,::cralization (rvhere the TT [3s 1t ri..

3 Lexis and compensation - i,.lntple. translating. in a givetl col:

. :: 'rnind' or 'spirit'. is arl iner it-,r
- -,r)SC one of these three TL utrri..
-: .reltce than Spanish 'alma'. Ctrtl', ::
'3's got a gunl' is a case of gener', ,

. - reta'.'pistola'.'fusil' and'c.ltir::
. ,-3r'rce than'rev6lver'. Tlie tratlsi.l: -

- n and generalizatiofl arc ver\ crrll-.

-:':er 8.
'.:-.r)thel' reason why. in orditlarr ,'r:'.
, - .'3te precisely the 'meaning' r.)f ;.i '':
Everyone is familiar u'ith dictionaries. Thcy present uhat purports to be a list ::: tbrm idiosyncratic associr.lt:!'::
olthe practical totality of thc u'ords. often liith conrmonlv r.rsed pl.rrases. irr a . --iations may hold by virtue oi the :
giver.r language at a particular tirne (and son.re include archaic il'ords and - (birc1t.i;:c
"rationbetween'crane'
senses). This totality is knou'n as the lexis of a language (ad.i. lexical). For -:-i1 n.reanit.tgs of the words. as s itr'- :::
reasons ofeducational bias ( for instance. the paramount use that students ntake -' :s'gold','silver' and'brouze': l:. :

of dictionaries and lcxically arranged encyclopedias). people are far tnore , - rssumptiolls, as in the assoctatir'i'.
directly a."vare of indi','idual u,ords than ol other units and strLlcturcs of lang-
- .ic . TIte exact associalire o\crt'. '
uage. In particular. mentioning 'nreaning' or the sentantic properties of ' lre often dilficult enough to pirll',' :

languages (and theretbre also oltexts) tends to evoke first ar.rd foremost the -.''ssible" to find TL words that ri:- .

level of indilidual rvords. Yet r.r.reanings arc certaitrly not exclusively con-
- .:e Iiteral n-reaning. also prodttce e'''
centrated in words indir, idually. Any text shou's that the cornbination of r.vords r Jontext of the TT. This is atltrlltr': '
(and their usc in contexts) creates rneanings that the indii.'idual rvords do not - :hcr potential dilenlma bet\\ eel', . .
possess in isolation. and e'''en r.neanings that are not uholly predictable tiorn
' ..:ociati\e o\ erlones. ol' \ iLe \ cr'-i
the literal senses of the uords combined. rpter 9.
As clur multi-level approach to tcxtLral variables cliscussed in Chapters 6 The issue of undesirable. yet incr : -,'
- - ,blen-r fbr the translator. The prtrl' r'::
and 7 indicates. lerical translation losses (sr-rcl'r AS \vant of an exact translation
fbr a particr-rlar word)are jr.rst one kind oltranslation loss ar.nons n.rar.ry. There . --:rain f'eatures sacrificed itl transl'l::.-:

is no a priori rcason. as long as the overall sense of the ST is successfully - .,lity of the TT. but seeinr: ll(r \\., '
- -.mises. So. fbr itrstance. 's\\ ord' '
conveyed by the TT. why they sliould be given a hea','ier rveighting than other
kinds of translation loss. In fhct. communicative translation is often rnore -:rslation of the literal meanins t)1".:
irnportant than word-fbr-r.l,ord conesponclcnces. For ittstance. 'no se puede :apon's cerentottial use in blrllfrght::l-
saber' can bc plaLrsibly translated in rnost r.nodertr contexts as 'yoLt never can .'the word. Nevertheless. tratlslatills ,
tell'. rather than as 'one can never know': even then. the cltoice of 'you' instead .:11r' cotltprolllise if the ST n-rerelr rll..'
of 'one'" 'a body' or even'a girl'rvould be entirely a matter olcontext. - less acceptable in, say. an anthrtrll.'.
Lexical translation losscs. then. are no morc avoidable than other kinds of :eological aspects of the bullfight: 'r:-:
translation loss. Eract synonymy betll'een SL and TL vu'ords is the cxception .-rlc if 'estoque' is the to1. 693115 l'rr "''
rather than the rulc. and problems arising fl'orr this should be neither . evoked in the ST.
r.r.raxir.nizecl nor minimizcd. but treated on a par u'ith otlter translation losses .\s can be seen fronl this discLrs..'
that af-fect the overall meaning olthe TT. Nonc the [ess. in specific situations I cornpensating lor certaill Llllrl\ r\li-::'
cor.npensation nray be uecessary to rnollily the ellccts ol loss. .r ell when considering the translalit-l:

Comparing the lexical rreanings of words across languages underlines the .:: when translating the follor.rirls Hl-:
fhct that lexical translation losses are as likely to result fronr particularization :lungarian because it is unfartliliar t.' :
('vvhere the TT r'vord has a narro\\'er urexning than the ST u'ord) as lronl :iring a genuinely exotic impressi(r:l
 Leris und contpensulion 31

generalization (uhere the TT has a wider rneaning than the ST tr.ord). So.
:or exan.rple. tlanslating. in a given context. Spanish'alnta'as'soul'. rather
:han as 'mind' or'spirit'. is an inevitable particLrlarization. because oue has
.t) qh6e5s one of these tl.rree TL uords. each ol'urhich has a narro\\.er range
.rlreference than Spanish 'alrra'. Convcrsell,. trar.rslating 'itiene un revol'n,erl'
,is'he's got a gun!'is a case of generalization. because'sult'can also ntean
'escopeta'.'pistola'.'firsil'and'carlon' that is. it has a u'ider range of
:ef-erence than 'revolier'. The translation problents arising fi'om particular-
:zation and generalization ale \el) conlnon. and ue shall retum to ther-n in
t hapter 8.
Another reason u'hv. in ordinnrl, language. no TL u,ord is ever likely to
:.eplicate preciselv the'nteanin-g' ola giren SL uorcl is that. in each language.
- its to be a list .t ords fbrnr idiosynclatic associatiolts u ith sets ol other r,r ords. Such

,.: plirases. in a -,ssociations may hold b1,r'irtue olthe fbms of tvorcls. as in tlle hon.ronymic
,- i uords and .rssociation bet',r'een'crane'(bird) and'crane'(ntachine): or by r.irtue of tlie
- lerical). For rteral mear.rings olthe uords. as uith the associations of relative value in the
' -:irtlents ntake .cries'gold'. 'silrer'and'bronze': or b1,rirtue of culture-bound prejudices
- .1rL- lar ntore 'nd assumptions. as in the association ol'lalv and order' (or'brutality',;u,ith
- ,irL-s of lang- rolice'. The exact associative o\ertones olu'ords ir.r the overalI context ola
, :':-.rpertiCS Of >T are often difficult enor-rgh to pinpoint. but it is e\,eu rnore difficult" if not
.-,remOSt the :rpossible. to find TL uords that \\'ill. over and above conveying an appro-
. ...ively con- :.riate literal meaning. also produce exactly the right associative overtoues in
' .-' .rc contert of the TT. This is another source of lerical translatiou loss. and
'.n of words
,. ,rrds
do not :)other potential dilenrn.ra bettveen choosing literal n-reaning at the expense
'- , :rable flron.r t-associative overtones. or r,ice versa. We shall retr-rrn to these questions in
- hapter 9.
- '(hapters 6 The issr-re ol undesirable. yet irrer itable. translation losses raises a special
, - rranslation :roblem fbr the translator. The problern consists in knor.ving that the loss of
'-'.rnr.,.There ,ertain features sacrificed in translation does have detrimental efTects on the
..^ccessfully -.rality of the TT. but seeing uo \\,ay of avoiding these unacceptable cont-
: than other ':omises. So" for instance.'su,'ord'is admittedly f-ar frorn being an exact
- tlert rnore :.rnslation olthe literaI r.neaning of 'estoque'l it lacks the association with the
se puede '. !'apon's ceremonial use in bulllightine $'hich is so n-ruch part olthe rnearrinr.l

. ne\ er can :'the word. Nevertheless. trar.rslating 'estoque' as 'srvord' ntay be alt accept-
,Lr'instead ,rle comprorrise if the ST merely makes casual mention olit. Hou,er,er" this
- :-.te\t. . less acceptable in. say. an ar.rthropological text exarnining the aesthetic and
::' kinds of :eological aspects of the bullfight: and such a cornpromise is quite unaccept-
i j\ception .,rie if 'estoque' is the sole means by u'hich the cr-rltural context of bullfighting
. --'neither . evoked in the ST.
' ,.n losses .\s can be seen fiom this discussion. it may be necessary to fir.rd rvays
' - .ttLrations :' compensating for certain unavoidable TT effects. This can be illustrated
'.ell when considering the translation of cultural cliches and proverbs. such
. ::lines the .:s when translating the fbllorving Hungarian ST into English. (We choose
.- - tlarization it is unfantiliar to nlost readers. and therefbre capable of
,-lLrngarian because
rs fiont :rring a genuinely exotic impression.) Waking on the first morning of the
32 Leris und contpensation
holiday. the children are disappointed to find that it is raining heavily. Their Often one allows these losses unhesrr,,
rnother cornfbrts them u,ith a proverb. suggesting that it u,ill soon clear up: rparticularly in the cornmercial sccri:
'Nem bajl Reggeli vencl6g nent maradando' (literallv. 'No problem! The phonic and prosodic properties rri: :

morning guest ltever stays long'). The onl,v adr.antage ola literal translation perfectly clear" while a translaror ,,.
is its exoticisrn. but this adr,antage is cancelled by t*'o things: the obscurity ;qually happily sacrifice mr-rch olti:e
of the TT. and its lack of contextual plausibilit,v. If there u'ere good reasons cs'rtain desired metric and phonic e:':'.
fbr presen,ing the exoticisn-r. one could tritigate these disadr..antages by rrany kinds of cornpromise translat.-:.
obliquely signalling in the TT that the mother is usine u'hat is. lor TL readers. priorities decided upon for each rrr:r.
an exotic proverb: 'Nc.r,er ntindl You kno*, the sayinu: the rnon.ring guest Compromises should be the re:Lr.:
nevcr stays lons'. The translation olthe pror.e'rb itself is a calque. an expres- rot only of u,hat latitudes are allo$ ec
sion that consists ol TL r.r'ords and respects TL st'ntax. but is unidionratic in .,lall the f'actors that can plav a der;:
the TL because it is rrodelled on the structure of a SL expression. The phrase :he ST. its relationship to SL &utljr.:1.
'You knorv the sayine'is added to shou'that the aphorisnr is an established
-iudience. and so fbrth. Only then .-.r:: .

