Billions of poverty-stricken people do not have access to basic Nitrogen makes up approximately 78% of the volume of the plates
of the plates across the Earth's surface results in changing climatic
CHAPTER 1:
A fictional vision of a more environmentally healthy planet in the
future uses underground heat, algae, sun and wind and flowing
water
Biology, chemistry, geology and economics best describes the areas
of study that are important in the discipline of environmental science
Goal of environmental science: Learn how life on earth has thrived
and survived, understand how we interact with the environment,
and live more sustainably and find ways to deal with environmental
problems.
Environmentalism is a social movement dedicated to the protection
of the Earth's natural capital
Which of the following terms encompasses all of the others? natural
capital
Forests, flowing water, wind energy, coal and oil gained directly or
indirectly as a result of solar energy
You have decided to install solar collectors on the roof of your home
that will cut your use of propane gas to heat both your hot water tank
and the living spaces in your home. In doing so, you are using a
perpetual resource rather than a nonrenewable resource.
One of the reasons biodiversity is such an important aspect of
sustainability is the fact that two of these answers are correct
Water purification is best categorized as an example of a natural
service
When we speak of protecting the environment, we are referring to all
living and non-living things
A group of organisms with a unique set of characteristics that
distinguishes them from other organisms, is called a Species
Nutrient recycling is a vital natural service carried out by Topsoil
The three principles of sustainability are: solar energy, biodiversity
and chemical cycling
Solar energy would best be categorized as a perpetual resource
An essential characteristic that indicates whether a resource should
be categorized as a renewable resource: It must have the capacity to
be replenished within days to several hundred years.
Select the choice that correctly states the best priority for use of non-
renewable resources, such as metals and plastics, from the
environmentally sustainable perspective. reduce, reuse, recycle
Collecting and re-melting aluminum beer cans and making them into
new cans is an example of recycling
Developed countries are high-income and use about 88% of the
world’s resources
Developing countries: They are classified as middle-income or low-
income.
About 80% of the world's human population lives in the developing
countries.
All of the following are potentially renewable resources except Oil
You generally buy and eat microwave dinners. After dinner,
cardboard tops and plastic trays remain. The least effective way to
deal with this type of solid waste problem is to Put all of the solid
waste in the household trash to be taken to the landfill.
Nonrenewable resources include oil, minerals, salt, sand and coal
Sustainable yield is the highest rate at which we can use a(n)
renewable resource without reducing its available supply.
The tragedy of the commons refers to overuse of shared common
resources
Evidence that we are living unsustainably includes Deserts are
expanding, renewable forests are shrinking, topsoil is eroding and
the lower atmosphere is warming.
What is meant by an ecological footprint: It is the amount of
biologically-productive land and water needed to supply the people
in a particular country or area with the resources they need.
If a country’s ecological footprint is larger than its biological capacity
to replenish its renewable resources and absorb the resulting waste
and pollution: It is said to have an ecological deficit.
Which of the following best describes the concept of environmental
degradation? two of these answers
The IPAT model states that the key factor in environmental impact in
more than one of these answers
Point sources of pollution are cheaper and easier to identify than
nonpoint sources
Nonpoint sources of pollution are more difficult to control than point
sources
The total ecological footprint for humanity is expected to be twice
the planet’s ecological capacity by the year 2035
Pollution cleanup efforts can be ineffective because They often
transfer pollutants from part of the environment to another, once
they are dispersed it costs too much to reduce them to acceptable
levels, and they can be overwhelmed by growth in population and
consumption.
China currently is the second largest economy on the planet, is the
world’s largest producer of wind turbines and cars and is projected
to soon be the world’s largest producer of solar cells.
Root causes of unsustainability include all of the following except
inclusion of environmental and social costs in market prices
Environmental benefit of affluence and wealth: Increased wealth
provides resources to apply toward the creation of environmentally
beneficial technologies.
Major factor contributing to the degradation of natural capital
associated with the pricing of consumable goods: They are priced in
such a way that they do not reflect the environmental damage
caused by their production.
The resource consumption of the average person in the United States
is about 30 times that of the average citizen of India, and about 100
times that of the average person in the world’s poorest countries.
A worldview that holds that we can and should manage the Earth for
our own benefit but that we also have an ethical responsibility to be
caring stewards is called the stewardship worldview
In 2009, the world population is about 7.0 billion people
Every day, approximately 83 million new people are added to the
global population.
The actual cost of gasoline that U.S. consumers purchase for their cars
is about $14 per gallon when one considers estimated harmful
environmental and health costs.
In a certain population of rabbits one year, 25 new rabbits are born
necessities of life. The lack of adequate sanitation facilities basic
necessities affects the largest number of people?
With respect to making a shift from unsustainable lifestyles to
sustainable lifestyles, it is estimated that we have about 50 to 100
years to accomplish this, but that it takes about 5 to 10 percent of the
population to bring about such major social changes.
CHAPTER 3:
Tropical rain forests cover about 2% of the Earth’s land surface, and
contain up to one-half of the Earth’s total biodiversity
The tropical rain forests are damaged by humans cutting down trees,
growing crops and grazing cattle, by building settlements, and
degradation is increasing and they may be severely damaged or
disappear within your lifetime
Which of the following choices best describes how an ecologist would
typically study an ecosystem? The ecologist would study an animal or
plant, plus all the biotic and abiotic aspects of the ecosystem in
which it lives
The innermost layer of the atmosphere is the Troposphere
Nitrogen (N2) is not a greenhouse gas?
All physical forms of water (solid, liquid, and gas) make up the
Hydrosphere
Fossil fuels and minerals are found in the Geosphere
Submarines explore the Hydrosphere
Geologists find rock and soil samples in the Geosphere
Ozone, a gaseous O3 molecule that filters out harmful UV radiation, is
found in the Stratosphere
The crust, core, and mantle are all areas located within the
Geosphere
Which of the following statements is most accurate? Nutrients cycle,
energy flows.
As energy flows in ecosystems, it can be said to flow from high-
quality to low-quality energy in a one-way fashion
You have decided on a career as an ecologist. Your work could
possibly be studying interactions of wolves and their prey species in
Yellowstone National Park
Ecologists study interactions within and among organism, population,
community, ecosystem, and biosphere
Which one of the following contains all of the others? Community
Ecology is the study of how: Organisms interact with each other and
their nonliving environment.
A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place is
a(n) Population
A community of different species interacting with one another and
the physical and chemical factors of their nonliving environment is
called a(n) Ecosystem
Pronghorn antelope is the only North American antelope. It lives in
the high desert of the Great Basin in the western U.S. Antelope has to
content with lack of available water and extreme maximum and
minimum temperatures in the desert
Bacteria and fungi are typically categorized as Decomposers
Of the total energy that falls on their leaves, producers on average
convert to chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis at
1%
The best represents the process of photosynthesis Carbon dioxide +
Water + Solar energy => Glucose + Oxygen
A grizzly bear eating blueberries is best categorized as primary
consumer
Decomposers plays a key role in the recycling of nutrients in the
biosphere
Phytoplankton in the ocean provide much of the planet’s oxygen and
remove much of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
Giraffes and caterpillars have in common: They are both herbivores
An entomologist is a biologist that has special training in the study of
insects. Entomologist possibly study carpenter ants
Photosynthesis yields glucose and oxygen gas as products
The conversion of solar energy into chemical energy occurs in
Photosynthesis
Organisms that feed on both plants and animals are called Omnivores
Groups can be called autotrophs: daisies, roses and grass
The organisms that are classified as primary consumers are the
Herbivores
Organisms that break down bodies of dead plants and animals into
nutrients that are released into the soil or water are called
Decomposers
Earthworms, some insects, and vultures are all examples of detritus
feeders
Aerobic respiration requires glucose and oxygen
The coyotes would be classified as secondary consumers
The coyotes typically forage on mice and squirrels. However, as
members of the canine family, Canidae, they are known to be able to
eat berries and parts of plants as well as small animals. Thus, they
would be classified as Omnivores
If the biomass of flowers that support the butterflies was known to
contain 100,000 units of energy, and certain bird species were eating
the butterflies that foraged on the flowers, what amount of energy,
on average, could be expected to be transferred to the birds? 1,000
A sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of
nutrients or energy for the next, is called a(n) food chain
Hawk would be considered a tertiary consumer
Complex arrangements of feeding patterns in ecosystems are best
described as food webs
If the producers in an ecosystem capture 40,000 units of energy,
assuming average efficiency of energy transfer, how many units of
this energy can likely be successfully converted into secondary
consumer biomass? 400
With regards to productivity of an ecosystem, GPP is greater than
NPP because of the metabolic process of respiration.
