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• IA A-excenter
• I is the incenter
• G is the centroid
• H is the circumcenter
• O is the circumcenter
• d(X, Y Z) is the distance from X to the line Y Z.
1
2 Euclidean Geometry
Lemma 2.1.
∠ABC = 2∠BCA ⇐⇒ b2 = c(c + a)
Lemma 2.2. ∠BIC = 90◦ + 21 A
Lemma 2.3. ∠BAH = ∠CAO
Lemma 2.4 (Midpoint Theorem). MB MC k BC and MB MC = a/2.
Lemma 2.5 (Converse Of Midpoint Theorem). If X ∈ AB and MB X k BC,
then X = MA .
Lemma 2.6. H is the incenter of the orthic triangle.
Lemma 2.7 (Reflecting The Orthocenter). Let X be the reflection of H over
BC and let Y be the reflection of H over MA . Then X, Y ∈ (ABC) and AY is
a diameter of (ABC).
Lemma 2.8 (The Incenter-Excenter Lemma). Ray AI meets ABC at L 6= A.
Let IA be the reflection of I over L. Then,
1. L is the center of BIC, and IA ∈ (BIC).
2. Rays BIA and CIA bisect the exterior angles of 4ABC.
Theorem 2.9 (Miquel’s Theorem). Points D, E, F lie on BC, CA, AB. Then,
M = (AEF ) ∩ (BF D) ∩ (CDE) exists and is called the Miquel point.
Lemma 2.10 (Tangency Criterion). Let P be a point in the plane. Then, the
following are equivalent:
1. P A is tangent to (ABC).
2. OA ⊥ AP .
3. ]P AB = ]ACB.
Lemma 2.11. Let X be the midpoint of the arc BC of (ABC) not containing
A, and define Y and Z similarly. Then I is the orthocenter of 4XY Z.
Lemma 2.12 (Three Tangents). MA JB , MA JC and the line through A parallel
to BC are all tangents to (AJB JC ).
Lemma 2.13 (Right Angles on Incircle Chord). 4DEF is the contact triangle
−→ ←−−−→
of 4ABC. BI ∩ EF = N . Then, BN ⊥ CN and N ∈ MA MB .
Lemma 2.14 (Simson Line). Let P ∈ (ABC) be an arbitrary point. Let 4XY Z
be the pedal triangle of P . Then, X, Y, Z are collinear.
Lemma 2.15 (Power Of A Point). Consider a circle ω and an arbitrary point
P.
2
1. The quantity Powω (P ) is positive, zero, or negatives according to whether
P is outside, on, or inside ω.
2. If l is a line through P intersecting ω at X and Y ,
P X · P Y = |Powω (P )|
P A2 = Powω (P )
3
1. AB + CD = BC + DA.
2. A circle can be inscribed inside the quadrilateral.
3. The interior angle bisectors concur.
Lemma 2.25. Let AM , BE and CF be three concurrent cevians. Then, EF k
BC if and only if M = MA .
Lemma 2.26 (Homothetic Triangles). Let 4ABC and 4XY Z be non-congruent
triangles such that AB k XY , BC k Y Z and CA k ZX. Then, lines AX, BY
and CY concur at some point O, and O is the center of a homothety mapping
4ABC to 4XY Z.
Theorem 2.27 (Nine-Point Circle). Let N9 denote the midpoint of OH. Then,
MA , MB , MC , JA , JB , JC as well as the midpoints of AH, BH and CH lie on a
circle centered at N9 with radius R/2.
Lemma 2.28 (Euler Line). G ∈ OH and G divides OH in a 2 : 1 ratio.
Lemma 2.29. In cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, points X and Y are the ortho-
centres of 4ABC and 4BCD. Then, AXY D is a parallelogram.
Lemma 2.30 (Monge’s Theorem). Consider three disjoint circles in the plane,
no two congruent. For each pair of circles, we construct the intersection of their
external common tangents. Then these intersections are collinear.
Theorem 2.31 (Cevian Nest). Let AX, BY and CZ be concurrent cevians.
Let XD, Y E and ZF be concurrent cevians in 4XY Z. Then lines AD, BE
and CF are concurrent.
Definition 2.32 (Gergonne Point). If 4DEF is the contact triangle, lines
AD, BE and CF concur at a point, known as the Gergonne Point of the triangle.
Lemma 2.33 (Nagel Point). Let X be the point where the A-excircle touches
the side BC. Define Y and Z similarly. Then, lines AX, BY and CZ concur
at the Nagel Point of the triangle.
Lemma 2.34 (Schiffler Point). The Euler Lines of triangles ABC, BIC, CIA
and AIB are concurrent at the Schiffler Point of 4ABC.