proverb and not a flight of poetic creativeness on the part of the rnother. ,rspects of the ST can be sacrificed r ::
without the addition. the unf-amiliaritv of the calqr-re rrould have an exoric ri the TT. both as a rendering oi tit;
quality that is completely absent fiom the ST. and it r,'ould also implv some- \lLrch olthe ntaterial in this book u r
thing abor-rt the r.nother's character. As it is. the erotic qLrality is maintained :nd practice. to the different kinds .,.'
but the expression's lack of rdiomaticity is palliated fbr the reader. Depending jjctated by diflerent types of rc.r:
on the purpose olthe TT. these effects could be instances oltranslation loss.
r kind betu,een the ST textual eltc..
a significant betrayal of ST effects. Adding 'You knor,,' the saying' does not
: nray involve n.raking explicit u hlr ::
make 'the n.rorning guest never stays long' anv ntore familiar in itself. but
. explicit in the ST also quite otle: .
it does make it less likely to have these misleading efl'ects. And gir ing it a
:rlferences betw,een the markin,t i:'
quasi-proverbial style prescrves the senter.rtiolls tone. rvhich *,ould be lost in
>panish and English. Tl.re contrast rr: ::
a literal translation. ' 'rms ol'nourrs. ad.jectives und thc J;:
These procedures together are a good examples of compensation: that is.
-:.rblerns. In English tr?r)) tlol-lt):. ;_
where any translation (whether literaI or otheruise)*'ould entailan unaccept-
rerr.r.rit the expressi'n,e power that a 5-..
able translation loss. this loss is reduced by the fieely chosen introduction
-.'t\\ een leminirre arrcl rnascrrlinc
of a less unacceptable one. such that important ST ef-fects are rendered SJ:-.
approximately in the TT by rneans other thar.r those used in the ST. In other lora Alonso's short story 'Los gtirrr:'
words. one type of translation loss is mitigated by the deliberate introdr,rction '.rrticularly selected by the author br.
of another. In this exan-rple. adding 'You knor.l, the saying' incurs great r'.uman or animall:
translation loss in terms ol econorny and cultural presupposition. but this is
accepted because it significantly reduces the greater loss in terms of message La gata dilataba las pupilas en .:
content that woulcl be incured by a literal trar.rslation or a rnisleading com- parecia intranquila. Lola despen,. '.
municative translation. And the pseudo-proverb is grar.nmatically, rhythmically en voz baja;
and phonically very far fiom the ST proverb: but this loss. too. is welcomed Galana. ven.
because it preserves the sententious tone. w,hich a literal translation',vould La gata se aninto a la r.nano sei.
lose. r ierrtre que saltabl ) Se r-e nrtr\ l;
Note that these departures have not been fbrced on the translator by the
dictates olrL grammar. The changes have been deliberately and fieely chosen
to compensate for the lack of a TL proverb that does w,hat the ST one does. 'encountered in a gender-neutral ter:.
The question of choice versus constraint is vital to the understanding of -:amntatically transposed as'Thu' cal',
compensation as w'e shall see. Cor.nprornise in translation means reconciling :..r'r. it would aln.rost certainlv ntrt ri
oneself to the fact that. while one would like to do fulljustice to the 'richness' -3lerence to f'ernale gender
in the ct r::,
of the ST. one's final TT inevitablv suf-fers fiorn various translation losses. --rpils dilated in the darkness'cannt:
 Leris anrl c'onPensotion 33

-. r.avily. Their Often one allo$ s these losses unhesitatingly. For instance. a trallslator olprose
. \i-)n clear Llp: rparticularll, in the conln]ercial sector) may u'ithout ally qualms sacrifice the
::'trblernl The phonic and prosoclic ptoperties of a ST in order to t.nake its Iiteral llleaning
perf-ectly, clear. u.hile a iranslator of .'erse (lor instar.rce. song l,vrics)
--,1
may
- translation
--- :re obscurity equall,vlappilv sacrifice mLlch of the ST's literal t.tteatrit.tg itr order to achie'e
just t$o exatlples olthe
--- Jtrod reasons ;ertain desired metric and phonic effects. These are
the sn'ategic
- - -:'' antages by many kincls of con]ptomise translators r.nake even'da1'. guided bv
' : TL readers. rriorities decideci upon tbr each trallslatiotr task'
' contpror.t.tises should be the result oldeliberate clecisions taken
in the light
- -.-rnting guest but also
:r -ue. an expres- not onlv ol $ hat latitudes are allo\\ ed bl the SL and TL lespectir ely.
nature of
. rdion.ratic ir.r of all the tactors that carl plal'a detegl.rilills role in translation: the
: ' The phrase :he ST. its relatiorlship to SL auclietlces' the purpose of the TT' its putatir e
have finll grasp of u'hich
-: cstablished -rudience. and so tbrth. onll'then can the translator a
.- :he mother. rspects of the ST ca1 be sacrificed g'ith the least detrir-nent to the effectir eness

of the TT. both as a rendering ol the ST and as a TL text in its o$'n right'
- -: . r' &rl exotiC

:rply some- \lLrch olthe n.raterial in this book riill in tact drau attetrtiot.t. in both principle
. nrair.rtained ,ind practice. to the dilferent kin<ls of comprort-tise suggested - perhaps
even
,- --- Depending lictated b-v ditferent tl'pes ol te\t. It r irtualll' alu.aYs entails a ditl-erence
-,-.1ltion loss. :n kind bet,,r'een the ST tertual ettect and the TT tertual et-tect. For itlstattce.
: - lg' does not i may iuvolr e n]akins erplicit tr hat is implicit in the ST. One area where
u'hat
- :'. itself-- but ., .*pli.it in the ST also quite often needs to be erplicit in the TT is in the
' -: ::ii'ing it a 5llerences bet*,eer the riarking of gender as a gramntatical category ilt
- .1 be lost in Spanish and English. Tl]e contrast in Spanish bet'u"'een Inasculiue and
f-eminine
..,rnts of nouns. adjectiyes and the definite article is one that fiequently caLtses
)rIi0n: that is :.roblems. In English man),nolu]s. adjectires and the definite articles do t.tot
: r:' trnaccept- :.errnit the erp'eisi'e po\\'er that a Spanish ST ma,v deri'e lronl the contrast
: :roduction l.tween f-erninine and masculirte gender. Consider the opening sentetrces ol
j --i rendered Jr:ra Alonso's short storl"Los gatos'. It cotlles frot]l an anthology of stories
' - .1. In other :..rrticularly selected by tle author because they all have f-emale protagonists
-- :::roduction
- ,'Lrrs great ruman or anin-ral ):
:
rut this is
message
La gata dilataba las pupilas en la oscuridad. Maullaba con insistencia y
pur..io intranquila. Lola <lesperto y. adivinandola entre la sorr-rbra. la llarno
:''llltI COITI-
- . thmically en 'n'oz ba.ja:
. .r elcomed Galana. r'en.
.'...n would La gata se aninlo a la nlano seca que la buscaba y esta palpo el redondo
vientre qr-re saltaba y se ren.rovia.
(Alonso 1980: 133-zl)
.
'..rr by the
'-.,'.r'chosen
. -.ne does. .iencountered in a gender-neLltral tert. the first sentence might harmlessly be
---,:nding ol :ramntatically transposed as'The cat's pupils dilated in the darkness': ho$'-
--J.rrnciling _.r er. it r.l,ould a[.r.rost certainlv not be adequately translated
without some
-: richness' :c.t-erence to f-er-lale gelder in the cotrtert of this feninist ST. As'The cat's
,' ,n losses. :upils clilated in the darkness'cannot create the gender-based link between
31 Lexis ttnd comPensaticttr
Cohnenares de mis suefros
leline motherhood and huntan r.r-rotherhood. which is such a crucial motil
of the ST. this option represents an unacceptable translation loss. One lvay ol i,ya no labr6is'l i,Est6 seca
la rroria dcl pensarniento . .
overcoming this loss mi-g[t be to colllpel]sate in kind to make the cat's gender
.