The aquatic ecosystems with the highest average net primary
productivity are Estuaries
Net primary productivity is the rate at which producers use
photosynthesis to produce and store chemical energy minus the
rate at which they use this energy through aerobic respiration
Swamps and marshes has the highest net primary productivity
The portion of the planet that is responsible for the vast majority of
the Earth's annual biomass production is/are open oceans
Over land, about 90% of the water vapor in the atmosphere comes
from water that has transpired from the surface of plants
family planning and reproductive health care, and elevating the
atmosphere.
Phosphorus (biogeochemical cycles) does not include the atmosphere
as a temporary reservoir
Mammal would have the highest concentrations of phosphorous at
bones and teeth
The hydrologic cycle refers to the movement of Water
Of the following water-cycle processes, the one working against
gravity is Transpiration
The hydrologic cycle is driven primarily by solar energy and gravity
All of the following increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere except Photosynthesis
Transfer of carbon among organisms depends primarily on
photosynthesis and cellular respiration
The most common gas in the atmosphere is Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a major component of all of the following except
Groundwater
Nitrogen fixation is accomplished by Bacteria
The form of nitrogen most usable to plants is Nitrates
Ammonium ions are converted to nitrite ions and nitrate ions through
the process of Nitrification
When organisms die, their nitrogenous organic compounds are
converted to simpler inorganic compounds such as ammonia through
the process of Ammonification
Electrical storms and lightning fix Nitrogen into a form that plants and
animals can use.
Water, organisms, rocks and marine sediment best describes the
common phosphorus reservoirs in the ecosystem.
All of the following are sources of phosphorus except acid rain
The major plant nutrient most likely to be a limiting factor is
Phosphorous
You have decided to change your diet to a more sustainable way of
eating. One of your choices is to eat only grass-fed beef. In addition
to having healthier meals that benefit you directly, this choice also
benefits the planet because it will help to decrease addition of animal
wastes from livestock feedlots that interferes with the phosphate
cycle in aquatic ecosystems
Which of the following is NOT a property of water It contracts when it
freezes
Ocean sediments and volcanoes are sources of both sulfur and
nitrogen
Sulfuric acid and sulfates in the atmosphere are a problem when they
are deposited as acid rain
All of the following statements describe field research except It has
provided very little in the way of knowledge about ecosystems.
Which statement least characterizes laboratory research It has been
used to develop most of our knowledge about ecosystems.
Which statement least describes ecosystem modeling: It is typically
applied only to very small natural systems, such as a single pond or
stream.
GIS (geographic information systems) software is a new, powerful
tool for research on ecosystems. Sulfur content of deep ocean
sediments is NOT something that we can rely on GIS data to reveal.
Which phase of the above-described situation could be called
computer simulation? when the scientists learned from the
computer that woodrat nest numbers would impact cactus
populations
The study described above is best categorized as a combination of all
three types of research
Cactus plants and woodrat nests were mutually exclusive best
describes the scientists’ initial observations
CHAPTER 4:
For every shark that injures or kills a person every year people kill at
least 1 million sharks
Reasons why sharks should be considered important to humans: They
never get cancer and are a keystone species
Biomes are large terrestrial regions of the earth with distinct climate
and certain species adapted to them
The variety of genes within a species or population is called the
genetic diversity
Statements best describes insect species as a group: They have skin
or integument similar to mammals.
Deserts, tropical forests, prairie grasslands, and coniferous forests are
all examples of Biomes
Chaparral, coniferous forest, desert, prairie grassland and deciduous
forest are found along the 39th parallel in the United States?
Evidence for the history of life comes from fossils and analysis of
glacial ice core and rock samples
The fossil record is incomplete because Not all fossils have been
found, some have decomposted and some life forms have left no
fossils.
Natural selection determines the types of mutations that survive in
a population is true with regard to mutations.
A change in the genetic composition of a population is called
Evolution
An adaptive trait is any heritable trait that improves organisms’
chances for survival and reproduction at higher rates than other
individuals in a population
Since the mutation produced a specific wing trait that was passed on,
the mutation must have occurred in reproductive cells
The larger wingspan could be called a heritable trait, an adaptive
trait and a genetic variability
It could be said that natural selection favored the bee with the larger
wingspan, and so the population evolved.
The trait must be genetically based must be true in order for a trait
to be impacted by the forces of natural selection and then play a role
in the process of biological evolution.
Which of the following is true of a trait that creates a specific
advantage for some organisms in the struggle to survive: It enables
individuals with the trait to leave more offspring than other
members of the population leave.
Humans walk upright, have opposable thumbs, complex brains and
can use tools is/are thought to be in part responsible for the
evolutionary success of humans
Genetic resistance to antibiotic drugs is an important example of
natural selection
How has the geological process of plate tectonics influenced the
process of evolution over geologic time? The changing location of the
If a species of frogs becomes threatened because they can only live in
environmental conditions for various communities and populations
of organisms. This has driven evolutionary change.
A major factor that allowed species to adapt to new environments
and form new species through natural selection happened because
Pangaea began splitting apart about 135 million years ago
The advance and retreat of ice sheets happened most recently about
18,000 years ago over much of the northern hemispheres and
caused alternating periods of heating and cooling
Approximately 3.5 billion years has there been life on planet Earth
We can say that on a long-term basis, that the Biodiversity principle
of sustainability has especially helped life on earth to adapt to drastic
environmental conditions.
Which of the following statements is false?
By definition, the fittest animals are the largest and strongest
animals.
The process by which members of isolated populations become so
different in genetic makeup that they cannot produce live, fertile
offspring if they are rejoined is best described as reproductive
isolation
Which of the following is not true of the process of biological
extinction? The extinction of an organism can be reversed if enough
government funding is provided.
Geographic isolation may result from a volcanic eruption; an
earthquake; a mountain range
Not true with regards to the concept of niches: A niche is the place
where an organism lives.
Panda bears would best be described as a specialist species
An organism's niche is analogous to its way of life
Best describes an organism's habitat: the location where a species
lives
The bird species known to forage in shrublands after they have
experienced a wildfire are very different from the bird species that
forage in shrublands that have not burned. In fact, the bird species
foraging in burned shrublands are closely correlated with the age of
the burn, or the number of years that have passed since the fire.
Certain birds forage at one-year post fire, different birds forage at
three-years post fire, and so on. These birds could be called indicator
species
An intertidal species of seastar helps to maintain the diversity of the
intertidal region by controlling the mussel population. Without the
seastar, the mussel population would crowd out other species and
take over their territory. The seastar could be called a(n) keystone
species
Specialist species are more likely to become extinct
Amphibians are frogs, toads, and salamanders.
Approximately 33%, 43% of amphibian species is threatened with
extinction and declining worldwide?
Not a factor that is contributing to the decline in amphibian
populations: hunting of frogs for froglegs, a delicacy that is served in
restaurants
It can be said that amphibian populations are declining worldwide, in
all areas, even in protected wildlife preserves and parks
True regarding keystone species: Some keystone species are more
vulnerable to extinction than other species.
CHAPTER 5:
The southern sea otter population, although hunted to near
extinction, recovered during the years 1938 to 2010
The key reason we should care about recovery of the southern sea
otter population is the fact that they are a keystone species
Sea otters play a role in maintaining the biodiversity of coastal kelp
forests
The best categorizes the most common form of interspecific species
interactions: Competition
Hawks typically forage for their rodent prey species during the
daytime. While owls may eat similar prey species, and live in the same
area, they forage during the night. This is best described as an
example of resource partitioning
Insect-eating warblers reduce interspecific competition by They
spend a significant portion of their time foraging for insects in
different parts of the same trees.