Lemma 2.35. In a parallelogram ABCD, AC 2 + BD2 = 2(AB 2 + BC 2 ).
Lemma 2.36. (AOJA ), (BOJB ) and (COJC ) intersect at a point other than
O.
Lemma 2.37 (Radical Axis of Cyclic Quadrilaterals). If two cyclic quadrilat-
erals share two points, then the radical axis of their circumcircles is the line
through those two points.
Lemma 2.38. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with perpendicular diagonals inter-
secting at a point E. Then the reflections of E in the sides of the quadrilateral
are concyclic.
4
Lemma 2.39.
1
d(MA , OH) = (d(B, OH) + d(C, OH))
2
Theorem 2.40 (Eight-Point Circle Theorem). In a quadrilateral with perpen-
dicular diagonals, the midpoints of the sides as well as the feet of the altitudes
from the midpoints to the opposite sides are concyclic.
Lemma 2.41 (AIME (ii) 2015/11). Let l be the line through O, perpendicular
to OA. l ∩ AB = P and l ∩ CA = Q. Then the points B, P, Q, C are concyclic
Lemma 2.42 (Vietnam TST 2003/2). If 4DEF is the contact triangle of
4ABC, the four lines IA D, IB E, IC F and OI concur, because there is a ho-
mothety between 4DEF and 4IA IB IC .
Lemma√ 2.43. If a cyclic quadrilateral with sides a, b, c, d is inscribable, it’s
area is abcd.
Lemma 2.44. 4IA IB IC has
• nine-point center O
• orthocenter I
• Euler line OI
Lemma 2.45 (Viviani’s Lemma). In an equilateral triangle of side length a, let
M be an arbitrary point inside the triangle and let D, E, F be the projections of
M to the corresponding sides. Then, if h denotes the length of the altitude from
A to BC,
h = MD + ME + MF
Lemma 2.46. Let AX, BY , CZ be cevians concurring at P . Then,
PX PY PZ
+ + =1
AX BY CZ
Lemma 2.47 (RMO 2012/5). Let BX be a cevian of 4ABC, and let M the
intersection of the angle bisector of ∠BAC and the perpendicular bisector of
BX. Then M ∈ (ABX) and is the midpoint of the arc BK not containing A.
Lemma 2.48. In 4ABC, let P ∈ AB and Q ∈ AC with p = AP : P B and
q = AQ : QC. Then,
[AP Q] pq
=
[ABC] (p + 1)(q + 1)
Lemma 2.49 (Pedal Circle Property). Let P be a point inside 4ABC and let
P 0 be it’s isogonal conjugate. If 4XY Z and 4X 0 Y 0 Z 0 are the pedal triangles
of P and P 0 respectively, then the six points X, Y, Z, X 0 , Y 0 , Z 0 are concyclic.
Lemma 2.50 (Moldova JTST/3). Let ABC be a triangle with a right angle at
A. Then, the C-symmedian bisects the altitude from A to BC
5
Lemma 2.51 (AMC 2018 12B/13). Let ABCD be a square with side length a,
and let P be a point inside the square. Let G1 , G2 , G3 and G4 be the centroids of
triangles ABP , BCP , CDP and DAP , respectively. Then there is a homothety
centered at P sending Gi to the midpoint of the corresponding side of the square.
The homothety is of magnitude 3/2.
Lemma 2.52 (Prasolov 2.20). Let A1 be the midpoint of minor arc BC of the
circumcircle of 4ABC, and similarly define B1 and C1 . Then, the diagonals
connecting the opposite vertices of the hexagon formed by the intersection of the
sides of 4ABC with 4A1 B1 C1 are concurrent at the incenter of 4ABC and
are parallel to the corresponding sides of 4ABC.
Lemma 2.55 (Prasolov 2.33). Triangle ABC has ∠B = π/3 and angle bisectors
ADandCE intersecting at I. Then OD = OE. (FOTP)
Lemma 2.56 (Prasolov 2.34). In isosceles triangle 4ABC, ∠B = ∠C = 40◦ .
The bisector of ∠B intersects AC at D. Then BD + DA = BC. (FOTP)
6
Lemma 2.59 (More Simson Line). Let P ∈ (ABC) be an arbitrary point, and
let X be the foot of the perpendicular from P to BC. Similarly define Y and
Z. Let line P X meet (ABC) again at a point K. Also, let the Simson Line
intersect line AH at point L. Let K 0 be the reflection of K in BC. Then,
1. LAKX is a parallelogram.
2. K 0 is the orthocenter of 4P BC.
3. AHP K 0 is a parallelogram.
4. LHXP is a parallelogram.
5. The Simson line bisects P H.
7
Lemma 2.60 (Duality Of Orthocenters and Excenters). 4ABC is the orthic
triangle of 4IA IB IC , and the orthocenter is I.