explicit in the TT. by translating 'La gata dilataba las pupilas en la oscuridad'
as'The pupils of ll^te.she-c'ctt dilated in the clarkness'(but'she-cat'nlight be
'Tl'rc mother cat's pLrpils dilated in the Beehives of my dreams.
perceived as translationese). or eyen as
'The cat dilatecl /ter eyes'. Alternatir ely" mention olfenlinine do you rvork no more'l Has
iarkness'. or as
to a subsequent sentence in the TT uhere the noria ol my thought run drr
gender may ha\,e to be delayed
can be signalled by anaphoric'she'. u'hich. in this corltext. w'ould be a
it
manclatory .hoi.. over the fiequent allusion ln English to animals. even
'it'. Have the beehives of my dlear:r-
domestic pets. as
stopped working. the water s Itr'e
A further erarnple ol contpensation fbr the loss ol an erplicit meanlng ln
of the mind run dry . . .
the ST by the introcluction of implicit meanings in the TT comes from
poen]
LXXVII of Machaflo's soletlutles, guleritr.s y otyos poent1s (1903). The
a literal rendering. r'r'hereas it.t
Predrnore 'n,ersiol (Machado 1987) represents
literal of Spanish \\ e shall discuss literal and connoi.r:.
the Trueblood trar.rslation (N{achado 1982b) the t.r-reaning
Third. u'here. for example. thc h-.::-
'Llsual' as 'usualinonr-ral' is compensated fbr b-V the contlotations of tedium
icalque. the TT may have to dr--r:,. r' .

carried by 'same old':

,: i)lay on r.vords. Successlul eranrp..'-
.,rourd in the Ast6rix books: courl.ir'r'.
Y es esta vieja angustia
', ith l.slerr.r en Bretaiiu'.
que habita mi usual hiPocondria.
(N'lachado 1982a: 125 )
Obelix: Pourquoiparlez-r.,..
Jolitortt.r'. Jedemande \otrr' :'-::
and it's this olcl ar.rguisl.t
that inhabits my Llsual hypochondria.
(Machado 1987 ftrans. Predntore] : 207)
Obelix: ,,Por que habla irl :..' .

Buentorar: Le rr-rego lrlc pr--rtii:'.r

The old distress is back.
Stirring inside the same old fancied ills'
(Machado 1982b ftrans. Trueblood]: 97)
'. the ST. the comic eflect ol Jolr:i:,.
- :tution of a calque on E.ngli:h ,
Further. connotative meanitrgs in the ST may be compensated fbr by
literal
be illustrated by corlparing ,rnilDe nt'.)' (the ST expression irr :.,,
meanings in the TT. This type of cor.npensatiot] can
.:lnish TT. where ';Qu6?' or '1,C'ti:r:.-
two trarislations of anothei ertract from Machado (poert.r LX). O'ce again.
the
a literal rendering of 'noria' .!' colxic efI'ect hinges on tlte qt-r'rc:.
Predmore translatior.r (Machado 1987 ) represents '. business correspondertcc. ne\r'r. ..
through his use of an obscure but established loan-word with strong culturally
- ,:npensated lor the element of hLrr:-..:
speciic connotations. The obscr-rrity of TL 'noria' rnay render tl.re oxymoron
r'ST.
ineffective for many readers. w.ho tail to see the explicit link betlveen
the
'seca'. thus occasioning 1n literary. political or journalistic \ .
noria's use as a rvater wheel. and its description aS
a
juxtaposition - ..duced through the sounds of u..:c.
loss in the TT ol'rhe connolati\c oxytnoron implicit irr the ST's
While - :ects in similar ways in the TT. tirr.
of 'seca'and'noria'. and olthe latent SL connotations of 'f-erris r'vheel'
trans- -:ng clifl-erent sounds in difl'erent p1.,,
also sacrificing the latent connotations of ferris wheel. the Trueblood - Jel Castro's address to the UN in \e.'
to
lation (Machado 1982b) restores the oxyl.r-roron by explicitly ret-eming . underlined. and other sound e1'tect.
'clry';
'water wheel'. thus juxtaposing 'water' and
.
 Le.ris ctnd contpen.sttlion 35

- .'rucial rnotif Colmenares de mis sueiios

-. One way of i,ya no lab16isl I.Esta seca
' j cat's gender Ia noria del pensamiento . . .

- ' .-i oscuridad' (Machado 1982a: ll7)

- -"'.it' might be
- Jrlated in the Beehives ol mv dreams.
' :l ol f'entinine do you u ork no rnore'l Has
rc TT where the noria of mv thought run dr1,
- ri ould be a ( Ivlachado I 98 7: I 79 )
.-:rlnrals. even
Har c the beehir es of mt, clreants
- nteaning in stopped uorking. the rratcr uheel
':. liom poem of the nrind run drr, . . .

I 903 ). The (Machado 1982b: 93 )

'--. uhereas in
- ol Spanish (We shall discuss Iiteral and connotative meaning in Chapters 8 and 9.)
':. ol tedium Third. uhere. lor erantple. the huntour of the ST hinges on the comic use
of calque. the TT ntav have to derive its humour lrorn other soul'ces. such as
a play on uorcls. Successfi-rl erantples of this sort of compensation in kind
abound in the Asterix books: coutpare. fbr instance. .lstiri.t c'he: les Bretons
rvith .4.srclr,r- ert Bretufiu.
v82a: I 25)
Obt,lir Pourquoi parlez-rous a l'enr,ers?
.Jolitrtrus: Je derrancle votre pardon'l
(Goscinny and Uderzo 1966: 9)
orel:207)
Obelir: l,Por que habla al reves'l
Buenloru.r'. Le ruego nte perdone.
(Goscinny and Uderzo 196l:9\
.-ioodl:97)
In the ST. the cornic ettect olJolitorax's anglicism is achier.ed by the sub-
' : bv literal stitLrtion ol a calque on English 'l beg your pardorr' for 'Plait-il'l' or
- -ontparing 'Comment'l' (the ST expressiorr in fact rrear.rs 'l ask your forgiveness'). In the
-: -rsain. the Spanish TT. u'hcre ',',Que?' or 'l,Conto?' u or-rld be erpected (cL 'Con-ur-rent'7').
.- ,ri'noria' the corr-ric eflect hinges on the seneric incongruity of a phrase only found
- rulturally in business correspondence. never in speech: that is. thc translator has
- \\ ntoron corrpensated fbr the elenteut of humour by means other than those used irr
-:. r g'gt-l {hg the ST.
-,
'rioning a In literary. political or journalistic STs. a significant part of the effect is often
,. ,rposition produced through the sounds olu'ords. If the strategy is to produce similar
,.:i'. while ef-fects in similar u,ays in the TT. this will alntost certainly onlv be possible
.,d trans- Lrsing different sounds in difterent places. as in the fbllou,ing examples fior.r.r
--' :rring to Fidel Castro's address to the UN in Neu, York on l2 October" 1979 (repetitron
is underlinecl. and other sound efJ-ects in bolcl):
36 Leris und cont1tensulirttt
Hablo en nornbre de los nirlos que en el nlundo no tienen un pedazo de con sus venenos. la yarara. tt',.1.
pan: hablo en nombre de los enf-ernlos qlle rQ-I]slell tnedicinas. qLle se mezclan. colas y cabez,
(Castro 1979a) rueda de c6pula girando. roli.'
dos falos. La envidiable. 1.r

Here. the rhetoric is obr iousll, reinfbrced b1, the alliteration arld assonance. bisbiseante. y mi caballo se r e
and b,v the repetition ol'hablo en nor.nbre dc' and'no tienen'. By'alliteration retenerme. n-re dejo deslizar h.,'
\\'e mean the recurrence of the sanle sottnd or letter seqLlence at the beginllrng
of a u'ord. and bl, assonance. the recunetlce ola sound or letter seqttettce in
the p-riddle of closelv occurins n ords. The pori er olthe staternent derir es ft'orll 1s a class exercise. identify phoni; :

':rt above and discuss their inrplii-,

the acor-rstic association of the nvo categolies olindir idual introdtrced throtigh
alliteration and assottattce olt tt. and the uord't.to'shich let'ers to their lack t')t only of individual sounds lirtu
of access to basic resources. The phonic association callnot be replicated irl ':rases. and discuss the relattt-rn>:
'.\
an English TT: the ke1,uords do not alliteratc. and'childrerl'alld'sick'or hen translating a text that nrakc.
'ill' have no sound iu comntot't u ith one allother or u ith 'l1o'. as the fbllou'ing :rc does. phonic reirrtbrcenrertt ,
'rot always be possible and sonre ,
lather literal TT sltorr s:
For a fuller discussion ol thc pi-,i:
lspeak in the narne of the cliildren ir.r the \\'orld \\'ho do not hare r piece L.rbassa's published TT olthc \';..
of bread. I speak in the nalre olthe sick lrho c'lo not ha\e nledicirle.
(Castro 1979b) Glittering u,ith silver scale.. ::
to the setting sun the gran.1c,.
A possible TT might tr,v to convel- the rhetorical ef-tect b1' con.rpensation for Capivari I acknowledgc the .

