions and reduce the vitamin
content of the food. If the diet has become unpalatable
due to excessive oxidation of the fat component and is
not accepted by the animal, a lack of growth by the
animal could be due to its unwillingness to consume the
diet. Thus, the experimental results might be attributed
unwittingly to the type of fat or other nutrient being
studied rather than to the condition of the ration.
Knowing the oxidative condition of unsaturated fats is
extremely important in biochemical and nutritional
studies with animals.
2. Oxidation at Higher Temperatures.
Although the rate of oxidation is greatly accelerated at
higher temperatures, oxidative reactions which occur at
higher temperatures may not follow precisely the same
routes and mechanisms as the reactions at room
temperatures. Thus, differences in the stability of fats
and oils often become more apparent when the fats are
used for frying or slow baking. The more unsaturated the
fat or oil, the greater will be its susceptibility to
oxidative rancidity. Predominantly unsaturated oils such
as soybean, cottonseed, or corn oil are less stable than
predominantly saturated oils such as coconut oil.
Methylsilicone often is added to institutional frying fats
and oils to reduce oxidation tendency and foaming at
elevated temperatures. Frequently, partial hydrogenation
is employed in the processing of liquid vegetable oil to
increase the stability of the oil. Also oxidative stability
has been increased in many of the oils developed
through biotechnological engineering. The stability of a
fat or oil may be predicted to some degree by the
oxidative stability index (OSI).
C. Polymerization of Fats
All commonly used fats and particularly those
high in polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to form some
larger molecules known broadly as polymers when
heated under extreme conditions of temperature and
time. Under normal processing and cooking conditions
polymers are formed in insignificant quantities.
Although the polymerization process is not understood
completely, it is believed that polymers in fats and oils
arise by formation of either carbon to carbon bonds or
oxygen bridges between molecules. When an
appreciable amount of polymer is present, there is a
marked increase in viscosity. Animal studies have shown
that any polymers that may be present in a fat or oil are
absorbed poorly from the intestinal tract and are excreted
as such in the feces.
D. Reactions during Heating and Cooking
Glycerides are subject to chemical reactions
(oxidation, polymerization, hydrolysis) which can occur
particularly during deep fat frying. The extent of these
reactions, which may be reflected as a decrease in iodine
value of the fat and an increase in free fatty acids,
depends on the frying conditions, principally the
temperature, aeration, and duration. The composition of
a frying fat also may be affected by the kind of food
being fried. For example, when frying high fat foods
such as chicken, some fat from the food will be rendered
and blend with the frying fat and some frying fat will be
absorbed by the food. In this manner the fatty acid
composition of the frying fat will change as frying
progresses. Since absorption of fat by the fried food may
be extensive, it is often necessary to replenish the fryer
with fresh fat. This replacement with fresh fat tends to
dilute overall compositional changes of the fat during
prolonged frying. Frying conditions do not, however,
saturate the unsaturated fatty acids, although the ratio of
saturated to unsaturated fatty acids will change due to
some polymerization of unsaturated fatty acids.
It is the usual practice to discard frying fat when
(1) prolonged frying causes excessive foaming of the hot
fat, (2) the fat tends to smoke excessively, usually from
prolonged frying with low fat turnover, or (3) an
undesirable flavor or dark color develops. Any or all of
these qualities associated with the fat can decrease the
quality of the fried food.
The “smoke,” “flash,” and “fire points” of a
fatty material are standard measures of its thermal
stability when heated in contact with air. The smoke
point is the temperature at which smoke is first detected
in a laboratory apparatus protected from drafts and
provided with special illumination. The temperature at
which the fat smokes freely is usually somewhat higher.
The flash point is the temperature at which the volatile
products are evolved at such a rate that they are capable
of being ignited but not capable of supporting
combustion. The fire point is the temperature at which
the volatile products will support continued combustion.
For typical fats with a free fatty acid content of about
0.05%, the smoke, flash, and fire points are around 420º,
620º, and 670º F, respectively. The degree of
unsaturation of an oil has little, if any, effect on its
smoke, flash, or fire points. Oils containing fatty acids of
low molecular weight such as coconut oil, however,
have lower smoke, flash, and fire points than other
animal or vegetable fats of comparable free fatty acid
content. Oils subjected to extended use will have
24
increased free fatty acid content resulting in a lowering
of the smoke, flash and fire points. Accordingly used oil
freshened with new oil will show an increased smoke,
flash and free points. For additional details see Bailey’s
Industrial Oil and Fat Products (56).
It is important to note that all oils will burn if
overheated. This is why most household fat and oil
products for cooking carry a warning statement on their
labels about potential fire hazards. Accordingly, careful