Lemma 2.61 (Diameter Of Incircle). The incircle of 4ABC is tangent to BC
at D. If DE is a diameter of the incircle and ray AE meets BC at X, then
BD = CX and X is the tangency point of the A-excircle with BC. Suppose
XY is a diameter of the A-excircle. Then, D ∈ AY . Also, IMA k AE.
8
Lemma 2.62 (Midpoint Of Altitude). Let the incircle touch BC at D and let
the A-excircle touch it at X. Then, lines DIA and XI concur at the midpoint
of the altitude from A.
9
Lemma 2.63 (An Incircle Concurrency). Let the contact triangle be 4DEF .
Then, EF , AMA and ray DI concur.
10
Lemma 2.64 (Properties Of The Symmedian). Let the tangents to (ABC) at
B and C intersect at X. Let AX meet (ABC) again at K and BC at D. Then,
AD is the A-symmedian and
11
Lemma 2.65 (Circle Inscribed in Segments). Let AB be a chord of a circle Ω.
Let ω be a circle tangent to chord AB at K and internally tangent to ω at T .
Then ray T K passes through the midpoint M of the arc AB not containing T .
Moreover, Powω (M ) = M A2 = M B 2 .
12
Lemma 2.66 (Curvilinear Incircle Chords). Let D ∈ BC. Suppose a circle
is tangent to AD at L, BC at K, and also to (ABC). Then the incenter of
4ABC lies on line LK.
13
Lemma 2.67 (Mixtillinear Incircles). Let the A-mixtillinear incircle of 4ABC
be tangent to AB, AC and (ABC) at K, L and TA respectively. Define TB
and TC similarly. Denote by D and E the contact points of the incircle and
A-excircle on BC, respectively.
14
3 Cartesian and Euclidean Bash Tricks
Lemma 3.1 (Shoelace Formula). Consider three points A = (x1 , y1 ) etc. The
signed area of the triangle is given by
x1 y1 1
[ABC] = x2 y2 1
x3 y3 1
In particular, the three points are collinear if and only if the above determinant
vanishes.
Lemma 3.2 (Point-Line Distance Formula). The distance of a point P =
(x0 , y0 ) from a line l described by Ax + By + C = 0 is
|Ax0 + By0 + C|
√
A2 + B 2
Lemma 3.3 (Area Formulae). The (unsigned) area of 4ABC is
1
[ABC] = ab sin C
2
2
a sin B sin C
=
2 sin A
= 2R2 sin A sin B sin C
abc
=
4R
= rs
p
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
= rA (s − a)
Lemma 3.4 (Tan Sum). If x, y, z ∈ (0, π2 ) and x + y + z = π, then
tan x + tan y + tan z = tan x tan y tan z
Lemma 3.5 (Modified LoC).
b2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
2bc
Theorem 3.6 (Ptolemy’s). Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. Then,
ac + bd = pq
Theorem 3.7 (Strong Ptolemy). In cyclic quadrilateral ABCD with AB = a
etc, we have
(ac + bd)(ad + bc)
AC 2 =
ab + cd
and
(ac + bd)(ab + cd)
BD2 =
ad + bc
15
Theorem 3.8 (Stewart). Let D ∈ BC and m = DB,n = DC,d = AD. Then,
a(d2 + mn) = b2 m + c2 n
b CX sin B
= =
c BX sin C
if and only if AX is an angle bisector.
Lemma 3.14 (Tangents To The Excircle). If AB1 and AC1 are tangents to the
A-excircle, then AB1 = AC1 = s.
Lemma 3.15 (Euler’s Theorem).
OI 2 = R(R − 2r)
In particular, R ≥ 2r.
Theorem 3.16 (Trig Ceva). Let X, Y, Z be points on BC, CA, AB. They con-
cur if and only if
sin ∠BAX sin ∠CBY sin ∠ACZ
=1
sin ∠XAC sin ∠Y BA sin ∠ZCB
16
Theorem 3.17 (Menelaus’). Let X, Y, Z 6= A, B, C be points on BC, CA, AB.
Then, X, Y, Z are collinear if and only if
BX CY AZ
· · = −1
XC Y A ZB
where the lengths are directed.
Lemma 3.18. Let M be the midpoint of BC of 4ABC. Then, we must have
AH = 2 · OM
.