the loss ol alliteratiort u'itl.r an illcrease irl s,vlltactical parallelism. and by received as an appariticin, F::.
substituting the SL idiom 'ur.r pedazo de pan' fbr a suitable TL idiorn: and my an-r-rs have forgotten .:
and alert. holding me up r)n Ih.
I speak in the name olthe children u'ho do not have abite to eat. Ispeak suddenly stops and drau s brrc.
in the name of the sick uho do not hal'e nledicine' bucks. for nothing in the ri i.r.;
the terrifying hissing altd I s.'.'
Soun<l eftects ntight also irtr,olve using phonic reinfbrcement in diff'erent places all my scales falling ofl. nrr :.-,
in the TT than in the ST. Consider the follou ing extract f}om Cola de lagurtiitt cuffent that passes fronr rrr :',
by the Argentinian novelist Luisa Valenzuela: Under the shador'vless 1ig:-.:
know true fiight. It's the r ip;;
Cer.rtellear.rte cott cscamas de plata nlontado en flete de Iuna voy pairing off-. the rattlesnakes :l:.,
cant6ndole al sol poniente la grandeza de n-ri destitltl voy. A escasas leguas poison. the pit viper. thc c'rr;: .,
de Capivari se de la t-elicidad que siento y de la qLlc sentir6 cuando se me they're colors that t.t-tingie. t-,..
reciba cot.t.to a una aparici6n. De rnis nlttsculos se ha borrado el cansancio lating. The great whccl olctrl ..
y mis brazos han olvidado el rentar y solo mis muslos estfn tensos y alefias viper, an animal u'ith tut fir,
para manteneme sobre el lomo de este brioso corcel que ahora l,por que'l joined in a single mass. hissr:-..
se detiene de golpe y recula. Pega gnos pasos de Costado corcovea. casi. I can no longer hold back. I ..':
por nada del mundo acepta seguir su canlitlo. Y de golpe oigo el siseo
aterrador y veo (y se rne paran los pelos en pullta. creo que se me caen
todas las escamas. los dientes r-ne castaietean de tenor. es una colTiente l( .\ll these sons olsubstituti,,rr rr-..,.
indefinible qlle pasa del caballo a r.ni entrepierna y me recorre el cuerpo). -,sually extend to whole phrasu-s. s.'
Bajo esa luz sin sombras del ocaso las vt't'r l por primera vez se del >r'ries of words can be distribLrtei
espanto verdadero. Es cl nudo de viboras. la rueda del n-rur]do girando. .ignal or reinfbrce the thematic c'ler :
apare6ndose" las viboras de cascabel sacudiendo sus cr6talos. la de coral Jrscussion. especially of the patte:-::

l. :'-.cn un pedazo de
tCastro 1919a\
:t rrnd assonance.
. - By alliteration
-- ,r.rtthebeginning
- - r'tter sequence ir.r
-' ::-,c'nt derives fiont
:::roduced through
. rr'ierS to their lack
- : be replicated in
E . -:'L'n' and 'sick' or
E '.
.rs the fbllori ing
k not have a piece
' -,,.rr e r.nedicine.
( Castro I 979b )
' -. .r)lupensatior.r lor
E' . :'.rrallelism. and by
i ^ : TL idiom:
- ., ritc. to eat. I speak
::ri in difl'erent places
': :'.t (-olu de lttgurlilu
! -. is'te de luna Voy
i- - -.r . .\ escasas leguas
t - , .l:ttire cuando se nte
- -,'rrudo .'l carrsancio
- .'.tiin tensos y alerlas
: -- j .Lle ahora l,porque'l
: ...:.1,r corcor ea. casi.
:r' ,,olpe oigo el siseo
' (Valenzuela 1992: 217-gl
- . .'Ic'O que Se nte Cael-l
- - J:t'irt'. CS Una COrriente
- ..:c rccorfe el cuerpo).
: printera vez s6 del
-, -.:,, tlel rnundo girando.
. -... cr6talos. la de coral
Le.ris und c.otupensation 37
con sus la
'enenos. 1',arara. todas. no alcanzo a distinguirlas, son colores l5
q,e se mezclan. colas \ cabezas ta, iguales todas Jopurardo.
La gran
'
rueda de copula eirardo. r'oltezindose a los iados.
La r ibora. animal de
dos falos La enr idiabre. ra enr idiosa. agruti,acias
en masa fnica.
bisbiseante. r,'nti caballo se.\,ergue. en s.s p-o,or
r.rr.rus y va no puedo
retenenre. nte dejo deslizar hasta el suelo.
20
1\'alenzuela 1983: 29g-9)
As a class erercise. identifv phonic pattcnrs orailiteration
and repetition in the
tcrt above and discuss their implications fbr translation.
Look for recLlrrences
not onl)' ol indir iduar. so,nds a,cl groLrps or sounds
br-rt also or u.ords and
phrases. and discuss the relationslrlp uenree,
phonic ef-fects anrl meaning.
\\'hen translating a text that makes use of sucl.r
cfrects as extensi'ely as this
one does. phonic reinforce,ert olthe sar.ne lexicar
iteurs in ST and rr ri,ill
not alu ay,s be possible and cornperlsation is likely: ,o p.o,
(For a fuller discussion olthe .some
phonic ie..el. see Chaptei 6..1 Here"'n..essary.
is Gregory
Rabassa's published rr of the
'alenzuela
extract fbr crass cliscussior:
Glittering ri'ith siri'er scares. mou,ted o, a r.noor-bearer.
to the setting sun the grandeur ol m1, destiny. I go.
I go: singing
-i.lit.,
capirari I acknoriredge the happine.ss I feel a,d uill
A f.eu t,.or.,
f-eel u,.hen I anr
recei'ed as an apparition. Fatigue has bee, banished
fiom my muscles
and r.ny arr.rs ha'e forgotte, all the ro*ing and
only nry thighs are tense 5
and alert. holding rre up on the haunches of this
fier1: s,..a tnit nou,. ,nvl.ry,?
suddenly stops and dra* s back. I gir e it sorne
kicks'orr;; ;;;; - it armost
bucks. tbr nothing in the * orld ,r'i'il ,t rbilo* its
path. And sucldenlv I hear
the terrifying hissing and I see them ard mylair
- stands
all my scales falling of}. nty teeth chattering fiorr terror. ",r.,r;.;'ili
current that passes fron.r rry.ho'se to mv crotch
it's;, ineflable r,
and.rns.p my body.
Under the shado*'less right of dusk i see them
and fbr the first time I
know true tiight. It's the'ipers'knot. the uheel
orthe *.orld. spinning.
pairing oft. the rattles,akes shaki,-e their rattles.
poison. the pit i,iper. thc c'trr.i.tti r.iper. all
the coral snakes and their
of them. I can.t rnake them oLlt. l_5
they're colors that,ringle. tairs ancl heads so much
alike. u,.,a utt copu_
lating. The great u'heel orcopLrlatior. spinning"
flutterinc to trreliaes. rhe
an anirral r.r'ith t*'o phalruses. The envied one.
'iper.
joined
the envious one.
in a sinsle mass. his-sing. and my horse rears on
his hi,d legs and
I can no longer hold back. I let myself .slip to the
ground. 20
1( All these sorls of substitutio. nray be confined to single
*.,ords. but they more
usually extend to *'hore phrases. sentences.
or e\,en paragraphs. For exarrple.
series of w'ords can be distributed in contrasti'e
and ...'.r,r"r, l*t!.n, thut
signal or reinfbrce the thematic cre'eloprrent olthe
text: ,.. crropt.. i ib. ti,ll..
discussion. especialry orthe patten.,.i rr. oilexical
sets o'er an entire text ir.r
38 Lexi.s untl c'rtnrpen.sutirtrt

the rhyme'One lor sorro\\'' (p. 115). In Aphek and Tobin (1988). the tern.t - :telrS also er.nerge: nlilitary. agric...
uord s1'stem is used to denctte this pl.renontenon. A \\'orcl s,vstem is a pattern . t-rn. The translator wor"rld alscr ll:;.
(lvithin a text) of u,ords har ing atr associative conllllon denominator. a pattern -r: n'ished to convey the extetlsir: :