attention must be given to all frying operations. When
heating fat, do not leave the pan unattended. The
continuous generation of smoke from a frying pan or
deep fryer is a good indication that the fat is being
overheated and could ignite if high heating continues. If
smoke is observed during a frying operation, the heat
should be reduced. If, however, the contents of the
frying pan do ignite, extinguish the fire by covering the
pan immediately with a lid or by spraying it only with an
appropriate fire extinguisher. Do not attempt to remove a
burning pan of oil from the stove. Allow the covered
frying container to cool. Under no circumstances should
burning fat be dumped into a kitchen sink or sprayed
with water.
Furthermore, if a consumer wishes to save the
fat or oil after cooking, the hot fat or oil should never be
poured back into its original container. Most containers
for cooking oils are not designed to withstand the high
temperatures reached by the oil during cooking. Pouring
hot oil into such containers could result in breakage or
melting of the container and possible burns to the user.
Considerable work has been done studying the
effects of elevated temperatures on the composition and
biological qualities of edible fats and oils. Much of this
work has been done with temperatures and other
conditions which simulated those experienced in
commercial deep frying operations, such as in
restaurants or food processing establishments. Other
studies, however, have exposed the foods to exaggerated
conditions that are unrealistic and not indicative of
actual use conditions. Under these unrealistic conditions,
some substances are formed in small amounts that when
isolated and fed at concentrated levels can be shown to
be toxic to laboratory animals. The practical significance
of these observations was defined more clearly in a two-
year animal feeding study by Nolen et al (57). This work
showed that animals consuming used typical frying fats
as the sole source of fat in the diet throughout their life
span thrived equally as well as control animals
consuming the same fat that had not been subjected to
frying conditions. Clark, et al. also have reviewed the
nutritional aspects of heated fats (58).
IX. PRODUCTS PREPARED FROM FATS
AND OILS
A. General
A wide variety of products based on edible fats
and oils is available to the consuming public.
Shortenings, margarines, spreads, butter, salad and
cooking oils, mayonnaise, salad dressing, French,
Italian, and other specialty salad dressings, and
confectioners’ coatings are some of the widely available
products that are based entirely on fats and oils or
contain fat or oil as a principal ingredient. Many of these
products also are sold in commercial quantities to food
processors, snack food manufacturers, bakeries,
restaurants, and institutions.
Dietary fats have been categorized as “visible”
and “invisible” sources of fat. Visible fats are defined for
statistical reporting purposes as those that have been
isolated from animal tissues, oilseeds, or vegetable
sources, and are used in such products as shortening,
margarine, and salad oil. These fats and oils comprise
about 43% of the total fat available for consumption in
the U.S. diet. Invisible fats are those that have not been
isolated from the animal tissues, oilseeds, or vegetable
sources, and are consumed as part of the animal tissues
or the vegetables in the diet. These comprise the
remaining 57% of the fat available for consumption in
the U.S. diet.
The contribution of the major sources of visible
fat or oil consumed in this country and the amount of
each available for consumption in various food products
are provided in Table VI. The data given in Table VI
25
include both retail and commercial availability of each
fat or oil. It also should be recognized that the table does
not include invisible fats, i.e., those consumed as part of
meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, and other foods
(see Table X). Several vegetable oils of lesser
importance in the U.S. but available in some products
include rice bran, shea nut, illipe, sal, almond, and
avocado. The typical fatty acid composition of the
principal vegetable oils and animal fats used for food
purposes in the U.S. is given in Table VII.
The typical fatty acid composition of oils
derived from biotechnological means generally tend to
be higher in monounsaturates (e.g., oleic acid) to reduce
the need for hydrogenation as a stabilizing process.
Other genetically modified oils have less saturates (e.g.,
palmitic) or less polyunsaturates (e.g., linolenic)
depending on the end use of the oil. Genetically
modified oils of the future will likely have customized
fatty acid composition to meet specific applications.
The ingredient statement of a packaged food
product lists the source oils (along with all other
ingredients) which are or may be present in the product.
All ingredients are listed in descending order of
predominance. Current FDA labeling regulations state
that if a fat or oil is the predominant ingredient of a food
product (e.g., salad and cooking oil, shortening, or
margarine), the actual source oil used must be shown on
the product label. However, for foods in which a fat or
oil is not the predominant ingredient (e.g., baked
products or snack foods) and for which a manufacturer
may wish to substitute one oil for another depending on
commodity prices and availability, the manufacturer is
permitted to list the alternative oils that may be present.
 TABLE VI
FATS AND OILS USED IN FOOD
(million pounds)