The obvious relationship demonstrated by a food chain is Predation
Prey are least likely to defend themselves against predators by
pursuit and ambush
You are an evolutionary entomologist. You have observed beetles
that can raise their abdomens and give off a defensive chemical that
generally repels predators. You discover a new species of beetle that
raises its abdomen in a threatening way similar to the first species,
but no defensive chemical is given off. You are most likely to
characterize this defensive strategy as a form of Mimicry
Kelp forests are a source of algin, a product that humans use in
cosmetics and ice cream.
A relationship in which a member of one species obtains its
nourishment by living on, in, or near a member of another species
over an extended time is best labeled Parasitism
A relationship in which one species benefits while the other is neither
helped nor harmed to any significant degree is best labeled
Commensalism
A relationship in which both species benefit is best labeled Mutualism
All of the following are external parasites except Tapeworms
All of the following illustrate the relationship of mutualism except
Epiphytes
The relationship between clownfish and sea anemones is Mutualism
An old elk dies during a snowstorm in Yellowstone National Park.
When the storm clears, coyotes forage on the fresh flesh of the elk.
Following this, birds such as vultures forage on the rotting meat.
Lastly, insects and worms consume the last of the fragments of tissue
of this once large and magnificent animal. This is an example of
resource partitioning
Carrying capacity refers to the maximum size of population the
environment will support
A logistic growth curve depicting a population that is limited by a
definite carrying capacity is shaped like the letter S
A human population crash occurred in Ireland in the 1800’s following
the destruction of the potato crop
Factors that act to limit the growth of populations are collectively
called environmental resistance
and 5 move into the population from surrounding areas. However, 10
rabbits die, and 5 leave the population. What is the population
change? 15
Which reproductive pattern is most common, if one considers
patterns seen in all animals? A reproductive pattern that is
somewhere between the two extremes described in a and b.
An exponential growth curve depicting an ever-growing population is
shaped like the letter J
A population crash occurs when A population greatly overshoots
carrying capacity, and resulting environmental pressures cause
effects.
Which of the following is characteristic of the reproductive pattern of
most animals such as whales and elephants? long gestation periods
Which of the following terms best describe the ability of a living
system to repair damage after an external disturbance? Resilience
Which of the following would exhibit primary succession? rock
exposed by a retreating glacier
Which of the following would undergo secondary succession? a
heavily polluted stream that has been cleaned up
A climax community is a(n) balanced community
Which of the following is accurate with regards to the balance of
nature hypothesis? It is the historically held equilibrium model of
succession in which, once achieved, a climax community will be
dominated by a few long-lived plant species.
Which of the following best describes the two important aspects
needed to stabilize living systems? inertia and resilience
A large mountain just south of Reno, Nevada, is called Slide
Mountain. This name refers to the fact that in the early 1980s, after
weeks of heavy precipitation, a large section of this mountain became
a destructive mudslide that slid down the east slopes and destroyed
the vegetation and homes in its path. In the decades since the
mudslide, the vegetation has completely regrown, and the slide area
is no longer visible. This is an example of Secondary succession.
Inertia could also be called Persistence
Which of the following is NOT one of the chapter’s three big ideas?
The balance of nature theory and the concept of restoration of
ecosystems by humans.
CHAPTER 6:
Which of the following statements about China is not accurate? The
average number of children born per woman is currently 2.1.
China has the world’s most extensive and intrusive family planning
and birth control program.
How many people are estimated to live in acute poverty today in
developing countries? 1.4 billion
Which of the following is a major factor in human population increase
in the last 200 years? All of these are correct answers
The cultural carrying capacity is the number of people the Earth can
support at a reasonable level of comfort and freedom without
impairing the planet’s ability to sustain future generations in the
same way
How extensive are the effects of human activities on the planet?
Humans have directly affected about 83% of the earth’s land
surface, excluding Greenland and Antarctica
Which of the following statements are true about China’s one-child
population policy? Government officials say the alternative was
mass starvation, the fertility rate dropped from 5.7 to 1.5, and the
population was reduced by as much as 400 million people.
The crude birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 persons in a
given year.
Over a period of 100 years, life expectancy in the United States
change in which of the following ways? It increased from 47 years to
77 years.
The average number of children born to women in a population
during their reproductive years is the total fertility rate
Between the years 1955 and 2011, the total fertility rate in the world
decreased from 5.0 to 2.5
The actual average replacement-level fertility for the whole world is
slightly higher than two children per couple
Which of the following would decrease the likelihood of a couple
having a child? Women have many opportunities to participate in
the work force.
Two useful indicators of overall health in a country or region are life
expectancy and infant mortality rate
A high infant mortality rate is usually associated with Undernutrition
Infant mortality rate refers to the number of children out of 1,000
that die by their first birthday
All of the following reasons help explain why the United States has
one of the highest infant mortality rates of developed countries
except the older age of pregnant women as a result of many women
delaying having children
Currently, legal and illegal immigration account for 36% of U.S.
population growth.
Countries has the fastest growing population: United States
The age structure of a population is the number or percentage of
persons of each sex in young, middle, and older age groups
Population age structure diagrams can be divided into all of the
following categories except Infant
Age structure diagrams are useful for predicting population
momentum
Rapidly growing countries have an age structure that has a broad-
based pyramid
Which of the following implies the greatest built-in momentum for
population growth? a large number of people under age 15
As the number of working adults in the United States declines in
proportion to the number of senior citizens so will the tax revenues
necessary for supporting the growing senior population
The term demographic transition refers to the decline in death rates
followed by decline in birth rates when a country becomes
industrialized
The demographic transition model helps to explain why Death rates
fall before birth rates.
In the demographic transition model, death rates fall while birth rates
remain high during the transitional stage
In the demographic transition model, birth and death rates are high
during the preindustrial stage
Scientific studies and experience have shown that the most effective
ways to slow or stop population growth are reduction of poverty,
status of women
Statements about women's employment/economic status is false:
Women have more than half of the world's assets.
Women possess less than 2% of the world's land.
Women receive about 10% of the world's income.
One of the cultural preferences driving couples to continue having
children in India is more than one of these answers
India had the world's first national family-planning program.
China's population policy has included all of the following except
banning abortion
Between 1850 and the present time, the global urban revolution
resulted in urban population increasing from 2% to 50%
There are currently a number of megacities on the planet, with
populations greater than 10 million. The most populous hypercity on
the planet, with a population of 35 million people, is Tokyo in Japan
The urban growth occurring in the developing countries is caused by
both immigration and natural increase
It can be said that poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized, mostly
in developing countries.
Since 1980, the U.S. population has shifted to the south and west
Factors can be said to favor urban sprawl: cheap gasoline, affordable
land, increased prosperity and poor urban planning
Urban populations occupy only about 2% of Earth's land area, but
they consume 75% of its resources.
The world’s most populous cities, in order, from largest to smallest
are: Tokyo, Beijing, Seoul, Mexico City, New York City
Which of the following climate conditions are generally higher in
urban areas than in suburbs and rural areas? temperature, fog, cloud
cover and precipitation
A city can be described as a heat island
"Fecal snow" is characteristic of Mexico City
Breathing the air of Mexico City is like smoking Three pack(s) of
cigarettes each day.
In the future, coastal cities will likely be faced with flooding as sea
levels rise secondary to global warming
In the United States, 98% of all urban transportation is by car.
Which of the following statements are false? About 10% of United
States residents drive to work alone every day.
Which of the following statements is false? Motor vehicles are
second only to industry as a source of air pollution in the U.S.
Full-cost pricing of gasoline refers to taxing gasoline by the gallon, as
it is purchased, to cover the estimated harmful costs of driving. This
tax has been estimated to be: $12.00 per gallon just for the tax
Advantages of Mass Transit Rail systems include Two of these
answers choices are correct
Smart growth or new urbanism tools include greenbelts around cities,
high density cluster housing, and taxing land instead of buildings
Which of the following statements about Vauban, a suburb of
Freiberg, Germany,is false? Most homes are single family homes.