nhich 'nurtures the therne and tllessase of the text \\ith greater intensity' -;"nd-ler el \\ ord systenls Poirrl
(Aphek and Tobin 1988: 3). In the follo\\ing ertract ft'om.luan Goytisolo's , :ar,lssion in class:
noyel Reil i/t clic.ut'i6n tlel c.otttle don Jtrlitin. the aLtthor builds up a \\.ord system
of nouns that derir,e directly front Arabic (tl.rarly'of *'hich begin a/-1. and uticlt -\nd galloping rvith them as tire'
refer to sontething introduced into Spain b1,its \'luslinr inhabitants in the \\'aste to their fields of cottt'rtl .r:-.:
Middle Ages: y,ou will demolish arsenals altc ::'
you will carry ofT sof'as and cir' ',:
y galopando con ellos en descr.rtier-rada razz-ia saqLteards los campos de vou will kill albatrosses
yoLr will deprive the astrologcr ':'.
algodon. algarrobo. allalfir
vaciaras al-jibes y albercas. denloleras alnlacenes -v-' ddrsenas. arruinaras
tlte assassitt ol his scintiiar
you u'ill remove chess fl'onl t1:.. -
alqr-rerias v londas. pillaras alcobas. alacctlas. zaqLlatles
cargards con sofds. alfbrnbras. .iarros. ah.rlohadas
clevastaras las aldeas ),sacrificaras los rebaiios. dcspo.jariis a la ilusionada -:ris erarnple and that dl'aull tl'(rl:l \
ltovia de sLl ajuar. a la danta aristocrata cle sus alha.ias. al rico estraperlista
:s rvorth scannitlg certain N'pe: r.':
de su lulana. al hidalgo provecto cle sr.r alcLrntia
-,:ch as a series of thentatic ker -'n , :
retiraras el a.jedrez dc los casirtos. cl alqtritran de Ias calreteras - :taphor). because such thittg: :::-,'.
(Gol,tisolo 1988b: 196)
,.rrd system is fbund in the ST. :r .
- stL'm in the TT may be desirablc. . '
Thc no1,el was first published in 1970. ancl reflccts Goytisolo's antipathy ' : translator's lerical choices. Irl l:..
towards Francisco Franco's reginte. The list occLlrs tonards the end olthe third ...'stion hinges on a phonic grrp:' -
-
part of the novel. in ri'hich Goytisolo offbrs a biting satire of the notiorl of the -:ecific. but not unique. to Spalll.:..
unity and purity of Castilialt in thc lace of Arabic irlfluence. alld undermines '.,-rrd system seems virtuallv ittlp,":
the institLrtious that insist on tl'rc existcnce of linguistic pLrrity. The power of
-,,r's first strategic decisiorts u
'
Goytisolo's attack depencls on a pre\,aleltt. officially sanctioned negatire ' this type of pattern. 411fl l1q'ru ii '
attitude tor,vards Islan-r. Af}ica. ancl Arabic as inlptlre alld colTuptillg. Itt other -:TT.
w,ords. Arabic would generally be regarded as ol lo\\'er prestige than Castilian. QLrite apart from these eraltli'1.".
but Goytisolo collapses the prii,ileging olCastilian culture ovcr Arabic. Unless 'te need for compensation. Ftrr :::''
they were particularly r,.igilant. ntany natiVe speakers $'ould ltot be inlnledi- - rnsiderations. if a poel-n is he.r', I

ately aware ol the Arabic origins of these \\,ords on seeiltg or hearing thenl ::cides that rhyme would leacl trr L.:'.,,
out olthis particular context even if thcy \\'erc a\\'al'e olthe link bctueen the ^rsht consist of heavily lrarkirlg :r:
opening syltable a1- and Arabic. And cven those far-niliar rvith the link betu'eerl - \ tlrnr. assonance or expt'c\:i\ J :':.
an opening rrl- and Arabic" only a very lirnitecl tlumber of readers u"ould also ':,rnslation of Phitlre. u'hich deliL';:.,
be fanriliar rvith the Arabic origin of 'razzia'.'dtirsena'. 'fbrlda' and so on. :r el. is a resoundingly successtirl r-r.-
The translator of this passage u'oulC nced to consider rvhether it was possible - -'rlc. Hou,ever. il a translator.j Ltdu:' :

to Llse a word system of rvorcls uith Arabic oligins. Ill sr-rch a case. the negative 'se all trace of the salient ancl in:is..':
connotations of Arabic r.vould be lost on the target audience since Anglophone -.rl.npensation might be indicated. ( ,. :
culture does not relegate the Arabic language to a position ol lou' esteem. ;rrillen's'Mulata' (L'lolit'os de ;,,,'..
and vcry feu' readers indccd u'otrld be aware of tlie origills of such \vords.
Frencl.r and Latin are the ntost ob'n,ious languagcs r.r,ith which English has a Tanto tren con tu cueppo.
sir-r-rilar relationship of linguistic borror,ving but both ol thesc larlguages are tanto tren:
held in high esteem. On account of the areas olArabic influence sematttic rvord tanto tren con tu boca.
 Le.ris und c'onrpenstttion 39
- ^ :r ( 1988). the term systems also emerse: ntilitarr'. agricultule. doniestic. social organization. and
-- >\stem is a pattern so on. The translator u or"rlcl also need to cotrsider tlie extent to which he or
- -,r-!rntinator. a pattern
i.t-: I !.[eater intensitv'
she uished to convev the ertensire rar.rge of areas of activity to which the
second-level riord svstents point. The published translation would repay
F. - '- :ll .Ttran Goytisolo's discussion in class:
t .:\ Llp a word systent
,. ^-'uin o/-). and u'hich And eallopine rr ith thenr as ther, ntount their firrious attack, you will lay
) , . r: ilthabitants in the \\'aste to their' Iields of cottolt and altalta and carob beans
vou u ill dentolish arsenals ancl nrasazines. sink f-eluccas, pillage alcoves
you ri ill carn, otf solas ancl divans. trattresses. muslins. and jars
E- - - ..J.tris los cantpos de y'ou ri ill kill albatrosses
vou u ill deprit e the astroloser olhrs azimuth. the alchemist of his elirirs.
ri'- .. .l.rlsenas. an'uir)ilris thc asslssirr ol'his scintirar'
L __ ..'t:,s you riill rentove chess t}ont tlie casinos. ancl tlte asphalt fr.orr hiehuays
\- (Goytisolo 1989: 166)
F ---- .rrasa la ilusionada
l - ,,.. .rl ricct estraperlista This erample and that draun tl'ont Valenzuela's Colo tle lugcrr.tifu shou,that
n- it is u'orth scannins certain tvpes oltert tbr theme-reinfbrcing u'ord systems
r -- ,.-..trreteras (such as a series of thentatic ker'-uorc1s. or phonetic patterns. or an extended
\ 1i-iolo 1 988b: I 96 ) metaphor). because such things ntav be ir.t.rportant textual detices. Where a
u'ord s1'stenr is fbund in the ST. the construction ol sonte analogous word
:,r\ ttsolo's antipathy system in the TT mav be desirablc: ilso. this u ill be a strons f-actor influencing
- the translator's lexical choices. In the case of oul erample. the ri'ord s) stL'nr in
1 . -:. thc' end of the third
c - .., -'o1'the notion of thc
qr-restion hir.rces on a pl.ronic graphic comntolt denorninator u'hich is highly
specific. but not unique. to Spanish: constrr-rcting a sintilar phonic/graphic
I .-:gC. and undermines
word systern seents virtuallv intpossible in an English TT. Tu'o ol the trans-
- - :.iirit)" The pou'er of lator's first strateeic decisions u'ill. theretbre. be hou'ntuch priority to gire
- -.rnctioued negatir e
i'-'- - - .orrupting. In other to this t1,'pe ol pattern. ancl hor,' to constnlct an appropriate u,ord systent in
the TT.
, - - '':-'stige tltan Castilian.
: - - ' .:-' or er Arabic. Qr,rite apart from these erantples. sol.netintes an entire text is af-fected by
Unless
the need tbr cor.npensation. For instance. be1,'ond lexical and gramr.natical
L. -'-' ,,irlcl not be imntedi-
considerations. if a poem is hezrrily nrarkecl by rhyrne and the translator
i -Jrrng or hearing thent
decides that rhynte tvould lead to unacceptable translation loss. contpensatiolt
i -'- .' :ire link betu,een thc might consist ol heavilv r.r.rarkinrr the TT u,ith son.rethins dif-ferent. such as
!- .,: i ith tlie link betw.een
rhythm. assonaltce or erpressive breaks bettveen lines. Ted Hughes' 1998
*- - -: ,,i reaclers r.vould also
translation of Phidre. u'hich deliberately introdllces translation loss on every
'tbncla' and so on
level. is a resoundinglv successfirl erallrple ollvholesale colrpeltsation on this
- .,. :r.'ther it u,as possible
scale. Ho\\,ever. if a translator judees that an adequate TT could not af1brd to
-,.,'h a case. the negative lose all trace of the salient ancl insistent sound-synrbolic eff-ects. then full-scale
, -'::rL' since Anglophone cornpensation r-I1ight be indicatec1. Consider the following extract fiom Nicolas
^ .rtion ol lo$, esteem. Guillen's'Mulata' (,llotit os r1e .rorr. 1930):
i :'lgins ol sr,rch words.
:.: ri hich English has a Tanto tren conr tu cueppo.
' ,:'these languages are tanto tren:
:: :t Lrence serr-lantic u,ord tanto tren con tu boca.
40 Le-ris ttncl conrpensutiort

tanto tren: Compensation also very ofien inr ol"

tJnto trcn con tu sojo. 'T t-eatures carried or.'er a relatir eir ir:-
tanto tren. : a compound word) might be condc:'
(Guillen 1976: 104) . T (say. a simple phrase or a single '.''
. the only \\'ay to strike a fair bal:r:'
'::e aning of a piece of ST and cottstr'..i'
Here the element ol sound symbolisn.r that is so central to the poem as a whole
is reinforced by alliterations and assonances utich concentrate particularly. on istuvo bastante tiempo sin resolver:r'
the or.re hand. on the consonants [t] and [n]. and. on the other. on the rou,el [o]. -rrase might be produced by transi.r:.:
This phonetic reinfbrcenrent caunot be precisell,'. and equall-v intensivellr. .rrase r'vould be far too long-ri inL['c
replicated in an English TT becaLrse the key uords do not alliterate in the -.,ntexts, and certainly out of place ::: .
required 'uvays. Tlie fbllo* ing TT attenrpts at least partly, to conlpensate for this . the ST expression are renderecl acc,.:.
by using phonetic reinforcerrent distribr"rted in different places fiorn r.vhere it rouglt cotttpensaliott by nteruiltu. r.
occurs in the ST: The follou'ing itern provides t\\ rr 3\ -:
:lers the most plausible solutiott r'.'
So rlruch fuss 'bout you' body ::rd 'dc aspecto deportivo' lllersec :l
so rnuch fuss: -:'!)rdering of the sentence):
so much luss 'bout you' r.r.rout'.
so much fuss: Es necesario que al paso de L.:'.
so much fuss 'bout yolr' eyes. seriorita rnusite: ';Adios. Pirr:l , ,

so rluch fuss. existencia'J'

(Unpublished translation by
Gustar,'o San Ror-nan) '', here the context allorvs. ancl the re :-
-.:r9e of nteanirtg as a givetl ST u i:-
' r-' ntost intportant notiorls coll\ c\ -
Hurlour is notoriously difficr-rlt to translate u'ithout using cor-r-rpensation. -
Successful exan.rples abound in the Asterix books. In this example fiom .:anish verb 'escasear'. which. to: ...
Asteri.r en Bretuiiu^ as in the one discussed above. the humour derives fror.r.r .,.. be in sliort supply'.