Shortening
1
Source Oils: (Baking and Frying Fats) Margarine Salad and Cooking Oil Totals
Fiscal Year 70/71 80/81 90/91 95/96 70/71 80/81 90/91 95/96 70/71 80/81 90/91 95/96 70/71 80/81 90/91 95/96
Vegetable Oils
Soybean 2,077 2,675 4,090 4,702 1,381 1,666 1,811 1,699 2,288 4,226 4,693 5,317 5,780 8,610 10,722 11,877
Canola -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 211 -- -- -- 319
2
Corn D D 304 82 188 217 195 79 202 383 589 434 403 624 1,143 595
Cottonseed 194 132 272 218 64 27 D D 479 382 438 235 805 555 777 497
Palm 143 215 D D -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 160 291 98 D
3
Coconut -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 220 338 169 221
Peanut -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 156 105 129 D 181 119 129 129
3
Sunflower -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 79 166 90

Meat Fats
Edible Tallow 496 730 498 335 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 508 740 501 341
4 4 4 4
Lard 509 328 277 266 154 95 39 33 -- -- -- -- 1,612 415 314 297

Total Vegetable
5
and Meat Fats 3,599 4,224 5,793 5,603 1,792 2,022 2,168 1,811 3,402 5,280 6,222 6,197 9,669 11,908 14,491 14,366

1
May include other edible uses besides shortening, margarine, and salad and cooking oil
2
D - Withheld to avoid disclosing figures for individual companies.
3
Data on usage in specific product categories unavailable
4
Includes lard and edible tallow.
5
Components do not add to totals due to rounding, avoiding disclosures , and not including minor oils (e.g., safflower) in product categories

Source: Economic Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture

26
 Table VII
TYPICAL FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL VEGETABLE
AND ANIMAL FATS AND OILS IN THE U.S.1
(% of total fatty acids)

PALMITOLEIC
ARACHIDIC

LINOLENIC
GADOLEIC
CAPRYLIC

MYRISTIC

PALMITIC

LINOLEIC
BUTYRIC

CAPROIC

STEARIC
LAURIC
CAPRIC

OLEIC
| MONO- | POLYUN-
SATURATED | UNSATURATED | SATURATED
Oil or Fat 4:0 6:0 8:0 10:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 20:0 16:1 18:1 20:1 18:2 18:3
Soybean oil 11 4 24 54 7
Corn oil 11 2 28 58 1
Cottonseed oil 1 22 3 1 19 54 1
Palm oil 1 45 4 40 10
2
Peanut oil 11 2 1 48 2 32
Olive oil 13 3 1 1 71 10 1
Canola oil 4 2 62 22 10
Safflower oil 7 2 13 78
Sunflower oil 7 5 19 68 1
Mid oleic sunflower oil 4 5 65 26
Coconut oil 1 8 6 47 18 9 3 6 2
Palm kernel oil 3 4 48 16 8 3 15 2
Cocoa butter 26 34 1 34 3
3
Butterfat 4 2 1 3 3 11 27 12 2 29 2 1
Lard 2 26 14 3 44 1 10
Beef tallow4 3 24 19 4 43 3 1

1
Fatty acid composition data determined by gas-liquid chromatography and provided by member companies of the Institute of Shortening and Edible
Oils, Inc. Fatty acids (designated as number of carbon atoms: number of double bonds) occurring in trace amounts are excluded. Component fatty
acids may not add to 100% due to rounding.
2
Peanut oil typically contains C22:0 plus C24:0 at 4-5% of total fatty acids.
3
Butterfat typically contains C15:0 plus C17:0 at about 3% of total fatty acids.
4
Beef tallow typically contains C15:0 plus C17:0 at about 2% and C14:1 plus C17:1 at about 2% of total fatty acids.