An ecocity is people oriented
In an ecocity, plants are utilized to provide shade and beauty.
Typically, the plants are to local climate and soils
If you visited Curitiba, Brazil, you would expect to find a sophisticated
bus system
Which of the following statements about Curitiba, Brazil, is false?
Each household owns one very fuel-efficient car.
COMPLETION
A resource such as solar energy that is renewed continuously is a
called a(n) PERPETUAL RESOURCE
The three principles of sustainability are chemical cycling, reliance on
solar energy, and BIODIVERSITY
A(n) ECOSYSTEM is a set of organisms within a defined area or
volume that interact with one another and with their environment of
nonliving matter and energy.
SUSTAINABILITY is the ability of the Earth's various natural systems
and human cultural systems and economies to survive and adapt to
changing environmental conditions indefinitely.
NATURAL RESOURCES are materials and energy in nature that are
essential or useful to humans.
A(n) RESOURCE is anything obtained from the environment to meet
our needs and wants.
The action of processing plastic or aluminum cans into another usable
product is called RECYCLING
NATURAL SERVICES are functions of nature, such as purification of air
and water, that support life and human economies.
The IPAT model of environmental impact takes into consideration
population size, technology, and AFFLUENCE
POLLUTION is the contamination of the environment by a chemical or
other agent such as noise or heat to a level that is harmful to the
health, survival or activities of humans of other organisms.
The highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used
indefinitely without reducing its available supply is called its
SUSTAINABLE YIELD
A single, identifiable source of pollution is called a(n) POINT SOURCE
Pollution PREVENTION is cheaper and more effective than pollution
CLEANUP
Developing countries can be classified as moderately developed,
middle-income, or as LOW-INCOME least developed.
Old drink bottles that are collected, washed, and refilled are an
example of REUSE
Natural capital is comprised of natural resources and natural
SERVICES
When we exceed a renewable resource's natural replacement rate,
the available supply begins to shrink through a process known as
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Pesticides blown from agricultural lands into the air is an example of
NON-POINT SOURCE pollution.
It has been estimated that humanity's global ecological footprint
exceeds the Earth's biological capacity by about 30%
A(n) NICHE includes an organism's range of tolerance for physical and
chemical conditions.
Biological evolution is the process by which the genetic composition
of a(n) POPULATION changes over time.
Most of the historic evidence that supports the scientific theory of
evolution comes from FOSSILS
MUTATIONS are random changes in the structure or number of DNA
molecules in a cell.
a narrow range of temperatures, they would be classified as a(n)
SPECIALIST SPECIES
Mutations can occur in any cell type, however only those that occur in
REPRODUCTIVE CELLS are passed on to offspring, thus allowing for
evolution.
Current environmental conditions will dictate which traits are
beneficial, and will ultimately drive evolution through the process of
NATURAL SELECTION
The shifting of tectonic plates can cause EARTHQUAKES
Typically speaking, organisms that are described as GENERALIST
SPECIES tend to have broad niches.
Species that are found in only one area are called ENDEMIC SPECIES
and are especially vulnerable to extinction.
Genes mutate, INDIVIDUALS are selected, and populations EVOLVE
A practice that involves cutting off fins of a shark and then returning
the shark to the ocean without the fins they need to survive is called
FINNING
Species whose roles have a large effect on the types and abundance
of other species in an ecosystem are called KEYSTONE SPECIES
MASS EXTINCTION is a significant rise in extinction rates above the
background level.
The scientific theory of evolution explains how life on earth changes
over time due to changes in the genes of POPULATIONS
In the 1960’s, E.O. Wilson and other scientists developed the theory
of ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY
SPECIALIST SPECIES occupy narrow niches.
Holding the pen or pencil for taking this exam is one of the things you
can do as a human because you have OPPOSABLE THUMBS
Deserts, forests, and grasslands are all examples of BIOMES
A common tick is an example of a(n) PARASITE
Many large mammal species that have long generation times and low
reproductive rates are prone to EXTINCTION
The relationship between a lion and a zebra is said to be that of a(n)
PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIP
The interaction between a lion and a hyena fighting over a dead zebra
on the African Savannah is best described as INTERSPECIFIC
COMPETITION
Specialized traits or behaviors that allow a reduction of interspecific
competition through species specialization in resource use, allow for
RESOURCE PARTITIONING
The ecological process that would result in a localized change in
species composition following a severe volcanic eruption would best
be described as PRIMARY SUCCESSION
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE is the combination of all factors that
act to limit the growth of a population.
The cattle egret is a large North American bird that commonly sits on
the backs of grazing cattle and eats insects that pester the cattle. This
is an example of MUTUALISM
Cowbirds are so named because they followed the large herds of
cows that were driven throughout the American west before large
tracts of land were fenced. Cowbirds consumed the insects that
invariably followed the herds. There was no obvious benefit or other
effect on the herds. This is an example of COMMENSALISM
Some predators hide in plain sight before ambushing their prey by
virtue of their CAMOUFLAGE
When populations of two different species interact over time in a way
that drives changes in their gene pools, it can be said that CO-
EVOLUTION occurs.
Mistletoe is an example of a(n) PARASITE
There are ALWAYS limits to population growth in nature.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH starts slowly but then accelerates as the
population increases.
Sea otters are considered a KEYSTONE species.
The non-poisonous viceroy butterfly gains protection by looking and
acting like the poisonous monarch. This adaptation is called MIMICRY
You live in an ecocity where the world’s best bus system transports
about 72% of all commuters each day. You may be living in CURITIBA
(BRAZIL)
URBANIZATION refers to a process in which an increasing proportion
of an entire population lives in cities and the suburbs of cities.
An advantage of FAMILY PLANNING is the decrease in birth rates and
decrease in abortions.
Technological advances have allowed humans to avoid the pressure
of ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
In areas with a low INFANT MORTALITY RATE, people usually have
fewer children because of the increased life expectancy.
You live in a country where married couples pledging to have no more
than one child receive financial incentives and benefits. You live in
CHINA
Urban areas with poor sanitation and numerous health risks will
generally have a low LIFE EXPECTANCY
You live in a village where street parking and driveways are forbidden
and the community has no single-family homes. You may be living in
VAUBAN (GERMANY)
A city that emphasizes prevention of pollution, reduction of waste,
and effective use of resources is called a(n) ECOCITY/ GREEN CITY
China’s family planning and birth control program was instituted
because of a serious threat of MASS STARVATION
Analysts vary as to their opinion of which factor is the more serious
threat to the Earth’s life support systems: OVERCONSUMPTION or
OVERPOPULATION
If everyone on the planet reached the U.S. level of consumption of
renewable resources by the year 2050, we would need FIVE/5 Earths
to meet the demand.
As countries become more INDUSTRIALIZED their populations tend to
grow more slowly.
In the United States, the percentage of married women working
outside the home increased from 8 to 81 between the years 1900 and
2000.
Most urban areas are UNSUSTAINABLE systems.
Inadequate health care for poor women during pregnancy is one of
the reasons the United States has such a high INFANT MORTALITY
RATE
A(n) COMMUNITY consists of populations of different species living in
a particular place and potentially interacting with each other.
DETRITUS FEEDERS feed on the wastes or dead bodies of other
organisms.
The HYDROLOGIC CYCLE involves precipitation, transpiration,
evaporation, and condensation.
Photosynthesis requires both carbon dioxide and water, but could not
occur without the input of SOLAR ENERGY
Another word for consumer is HETEROTROPH
Bacteria, deer, humans, and spiders are all examples of ORGANISMS
The water cycle, hydrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle, and sulfur cycle
are all NUTRIENT CYCLES
CO2 promotes the GREENHOUSE EFFECT that warms the
troposphere.
Bacteria are more important in the NITROGEN CYCLE than in the
carbon or phosphorous cycle.