Jolitorax speaking a dit-ferent dialect. Without cultural transplantation. this is The following example is l.tt..re .
impossible to convey, so the TT obtains its hurnour by compensation: - ntexts 'el toreo' can be ef-tectir c ..
rich. in itself. represents a decrce
.lolitorur'. Je serai ravi. j'en suis sur.
d'uller cluns la rolre ntai.yotrt . certain contexts" however tbr irt...
(Goscinny and Uderzo 1966: 9l our italics) -.iposition of the ethics and aesthelr;.
- : obvious cultr-rral reasons. tcl be :r'::r
Buentorur'. lle gustcrt'ti. estoy seglrro. ir a vuestra casa. .-- nrore than a mere sport or a ltta::
.:,inslator
(Goscinny and Uderzo 196l:9: our italics) might render 'el toreo' .t. ':
- tir (culturally) connoted notiotr tri :
One of the cor.nic ef-fects of the ST is achieved by the grammatical incongruity e TT by literal means through th; ;
of 'aller dans la votre rnaison'. In the Spanish TT the coresponding 'ir a vuestra '-)t purslle this any further. becatt:c' .'.
casa' is grammatically con'ect. but contextually inappropriate. and the comic irsLrs connotative r.neaning. antl ::.,
ef-tect is transferred to the incongruous'me gustar6'. Compensation in place :rapters 8 and 9. Suffice it to sar th". .

(achieving the desired TT efl'ect in a different place) is also needed in ' e.ining tbr connotative rneanilts.
translating the phrase'un galan rnaduro. algo calvo'. probably best rendered It has been necessary in this chap:::
as 'a mature gentleman. hanclsome but slightly balding'. This example ' .rt are treated at length in later ci:"
illustrates the f-act tl.rat grammatical transposition - the reorganization of a : :cing the discussion of compensa:
'rplies to all aspects of the proces:
ST grammatical structure into a dif-ferent, n.)ore idiomatic. structure in the TT (
often arlrounts to a type of cor.npensation in place. ::aling with translation problenrs ::
 Le.ri.; uncl c'onryensation 11

Corr-rpensation also very ofter1 involves a change in 'econonly'. For example'

ST l-eatures can ied over a relatir el1, long stretch of text (sa!'. a complex phrase
,-rr a compoLrnd u orcl) might be condensed into a relatively short stretch of the

TT (say. a sin-rple phrase or a single uord). Ill some cases. such condensation
:s the only \\.a,v to strike a fhir balance betu'een doing justice to the literal
':r as a whole rteanirts of a piece ol ST and collstrtlctillg an idionatic TT. as in the erarnple
'estlrvo bastante tientpo sitt resolverse'. An acculate literal translation olthis
:rcularly. on
: r or,vel
[o]. )hrase r-night be produced bv trar.rslatilts uord tbr lvord: br.rt the resLrlting TT
.lrtensively. :hrase u,ould be tar too lons-tvinded and poltderous to be suitable in most
.-'rate in the .ontexts. and certainll,'otrt of place in a colloquial one. The senlantic contents
' ..rte for this -rf the ST expression are rendered acclrratel). and in a more streamlined fbshion.
- :n rvhere it :hrough compensation bl merging. as 'he shilll'-shallied'.
The fbllou'ing item pror ides t\\'o exallples u here compellsation b.v nlergint
.rt'fers the most plausible solution ('es necesalio qlle'merged into'should'
:nd 'de aspecto deportii'o' lllerged into 'sport)'-lookir-rg'. g'ith appropriate
:eordering of the sentellce):

Es necesario que al paso de Lln jovell de aspecto deportiyo cualquier

seirorita ntusite: ';Adios. Pirril ;,Quieres que sea la Sollia Bruno de tu
existencia'l'

\\'here the context allou's. ancl there is no single TL *'ord that covers the same
:ange ol meaniltg as a given ST ri,ord. it n-ra-v be possible to state explicitly
'r'nSation. rhe rrost intportant notiorrs con\.eyed. A simple example is fumished by the
.r1e fion-r Spanish Ierb'escasear'. u'hich. fbr literal exactitude. has to be translated as
;,, '. es fron.r 'to be in short supply'.
E :r. this is The follorving exanrple is nlore cor.nplex. but no less typical. In most
F- :t: .ontexts 'el toreo' can be eff'ectir.ely rendered as 'bullfighting' (a solution
rrhich. i1 itself. represents a degree olculturally necessary circumlocution).
F ... ' rli ! In certain contexts. hou,e"'er - fbr instance u'here a Spanish ST deals u'ith the
l- ..: italics) crposition of thc ethics anc'l aesthetics olthe 'toreo' the English reader rleeds.
I
tor obvious cultllral reasons. to be rentinded that 'bullfighting' should be seen
.1S lrore thar.r a lxere Sport or a rnere popular Spectacle. ]n such Contexts. a

.: italics) translator might render 'el toreo' as'the rrrr ol bullfighting'. The ST's irnpli-
citly (cr-rlturally)connoted notion of bullfighting as alt art fort.t.t is rendered in
, ruruity ihe TT by titeral means through the explicit addition ol'the art of'. We will
- .: \ Uestfa not pursue this any further. because u,hat is involved is the question of literal
' -.' cor.r.ric versus connotative meaning. and these questiolls are not addressed until
- :r place Chapters 8 antl 9. SLrffice it to say that the TT erhibits the substitution of literal
-::Jed in rrreaning for conrtotatir e meaniltu.
'-:rdered It has been necessarv in this chapter to anticipate certain elements of topics
j \ail1-lple that are treated at length in later chapters. What rve wish to emphasize by
-: .,n of a placing the discussion ol compensation here is that it is a key concept that
. :h". TT applies to all aspects ol the process ol translation: it plays a crucial role in
dealing \\,ith translation problen-rs arising frorn genre, cultural diff-erence.
12 Leris untl c'r.tntpensution
phonic and graphic effects. syntactical and discourse features. literal and El articr.rlo 16" de la Le1 dc
connotative meaning. and language variety. .,.::lante LPRL ('Plan de pr.'r e:
We conclr,rde u ith a u'ord of caution: u'hile compensatiott erercises the trans-
,. riesgos y planificaci6n de Lr
lator's ingenuit,v. the effbrt it requires should not be $asted on tertually -:: riesgos laborales deberir irtte g
unir.nportant features. The aim is to reduce some of the more serious and ,; eurpress (. . .)', cuesti6n cst.l .:

undesirable translation losses that necessarily result frorr the fr"rndanlental :-r-sr.niten los representalttL's : .:
structural and cultural difl'erences betu'een SL and TL. ::legadas de prer.'enci611 e 11 e Sf r'.
r:eceptta la ley. ni en str te\:,.
:rndical. UGT-CANARIAS. tir'r:
Practical 3 .:r' Io establecido ett la Itont-.;.
.1e riesgos laborales. pLlestt'r ri ..r
3.1 Compensatiott .rabajadores y trabajadoras i.'r.
.r\ que rro se puede rleg()ii.r: .