B. Salad and Cooking Oils biotechnology applications, has resulted in a wide

variety of new oils that may be used as salad and
Salad and cooking oils are prepared from cooking oils. These newer oils include high oleic canola,
vegetable oils that are refined, bleached, deodorized, and safflower, soybean and sunflower oils, low linolenic
sometimes dewaxed or lightly hydrogenated and canola and soybean oils, mid oleic sunflower oil, and
winterized. Soybean and corn oil are the principal oils linola oil. When soybean oil is processed into salad and
sold in this form, although cottonseed, peanut, safflower, cooking oil intended for household use, a refined,
sunflower, canola and olive oil also are used. Advanced bleached, and deodorized oil often is suitable. This is
plant breeding technology, much of which includes because under the usual conditions of handling (e.g., the
27
oil is not reused for cooking) and storage, the linolenic
acid naturally present in the oil is not highly susceptible
to oxidation which might produce undesirable odors and
flavors in the oil. On the other hand, if the oil is intended
for use as a cooking oil for applications involving
prolonged and repeated heating (e.g., in restaurants),
hydrogenation or blending with other oils usually is
desirable to improve stability.
C. Shortenings (Baking and Frying Fats)
Shortenings are fats used in the preparation of
many foods. Because they impart a “short” or tender
quality to baked goods, they are called shortenings. For
many years, lard and other animal fats were the principal
edible fats used in shortenings in this country, but during
the last third of the nineteenth century they were
replaced by cottonseed oil, a by-product of the cotton
industry. Many types of vegetable oils including
soybean, cottonseed, corn, sunflower, and palm can be
used in shortening products. (See Table VI.)
Hydrogenated shortenings may be made from a
single hydrogenated fat, but are usually made from a
blend of two or more hydrogenated fats. For example,
partially hydrogenated cottonseed or palm oil may be
blended with partially hydrogenated soybean oil for
improved performance properties, such as creamy
consistency and good storage stability. The conditions
and extent of hydrogenation may be varied for each
source oil to achieve the characteristics desired. Thus, in
Table VIII
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL HOUSEHOLD AND FOOD SERVICE SHORTENINGS
Type of Shortening Monounsaturated
All vegetable fat 45-65
Animal/vegetable fat blend 45-51
D. Hard Butters
The term hard butter describes a collection of
specialty fats that are designed to either replace or
extend cocoa butter (cocoa butter alternatives) and/or
butterfat. They are used primarily in confectionery and
vegetable dairy applications and are generally
characterized by a steep melting profile.
Cocoa butter alternative fats are often placed
into one of three categories:
28
the manufacture of hydrogenated shortenings,
considerable flexibility is possible providing a wide
choice of finished product characteristics.
Research findings of the past 30 years have
suggested the advisability of increasing the level of
polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet. As a result the
manufacturers of household vegetable shortenings have
provided such products containing a polyunsaturated
fatty acid range of 3-15%.
Lard and other animal fats and mixtures of
animal and vegetable fats also are used in shortening.
Mixtures of animal and vegetable fats frequently are
hydrogenated to some extent to obtain the physical
characteristics desired. Lard is sometimes used in
commercial applications such as in the baking of pastry
and bread.
Liquid shortenings have become increasingly
popular among food service facilities over the past two
decades due to their desired pourability in replenishing
deep fat fryers. These lightly hydrogenated shortenings
usually have polyunsaturated fatty acid contents ranging
from 25-50%. These products also have been used in
some commercial baking and frying applications.
Table VIII gives the ranges in fatty acid
composition for typical household and food service
shortening products made from all vegetable fat or from
animal/vegetable fat blends. The composition ranges
given for both types of shortening are based on
information available for products in broad distribution
in the U.S.
% of Total Fatty Acids
Polyunsaturated Saturated
3-15 22-30
3-10 30-50
1. Cocoa Butter Equivalents have physicochemical
characteristics similar to cocoa butter. They are
derived from fats like illipe or kokum and fractions
of shea, palm, or sal. They are highly compatible
with cocoa butter.
2. Cocoa Butter Substitutes are predominantly lauric
based and may involve processing techniques like
hydrogenation, interesterification and fractionation.
They exhibit an extremely limited compatibility with
cocoa butter.
3. Cocoa Butter Replacers are formulated from non-
lauric fats (palm, soybean, cottonseed, etc.) that have
been subjected to partial hydrogenation or a
combination of the former and fractionation. They
can tolerate as much as 25% cocoa butter, depending
upon the product.
E. Margarine and Spreads
Margarine and spreads are prepared by blending
fats and/or oils with other ingredients such as water
and/or milk products, suitable edible proteins, salt,
flavoring and coloring materials and Vitamins A and D.
Margarine must contain at least 80% fat by federal
regulation, however, “diet” margarines and spreads may
contain 0-80% fat.
Margarine and spreads are available in stick, tub,
liquid and spray forms. They may be formulated from
vegetable oils and/or animal fats, however, the vast
preponderance of such products are made from vegetable
oils.
The fat in margarine and spreads may be
prepared from a wide variety of fat combinations and
may be the result of several processes. The more
common preparations used include blends of
hydrogenated fat(s) and unhydrogenated oils(s), blends
of two or more hydrogenated fats, a single hydrogenated
fat or a blend of liquid unhydrogenated oil interesterified
with a fully saturated fat. Table IX provides the range in
fatty acid composition for various types of margarine
and spread products currently available in the retail
market.

TABLE IX
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF FATS AND OILS
IN TYPICAL MARGARINES, SPREADS AND BUTTER FAT
% of Total Fatty Acids
Product Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Saturated
Stick margarine - all vegetable 30-55 12-35 15-21
- animal & vegetable 46-52 9-19 29-40
Tub Type spreads1 - all vegetable 30-50 25-45 10-19
Butterfat2 25-33 1-4 63-70

1
Spreads are margarine-like products containing less than 80% fat. (Currently the average fat content is 54%.)
2
Butterfat contains about 0.2-0.4% arachidonic acid. The data for saturated fatty acids include the contributions of C4, C6, C8,
and C10 saturated fatty acids, which represent about 10% of total fatty acids.