Chemical combinations of two or more atoms of the same or different
elements make up MOLECULES
The BIOSPHERE occupies those parts of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and geosphere where life is found.
The process by which AUTOTROPHS/ PRODUCERS obtain their energy
is photosynthesis.
Carnivores such as tigers, hawks and killer whales that feed on the
flesh of other carnivores are known as TERTIARY consumers.
The process by which water is evaporated from the surface of plants
is called TRANSPIRATION
The metabolic process by which plants are able to draw CARBON
DIOXIDE out of the atmosphere is known as photosynthesis.
NITROGEN is the most abundant element in the Earth's atmosphere.
Phytoplankton in the ocean help to regulate the earth’s temperature
by removing some of the CARBON DIOXIDE produced when we burn
fossil fuels,…
Tropical rainforests typically are found near the Equator, and are
considered centers of BIODIVERSITY
Ecologists study CONNECTIONS in nature.
The planet’s NPP ultimately limits the number of CONSUMERS that
can live on the earth,…
A FOOD WEB is similar to a food chain, but is much more complex
and shows many interconnected feeding relationships.
The planet’s NPP/NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY ultimately limits the
number of consumers that can live on the planet.
The aquatic ecosystems that show the highest net primary
productivity are ESTUARIES
Tropical rainforests cover about 2% of the earth’s surface but contain
about 50% of the earth’s known terrestrial plant and animal species.
The majority of the Earth’s carbon is stored in MARINE SEDIMENTS
Ammonia that is not taken up by plants may undergo NITRIFICATION
ESSAY
Clearly describe how wealth and affluence can have both harmful and
beneficial environmental effects.
The typical lifestyles of the citizens of developed nations are built on
high levels of consumption and unsustainable use of natural
resources. This type of affluence has an enormously harmful
environmental impact.
On the other hand, affluence can lead people to become more
educated, environmentally aware, and concerned. It also provides
money for the development of improved technologies that can help
to reduce pollution, resource waste, and environmental degradation.
Explain how poverty drives population growth.
To many poor people, having more children is a matter of survival.
Children are effectively the labor force for a poor family, helping with
crop tending, gathering wood or fuel, hauling water and livestock
tending. Additionally, the children become caretakers of their
parents when the parents age. This is very important in poor
countries that do not have social security, health care or retirement
funds.
Explain how the IPAT model and the ecological footprint model
emphasize different aspects of how natural resources are affected by
unsustainable use.
The IPAT model includes the per capita use of both renewable and
nonrenewable resources, while the ecological footprint model
emphasizes the use of renewable resources.
Clearly explain the significant differences between UV and infrared
radiation and how this relates to the greenhouse effect.
The wavelengths of UV and infrared radiation are very different, the
wavelengths of UV being relatively small, while the wavelengths of
infrared radiation being relatively large. The larger wavelength
radiation of infrared has an increasingly difficult time passing back out
through the Earth's atmosphere as the concentrations of greenhouse
gases increase.
Clearly explain the relationship between the Second Law of
Thermodynamics and the typical pyramid of biomass.
The second law of thermodynamics indicates that no energy
transformation is 100% efficient, and in transformations there is
always a net loss of energy. This idea is appropriately applied to
energy transformations as energy is passed through the food chains
of an ecosystem. As a result of the second law of thermodynamics,
the amount of energy that is stored in lower trophic levels is higher
than that which can possibly be transferred to higher trophic levels.
This results in an ever-decreasing amount of energy contained with
increasing trophic levels in an ecosystem.
Why is it that most top predators (e.g., lions, tigers, bears, and
wolves) have extremely large territories and are relatively rare?
The second law of thermodynamics, as it applies to ecological
pyramids of biomass, means that a substantially higher amount of
ecosystem productivity is required to provide sufficient energy for
organisms that feed on a third or fourth trophic level. This results in a
need for a large ecological territory to provide sufficient autotrophic
surface area to convert enough solar energy to provide for the energy
required to be passed through three trophic levels. As a result, an
ecosystem can only support a very few of these top predators.
Clearly explain the distinction between Gross Primary Productivity
(GPP) and Net Primary Productivity (NPP).
GPP is the rate at which an ecosystem's producers convert solar
energy into chemical energy as biomass. However, producers must
use some of the chemical energy stored in the biomass they make for
their own respiration. NPP is the rate at which producers use
photosynthesis to produce and store chemical energy minus the rate
at which they use some of this stored chemical energy through
aerobic respiration.
Given the nature of the phosphorous cycle, what are the long-term
impacts on South American soil quality through the exportation of
beef cattle?
Beef cattle raised in South America are feeding on grasses grown on
South American soils. These plants require phosphorous resources
from the soils in which they grow. As a result, the South American soil
phosphorous is transferred to the beef cattle. If the cattle are then
exported to North American consumers, the phosphorous is also
exported. This prevents the phosphorous from being recycled back
into the South American soils, as is typical in a naturally functioning
ecosystem. Over long periods, this results in a depletion of South
American soil nutrients (phosphorous).
When sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere combines with water in
precipitation, sulfuric acid rain is deposited on the Earth. What human
activities contribute to this process?
Human activities that release large amounts of sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere are burning coal to produce electricity, refining sulfur-
containing petroleum to make gasoline, and converting (smelting)
mineral ores into free metals.
A critically important part of the hydrologic cycle is the transpiration
of water through plants into the atmosphere. This water has traveled
from the roots up to the top leaves and then moves out as water
vapor. In the case of some plants, such as redwood trees, this can be
a distance of hundreds of feet. Explain how it is that water can move
up naturally, when forces of gravity might make one think that this is
impossible.
The forces of attraction between water molecules allow liquid water
to adhere to a solid surface. This enables narrow columns of liquid
water to move up through small vessels inside of plants to the top of
the plant, in a process called capillary action.
Clearly explain the relationship between the geologic process of plate
tectonics and the biological process of evolution over geologic time.
As the plates that cover the planet have gradually drifted and
changed location across the surface of the planet, they have drifted
into locations with significantly different climatic conditions. In order
to cope with changing environmental conditions, organisms that
inhabit these locations would have been forced to relocate or to
gradually evolve, developing adaptations more appropriate to the
new climatic conditions.
Clearly explain how large-scale mass extinctions can actually lead to
evolutionary opportunities.
In the event of large-scale mass extinctions, an enormous diversity of
ecological niches become vacant. These open niches provide
ecological, and therefore evolutionary, opportunities for which
organisms can evolve adaptations.
Using specific examples, explain why sharks can actually be beneficial
to the human population if we change our view of their role.
Most individuals view sharks as predators, and dangerous animals to
be avoided. This viewpoint is encouraged by the popular press, which
profits from casting sharks in a negative light.
However, sharks possess some physiological attributes that would
benefit humans if we choose to study the underlying processes.
Sharks almost never get cancer. In addition, sharks have highly
effective immune systems that allow their wounds to heal without
infection. Cancer and infectious diseases are leading causes of death
in the United States. Drug-resistant strains of bacteria are becoming
an increasing concern worldwide.
If we can study the physiology of healthy sharks, much can be gained
that would contribute to the well-being of humans.
In the 1960’s Edward O. Wilson, along with other scientists, developed
the theory of island biogeography. Explain the relevance of this
theory in today’s world
Island biogeography examines how the species diversity of islands is
affected by the size and locations of given islands. It can also be
applied to areas or ecosystems that resemble islands because of their
isolation. For example, a mountain forest that is surrounded by
human development could be considered an island. A wildlife
preserve that is surrounded by areas disturbed by human activities
could be considered an island.
Clearly describe in what ways predation is actually beneficial to the
prey population.
Those individuals that are typically removed from a population
through predation tend to be those that are sick or weak. The
pressures of predation remove the least fit individual from the
population. The end result is to improve the overall health and fitness
of the prey population through the process of natural selection.
Compare and contrast primary succession and secondary succession.
Primary succession can also be described as bare rock succession and
is the extremely gradual process by which bare rock is broken down
and converted into soil. This is accomplished through the processes of
weathering and biological activities of early successional pioneer
organisms, such as lichens and mosses. As soils develop, the
community can gradually change over time.