.4.ssignntent
:rr'\rt0gonislas de la plcvelle i,':l -.
(i) Discuss the strategic problems confionting the translator of the fbllou ing .r'rti icciott. de lo que :c cllll.: .
text and or-rtline Your o\\'11 strategy tbr translating it. locusing particularly Y en el seno de la mist.t'ta. 1..: .

on coml)ellsation options. :entantes tienen un PaPel clar.' ;

(ii) Translate the text into English. assuming that tlte target readership of the trrda su plenitud de derecho.. s.'
TT contprises eltplo.vers and employees irl the Canary Islalds uftose .i reducir los indices de
'irtie.::..
knou'ledge of Spanish is limited. I a contribuir en la me.jot'a de .,,
(iii) Erplain the r.nain clecisions of detail you made in prodr-rcing your TT. tl
Todas estas razones vttlt ltt.:>
er un articulo de la ler r . ;:. -
Co nt e.rttru I i nfbrnrul io n
Canarias. estamos couvettc i.1-:.
The ST is frorn an article issued b-v the Oficina Tecnica de Prevencion de integraci6n del trabajador ett -,
Riesgos Laborales. a serYice mn by the Spanish trade union. UGT (Union cierta y ef-ectiva. y no soltr lr:::
General de Trabajadores) in the Canary Islands. It u as published on 2 October
2007 on the u,ebsite Salud Laboral. The extract col.tlprises the first two para-
graphs ancl the last paragraph olthe ailicle. The text in betu eetl" omitted here.
is the 'decrilogo' ref-erred to in the second sentence. u'hich is a list of ten
i,) Literql meaning and compert:,t
advantages to be gained by increasing the inrol','enlent of etrployees in the
l
management of health and sat'ety risks. "igttrttertt
.\ trrking in groups. analyse ittslrr:'..:
.truf owll l'ersion where you cilll .:l
Scturce text

Ltt integrctc'irin de trubtitrtlores t' trubujutloru.s ett lu gesti6n

pret'entirtt tle lu ent1tresu --, t ti ert u ct I i nfbrnt aI i on

Aunque la Ley dePrevencion de Riesgos Laborales contet.npla que , he ST is an extract from Jtlatt (l!'\:
la gestion preventiva debe integrarse en la ernpresa. l1o son raros los .n 1966. It is the first voh-rrtte rrt ,, '
casos de resistencia a hacer participes a los trabajadores de la tor.na de :ramati",e technique. In this volunt.- ::
decisiones en esta materia. Mediante 1a exposiciorl del siguiente dec6logo ,ind experierrce. Goytisolo r.r'as a n::
pretendemos hacer r.er de manera sint€tica algunas de las yentajas de este r'arly novels r.vere banned in Spart:
iecho y asi valorar positivamente la implicacion en la gestion de 1a cLrltural exile. The TT is fiom .\,/rr j .
prevencion de todos los miembros de la organizacion. .rf Seia.r tle identitlqcl. publishcd in .
 Lexi.s' ctnd cofitpen.\cttion
-r). literal and
43
El articuro i6" de ra Lev de pre'enci6n de
Riesgos Laborares
-, I Ses the
adelante LpRI - ('pran de prerencion - en
de ries-eos laborales. eraluacion cre
r0
j trans- los riesgos 1,.planificacion ije la actiridacj.)eitablece;r-;
-': on textually de riesgos laborales cleberii integrarse
la prerencion
r:, serious and en er sistema
la enrpresa (. . .)'. cLrestion esra q.-,.. -eeneral de gestion de
-: tirndantental .n la actualidacr]u u lu rirtu de lo que
trasnriten los representartes sindicales
en general y, los deregados y r5
delegadas de prere,ci6, en especiar.
no r..r,iit.rl"rai r."o, tar y co,o
preceptta la ler.,r e, su terto ni en su espiritu. como organizaci6n
sindical. l-rGT-cANARIAS. tiene el deber
de ieii i,dica..i.un.,pti,ri"nto
de lo establecido e, la norrratir a
'i-cente
de riesgos laborales. puesto que la sarua
e, nrateria de prer.enci6n
1, la seguridad luuo.ut de ros 2,
'i,rpoi,"ur.iu
trabajadores 1" trabaladoras son cuestione-s
,r. ..;;i ,or,."
las que no se puecre ,egociar ,i transigir.
E, p.iorito,iJ
lr. toao, to,
':he protagonistas de ra pre'encion c'lescubran.
fbllou,,ing \ ean 1,participe,. con absoruta
r-- con'iccion. de ro que se e,tiencre como 'integru.io,,
gparticularly i.-ru i..r..n.ior,.
Y en ei seno de la ,risma- los traba-jaclores
sentantcs tienen un p_aper claie qr..
1,-trabajad;;; sus repre- 25
: -: ,.ic.rship of the ri las empresas de.jaran desarollarer.r
r- toda su plenitud de derechos. se alcanzarian
.,llnds r.vhose mds ob.ieiiro, *ut., de cara
a reducir ros indices de siniestralidad
en nuestra Comunidad Autonorna.
y a contribuir en la nte.jora cle las condiciones --- '
'- - rt! vour TT.
t I de t.uUa1o. ":'"
3()
Todas estas razones nras al,i de una mera justificacion arnparada
en un articulo de Ia iey'an descle la
1,. U,i6n General J" i.rU".iua"..,
a.
:: J:r.rencion Canarias. estantos conr,encidas conr.encidos
de 1, de que serianleates si ta
- integracio'der trabajad.or er la gestion pre'enti'a
i_ GT (Uni6n de Ia empresa fuera
cierta y efectiva. y no s6lo fbrnral o inexistente
'-.-:..n2October
'- .]'St 15
- two para- (Union General de Trabajadores
2007)
: -' \ntitted here.
- - .i list of ten 3,2 Literut meaning und compensation
: - :'.or ecS in the
,4.s sigttrtrt,rtl

working i, groups. anaryse i.starces of co.rpersation

in the TT berou..
your o\vlt r,ersion *,hcr.t_, you can i,tproi,c, o, the
Gi'e
published TT.

C o nt ertu u I i nfitr m trt io n

:rrenrpla que The ST is a, extract f'om Jua, Govtisoro's
.!rlt rarOS IOS Seriu.s tre itrenridad,rirst pLrbrished
in 1966' it is the flrst i.-orurne in a trirogy
ot*,o.tr r"rri.-h;;;;iient w;tr.,
:c la toma de nanati'e technique. In this vcllurn. the p,iiagonist
;:rte decdlogo reflects o,-, I-,1., or"., identity
and experience. Goytisoro *.as a bitter
-"t,r.ias de este oppJn.n, of'Franco,s regin.re and his
early .o'els rvere- banned in Spain. H.
:cstion de la cultural exile. The TT is fronr Mut ks ,/
iru, ri'ed the iir.-"i.
i"riii."r "ra
rdenrir.t..Gregory Rabtissa's transratior.r
ofseir.i de identidutr. p,brishc.cl in Iqgx by Serpent,s
Tair(Goytisoro lggga).
41 Leris untl c'ttmPensalicttt
. .trget tert
Source te.rt
:r the center
en el centro
r the middle of a square of grass nlari:
en nredio de un cttaclrado de cesped serialado por cLr3tro ltlo-iolles
. -,rntber base lreld un the eqtleslrirll ':..
gr.te nero etl bronce regalo de la CiLrdad
r.rn zocalo sobrio realzaba 1a estatua ecuestre de utr ':re plaque said so
e\o dccic lr liPidu r its Liberator and Caudillo
:
a su Caudillo Liberrador .ru took refuge in the shade of the pc: .

buscaste refugio a la sonlbra de los porricos ,re tourists u ere going through in conlt,
tbtografiaban
los turistas discurrian en gllpos colllpactos hacra e1 tllrtseo del Ejercito photographing the equestrian stattL!':
.

las tiendas de sotrvenirs hacian

la estatua ecltestre se aglonleraban a la entrada de were turning the card racks ther n;':
girar los rorniquetes de tarjetas postales risitabarr e1 alnrac6n de -\ntigiredades
l(
Materirl Lcad Soldier.
Herdldica Soldados de Plonro
ENTRAD.\.,
E\TRADA LIBRE ENTREE L1:
E\TREE LIBRE E\TRA\C E :
FREE E\TRA\C E
EINTRITT F]
EI\TRITT FREI
'::e bullfight poster suddenly dreri r .'-.:
el cafiel anunciaclof cle una corlida de toros atra.jo btrtscalllellte tll aterlcion
SOUVENIR :
SOL\'E\IR SOU\'E\IR OF SPAI\
DE ESPA\A DE ESPA\A Ilonttmentul Bul:' .'
P ltt:tt de Toto.s .\[ortttntetrtu I Greut Bullfighr
Grttntlitt.stt corritltt de trtt'tts 6 Beurtrilill utttl B'-.
6 Hentto.sos.t Bi'rlt'rls Tttnts 6 tith the Pirtk uri'i :'
ctttt lu tlivi.stt rttstt .t' t ertle tle oltlte .fiunou.s r'.i': -
Itr renonhrutltt gurtadcriu tle Drtn Btt lltt.sur I l',;'
Dttn Bultu;ctr llun de .\tudritl jbr grt'ur bui * -
rhe
Puru lrts gruntle's esTtudcrs LUIS MIGUEL DI
ICI VOTRE NOM _ YOL'R \
2:
LUIS N,I IGUEL DO\{INGUI\
ICI VOTRE NO\4 - HERE. YOLR \,A'\{E HIER. IHRE \A\1EN A\TONIO ORD' 'i
ANTONIO ORDOiEZ Y'ith their /'d\1).'r '' :
c ott .\tt \ c' orre s pond ie ttte s c tr ttdri II u'; M tt si t ./itrni.s lt t',1 ;'
.lmerti:ttt'it el esTtecttictrlrt lu Burtdu '
Lu PttPulur'.Sriil'.'
'
Ltt PrtPulu r Sartscrl'se' .tru p&SSed by quickly
pasaste de largo - crowd of curious people ri as L'\'l:l- :'
gna 6Lrltitud de curiosos exatninaba dos composiciones lbtogrificas en las qlle un torero bullfighter (headless) \\'as placilrc '
( sin cabeza ) clavaba ( con estalllpa de nlacstro ) r-tn
par de banderillas v Lrna gitana ( sin and a Gypsy \\'ol-nan (also helc.."
cabeza igr-ralt't'tente)se abanicaba (tl-tuv chr-tla ella)tientc it llna
lllaqlleta de la Giralda opposite a ntock-up of the Cirllc-,
espariol de la estepa 3: .:r a devilish Esperanto a charact.-r:.:.
en endiablaclo esperanto un caracterizado ejen-rplar de hombrecillo
-