F. Butter solid fatty foods that by federal regulation must contain

Butter must contain not less than 80% by weight
of butterfat. The butterfat in the product serves as a
plastic matrix enclosing an aqueous phase consisting of
water, casein, minerals, and other soluble milk solids.
These solids usually constitute about 1% of the weight
of the butter. Frequently, salt is added at levels from 1.5-
3.0% of the weight of the product. Butter is an important
source of vitamin A, and to a lesser extent, of vitamin D.
Butterfat, like other fats and oils, is comprised of
triglycerides, but is characterized by the fact that a
substantial portion of the fatty acids are relatively short
chain saturated acids. The fatty acid composition for
typical butterfat is given in Tables VII and IX.
G. Dressings for Food
1. Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing.
Mayonnaise and salad dressing are emulsified, semi-
29
not less than 65% and 30% vegetable oil, respectively,
and dried whole eggs or egg yolks. Salt, sugar, spices,
seasoning, vinegar, lemon juice, and other ingredients
complete these products.
2. Pourable-Type Dressings. The pourable
dressings may be two phase (e.g., vinegar and oil) or the
emulsified viscous type (e.g., French). There is a great
variety of products available of varying compositions
with a wide range in their oil content. Italian, French and
Roquefort types are representative of this class. A
federal standard for French dressing requires a vegetable
oil content of not less than 35%. Some other ingredients
that may be used in the preparation of the pourable
dressings are salt, sugar, emulsifiers, spices, seasonings,
and acidifying agents, such as vinegar, citric acid, lemon
or lime juice.
3. Reduced Calorie Dressings. The current
interest to reduce caloric intake as a means of weight
control has resulted in the introduction of a wide variety
of products containing fewer or no calories. “Reduced”
calorie products contain at least 25% fewer calories than
the conventional products and are achieved primarily by
substituting carbohydrates and water for fat.
4. Reduced Fat, Low Fat, and Fat Free
Dressings. In order to satisfy consumer demand for
reduced fat foods, the food industry has developed a
wide array of dressings, which have been reduced in fat
content. In accordance with regulatory standards,
dressings containing 3 grams or less fat per serving may
be described as “low fat”, whereas a dressing containing
25% less fat than the conventional dressing may be
declared as “reduced fat.” Other dressings containing
less than 0.5 gram fat per serving may be described as
“fat free” or “containing no fat.”
H. Toppings, Coffee Whiteners, Confectioners
Coatings, and Other Formulated Foods
Vegetable fats are used in a variety of
convenience foods such as nondairy toppings, coffee
whiteners, and party dips, as well as confectioners’
coatings for soft cakes and candy. Cocoa butter, palm
kernel oil, and hydrogenated coconut oil are used
extensively because of their physical characteristics.
I. Lipids for Special Nutritional Applications
In recent years special lipids referred to as
“medium chain triglycerides” (MCT) containing C6 to
C10 saturated fatty acids have been used in particular
clinical applications. Certain modifications of MCTs are
soluble in both oil and water systems and are
metabolized more rapidly than conventional fats and
oils. Whereas conventional fats and oils are absorbed
slowly and transported via the lymphatic system, MCTs
are absorbed relatively quickly and transported via the
portal system. Because of their unique ability to pass
through the intestinal epithelium directly into the portal
system, MCTs have become the standard lipid used in
the treatment of various fat malabsorption syndromes.
Other MCT applications include their use as rapidly
available energy sources for patients with intestinal
resection or short bowel syndrome and for premature
infants. In certain liquid formula diets and intravenous
fluids, MCTs may be combined in varying proportions
with corn oil, soybean oil, or safflower oil.
X. TRENDS IN FAT CONSUMPTION
The trends of food fat consumption (availability)
in the U.S. since 1970 are summarized in Table X. Total
30
per capita fat consumption increased 5.2 pounds over the
period 1970 to 1994. During this same time period the
per capita consumption of visible fats (i.e., contained in
foods added to the diet) has increased by 16.0 pounds
while that of invisible fats (i.e., naturally occurring in
foods) decreased by 9.8 pounds. Most of the decline in
invisible fats consumption has been attributable to a
decrease in fat consumed in meat, poultry and fish from
42.8 to 31.3 pounds during the same time period. This is
thought to be the result of consumers reducing red meat
intake, selecting leaner red meat cuts, and consuming
more fish and poultry which contain relatively lower
amounts of fat. The per capita increase in visible fat
consumption has been largely the result of increased
salad and cooking oil consumption. This increase is
probably the result of greater consumption of fried foods
in food service establishments and increased use of salad
oils on salads consumed both away from and at home.
The increasing consumption of foods away from
the home is significantly affecting the intake of certain
nutrients, particularly fat. Lin et al (59), found that in
1977-78 fat from both home and away-from-home foods
provided 41% of calories consumed. By 1995 foods
eaten at home contributed only 31.5% of calories from
fat whereas foods eaten away-from-home contributed
37.6% of calories from fat. While this trend clearly
shows a significant reduction in overall dietary fat, it
indicates away-from-home foods have shown smaller
reductions in fat compared to at-home meals.
Among visible fats in the diet, vegetable fats
experienced a 44% increase in per capita consumption
from 1970 (38.5 pounds) to 1997 (55.4 pounds)
compared to a 27% decrease in animal fats consumption
(14.1 pounds in 1970 vs. 10.3 pounds in 1997) (Table
X). This dietary trend reflects the substitution of
vegetable fats for animal fats over the past three decades.
These changes are also reflected in the levels of specific
fatty acids in the diet. Polyunsaturated fatty acid intake
per capita increased 15% from 1970 to 1994 (27
g/person/day vs. 31 g/person/day), monounsaturated
fatty acid intake experienced little change, and saturated
fatty acid intake decreased by about 15% (61
g/person/day in 1970 vs. 52 g/person/day in 1994) (ERS,
USDA, 1998).
Baking and frying fats (shortening) experienced
a modest increase in per capita consumption of almost
21% between 1970 and 1997. Fats from margarines and
spreads, butter, and “other” foods such as coffee
whiteners, confections and non-dairy toppings have all
experienced respective reductions in per capita
consumption of 21%, 23% and 52% during the same
time period.
 TABLE X
CONSUMPTION (AVAILABILITY) OF VISIBLE AND INVISIBLE FATS (1970-1997)1
(pounds per person)