Secondary succession is the gradual ecological change in species
composition of a community after some kind of ecological
disturbance that does not result in the destruction or removal of the
soil. With soil resources still in place, there is an ability for plant
communities to gradually return to the disturbed area.
You are visiting a nature preserve in Costa Rica with a classmate. Your
companion comments on the bright colors and beauty of many
species of frogs and insects that you encounter on your excursion.
Explain to this person the function that the bright colors serve in the
context of ecosystem functioning.
Brightly colored prey species are utilizing warning coloration as a way
to fend off potential predators. The bright colors inform predators
that the prey species either tastes very bad or can actually poison or
kill a predator that eats them.
Clearly explain the current view of succession in ecosystems.
Scientists now believe that succession does not occur in an orderly
sequence along an expected path. Rather, the path cannot be
predicted or viewed as an inevitable progression toward an ideally
adapted climax community. Late-succession ecosystems are not in a
state of permanent equilibrium but are in a continual state of
disturbance and change.
State briefly the known threats to kelp forests.
1. Sea urchin populations are increasing because sea otters (their
predators) are declining.
2. Runoff of water that is contaminated with pesticdes, herbicides
and fertilizers.
3. The warming of the world’s oceans because kelp forests require
fairly cool water.
Briefly discuss the baby boomers and their effect on our population
profile.
The baby boomers are individuals born in the United States between
1946 and 1964, when birth rates were extremely high. As this group
moves through different age categories, a bulge is expressed in our
population profile. This group is now in the 50- and 60-year-old
category. Because of the large number of individuals within the
group, they have been able to influence market and political
decisionsn and are expected to continue to do so as they retire.
Explain the term demographic momentum and provide a real-life
example.
A country with a large percentage of its people younger than age 15
has the potential to experience very rapid population growth unless
death rates also rise sharply. Additionally, even if women only have
an average of one or two children, the number of births will rise for
several decades because of the large number of girls entering their
prime reproductive years.
Nigeria, Guatemala, and Saudi Arabia are examples.
List the four ways that urban sprawl affects natural capital
degradation of water resources.
Urban sprawl causes the following:
-increased use of surface water and groundwater
-increased runoff and flooding
-increased surface water and groundwater pollution
-decreased natural sewage treatment
List and briefly describe the seven factors that affect a country’s
average birth rate and total fertility rate.
1. The importance of children as part of the labor force. If children are
needed to work for the family and bring in income, birth rates will be
high.
2. The cost of raising children. In developed countries, the high cost of
raising children tends to discourage large families.
3. Pension or retirement funds for the elderly. In countries without
pension or retirement funds, children are viewed as security for their
aging parents. This leads to higher birth rates.
4. Urbanization. People living in urban areas have better access to
family planning services and tend to have fewer children.
5. Educational and employment opportunities for women. Fertility
rates tend to be low when women have access to education and paid
employment outside the home. Better educated women tend to
marry later in life.
6. Religious beliefs, traditions and cultural norms. In some countries
these factors will lead to higher birth rates.
7. Availability of birth control and legal abortion. These options allow
women to control the spacing of the number of children they have.
Explain why as incomes rise we draw more from nature’s ecological
credit card, and what the suspected consequences are
As our population grows, and incomes rise, we use more of the
earth’s natural resources to satisfy our growing wants and this
increases our ecological footprints. The result can be degradation of
the natural capital that keeps us alive and supports our lifestyles and
economies. No one knows how long we can continue degrading the
earth’s natural capital by living off of nature’s ecological credit card as
our population and resource use continues to grow. But there are
warning signs that nature may be calling in some of our ecological
debts.
Briefly explain the bottom line for analysts who believe that adding
more people to the planet is not a problem.
These analysts believe that because of our technological ingenuity,
there is no limit to the amount of people that the planet can support.
The presence of more people means there are more workers,
consumers, and creative people to support ever-increasing economic
growth. They believe that we can avoid serious damage to our life-
support systems through technological advances, especially by
increasing food production per unit of cropland and continuing to
make major advances in health care.
TRUE/FALSE
An environmentally sustainable society must be based only on
policies that provide for economic growth and development.F
An important goal of environmental science is to learn how life on the
earth has thrived and survived. T
Recycling nonrenewable metallic resources takes much less energy,
water, and other resources and produces less pollution and
environmental degradation than exploiting virgin metallic resources.
T A kestrel (small hawk) and red-tailed hawk hunt for rodents in the
Polluting chemicals enter the environment only through human
activities. F
Natural resources are considered natural capital, but natural services
are not. F
The United States has the world's largest per capita ecological
footprint. T
Government subsidies can actually encourage companies to conduct
business in ways that result in environmental degradation. T
In an environmentally sustainable society, most affluent citizens work
to decrease their consumption of products. T
Pollution cleanup is considered a short-term solution if population
and consumption levels grow without corresponding improvement in
pollution control technology. T
Rapid population growth and associated poverty are primarily
occurring in developing countries and have little impact on
environmental degradation. F
In order for the social changes to occur that will produce sustainable
economies, fully 50% of the population of a country must support the
change. F
We can say that biodiversity is a factor in maintaining life on this
planet. T
Perpetual resources exist in a fixed quantity or stock in the Earth’s
crust. F
If industry managers ask the question “How can my company avoid
producing polluting air exhaust from my factory?” they are seeking
pollution prevent, which is preferable to pollution cleanup. T
The tragedy of the commons is a phenomenon that occurs only when
the number of users is small.F
One of the ways we can slow population growth is to elevate the
status of women. T
A massive cloud of air pollution largely generated in China affects only
China but causes serious respiratory problems there. F
Ecology is the study of connections in the natural world. T
Populations make up communities. T
Ozone gas, a chemical in the atmosphere that helps filter out harmful
UV sunlight, is located in the troposphere. F
An ecosystem's nutrient cycle cannot be described. F
“Muddy boots biology” is actually a description of typical research by
geologists F
Increasing levels of carbon dioxide are one of the major contributors
to global warming. T
Within the ‘levels of organization’, the molecular level contains the
smallest of all forms of matter
Despite the ocean's low NPP, it creates more of the Earth's NPP than
any of the other ecosystemsT
Detritivores are consumers that release nutrients from the dead
bodies of living organisms and return them to the soil, water, and air.
