MECHANICS Basic Concepts and Engineering ApplicationsSoil Mechanics: Basic Concepts and Engineering Applications A. AYSEN The University of Southern Queensland, Australia A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS / LISSE / ABINGDON / EXTON (PA) / TOKYO FPO G74Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for: 5 April 2002 Cover design: Studio Jan de Boer, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Printed by: Gorter, Steenwijk, The Netherlands. Copyright © 2002 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands All rights reserved, No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers. Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation or use of this ‘publication and/or the information contained herein. Published by: A.A. Balkema Publishers, a member of Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers www.balkema.nl and www.szp.swets.nl ISBN 90 $809 358 1Contents Preface ix CHAPTER1 Nature of Soils, Plasticity and Compaction 1 11 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2. NATURE AND CHEMISTRY OF SOILS 1 1.3 MASS-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS 12 14 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION 20 15 INDEX PROPERTIES AND VOLUME CHANGE IN FINE GRAINED SOILS 26 1.6 SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR GEOTECHNICAL PURPOSES 33 17 COMPACTION 4l 18 PROBLEMS st 1.9 REFERENCES 53 CHAPTER2 Effective Stress and Pore Pressure in Saturated Soils ss 2.1 INTRODUCTION 55 2.2 STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT DUE TO SELF-WEIGHT 55 2.3 STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT DUE TO EXTERNAL FORCES, 64 24 PROBLEMS 6 2.5 REFERENCES 68 CHAPTER3 The Movement of Water through Soil 69 3.1 INTRODUCTION 6 3.2. PRINCIPLES OF FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA 69 3.3 PERMEABILITY 2 3.4 FLOW NETS 85 3.5 MATHEMATICS OF THE FLOW IN SOIL 2 3.6 SEEPAGE THROUGH EARTH DAMS 100 3.7 PROBLEMS 107 3.8 REFERENCES 110vi Contents CHAPTER4 Shear Strength of Soils and Failure Criteria Mu 4.1 INTRODUCTION Wi 4.2. MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION uu 43 LABORATORY SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS 118 4.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF SANDS AND CLAYS 132 4.5 CRITICAL STATE THEORY 137 4.6 PROBLEMS 150 4.7 REFERENCES 152 CHAPTERS Stress Distribution and Settlement in Soils 153 5.1 INTRODUCTION 153 5.2. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 154 5.3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION DUE TO EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL LOADING — 157 3.4 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS 184 5.5 SOIL-FOOTING INTERACTION MODELS 199 5.6 PROBLEMS 206 5.7 REFERENCES 210 cHaPTER6 One Dimensional Consolidation 213 6.1 INTRODUCTION 243 6.2 CONSOLIDATION INDICES AND SETTLEMENT PREDICTION 23 6.3 SOLUTION OF ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 226 64 APPLICATION OF PARABOLIC ISOCHRONES 243 6.5 LIMITATIONS OF ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION THEORY 251 6.6 PROBLEMS 256 6.7 REFERENCES 258 CHAPTER7 Application of Limit Analysis to Stability Problems in Soil Mechanics 261 7.4 INTRODUCTION 261 7.2. LOWER BOUND SOLUTION 263 7.3. UPPER BOUND SOLUTION 280 7.4 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION OF THE BOUND THEOREMS 291 7.5 LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHOD AND CONCLUDING REMARKS 298 7.6 PROBLEMS 299 7.7 REFERENCES 301Contents vii cHapTeR8 Lateral Earth Pressure and Retaining Walls 303 8.1 INTRODUCTION 303 8.2 EARTH PRESSURE AT-REST 303 8.3 RANKINE’S THEORY FOR ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SOIL PRESSURES 305 8.4 COULOMB WEDGE ANALY! 314 8.5 COMMON TYPES OF RETAINING STRUCTURES AND FACTOR OF SAFETY 323 8.6 STATIC ANALYSIS OF CANTILEVER AND GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS 326 8.7. STATIC ANALYSIS OF SHEET PILE WALLS 334 8.8 INTERNALLY STABILIZED EARTH RETAINING WALL 354 8.9 THE OVERALL STABILITY OF RETAINING STRUCTURES 358 8.10 PROBLEMS 361 8.11 REFERENCES 364 CHAPTER9 — Stability of Earth Slopes 367 9.1 INTRODUCTION 367 9.2 STABILITY OF SLOPES IN cy, .= 0 SOIL - CIRCULAR FAILURE SURFACE 368 9.3. STABILITY OF SLOPE: c', o' SOIL - THE METHOD OF SLICES 372 94° STABILITY OF INFINITELY LONG EARTH SLOPES 381 9.5 STABILITY OF REINFORCED AND NAILED EARTH SLOPES 385 9.6 GENERAL SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS 393 9.7 APPLICATION OF THE WEDGE METHOD TO UNREINFORCED SLOPES 399 9.