Lemma 3.19 (Lemma of Ratio). In 4ABC, with X ∈ BC, we have
BX c sin ∠BAX
= ·
CX b sin ∠CAX
Corollary 3.20. In quadrilateral ABCD, we have:
sin ∠BAD BD sin B
= ·
sin ∠CAD CD sin C
Lemma 3.21 (Lemma of Perpendicularity). In 4ABC, X ∈ BC. For a point
P ∈ AX, we have AX ⊥ BC if and only if
c2 − b2 = P B 2 − P C 2
α + α0 ≡ β + β 0 ≡ 0 (mod π)
17
Lemma 3.26 (Isogonal Lines Lemma). In 4ABC, P ∈ BC and Q is a point
on arc BC of the circumcircle. If AP and AQ are isogonal, we will have
AP · AQ = bc
.
Corollary 3.27.
AI · AIA = bc
Lemma 3.28 (Length of Median).
1p 2
AMA = 2b + 2c2 − a2
2
Lemma 3.29 (Length of Altitude).
hA = c sin B
bc sin A
=
a
bc
=
2R
Lemma 3.30.
AH = a cot A
= 2R cos A
Lemma 3.31.
BJA = c cos B
c2 + a2 − b2
=
2a
Lemma 3.32.
HJA = b cot B cot C
HJA = 2R cos B cos C
and
JB JC = a cos A
Lemma 3.33 (Length of Interior Angle Bisector).
2 !
2 a
ALA = bc 1 −
b+c
4bc · s(s − a)
=
(b + c)2
2bc A
= · cos
c+a 2
18
Lemma 3.34 (Length of Exterior Angle Bisector).
0 2bc ˙ A
ALA = sin
|b − c| 2
Lemma 3.35.
ac ab
BLA = and CLA =
b+c b+c
Lemma 3.36. The bisector of ∠BAC intersects (ABC) at L. Then,
b+c
AL = AR ·
a
b+c A
= · sec
2 2
where the former equation is found by Ptolemy on ABLC and the latter is
found by the Law of Cosines of 4BLC. A corollary is
A
AI = (s − a) sec
2
Also,
A
AI = r csc
2
bc A
= · cos
s 2
and
a
BL = CL = IL = A
2 cos 2
Lemma 3.39. Let L, L0 be the midpoints of the arcs BC not containing A and
containing A, respectively. Let S, S 0 be the projections of L and L0 onto AC.
Then,
b+c |b − c|
AS = CS 0 = and AS 0 = CS =
2 2
19
Lemma 3.40.
bc A
AIA = · cos
s−a 2
A
= rA csc
2
A
= s sec
2
A
AIB = rB sec
2
Lemma 3.41 (Length Of Exradius). The A-exradius has length
s [ABC]
rA = r · =
s−a s−a
20
4 Complex Numbers
p
Lemma 4.1. |z| = (Re z)2 + (Im z)2 = zz
z+z z−z
Lemma 4.2. Re z = 2 and Im z = 2i
1. w + z = w + z
2. w − z = w − z
3. w · z = w · z
4. w/z = w/z
(a − b)z + ab − ab
w=
a−b
Lemma 4.12. The transformation z 7→ 1 maps every other w ∈ C to w/z.
Lemma 4.13. The foot of the altitude from Z to AB is given by
z(a − b) + z(a − b) + ab − ab
2(a − b)
21
z−a
2. Z, A, B are collinear if and only if z−b is real.
Lemma 4.16 (Complex Shoelace). If a, b, c ∈ C, then the signed area of ABC
is given by
a a 1
i
b b 1
4
c c 1
. In particular, the three points are collinear if and only if the above determinant
is 0.
Lemma 4.17. If a, b, c, x lie on the unit circle, then ax + bc = 0 if and only if
AX ⊥ BC
Lemma 4.18. If a 6= b are on the unit circle, and z is an arbitrary complex
number, then the foot of the perpendicular from Z to AB is given by
1
(a + b + z − abz)
2
.
In the limiting case a = b, we obtain the foot of the altitude from z to the
tangent at a as
1
(z + 2a − a2 z)
2
Lemma 4.19. Suppose 4ABC is a triangle with the circumcircle being the unit
circle. Then,
1. The circumcenter is o = 0.
2. The centroid is g = (a + b + c)/3.
3. The orthocenter is h = a + b + c.
4. The nine-point center is n9 = (a + b + c)/2.
Lemma 4.20. If 4ABC lies on the unit circle, then the reflection of H over
BC is x = −bc/a.
Lemma 4.21. 4ABC ∼ 4XY Z if and only if
a x 1
0 = b y 1
c z 1
22
Lemma 4.23. 4ABC is equilateral if and only if a2 + b2 + c2 = ab + bc + ca.