F of the hope for employment T
A deer is both a primary consumer and in the second trophic level. T
The mantle and core of the earth are both contained in the
geosphere. T
Plants utilize a portion of their GPP for respiration. T
There are examples of microbial bacteria that are beneficial to
humans. T
According to the second law of thermodynamics, energy can be
recycled. F
In terms of inputs of matter, the Earth is a closed system. As a result,
nutrients must be recycled to support life. T
Green plants undergo aerobic respiration. T
The process by which many decomposers are able to convert glucose
into useable energy in the absence of oxygen is known as
transpiration. F
Given the nature of the carbon cycle, it is possible that a single atom
of carbon that is in your skin could have once been part of your own
great grandmother, or even a dinosaur. T
Water has the ability to filter out wavelengths of the sun’s ultraviolet
radiation that would harm some aquatic organisms. T
Lightning is one of the natural mechanisms by which atmospheric
nitrogen fixation is accomplished. T
Ammonia (NH4+) is a form of nitrogen that is readily accessible and
useable by plants. F
Highly specialized bacteria are an essential component of the
phosphorous cycle. F
The processes that lead to geological erosion are essential to the
movement of phosphorous through the biosphere. T
Food chains and food webs are basically the same thing. F
A type of acid rain is produced because of sulfur dioxide in the air. T
The burning of coal releases sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
However, smelting is a clean process that does not deposit sulfur
dioxide. F
Gravity is one of the three factors that sustain life on Earth. T
The nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle are virtually identical. F
Water exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperatures because of
the lack of attractive forces between its molecules. F
It can be said that trees can actually produce their own rainfall. T
Liquid water changes temperature rapidly because it can store a large
amount of heat F
When local environmental conditions change, background extinction
can cause loss of species. T
In speciation, two species interbreed to form one new species. F
The size of the planet has significant influences that impact life on the
planet. T
Houseflies would probably adapt to an environmental change much
more quickly than a human. T
Extinction results in the permanent loss of genetic diversity. T
One of the reasons that sharks are hunted is for their fins which are
widely used as a soup ingredient in Asia. T
It is impossible for a shark to drown. F
Heritable traits that give an individual some advantage over other
individuals in the population are called adaptive traits. T
Genes mutate, individuals are selected and populations evolve. T
The biological diversity of the Earth is only a function of the number
of species on the Earth. F
Organisms develop certain traits because they need them. F
The location of continents has greatly influenced the earth’s climate,
but the location of oceanic basins has not. F
Ice sheets in high latitudes are known to have advanced and
retreated over much of the northern hemisphere throughout the
Earth’s long history. T
Geographic isolation and reproductive isolation can both lead to
speciation. T
Sharks are all carnivorous. F
Cockroaches have a wide range of tolerance of environmental
conditions. They are known as a specialist species. F
Niches are only occupied by native species. F
The southern sea otter is a keystone species because it is a top
predator. F
Predation and parasitism are examples of ecological interactions in
which one species takes advantage of another species. T
One of the reasons sharks are especially vulnerable to over fishing is
because they grow slowly, mature late, and have only a few young
each generation. T
An area in primary ecological succession would be a suitable habitat
for a population of hardwoods because of the availability of
resources. F
Limiting factors are physical or chemical factors that can determine
the numbers of organisms in a population. T
A population's growth rate will increase as the population reaches its
carrying capacity. F
The human population can maintain an exponential growth rate
indefinitely because of technology. F
Carrying capacity is the population size (or density) at which the
environment is saturated. T
The process of secondary succession would typically follow a forest
fire. T
The most common interaction between species is intraspecific
competition. F
Births and deaths are the only two factors that determine population
sizes. F
There is a general tendency for succession to lead to more complex
and stable ecosystems. T
The interaction of two species with each can actually affect the
evolution of those species. T
Permanent equilibrium is a condition that most ecologists now
recognize as existing in mature, late-successional ecosystems. F
Inertia is not a feature of grassland ecosystems, but resilience is. T
The terms inertia and stability, with respect to ecosystems, are
mutually exclusive. F
Parasitism occurs when one species feeds on another organism. T
Family planning, economic opportunities for women, and schooling
for girls generally produces a higher birth rate. F
Currently there are five hypercities in the world, one of which is
Tokyo, Japan.F
Urban areas are attracting more and more residents, partly because
The declining economic health of cities often reduces services to their
residents: water, electricity, open spaces, timely garbage collection,
etc. T
Birth and death rates generally decline as countries develop
economically.T
Death rates are very high during the preindustrial stage of
demographic transitions. T
Megacities have improved significantly over the last decade due to
public water supplies and better sanitation. F
A major factor in human population increase in the last 200 years is
the emergence of early and modern agriculture. T
Some analysts believe that because of our technological ingenuity,
there are few, if any, limits to human population growth and resource
use per person, T
Women are now having fewer babies but not few enough to stabilize
the world’s population. T
Women who live in rural areas have a lower total fertility rate than
those in urban areas. F
Because of the concentration of people, automobiles, business
enterprises, and industries in cities, they can never be sustainable. F
The environmental limits that will control growth of the human
population are precisely known by scientists. F
Based on resource use per person, the United States is more
overpopulated than China. T
The availability of, or lack of, private and public pension funds can
influence the decision of some couples on how many children to
have. T
Mexico City has recently improved its air quality.T
Car sharing has been tried in Germany but was not found to be
effective or successful. F
Most of the increase in the world’s population in the last 100 years
took place because of a sharp increase in birth rates. F
One of the reasons for a lower life expectancy in the United States is
the fact that it has one of the world’s highest obesity rates. T
MATCHING
Caribbean snails of the same population exhibit a variety of shell colors
and banding patterns - GENETIC DIVERSITY
Coastal states in the United States typically have more ecosystems than
land-locked states - ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Some tropical forests contain thousands of producer species - SPECIES
DIVERSITY
Nutrients typically cycle much faster in tropical areas than in polar
areas - FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY
Estuaries and wetlands have very high primary productivity -
FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY
Coral reefs are known for their very high number of species - SPECIES
DIVERSITY
Areas with both mountain ranges and coastal ecosystems have high
diversity - ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
An early fox population evolved into the grey fox and arctic fox -
GENETIC DIVERSITY
A tiny fish called a wrasse lives in and around the mouth of sharks. It
cleans up the debris left after the shark eats flesh, and it gains
protection by living in the shark’s mouth – MUTUALISM
Epiphytes are plants that live on the branches or trunks of trees in the
tropics. The epiphyte gains access to water and sunlight, but does not
hurt or help the tree – COMMENSALISM
Fleas live in and on household pets – PARASITISM
same grassy meadow - INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION
Your housecat kills the mice in your yard and around your house –
PREDATION
The Owl Butterfly is native to Costa Rica. Its hindwings have patterns
in the shape and size of the eyes of a large owl – MIMICRY
Clownfish live amongst the stinging tentacles of sea anemone. They
keep the sea anemone tentacles clean by eating the debris, and they
gain protection from other animals by living in the tentacles –
MUTUALISM
Sea lampreys attach themselves to fish such as trout – PARASITISM
Flood-prone areas along the river banks have been converted to parks
– BIODIVERSITY
Volunteers have planted more than 1.5 million trees throughout the
city – BIODIVERSITY
Tax credits are available for installing solar panels on private homes -
RELIANCE ON SOLAR ENERGY
60% of metal, glass, and plastic is recycled - CHEMICAL CYCLING
Poor people who live in areas without garbage pick-up can exchange
filled garbage bags for surplus food and school supplies - CHEMICAL
CYCLING
City government buildings have solar panels to help heat the buildings
- RELIANCE ON SOLAR ENERGY
70% of the paper used in the city is recycled - CHEMICAL CYCLING
For every tree that is cut down in the city, two have to be planted to
replace it – BIODIVERSITY
Environment The combination of all thing and factors external to the
individual or population of organisms/All external conditions and
factors, living and nonliving that effect any living organism or other
specified system/Include living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) things
Environmental Science The branch of science concerned with
environmental
Issues/ Interdisciplinary study that used information and ideas from
the physical science, social sciences and the humanities to learn how
nature works, how we interact with the environment and how we can
deal with environment problems.
Environmental science is a multi-disciplinary subject that requires the
participation and support of almost all sciences
Biology (The study of living organism); Chemistry (The study of
chemicals and their interactions); Physics (The study of matter and
energy); Earth Science (The study of Earth’s nonliving systems); Social
science (The study of human populations); Ecology (The study of how
organisms or living things interact with one another and their
environment)
Natural capital = Natural resources + Natural services/Natural
capital: Natural resources that keeps all forms of life alive and
support our economics/Natural services: Processes in nature
(nutrient cycling, water purification). Natural resources are materials
and energy in natural that are essential or useful to humans. Some
are directly available and others need some effort. Renewable
resource (air, water, soil, wind…). Can be replenished in days to
hundred years. Non-renewable resource (copper, oil and coal)
Human population is growing exponentially at a rapid rate. The
interaction between human and environment are very closely.
Human exploit natural resources and environmental factors to serve
their life.
The impact on environment increase with the growth of human
population and economic pattern. To survive, human have modified,
cultivated, built on and degraded a large and increasing portion of
earth’s natural systems. World population up to over 7.5 billion (Jun
2017). The rate at which world’s population is growing has slowed but
is still increasing rapidly.
Natural capital degradation alter nature to meet our population
needs
‒ Reduction of biodiversity,
‒ Increasing use of earth’s net primary production
‒ Increasing genetic resistance of pest species and disease-causing
bacteria
‒ Elimination of many natural predators
‒ Introduction of potentially harmful species into communities;
‒ Use renewable resources faster than they can be replenished
‒ Interfering with the earth’s chemical cycling and energy flow
processes
‒ Relying mostly on polluting and climate changing fossil fuel.