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 403 9.9 PROBLEMS 406 9.10 REFERENCES 408 CHAPTER 10 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations and Piles 411 10.1 INTRODUCTION 4ll 10.2 ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 4 40.3 FIELD TESTS 425 10.4 AXIAL ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY OF PILES 433 10.5 PILE GROUPS 446 10.6 PROBLEMS 450 10.7 REFERENCES 451 Index, 455Preface Soil Mechanics: Basic Concepts and Engineering Applications is primarily designed as a main text for university students taking first degree courses in civil engineering as well as environmental and agricultural engineering. Emphasis is placed on presenting fundamental behaviour before more advanced topics are introduced, The special structure of the book, embodied in each chapter, makes it possible to be used in two, three and four year undergraduate courses in soil mechanics. However, as new and advanced topics that extend beyond standard undergraduate courses are included, the book will also be a valuable resource far the practicing professional engineer. A problem solving approach is adopted through all chapters and 152 worked examples demonstrate the engineering applications, simulate problem solving leaming and facilitate self-teaching. There are 113 unsolved problems with answers set for solution by students. The use of S.I, units throughout, and frequent references to current international codes of practice and refereed research papers, make the contents universally applicable. The main feature of the book in comparison to a traditional soil mechanics text is the inclusion of the soil reinforcement in retaining walls and slopes and tunnel stability problems. This book is written for readers that have no prior knowledge in soil mechanics, however a reasonable background in engineering mechanics is essential 1am most grateful for publishers, individuals and engineering organizations that have permitted the use of their materials in this book. It must be noted that ail of the refereed figures are reconstructed and no copy has been carried out. The author is grateful to the colleagues in the Faculty of Engineering and Surveying in USQ for their continuous encouragements, Special thanks are due to Dr A. Kilpatrick of La Trobe University, Australia for his help and time in proofreading of the material 1 am in debt to my family and my sincere thanks go to my wife Pari for her patience during this project. A. Aysen, M.Sc., Ph.D. The University of Souther Queensland, Australia aysena@usq.edu.au February 2002CHAPTER 1 Nature of Soils, Plasticity and Compaction 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘This chapter describes the basic characteristics of soil, and physical properties that affect its engineering behaviour. For a civil engineer the geological history of a soil may not seem to be of much importance as most of the time a civil engineer is searching for a stress-strain model justified by laboratory results. However some information is necessary in order to facilitate development of the model and understand the physical and chemical behaviour of the material of interest and, consequently, a brief description of soil chemistry is included. A significant part of the chapter is devoted to the phase relationships that describe volume-mass related pa- rameters which control the engineering behaviour of the soil. Essential information about par- ticle size analysis, plasticity and soil classification is provided. More details about Jaboratory procedures and soil classification may be obtained from the standard codes of the relevant country. The final part of the chapter discusses soil compaction and its importance to the soil. 1.2 NATURE AND CHEMISTRY OF SOILS 121 Origin of soils, geological classification and primary minerals Soils are the unconsofidated layers that cover the earth's surface. For a civil engineer soil con- sists of particles of different size and shape with minor bonds between them forming a struc- ture that undergoes deformation when subjected to natural or artificial forces. For an environ- mental engineer soil is a product of the environment, and its formation is a function of climate, organisms, parent rock or material, relief and time (Jenny, 1940). Soif mechanics is the art of applying the mechanics of solids to the soil to predict its deformation behaviour and strength. This allows the design of soif structures and the investigation of its interaction with other structures built on it. Soils are derived from the weathering of parent rocks. Weathering or disintegration of rack is of two types: physical and chemical. The physical weathering is the action of the forces as- sociated with wind, water, glaciers and successive freezing and thawing. The chemical agents are water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. In the physical weathering the mineralogical composi- 1