Lemma 4.24. A point P lies on the chord AB of the unit circle if and only if
p + abp = a + b.
Lemma 4.25. A, B, C, D are concyclic if and only if
b−a b−d
÷ ∈R
c−a c−d
Lemma 4.26. Suppose X and Y are the intersection points of two circles.
If AC and BD are chords passing through X on the first and second circles
resepectively, then
ad − bc
y=
a+d−b−c
Lemma 4.27. Let A and B be points on the unit circle. Then
2ab 2
x= =
a+b a+b
is the intersection point of the tangents at A and B.
Lemma 4.28. The circumcenter of 4XY Z is given by
x xx 1 x x 1
y yy
1 ÷ y y 1
z zz 1 z z 1
23
5 Barycentric Co-ordinates
Lemma 5.1 (Barycentric Area Formula). Let P1 , P2 , P3 be points with barycen-
tric coordinates Pi = (xi , yi , zi ) for i = 1, 2, 3. Then the signed area of 4P1 P2 P3
is given by
x1 y1 z1
[P1 P2 P3 ]
= x2 y2 z2
[ABC] x3 y3 z3
Lemma 5.2 (Equation Of A Line). The equation of a line takes the form
ux + vy + wz = 0, where u, v and w are real numbers which are unique up to
scaling.
Lemma 5.3 (Barycentric Cevian). If P is on line BC and has coordinates
(0, y1 , z1 ), then the equation of the line AP is z = yz11 y.
Lemma 5.4 (Collinearity). Consider points P1 , P2 and P3 with Pi = (xi : yi :
zi ). The three points are collinear if and only if
x1 y1 z1
0 = x2 y2 z2
x3 y3 z3
Lemma 5.6 (Point At Infinity). The point at infinity along a line is a point
(x : y : z) such that x + y + z = 0.
Lemma 5.7 (Concurrency). Consider three lines
li : ui x + vi y + wi z = 0
for i = 1, 2, 3. They are concurrent or all parallel if and only if
u1 v1 w1
0 = u2 v2 w2
u3 v3 w3
24
Lemma 5.10 (Barycentric Circle). The general equation of a circle is
Lemma 5.11 (EFFT). Let M~N = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P~Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be dis-
placement vectors. Then M N ⊥ P Q if and only if
a2 yz + b2 zx + c2 xy = 0
In particular, a2 SA + b2 SB − c2 SC = 2SAB .
Lemma 5.16 (Conway’s Formula). Let P be an arbitrary point. If β = ]P BC
and γ = ]BCP . Then,
P = (−a2 : SC + Sγ : SB + Sβ )
25
Lemma 5.18 (Barycentric Radical Axis). Suppose two non-concentric circles
are given by the equations
−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)(u1 x + v1 y + w1 z) = 0
−a2 yz − b2 zx − c2 xy + (x + y + z)(u2 x + v2 y + w2 z) = 0
Then their radical axis is given by
(u1 − u2 )x + (v1 − v2 )y + (w1 − w2 )z = 0
Lemma 5.19 (Strong EFFT). Suppose M, N, P, Q are points with
M~N = x1 AO~ + y1 BO
~ + z1 CO
~
P~Q = x2 AO
~ + y2 BO
~ + z2 CO
~
26
6 Inversion
Lemma 6.1. Let A 6= O be a point inside circle ω and let A∗ be it’s inverse.
Then the tangents from A∗ to ω are collinear with A.
Lemma 6.2 (Inversion and Angles). If A∗ and B ∗ are the inverses of A and
B under an inversion centered at O, then ]OAB = −]OB ∗ A∗ .
Lemma 6.3. The image of z ∈ C upon inversion about the unit circle is (z)−1
Moreover, two tangent clines remain tangent after inversion (in case of lines,
tangent means parallel, i.e. intersection at P∞ .)
Lemma 6.5 (Preservation of Concyclicity). W XY Z is cyclic if and only if
W ∗ X ∗ Y ∗ Z ∗ is cyclic.
Lemma 6.6 (Inverting an Orthocenter). Let ABC be a triangle with orthocen-
√ H and altitudes AD,
ter BE, CF . Perform an inversion around A with radius
AH · AD. Then, H ∗ = D, F ∗ = B and E ∗ = C.
Lemma 6.7 (Inverting a Circumcenter). Let ABC have circumcenter O. Invert
around A with radius 1. Then, the reflection of A over B ∗ C ∗ is O.
Lemma 6.8 (Inverting the Incircle). Let ABC be a triangle with circumcircle
Γ and contact triangle DEF . Consider an inversion with respect to the incircle
of triangle ABC. Then, Γ∗ is the nine-point circle of 4DEF .
27