Sources by Food Group 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Visible Fats (added fats)
Butter2 4.3 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.3
Margarine and Spreads2,3 8.7 8.8 9.0 8.6 8.7 8.5 8.8 8.9 7.9 7.4 7.3 6.9
Lard4 4.6 3.2 2.6 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.7 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.3
Edible Tallow4,5 -- -- 1.1 1.9 0.5 1.4 2.4 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.4
Baking and Frying Fats (shortening) 17.3 17.0 18.2 22.9 22.2 22.4 22.4 25.1 24.1 22.5 22.3 20.9
Salad and Cooking Oils 15.4 17.9 21.2 23.6 24.8 26.7 27.2 26.8 26.3 26.9 26.1 28.3
Other6 2.3 2.0 1.5 1.6 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.1
(Total Fat Content)
Animal Source 14.1 10.8 12.3 13.3 9.7 9.7 10.6 10.5 11.4 11.3 11.1 10.3
Vegetable Source 38.5 41.9 44.8 50.9 53.1 55.7 56.8 59.7 57.2 55.5 54.7 55.4
Total Visible Fats 52.6 52.6 57.2 64.3 62.8 65.4 67.4 70.2 68.6 66.9 65.8 65.6

Invisible Fats (naturally occuring)7

Dairy Products (excluding butter) 15.6 14.9 14.9 15.7 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.7 -- -- --
Eggs 3.5 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 -- -- --
Meat, Poultry, Fish 42.8 37.3 39.0 37.2 33.5 30.5 31.1 30.8 31.3 -- -- --
Fruits and Vegerables 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3 -- -- --
Legumes, Nuts, Soy 4.2 4.6 3.8 5.0 4.9 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.6 -- -- --
Grains 1.9 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 -- -- --
Miscellaneous8 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.0 2.9 -- -- --
(Total Fat Content)
Animal Source 61.9 55.4 57.0 55.8 51.5 48.6 49.4 49.2 49.7 -- -- --
Vegetable Source 9.3 9.4 8.7 10.8 11.8 11.8 12.0 11.8 11.6 -- -- --
Total Invisible Fats 71.2 64.7 65.7 66.6 63.3 60.4 61.4 61.0 61.4 -- -- --

Total Visible and Invisible Fats and Oils9 123.8 117.3 122.9 130.9 126.2 125.8 128.7 131.1 129.0 -- -- --

1
Components may not add to totals due to rounding.
2
Fat Content.
3
Includes indirect use of edible tallow and lard (I.e., animal/vegetable blends).
4
Direct use.
5
Data for direct use of edible tallow not available prior to 1979.
6
Includes confections, coffee whiteners, and non-dairy toppings.
7
Data for invisible fat not available after 1994.
8
Includes chocolate, cocoa, coffee, tea and spices. Source: Economic Research Service
9
Fats deliberately discarded not accounted for in these data U.S. Department of Agriculture

31
 Data presented in Agricultural Economic Report
No. 138, “Food Consumption, Prices, Expenditures,”
July 1968, showed that on a per capita basis about two-
thirds of the visible fat available in 1940 was from
animal origin and about one-third from vegetable origin.
In contrast to this, the report shows that in 1966 only
one-third of the visible fat available was from animal
origin while two-thirds was from vegetable origin. In
1997 this trend continued further and vegetable oils now
contribute about 95% of the visible fat available for
consumption (see Table X). Since around 1940 animal
fats have gone from a very predominant to a very
subordinate position as far as their contribution to the
visible fat portion of the diet is concerned. Concurrently,
vegetable oils have advanced from a very subordinate to
a very dominant position. Here again, the data are based
upon the quantity of fats and oils available for
consumption by the civilian population. The amount of
fat actually consumed currently is about 33% of total
calories (see Table XI).

TABLE XI
NUTRIENT INTAKES: MEAN PERCENTAGES OF CALORIES FROM PROTEIN, FAT,
AND CARBOHYDRATE, BY SEX AND AGE, 1 DAY, 19961
Percentage
Sex and age of Total Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
(years) population Protein fat fatty acids fatty acids fatty acids Carbohydrate
Percent --------------------------------------- Percent of calories ------------------------------------
Males:
20 and over 33.9 15.8 33.2 11.1 12.8 6.6 49.6
Females:
20 and over 36.8 15.4 32.2 10.6 12.2 6.9 52.7
All
Individuals 100.00 15.1 32.7 11.2 12.5 6.5 52.1
1
Total population surveyed = 5,188 individuals. Source: reference (1)

XI. CONCLUSION role of dietary fat in relation to health. As a service to the

This booklet has reviewed a broad scope of
topics including the importance of dietary fat as an
essential nutrient and the usage of fats and oils in a
variety of food products. Much research continues on the
professional communities, the Institute of Shortening
and Edible Oils, Inc., intends to revise this publication as
needed to keep the information as current and useful as
possible.