explicaba que se trataba de una irnagerl trtlcada con la qtte los seiores
v caballeros ','nas explaining that it was a 1ll]:::-
messieurs et dalnes ladies and gentlemen aqr-ri presentes podrian sotprender a sus caballeros t.nessieurs et dames llo::'
v gitanas toreadors et gitanes nlatadors fiiends and acquaintances dresseJ -,
irmistades v collocidos vestidos de toreros
to slls respectivos paises ler.tr plr ' .
andgypsiesderegresoaStlsrespectir'ospaises\oSpa-v-scl.originevoltrnatir'e
vour personalitv 4 su personalidad atfirmer leur per..
countries v afirrrar asi sr.r personalidad atfirmer Yotre pelsonnalit6
adventures yoLlr aventllras espariolas ove lltllrr':
con el relato de sus aYenturas espaiiolas aventtlres espagrloles Spanish
( Gol'tisolo 197 6'. 401 -9)

ri.rlo de Ia Ciudad
.:o fbtografiaban
',,LrYenirs hacian
r:.{ntigiiedades
Leris ttncl compensalion 45
Ttrrget te.tt
in the center
in the midclle of a square ol
-crass ntarkecl oif br. ibur stones
a somber base held up the eqLrestriln
'rrrLre of ,r hror.. n.arrior the grft of the citv
the plaqLre:oid:tr
to its Liberaror and Caudiilo
volr took refu_ee tn the shade of the porlicos
the tolrrists uere
-uoine throLrgh rtr compact groups to,,arci the Arnrv nrllseum thev \\.ere
photograplrin-u the eqrte:ttirrn :l:rtLrc tl)c\ rr elc .'lrr.lered
ilroLllrd :uu\ a,,,ir r,n,ra, ,t,au
['ere tunrrns the card racks thev ,'ere soins into the shop u.ith
Antiques uer.rLctic
\laterial Lead Soldiers
10

E\TRADA LIBRE
E\TREE LIBRE
E\TR-{\CE FREE
EI\TRITT FREI
in!-lOn the buJlfight poster sr.rdclenlv dren. \ oLrr artention
l5
SOU\'E\IR SOU\'ENIR
OF SPAI\ OF SPAI\
,\ I r.t tt u nt en t u I Bu II r.i rr g
Gt.eur Btrllfight
6 Beouti/itl urtd Bruye Brtll.r 6
20
itlt tlte pirtk utttl ,qreen t.olor.s
rt
ol tlte /lmott.s r.urtt,h rl
Don Bultu.sur. Ibun ol .\lutlrid
./itr the gt.eut hullhghter\
2:
Ltr IS MIGUEL DON,il\GUi\
25
F \ \\IEN ICI VOTRE \ON,I YOUR \AI,IE HERE HIER. IHRE NAME\
ANTO\IO ORDONEZ
ttitlt their re.\pe(,Iive Ieunls
.\,lu:ic .lilntislted l\t. the Burtd ol
'
L tt [, op I t t. .\rll.rcl.rr,'
u
l0
yorr passed br,, quickJv
a cror'r'd of cLrrious people
*as exarrining the photo-eraphic co,positions in r.r,.hich a
tr . .:. que torero
Lrn
. btrllfighter(headless)liasplacineluiththestanrpofanrasrer)
t- ,:ira gitana (sin a pairof battderillu.s
and a Gvpsl' \\'ornan (arso headless) *as fannin-u herserf (r.en,
1-'_ - .:t.: Jr- la Giralda flashv she *.as)
opposite a nrock-up of the Giralda
E . - ..', ,1 dr' la
estepa 3: 35
- -:. r caballeros in a de'ilish Esperanto a characteristic exanrple ofa Iittle
E Spaniard fronr the steppe
*as explaini.-s that it \\'as a matter of a cLrt-ofr image u.ith u,hich
t- _' . ::.rr.nder a slls caballeros messieurs er danres ladies and gentierren heie present.or.,ta
the- seiioras v
B. - '-::'.1'\ nlatadors ,.,[.ir. ,n.i,
friends and acquaintances dressed as bullfiehters anc.l Gvpsies
i - :r' \ our native to sus respectivos paises leur pavs d'origine vouI nrtiYe
when thev returnecl
; i ' .:r persona I itV 1l
countries lnd,rtjrrnar asi
su personalidad affirnrer ler-rr personalit6 sho* r.our personalitv
- .' .I with the ston,of
F adventures volrr a'enturas espariolas a'entLlres espagnoles Spanish
ad'cr.rtures
9-6: 407 9)
(Govtisolo 1988a: 340 l)
46 Le.tis ttntl conrpensutirtn
3.3 Compensatiott: phonic effects
I Genre
.ls.tigrttrte ttt
Text type and purpt'
Working in groups:

(i) Discgss the strategic problerr.rs confionting the tlar.rslator of the tbllou ing
ST. ancl sa,l' 'ur hat )'ollr o\\'lt strateg) ri or"rld bc'.
1ii) In the light of 1,our findilgs in (i). translate the text into English. paying
particular attelttiolt to ctrltLrral tran sposit ion and cot.tlpetlsatiotl.
(iii; Explain the nrain decisions olcletail You rtlacle in prodtrcing 1'oLrr TT.
The table ol tertual lilters on p1t. ^
-rlthe list of textual f-eatures to br':,,
C orrt e.r I u u I I nf it rntu Ii tt tt
,i translatior.t strategy. Analysis ..;' :
The tert is an extract fion-r Julio Cortazar's Ru.t'trelu (198.1: first published ndispensable starting-poittt. inr olr :::
1963). It appears as a self'-contained unit litem 7)in the section'Del lado de :r'rtual conventiot.ts but also ids'rttti.-
alla'. The Argentinian's r.rorel contrasts lif'e in Paris and Buettos Aires.'Del ,-ulture in u,[rich it u'as prodr-rccc1 al:.: .

lado cle all6' deals *ith the nalrator's relatiorlship uith la N'laga uhile he is in ,iround the u'orld. and especiallrth.,
Paris. The novel is noted fbr its lLrdic qLralities. .irnctions providing inforrnatiott. :'-
..r transactions. building or consoli.l-,:
or visual ) lbrn-rs they take are !.t;':.
Source test Er erydav con\ crsations ntay secrt: ..
Toco tr.r boca. cor1 un cledo toco e] borc'le de tu boca. r o-v dibu.j6ndola cotno .ated and structured by underlrir::
si saliera de nti malto. cottto si por pl'itttera vez ttt boca Se entreabriera. ,V :stablishing one's status within a gr. .
tne basta cerrar los ojos para dcshacerlo todo ir recomellzar' hago tracer .olteore who may provide supprri:
ctrda vez la boca que cleseo. la boca qLte l.rli r.tlarlo elige 1' te dibuja en la :n terms of not having a specific pr.,.
cara. una boca elegida elttre todas. con soberana libertad elegida por mi -'ertainly published. purchased and :.
para dibujarla con nti ptano cu tu cara. y que por glt azar que ncl bttsco .:nd consulued as a leisure actir itr
comprender coincide exitctalrentc coll tLl boca que sonrie por debajo de re studied as part ofeducational cL^:
la que r.ni r.t'rnt.to te dibLrja. Me r.ttiras. de cerca t.tle t.lliras. cacla Iez lll6s de :nd influence opinions: to enhance ::
cerca y entonces.juganlos al ciclope. nos miraltos cada yez t.t'tiis de cerca The other essential lbundatiorl :i:
y los ojos se agrandan. se accrcalt etttre si. se superpollen y los ciclopes It :rulpose. which does not necessarilr .
se ntiran. respirando confundidos. las bocas se cncLlelltran y lucliall lecause of cultural difl-erences ( a. ;
tibiar-r.rente. r.nordiendose con los labios. apoyarldo apellas la ler.rgua etl los :pecific operational requirements ..1'.:
ciientes. jugando en sus recirttos dollde un aire pesado va y vierle con ull :he translation (the initiator). Sortt: :

perfur-ne r,,icjo y un silencio. Entonces mis t.t.ttt.tos bnscan hurtdirse ert tu nreaning 'aim'. 'purpose' or 'goai' .:
pelo. acariciar lentamente la prohrnclidad de tr-r pclo r-r.rientras nos besanlos ,-rlrhetoric) to ret-er to the defininc'r.
corro si tur,,i6rar.r.ros 1a boca llena de flores o de peces. de mor,inlientos .rsk canied out in order to rneet Ihe :
vil'os. de fraganciar oscLlra. Y si ttcts rnorclenlos el dolor es clulce. y si nos Hans Vermeer sums up this tirnctir::
'Skopos rule':'Translatetinterpre: :
ahogar-nos en un breve y terrible absorber sirnult6neo del aliento. esa
inst6ntanea llllefte es bella. Y hay una sola salira y trn solo sabor a fiuta iert/translation to function in the :t:
madura. y yo te siento ter.rtblar colltra nli cot.t.lo ttna luna en el agua' neople u,ho want to ttse it and prec:,
(Cort6zar 1984: 160) ,qr-roted in Nord 1997 29).
A very specific example ola tran.,,
speak one language u'ith instructiort.