Population can grow unlimited when there is no predators and
unlimited life requirement
Tragedy of commons Commons: Available to be used by anyone who
wishes
Conflicts arise when people share resources/If no one takes
responsibility for the resource it will get overused and become
degraded/depleted Ex: Renewable resources like trees cut faster than
they formed
Ecological footprints The amount of biologically productive land and
water needed to supply a person or country with renewable
resources and to recycle waste and pollution/Measure the average
environmental impact of population in different countries and
areas/Per capita ecological footprint is the average ecological
footprint of an individual in a given country or area/When use of
renewable resource exceeds its natural replacement rate, we have
environmental degradation
Ecosystem: System involving the interactions between a community
of living organism in a particular area and its nonliving
environment/Ecosystems are dynamic: composed of biotic and abiotic
components that interact with earth other/Life exists on land system
called biomes and in freshwater and ocean aquatic life zones.
Biome: A complex biotic community characterized by distinctive plant
and animal species and maintained under the climatic conditions of
the region/Tropical rainforest; Savanna; Desert; Tundra; Wetland.
Environmental Unity Concept that everything in the environment is
connected, directly or indirectly to everything else/Any change in
system is likely to produce secondary and tertiary effect within
system and connected systems/The biosphere share common
characteristics, however each ecosystem is unique in its own
way/Understanding of ecosystems and its interaction help to see
how they affect or be affected by human activities and how to make
them sustainable is vital for survival of human/Multitudes of tiny
microbes such as bacteria, protozoa,
fungi and yeast help keep us alive/ Tolerance limits: minimum and
maximum levels beyond which a particular species cannot survive or
reproduce/Limiting factors determines distribution
Common limiting factors In terrestrial ecosystems: Precipitation,
temperature, nutrients. In aquatic ecosystems: temperature, sunlight,
nutrients, dissolve oxygen and salinity
Law of tolerance The existence, abundance and distribution of a
species is
determined by levels of one or more physical and chemical factors.
Earth’s systems Four major components: -Lithosphere: Earth’s crust
that include rocks and soil. -Hydrosphere: Liquid water on surface and
underground, ice (cryosphere) and water vapor. -Biosphere: Living
and dead organisms
Atmosphere: Thin membrane of air: Troposphere; Stratosphere;
Mesosphere; Ionosphere
Energy flow - Energy changes are governed by 2 scientific laws: The
first law of thermodynamics: Whenever energy is converted from one
form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created
or destroyed/The second law of thermodynamics: we always end up
with a lower quality or less “usable” energy –--Energy efficiency is
measure of how much useful work is accomplished by a particular
input of energy into a system
Cycling of Nutrients The earth is closed to significant inputs of matter
from space, its essentially fixed supply of nutrients must be
continually recycled to support life/Nutrient movements in
ecosystems and in the biosphere are roundtrips → take from seconds
to centuries to complete. (The law of conservation of matter)/The
cycling of nutrients through parts of the biosphere.
The Natural of Ecology Level of study in ecology: Biosphere – all
ecosystems in the entire Earth. Ecosystem – a community + physical
environment. Community - population living together in a particular
place & their interactions. Population – a group of the same species.
Species – a group of organisms able to breed and fertile offspring.
Organism – an individual living thing.
Biological components of ecosystem Some organisms in ecosystems
product food while others consume food/Producer (Autotroph – self
feeder): Organisms use solar energy (green plants, algae and
cyanobacteria) or chemical energy (some bacteria) to manufacture
their nutrient as organic compounds. Photosynthesis/
chemosynthesis process involve: Carbon dioxide + Water(light)->
(bacteria) Glucose + Oxygen. Consumer (Heterotroph – other feeder):
Organisms that cannot synthesize organic nutrient by themselves,
they have to get it by feeding on tissues of producer or of other
consumers. Decomposer (bacteria / fungi): recycle organic matter by
break down dead organic material or detritus into single inorganic
compounds, recycle nutrients in ecosystems. Detritivores: (waste
eaters and degrader): feed on detritus (dead organic materials); can
transform a fallen tree trunk into simple inorganic molecules
Food chains: sequence of organisms which is a source of food for the
next level, each of which serves as a source of nutrients and energy
for the next organisms/A linear series of feeding relationships in an
ecosystem/Energy and nutrient are passed from organism to
organism through the food chain.
Food webs: In natural, most consumers feed on more than 1 type of
organism. Organism in ecosystems form a complex network of
interconnected food chains. A more complex than a linear food chain.
Microevolution: small genetic changes that occur in a population.
Macroevolution: long-term, large-scale evolution changes through
which new species arrive from ancestral species and other species are
lost through extinction.
Gene pool: consist all of genes in its individuals. Microevolution is
change in a population’s gene pool over time.
Adaptation – A heritable trait that improves the ability of an
individual organism to survive more easily and reproduce at a higher
rate than other individuals in a population under prevailing
environmental conditions. A population’s ability to adapt to new
environmental conditions is limited by its gene pool and its
reproductive capacity.
• A change in environmental conditions can lead to adaptation only
for genetic traits already present in a population’s gene pool
• Population of genetically diverse species that reproduce quickly
with large number offspring often adapt in short time.
Speciation is process of how new species develop. 2 species arise
from 1.
• For sexually reproducing species, a new species is form when some
members of population cannot longer breed with other member to
produce fertile offspring.
• The mechanism of speciation take place in 2 phases: geographic
isolation and reproductive isolation
Geographic isolation: population can be separated by physical barrier
(mountain range, river, road); by a change such as volcanic eruption
or earthquake or migration for food.
Reproduction isolation: member of population may become so
different in genetic makeup that can never produce live, fertile
offspring.
Extinction: A species becomes extinct when its population cannot
adapt to changing environmental conditions. An entire species ceases
to exist. Reason could from natural or from human impact. 99% of all
species that ever existed are now extinct. Background extinction is a
certain number of species disappear at a low rate as local
environmental conditions change, estimate average annual rate is 1 –
5/ million. Mass extinction is significant rise in extinction rate above
the background level, widespread event, large group (25-70%) are
wiped out
Mass depletion: extinction rate are much higher than normal but not
high enough to classify as mass extinction.
There are 5 basic types of interaction between species when they
share limited resources:
Competition: shared or scared food and space. Inter-specific
(different species) and intra-specific competition (within same
species)
Resource partitioning: occurs when species competing for similar
scarce resources evolve specialized traits that allow them to use
shared resources at different times, in different ways, or in different
places. e.g. warblers who live in the same trees but have such
specialized feeding niches that they do not compete.
Parasitism: one species feeds on part of another organism usually by
living on or in the host. They can harm their host organism. Ex:
tapeworms, fleas or sea lampreys
Predation: members of 1 species feed directly on all or part of a living
organism of another species. Eating and being eaten. Example Lion
and zebra. Predator are fast enough to catch prey, ability to hide, lie
in wait, camouflage, inject chemical or paralyze their prey… Prey: use
protective shell or thorn, camouflage, use chemical to repel or poison
predator to keep alive, warning color or autotomy (self amputation)…
Mutualism: 2 species interact in a way that benefit both. Such as
flower and bee, clownfish and sea anemones
Commensalism: some species interact in the way that help 1 species
but has little, if any effect on the other. Such as Epiphytes are plants
that attach themselves to the trunks or branches of large trees for
access to sunlight; these represent commensalism
Population change = (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)
Population: Group of individuals of the same species in habiting same
area
The impact on environmental increase in the growth of human
population and economic pattern.
Simple model of Ehrlich and Holdren(1970) I = P x A x T
(I: Environmental impact; P:Population; A: Affluence per person; T:
Technology used)
Factors affecting birth rates
• Cost of raising and educating children
• Urbanization
• Educational and employment opportunities for women
• Infant mortality rate
• Marriage age
• Availability of lethal abortions
• Religious beliefs, traditional and cultural norms
• Availability of birth control
• Labor force