32
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 Glossary

Antioxidant A substance that slows or interferes with the reaction of a fat or oil with
oxygen. The addition of antioxidants to fats or foods containing them
retards rancidity and increases stability and shelf life.

Bleaching The purification process to remove color bodies and residual impurities
from refining, generally through the use of an adsorbent clay material.

Biotechnology The use of living organisms or other biological systems to develop food,
drugs and other products.

Catalyst A material which accelerates a chemical reaction without becoming part of

the reaction products.

Cholesterol A fat-soluble sterol found primarily in animal cells important in

physiological processes.

Chlorophyll A natural, green coloring agent vital to a plant’s photosynthesis process

which is removed from vegetable oils through bleaching and refining
processes.

Cis The term applied to a geometric isomer of an unsaturated fatty acid where
the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms comprising the double
bond are on the same side of the carbon chain.

Complex triglyceride A triglyceride where one or two fatty acid structures differ from the third
fatty acid.

Confectionery fat A broad range of fats used in the formulation of sweet goods such as candy
bars, bakery product coatings, cream centers, and granola bars.

Conjugated fatty Polyunsaturated fatty acids exhibiting pairs of unsaturated carbons not
acids separated by at least one saturated carbon.

Crude oil The oil product obtained from the initial extraction, crushing or expelling
of an animal or vegetable source.

Degumming The process that removes phosphatide compounds from crude oils prior to
refining.

Deodorization The process of subjecting oil to high temperatures in the presence of a

vacuum to remove trace volatile components that may affect flavor, odor
and color. It is generally the last step in the refining process.

Diglyceride The ester resulting from the chemical combination of glycerol and two
fatty acids.

Double bond The configuration of two adjacent carbon atoms with dual linkage between
the carbons.

36
Emulsifier Compounds having the ability to alter the surface properties of the
materials they contact. Emulsifiers are often used to disperse immiscible
liquids such as water and oil or fats in products such as mayonnaise, ice
cream and salad dressings.

Ester The chemical reaction product of an alcohol and an acid.

Esterification The process of chemically combining an alcohol and an acid resulting in

the formation of an ester.

Fat Esters of fatty acids and glycerol which are normally solid at room
temperature.

Fatty Acid A chemical unit composed of a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms
ending with a reactive group consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
which is the fundamental unit within a triglyceride fat molecule.

Fully refined oil The term used to describe an oil which has been subjected to extensive
processing methods to remove: (1) free fatty acids and other gross
impurities (refine), (2) naturally occurring color bodies such as chlorophyll
(bleach), and (3) volatile trace components which may affect color, flavor
and odor (deodorize).

Fire point The temperature at which an oil sample, when heated under prescribed
conditions, will ignite for a period of at least five seconds.

Flash point The temperature at which an oil sample, when heated under prescribed
conditions, will flash when a flame is passed over the surface of the oil.

Fractionation The process of separating fats and oils by differences in melt points or
volatility.

Free fatty acids The fatty acids in a fat which are not chemically bound to glycerol
molecules.

Fully hydrogenated The term describing a fat or oil which has been hydrogenated to the extent
that the resultant product is solid at room temperature. Products containing
hydrogenated fats include “heavy duty” frying fats for restaurant use, solid
shortenings and solid margarines.

Geometric isomer An isomer differing because of the structural location of certain elements.

Hard butter A generic term used primarily in the confectionery industry to describe a
class of fats with physical characteristics similar to those of cocoa butter or
dairy butter.

Hydrogenation The process of adding hydrogen atoms to the carbon-to-carbon double

bonds in unsaturated fatty acids. This process results in higher melt points,
higher solid fat content and longer shelf life without rancidity in fat-
containing products.

37
Hydrolysis The chemical reaction of fat with water to form glycerol and free fatty
acids.

Interesterification The process of rearranging the fatty acids in triglyceride molecules. It is

used principally in confectionery fats and spreads to maintain solid fat
content at ambient temperatures while lowering the melting point.

Iodine value An expression of the degree of unsaturation of a fat. It is determined by

measuring the amount of iodine which reacts with a natural or processed
fat under prescribed conditions.

Isomer Compounds containing the same elements in the same proportions which
can exist in more than one structural form; e.g. geometric, positional or
cyclic.

Lauric oils Oils containing 40-50% lauric acids (C-12) in combination with other
relatively low molecular weight fatty acids. Coconut and palm kernel oils
are principal examples.

Lecithin A mixture of naturally occurring phosphatides which has emulsifying,

wetting and antioxidant properties, a principal source of which is crude
soybean oil.

Lipid A broad spectrum of fat and fat-like compounds including mono-, di- and
triglycerides, sterols, phosphatides and fatty acids.

Lipoprotein Any of the class of proteins that contain a lipid combined with a simple
protein.

Medium chain Triglycerides containing fatty acid chains of 6-10 carbon atoms which are
triglyceride (MCT) readily absorbed by the body.

Monoglyceride The ester resulting from the combination of glycerol and one fatty acid.

Monounsaturated A fatty acid containing only one pair of carbon – carbon double bonds.

Non-conjugated fatty Polyunsaturated fatty acids exhibiting pairs of carbons separated by at least
acids one saturated carbon atom.

Oil Esters of fatty acids and glycerol which normally are liquid at room
temperature.

Oleate An ester or salt of oleic acid. Commonly referenced as a preparation

containing oleic acid as the principal ingredient.

Olein The liquid fraction of oil remaining when an oil is cooled.

Olean (olestra) A sucrose fatty acid polyester used as a substitute for dietary fat which is
not digested or absorbed by the body.

Oxidation The reaction of oxygen with a fat or oil resulting in the development of
rancidity.
38
Partially The term used to describe an oil which has been lightly to moderately
hydrogenated hydrogenated to shift the melting point to a higher temperature range and
increase the stability of the oil. Partially hydrogenated oils remain liquid
and are used in a wide variety of food applications.

Peroxides The intermediate compounds formed during the oxidation of lipids which
may react further to form the compounds that can cause rancidity.

Phosphatide The chemical combination of an alcohol (typically glycerol) with

phosphoric acid and a nitrogen compound; synonymous with
phospholipid.

Plasticize The process of creating a solid crystal structure in a fat or oil product
resulting in a smooth appearance and firm consistency.

Polymerize The bonding of similar molecules into long chains or branched structures.

Polymorphism The property of a fat molecules to exist in multiple crystalline structures;

identified as alpha, beta and beta prime.

Polyunsaturated A fatty acid containing more than one pair of carbon-carbon double bonds.

Positional isomer An isomer differing in the location of a double bond.

Refine The process of removing impurities from crude oil by way of treatment
with alkali solution (chemical) or steam stripping (physical).

Saponification The chemical reaction between a fat or oil and an alkaline compound
creating glycerol and soap.

Saturated A fatty acid containing no carbon-carbon double bonds.

Shortening A fat product that incorporates tenderness in the food (e.g., bakery
products)in which it is used. It may carry other additives such as
flavorings, colors, emulsifiers and preservatives.

Simple triglyceride A triglyceride comprised of three identical fatty acids.

Soap The product resulting from the treatment of fat with an alkali.

Soap stock The aqueous byproduct from the chemical refining operation that is
comprised of soap, hydrated gums, water, oil and other impurities.

Stearine The solid fat product created by fractionation.

Stearic acid A saturated 18-carbon free fatty acid.

Sterol A compound made up of the sterol nucleus, an 8-10-carbon side chain and
an alcohol group.

Tocopherol A naturally occurring antioxidant found in many vegetable oils.

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Trans A geometric isomer of an unsaturated fatty acid where hydrogens attached
to the carbons comprising the double bond are on opposite sides of the
carbon chain.

Triglyceride The chemical combination product of glycerol and three fatty acids.

Unsaturated The carbon-hydrogen make-up of a fatty acid describing a shortage of

hydrogen atoms in the molecule.

Wax The chemical combination of a long chain alcohol and fatty acids.

Winterize The process of separating the solid fraction (stearine) from the liquid
fraction (olein) of an oil by cooling and filtering.

COMMON TEST METHODS AND RELATED TERMS

Cold test The determination in time that an oil remains free of visible solids when immersed in a
32ºF ice-water bath.

Color, Lovibond An analytical method used to quantify the visual color of an oil in units of red and
yellow.

Dropping point The temperature at which a solid fat softens to the point where it will flow and drop
out of a specially designed container. The dropping point is an indication of the
chemical and crystalline nature of the solid fat.

Flavor A sensory description experienced in taste testing of a fat or oil. A bland or neutral
flavor is generally desirable.

Free fatty acid (FFA) The amount of free fatty acids present in an oil as determined by simple titration.

Melting point (MP) The temperature at which a fat changes from solid to liquid within the specific
parameters of the test.

Oil stability index An accelerated rancidity test that measures the rate of oxidation of a fat or oil and is
(OSI) expressed as an index number. The higher the index number, at a given temperature,
the more stable the product is to oxidation. This method replaces the Active Oxygen
Method (AOM).

Peroxide value (PV) The determination of the extent of fat or oil oxidation by measuring the amount of
peroxides present.

Solid fat index (SFI) Provides an index or indication of the proportions of crystallized and molten fat at a
given series of temperature checkpoints. Determined by measuring the change in
volume that occurs when a solid fat partially melts to liquid at the temperature of
interest.

Solid fat content (SFC) A measure of the crystallized fat content measured by magnetic resonance (NMR) at a
series of temperature checkpoints.

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